GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

INTRODUCTION TO REPRODUCTION
(Module 1)
Source: CHED TEACHING GUIDE FOR SHS GEN BIO 2 pp 147-166

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Asexual and Sexual Modes of Reproduction

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to:
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual
Reproduction

Learning Competency
The learners should be able to compare various modes of asexual and sexual
reproduction (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and
• describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction

RELEVANT VOCABULARY

1. Asexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells
2. Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex cells
3. Fission - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more equal parts
4. Fragmentation - Type of asexual reproduction where the body breaks into two or more parts, with
each fragment capable of becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is usually followed
by regeneration where the missing parts are produced. For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be
regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.
5. Budding - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) from
its parent, develops organs like those of the parent, and then detaches itself.
6. Sporulation - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual forms from an aggregation of
cells surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore, which later on germinates
7. Isogamy - Fusion of similar gametes which are usually motile
8. Heterogamy - Fusion of dissimilar gametes. In oogamy, a large immotile gamete, the egg is
fertilized by a small motile gamete, the sperm.
9. Bisexual reproduction - Type of sexual reproduction involving the union of gametes from two
genetically different parents
10. Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals “self
fertilization” is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in order to
fertilize the oocytes in its body.

The following pictures depict reproduction across different organisms. As animals, we are only
familiar with one form of
reproduction, particularly the
form depicted by the frogs in
amplexus.
However, there are other
forms of reproduction that exist
in nature. Can you spot
differences
among the depicted forms of reproduction?
 Figure 3. Asexual reproduction through fragmentation

Figure 1. Asexual reproduction through

budding in Hydra

Figure 2. Paramecium undergoing

asexual reproduction through fission

Figure 4. Fungi undergoing asexual

reproduction through sporulation

Figure 5. Frogs mating (in

amplexus)

DISCUSSION
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND GIVE EXAMPLES
I. Fission- Paramecium as example
II. Budding- Hydra as example
III. Fragmentation- filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, and a detached starfish arm
growing lost parts as example
IV. Sporulation- fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, as example

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

In asexual reproduction, an offspring is genetically identical to the parent, which means the offspring is a
CLONE of the parent.

Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, generally produces variation in the offspring because this
results in the recombination of genomes from the parents’ gametes.

Note that sporulation is very rare in animals and are only exhibited in some organism like sponges.

Note that isogamy may involve either flagellated gametes (as in the case of Chlamydomonas) or non-
flagellated cells or structures (as in the case of Spirogyra)

MODULE OUTPUT

Cut out PUBLISHED ARTICLES (from books, magazines, journals) discussing the advantages and
disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction and paste it in a long bond paper. You need to find
three (3) articles discussing the mentioned topic. It will be good for 30 points that will be reflected on
your quiz. One article corresponds to 10 points.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Compare and Contrast
Process in Plants and Animals: Reproduction
and Development
(Module 2)
Source: CHED TEACHING GUIDE FOR SHS GEN BIO 2 pp 147-166

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Animal Reproductive Organs
and Their Functions; Processes in development

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to:
• illustrate the life cycle of the common fruit fly, Drosophila

Learning Competency
The learners should be able to describe processes in the life cycle of animals
and explain the process of human development STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• describe the different stages of animal development;
• differentiate the developmental process in monozygotic and dizygotic twins;
• describe human reproductive organ systems;
• illustrate the human female menstrual cycle;
• explain processes in human development; and
• differentiate various forms of contraception in humans

Even unicellular forms like bacteria and fungi also undergo development

RELEVANT VOCABULARY
1. Development- involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, subsequent stages in one’s life
span. Development is terminated by death.
2. Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only half the chromosome number or only one set of
chromosomes
3. Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the full chromosome number or two sets of chromosomes
4. Totipotent cell- A cell that is capable of differentiating to become any kind of cell
5. Gametogenesis- Stage of development that yields haploid gametes
6. Fertilization- Stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid zygote
7. Cleavage- Stage of development involving a series of mitotic divisions to produce a multicellular
blastula from a unicellular zygote
8. Gastrulation- Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of the cells to produce
a gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three layers: the outermost
ectoderm; the inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the mesoderm
9. Organogenesis- Stage of development where the different germ layers differentiate into specific
organ systems
10. Growth- Stage of development characterized by an increase in size of an individual
11. Monozygotic twins- Also known as identical twins; result from the union of a sperm and egg to
form a single zygote that splits up during the first cleavage stage.
12. Dizygotic twins - Also known as fraternal twins; results from the development of two or more
separate fertilization events where the resulting zygotes develop almost simultaneously
13. Testis- Where sperms are produced
14. Epididymis- Where sperms are temporarily stored
15. Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis and epididymis
16. Vas deferens - Where the sperm passes through from the testis before it joins the urethra
17. Urethra - Connected to the urethra and the urinary bladder; serves as passageway of both sperm
and urine and terminates in the external urinary meatus of the penis
18. Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms part of the semen; secretion gives the semen its alkaline
characteristic to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore protect the sperm; the
fluid also contains sugars like fructose
19. Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to the semen; it also contains
proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids
20. Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate
that helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic urine in
the urethra, and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign matter
21. Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females
22. Vagina- Main entrance to the female reproductive tract; receives the penis during sexual
intercourse
23. Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the vagina; leads to the uterus
24. Uterus- Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops; with thick muscular walls, blood
vessels; and the endometrial lining
25. Endometrial lining/endometrium- Innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and
develop
26. Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts; paired tubes that are connected to the uterus and
terminate near the ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place
27. Ovaries- Female gonads that release the oocytes during ovulation, which are then caught by the
fimbrae of the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to the fallopian tubes
28. Morula- A human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells
29. Blastocyst- A human blastula composed of the inner cell mass, which becomes the embryo, and
the trophoectoderm, which becomes the placenta
30. Implantation- Process where the blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium; this signals the start
of pregnancy
31. Gestation- Carrying of the embryo inside the female reproductive tract, specifically the uterus; can
last up to 9 months in humans
32. Human embryo- Corresponds to the first two months of gestation
33. Human fetus- Corresponds to the months 3-9 of human gestation
34. Follicular phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary in humans where the follicles begin to
mature; it is marked by secretions of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the leutinizing
hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland and the estrogen by the ovaries; both FSH and LH
stimulate the maturation of the oocytes while estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth in
preparation for implantation of the embryo
35. Luteal phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary after the oocytes are released from the
follicles; the remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, which then secretes progesterone,
which stimulates the uterus to undergo final maturational changes that prepare it for gestation to
house and nourish an embryo
36. Menstrual phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; also known as the “period”;
corresponds to the early part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days 1-5) when endometrium
degenerates and sloughs off, producing the menstrual discharge
37. Proliferative phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the latter part of the
follicular phase of the ovaries (days 8-14) when the endometrium heals and begins to thicken as a
consequence of estrogen secretion
38. Secretory phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the luteal phase of the
ovaries; the endometrium undergoes final changes before it receives the embryo during
implantation
39. Contraception- Process that blocks any one of the following stages of reproduction in humans: (1)
release and transport of gametes; (2) fertilization; (3) implantation; (4) actual completion of
development of the embryo/fetus
40. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Type of contraception that prevents the oocyte to mature
41. Oral contraceptives- Type of contraception taken in by women to prevent them from ovulating
42. Barrier methods- Type of contraception that prevents fertilization
43. Condom- Type of barrier method that is inserted on the male penis to prevent release of sperm
into the female reproductive tract
44. Diaphragm- Type of barrier method that blocks the cervix, thereby preventing the passage of the
sperm into the uterus
45. Cervical cap- Type of barrier method that covers the cervix and blocks passage of the sperm into
the uterus
46. Spermicidal jelly or foam- Type of barrier method that kills the sperm on contact; they are placed
inside the vaginal canal
47. Surgical methods- A special type of contraception preventing fertilization that involves surgery
48. Vasectomy- Type of surgical method for men; entails cutting the vas deferens
49. Tubal ligation- Type of surgical method for women; entails cutting the fallopian tubes
50. Implantation-suppressing methods- Type of contraception that prevents the blastocyst from
being implanted in the endometrium
51. Intra-uterine devise (IUD)- Type of implantation-suppressing method that physically blocks the
blastocyst form implanting into the endometrium
52. Morning-after pill- Type of implantation-suppressing method that blocks the action of hormones
that prepare the uterus to receive the embryo
53. Abortion- Type of contraception that involves the deliberate removal of the embryo/fetus before it
completes gestation
54. Coitus interruptus- Type of contraception that requires the man to remove the penis before
ejaculation
55. Abstinence- Type of contraception where the man and the woman do not engage in sexual
intercourse
DISCUSSION
 Development starts with formation of sex cells and ends only by death.

 Until the old age of a person, for example, some cells still develop or divide. During gastrulation,
the fates of the cells are beginning to be determined.

 The cells started out as totipotent in cleavage, but as the cells are moved around through
morphogenetic movements, they become more specialized in terms of their fates as they get
assigned to specific germ layers.

 Identical twins result from an accident during cleavage when totipotent cells, whose fates have
not yet been determined, are separated and continue with their development independently of
each group of cells.

 Identical twins should have identical gender, whereas fraternal twins may have different
biological sex.

 Pregnancy officially commences only when the embryo (blastocyst) has successfully implanted
into the endometrium. Abortion should never be done.

 Elective abortion (when the life of the mother is not threatened by the pregnancy) is illegal in
the Philippines.

 Abstinence is the only form of contraception that is guaranteed 100% effective

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
I. Fertilization - Occurs in the fallopian tube; results in a unicellular zygote
II. Cleavage- Also takes place in the fallopian tube after fertilization
III. Describe Morula and Blastocyst
IV. Implantation- Attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterus; start of pregnancy
V. Gestation- Differentiate embryonic development from fetal development in terms of period
covered during gestation

EVENTS IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

I.Ovarian cycle: Follicular phase; Ovulation; Luteal Phase
II.Uterine cycle: Menstrual phase; Proliferative phase; Secretory phase

CONTRACEPTION AND ITS TYPES

I. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Oral contraceptives
II. Barrier methods- Physical (Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap)
III. Chemical- Spermicidal jelly and foam
IV. Surgical methods- Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
V. Implantation-suppressing methods- IUD and Morning-after pill
VI. Others: Abstinence

MODULE OUTPUT

Design a “future” contraceptive, using your imagination and knowledge of reproductive systems.
Decide on how you would scientifically test the safety, effectiveness and popularity of your
contraceptive. Produce a brochure that promotes your invention

Content: 15 Creativity Design-20

MODULE EXERCISE
Name the different parts of the reproductive organ
(17 POINTS)
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Compare and Contrast
Process in Plants and Animals: Reproduction
and Development
(Module 3)
Source: CHED TEACHING GUIDE FOR SHS GEN BIO 2 pp 147-166

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Plant Reproductive Organs and
their Functions.

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to:
• identify the parts of the flower, classify flowers, and explain plant
Development

Learning Competency
The learners should be able to compare and contrast different types of plant
life cycles, and explain processes in flowering plant reproduction and
development (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles;
• illustrate the life cycles of moss, fern, and flowering plant;
• describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and
• explain processes in plant development.

Parts of a generalized flower

RELEVANT VOCABULARY

1. Gametophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that produces gametes
via mitosis; these gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a sporophyte
2. Sporophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the most recognizable
structure in most flowering plants; it produces haploid spores by meiosis in structures called
sporangia
3. Haplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the haploid stage (gametophyte) is multicellular and the
only diploid stage is the fertilized egg cell
4. Haplodiplontic life cycle - Life cycle that includes multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and haploid
(gametophyte) generations
5. Diplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the diploid stage (sporophyte)is multicellular and the
haploid stage (gametophyte) is represented by the single-celled gametes
6. Angiosperms - Also known as flowering plants; group of plants that produce reproductive
structures called flowers in their sporophyte stages
7. Flower - Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made up of four major whorls
8. Sepals - The outermost whorls of a flower; collectively called the calyx
9. Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals; may be brightly colored in some; collectively called the
corolla
10. Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals; the male reproductive structure of the flower; bears the
male sporangia (also known as microsporangia)
11. Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the microsporangia that develops into pollen grains
12. Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of the anther
13. Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl of the flower; the female reproductive structure of the flower;
bears the female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia)
14. Stigma - Part of the pistil where the pollen grain derived from the microsporangium attaches
during pollination
15. Style - Part of the pistil that serves as the stalk of the stigma; leads to the ovary
16. Ovary - Found at the base of the pistil; contains one or more ovules; eventually becomes the fruit
17. Ovule - Contains the female sporangia or megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed
18. Complete flower - A flower with sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
19. Incomplete flower - A flower that lacks one or more of the floral whorls
20. Perfect flower - A flower that has both stamens and carpels; a bisexual structure
21. Imperfect flower - A flower that has only either the stamens (staminate flower) or the carpels
(carpellate flower); also known as a unisexual flower
22. Monoecious plant - A plant having perfect flowers or both staminate and carpellate flowers on the
same individual
23. Dioecious plant - A plant having only either the staminate or carpellate flower
24. Pollination - The placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a carpel
25. Pollen grain - The immature male gametophyte that develops within the anthers of stamens;
derived from the microsporocytes inside the microsporangia of anthers. Inside the mature pollen grain,
there is a tube cell and a generative cell. The tube cell develops into the pollen tube as it enters the style
and eventually enters the micropyle of the ovule. The generative cell divides into two sperm nuclei and
traverses the pollen tube
26. Embryo sac - The female gametophyte found inside the ovule; derived from the megasporocyte
inside the megasporangia; a mature embryo sac contains 8 nuclei. Eventually, these nuclei become
enveloped by membranes to become real cells. These are the one egg cell; two synergids that flank the
egg; two polar cells that are often fused; and three antipodals opposite the synergids and egg.
27. Micropyle - The opening through the integuments of the ovule that surrounds the embryo sac; his is
where the pollen tube enters in order to reach the embryo sac
28. Endosperm - Part of the mature seed that is derived from the fusion of the sperm nucleus and the
two polar nuclei of the embryo sac. This becomes a nutritive tissue with triploid cells that serves to store
food for the developing embryo
29. Zygote - Part of the mature seed that forms as a result of the fusion of the egg and one of the sperm
nuclei
30. Cotyledon - Embryonic leaf that forms inside the seed
31. Monocot - A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed (monocotyledonous)
32. Dicot - A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed (dicotyledonous)
33. Seed germination - Process that transforms a seed into a seedling
34. Imbibition - The first step in seed germination; absorption of water
35. Radicle - Embryonic root that emerges from the seed
36. Plumule - Embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil surface
37. Epicotyl - Part of the plumule above the cotyledon
38. Hypocotyl - Part of the plumule below the cotyledon
 PARTS OF A GUMAMELA
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

DISCUSSION

General life cycle of plants

 The mature, multicellular organism is a diploid porophyte. Later, some cells undergo meiosis to
produce haploid gametes which are then released.

 Gametes fuse and form the zygote which develops by mitosis to become the multicellular
diploid sporophyte

 In some plants, the dominant part of the life cycle is a multicellular, haploid gametophyte ( all
cells have a haploid chromosome number).

 Mitosis releases individual cells that can act like gametes (gamete are produced by mitosis).

GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS

Different types of life cycles:
I. Haplontic life cycle
Chara is a multicellular green alga related to higher plants because it has both chlorophyll a and b and
produce plant starch. Its dominant stage is a multicellular haploid stage which produces gametes that
eventually fuse to form unicellular zygotes. Each zygote then undergoes meiosis to become haploid,
after which it undergoes mitosis to become the multicellular organism.
II. Haplodiplontic life cycle
A moss has a multicellular haploid (gametophyte) stage that produces gametes. These gametes fuse to
produce a zygote that undergoes mitosis to produce a multicellular sporophyte. Within a part of the
sporophyte called the capsule, cells undergo meiosis to produce meiospores. These spores are
eventually released and germinate by dividing mitotically to become a multicellular gametophyte.

III. Diplontic life cycle

A. Type of life cycle found in flowering plants (and in most animals). The organism is in the
diploid stage ( all cells are diploid in chromosome number) except for mature, haploid sex
cells which are called gametes.

The flower
I. The four major whorls
A. Sepals
B. Petals
C. Stamen with Anther and Filament
D. Carpels- with Stigma, Style, Ovary and Ovule

II. Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls

A. Complete
B. Incomplete

III. Types of flowers based on the presence of reproductive whorls

A. Perfect / Bisexual
B. Imperfect / Unisexual
i. Staminate flower
ii. Carpellate flower

PLANT TYPES BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES: MONOECIOUS OR

DIOECIOUS DEVELOPMENT IN FLOWERING PLANTS

I. Gametophyte - Development through gametogenesis (use figure 6 to illustrate

gametogenesis in flowering plants)

A. Male gametophyte - The microsporangium in the anther contains numerous

microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid
microspores each microspore develops into a pollen grain (containing two sperm nuclei
and one tube nucleus)

B. Female gametophyte - The megasporangium in the ovule contains megasporocytes.

One megasporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores three megaspores
degenerate remaining megaspore divides mitotically three times, an embryo sac with eight haploid
nuclei membranes partition to make the embryo sac multicellular

II. Pollination
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided
III. Double fertilization
A. Inside a pollen grain there is a tube cell and generative cell generative cell divides to produce two
sperm cells while the tube cell becomes pollen tube pollen tube elongates along the style and
penetrates the ovule in the ovary via the micropyle (an opening) pollen tube discharges the sperm cells
into the embryo sac inside the ovule one sperm unites with the egg to form the zygote while the other
sperm fuses with the polar nuclei to become the endosperm, which serves as food of the early embryo

GAMETOGENESIS IN FLOWERING
PLANTS

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS

IV. Embryo development (embryogenesis)

A. Zygote divides mitotically to produce the proembryo and suspensor, which anchors the
proembryo and transfers nutrients from the parent plant to it cotyledons appear on the
proembryo (monocots have only one cotyledon whereas dicots have two) proembryo elongates
into an embryo.

V. Maturation of ovary and ovule

A. Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed. The seed may become
dormant for some time.
VI. Seed germination
A. Transformation of seed to seedling
B. Seed undergoes imbibition to break dormancy nutrients stored in the endosperm or cotyledons are
digested and transferred to the growing regions of the embryo to primar meristems (protoderm, ground
meristem, procambium) develop to radicle emerges to plumule breaks through the soil surface
i. Epigeal germination occurs when the cotyledon emerges above ground, thereby exposing the
hypocotyl of the plumule.
ii. Hypogeal germination occurs when the cotyledon remains below ground, thereby
concealing the hypocotyl.

VII. Seedling growth to mature plant

A. Primary meristems differentiate to become the different plant tissue

TYPES OF GERMINATION

Seeds can be dormant when conditions become harsh or dry, then germinate when conditions become
favorable, i.e. presence of moisture. Fruits allow better dispersal of the seeds in order to minimize
competition for resources with their parents. Fruits encourage animals to consume them, discarding
the seeds in the process. Other fruits physically disperse the seeds, as seen in the “wings” of the fruits
of dipterocarps, also known as samara.

MODULE OUTPUT

In a long bond paper, make a written matrix/table/graphic organizer showing the similarities and
differences of reproductive process between plants and animals.

MODULE EXERCISE

Answer the following question in a long bond paper

1. What could be the significance of the ability of flowering plants to produce seeds? What

advantages does a seed provide?

2. What is the advantage of having seeds covered in fruits?