GEOGRAPHY 2016

© Nitin Sangwan

1
Beginner’s Note:

For Geography also, it is advisable that you read Old NCERTs (11th and 12th class) absolutely thoroughly.
They have some very old data, skip that. They cover almost all the topics. Don’t miss even a single word
especially, the conceptual part. Most of the concept based questions can be found in these old NCERTs or
the new NCERTs. Attempt all the questions which are given at the end of the chapters in these books. It
will also serve you as a sort of answer writing practice as well.

After reading these, you may refer to the new NCERTS. Why new NCERTs? Because they are more
graphic and have an interactive style. At times they are more engaging than the older ones and had
explained a few topics in a much lucid manner.

Google those events/topics which are not adequately covered in these (but are mentioned just in a few
lines), but never go too deep into that as you just need to have a conceptual clarity about that particular
event. After doing that, you may refer these notes (though I have tried to cover everything in these
notes). You may also view some videos or pictures on google to understand some phenomenon, but don’t
waste too much time in that.

Always keep things manageable. It is not so important that how much you read, but how well you read.
Keep in mind that whatever you read, you have to revise that also at times of mains exam. So, limit your
study material.

Best of luck!
Nitin Sangwan
AIR 28 (2016), AIR359 (2015), AIR 320 (2014)
Drop me a comment at: www.meandupsc.blogspot.in if you need some further help in the exam,
suggestions or any major discrepancies in these notes for benefit of others.

2
Contents
UNIVERSE, EVOLUTION of COSMIC MATTER and EARTH EVOLUTION ......................................................... 5
GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHY and FACTS – INDIA and WORLD........................................................................ 12
MAPS and OTHER MEASUREMENT TOOLS and ACTIVITIES ........................................................................ 13
GEOMORPHOLOGY: EXTERNAL and INTERNAL FORCES – LAYERS OF EARTH, CONTINENTAL MOVEMENTS
THEORIES, EARTHQUAKES and FORCES of CHANGE ................................................................................... 15
EXTERNAL PHYSIOGRAPHY of EARTH.......................................................................................................... 31
MOUNTAINS................................................................................................................................................ 33
MOUNTAIN SYSTEM of INDIA ..................................................................................................................... 33
PLATEU ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
PLAINS ......................................................................................................................................................... 45
ROCKS, MINERALS and MINING .................................................................................................................. 48
RIVER, OCEANS, LAKES, STRAITS, ESTURY, DELTA ...................................................................................... 58
RIVERS and WATER RESOURCES of INDIA ................................................................................................... 74
ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER PHENOMENON, CLIMATE and LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE ................................. 87
AIR, WIND, WATERCYLE, RAIN and CLOUD FORMATION ........................................................................... 91
CLIMATE in INDIA ...................................................................................................................................... 107
THE MONSOONS ....................................................................................................................................... 111
SEASONS in INDIA ..................................................................................................................................... 119
DESERTS .................................................................................................................................................... 123
ISLANDS ..................................................................................................................................................... 125
FORESTS and VEGETATION ....................................................................................................................... 127
TYPES OF VEGETATION IN INDIA ............................................................................................................... 132
SOILS, DEGRADATION, EROSION and CONSERVATION............................................................................. 137
TYPES OF SOILS IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................... 145
NATURAL DISASTERS and HAZARDS ......................................................................................................... 150
ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION, ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY ............................................. 153
AGRICULTURE, CROPS, IRRIGATION and CULTIVATION and OTHER FARMING METHODS ...................... 159
INDUSTRIES ............................................................................................................................................... 171
DEMOGRAPHICS, TRIBES, POPULATION PARAMETERS and DIASPORA.................................................... 175

3
TRANSPORT and COMMUNICATION......................................................................................................... 181
DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................................................. 185
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS – UPSC and OTHERS ...................................................................................... 241
TRIVIA ........................................................................................................................................................ 249

4
UNIVERSE, EVOLUTION of COSMIC MATTER and EARTH EVOLUTION
Earth has elliptical orbit- so do other planets.

Cosmic Singularity Theory – That all the matter before big-bang was concentrated at a single point.

Milkonvitch Movements – It is sum total of the four cyclical movements of earth around sun –

 Wobble Cycle – earth wobbles like a spinning top.

 Stretch Cycle – It is a cycle when earth’s orbit around sun changes from elliptical to circular in
around 1 lakh years
 Tilt Cycle – When tilt of earth’s axis changes
 Bubble Cycle – Earth goes up and down by a fraction of degree in its orbit.

Black Hole – Black holes are the densest, most massive singular objects in the universe. Formed in one
of three main processes, they exert so much gravitational force that nothing - not even light - can escape
their pull. Since nothing can ever come out, it is called a hole. Since not even light nor other
electromagnetic radiation can escape, it is called a black hole.A black hole forms when any object
reaches a certain critical density, and its gravity causes it to collapse to an almost infinitely small
pinpoint.

Quasar – A Quasi-Stellar Radio Source is a very energetic and distant active galactic nucleus. Quasars are
extremely luminous. Quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy surrounding its central
supermassive black hole.

Chandrashekhar Limit - The maximum size of a stable white dwarf, approximately 1.4 times the mass of
the Sun. Stars with mass higher than the Chandrasekhar limit ultimately collapse under their own weight
and become neutron stars or black holes.

Neutron Star – Neutron stars are a hyper dense form of dead star composed almost entirely of
neutrons. A sub-class of neutron stars is called pulsars. Pulsars emit regular pulses of electromagnetic
radiations. Pulsars spin very rapidly.

Aesteroid Belt – It lies between Mars and Jupiter. Ceris is the largest asteroid. Asteroids are classified as
– C Type –Made up of chiefly Carbonaceous Material, (75%), S Type are grayish Silicaceous and M Type
are metallic. Asteroids are also parent bodies of - Meteoroids (which just come in), Meteors (Which enter
into earth’s atmosphere and get destroyed) and Meteorites (Which not only enter earth’s atmosphere
but also reach surface). Comets don’t emerge from here.

Kirkwood Gaps – There are certain areas in the belt which are devoid of asteroids within this belt, these
are called Kirkwood Gaps.

Source of comets in our solar system – Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. Kuiper Belt is a belt beyond our b
planet solar system zone and it holds more than 70,000 celestial bodies and it lies beyond the 8 planets
and it includes the dwarf planets (including pluto). Erisis the largest object in the Kuiper Belt. Short
period comets emerge out of Kuiper Belt. Oort Cloud is area of replenishment that lie beyond Kuiper

5
belt, the spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from sun. Comets of long periodicity
emerge out of this cloud like Hale Bopp. While comets are mainly made up of hydrogen and ice, asteroids
are mainly made up of rocks and metal.

THEORIES of FORMATION of UNIVERSE

I. Big Bang Theory – Given by George Le Mathew states Universe started with one huge explosion
and continues to expand.
II. Oscillation Theory – it states that universe keep on going cycles of contraction and expansion
III. Steady State Theory – It states that new matter is constantly crated at the center of universe
while older one keeps on degrading at the fringes.

FORMATION OF PLANETS

The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane,
ammonia and very little of free oxygen. The process through which the gases were outpoured
from the interior is called Degassing. Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapour
and gases to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the water vapour released started getting
condensed. The following are considered to be the stages in the development of planets –

I. The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within the
lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas
and dust develops around the gas core.
II. In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the
core develops into smallrounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of
cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by
collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together.
Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies.
III. In the final stage, these large number of small planetesimals accrete to form a fewer
large bodies in the form of planets.

Criteria for being a planet –

I. Sufficient mass to take spherical shape

II. Must orbit sun in an elliptical or circular path
III. It must clear the area around its orbit by sweeping away all cosmic bodies in its vicinity
by its gravitational force.
IV. Its diameter should be greater than 3000 km.

SUN

Sun is a G2 star and revolves around he galactic core and completes one revolution in 250
million years which is known as 1 Cosmic Year. The solar output received at the top of the
atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in the distance between the earth and
the sun. During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km)

6
on 4th July. This position of the earth is called APHELION (for moon and satellites it is APOGEE).
(Energy received is low at this point of time). And on Jan 3, it is nearest – Known as Perihelion.
However this variation is miniscule. Velocity of a celestial body is maximum at aphelion/apogee.

Ecliptic – The ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun on the celestial sphere as seen from the
Earth's center, and also the plane of this path, which is coplanar with theorbit of the Earth
around the Sun.

Insolation – Amount of Sun radiations received. The insolation received at the surface varies
from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation
is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least. Equator receives
comparatively less insolation than the tropics (as there is cloud formation due to evaporation).
Generally, at the same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.

Layers of sun

a. Inner Zones

 Inner most is the Core,

 Outer Core is Fusion Zone and is also Radioactive Zone
 Convetion Zone

b. Atmosphere

 Next is Photosphere, here Sunspots (Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the

photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots compared to
surrounding regions. They are caused by intense magnetic activity, forming
areas of reduced surface temperature. Although they are at temperatures of
roughly 3000–4500 K (2727–4227 °C), the contrast with the surrounding
material at about 5780 K (5500 °C) leaves them clearly visible as dark
spots)form. Sunspots form in a cyclical manner and period of maximum
sunspots is called period of Solar Activity. Here apart from the dark sunspots,
Foculas form which are very bright spots which are the converging points of the
convection currents
 Next is Chormosphere, where Plages– Bright Spotsform.
 Outermost is Corona, here Solar Flares (A solar flare is a sudden brightening
observed over the Sun's surface which is interpreted as a large energy release.
Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere - photosphere,
chromosphere, and corona) and Prominence form.

7
PLANETS

Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The nebula from which our Solar system is supposed
to have been formed, started its collapse and core formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago
and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Out of the eight planets, mercury,
venus, earth and mars are called as the inner planets as they lie between the sun and the belt of
asteroids the other four planets are called the outer planets. Alternatively, the first four are
called Terrestrial or Rocky Planets, till Mars, meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and
metals, and have relatively high densities. The rest four are called Jovian or Gas Giant planets.
Jovian means jupiter-like. Most of them are much larger than the terrestrial planets and have
thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed in a similar
manner around 4.6 billion years ago.

Jovian (Jupitor like or gaseous) and Terrestrial (or Earth like or rocky) Planets – The difference
between terrestrial and jovian planetscan be attributed to the following conditions –

 The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was
too warm for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at quite a
distant location.
 The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from
the terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal
of gases from the Jovian planets.
 The terrestrial planets are smaller and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping
gases.

8
ECLIPSE

Solar Eclipse – Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and
the Moon fully or partially blocks the Sun. This can happen only during a new moon (when moon
is just returning from darkness to a crescent), when the Sun and the Moon are in conjunction as
seen from Earth. If the Moon were in a circular orbit close enough to the Earth and in the same
orbital plane, there would be total solar eclipses every single month. However, the Moon's orbit
is angled at more than 5 degrees to the earth's orbit around the sun so its shadow at new moon
often misses the Earth.

Lunar Eclipse – A Lunar eclipse can occur only at full moon or near full moon (A lunar eclipse
occurs when the Moon passes behind the Earth so that the Earth blocks the Sun's rays from
striking the Moon. This can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned exactly, or
very closely so, with the Earth in the middle. Hence, a lunar eclipse can only occur the night of a
full moon). Total eclipse is possible only because apparent dia of the two are almost same.

Solar vs Lunar Eclipse – A solar eclipse might last for a few minutes as apparent size of moon
changes (depending upon its position between apogee and perigee).

 Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a certain relatively small area of
the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth.
 A lunar eclipse lasts for a few hours, whereas a total solar eclipse lasts for only a few
minutes at any given place, due to the smaller size of the moon's shadow.

Earth’s atmosphere is also capable of diminishing the solar flow to moon by scattering it. The full
shadow cast by earth (area of umbra) is surrounded a region of partial shadow (called
penumbra). The earth and moon both caste shadows in sunlight, the shadow having a dark cone
shaped inner region – the umbra – and an outer penumbral region.

The Umbra (Latin for "shadow") is the innermost & darkest part of the shadows, where the light
source is completely blocked by the occluding body. An observer in the umbra experiences a
total eclipse.

The Penumbra (from the Latin paene "almost, nearly" and umbra "shadow") is the region in
which only a portion of the light source is obscured by the occluding body. An observer in the
penumbra experiences a partial eclipse.

The Antumbra is the region from which the occluding body appears entirely contained within
the disc of the light source. If an observer in the antumbra moves closer to the light source, the
apparent size of the occluding body increases until it causes a full umbra. An observer in this
region experiences an annular eclipse, in which a bright ring is visible around the eclipsing body.

Moon experiences only first two because its orbits path is fixed and its apogee is never so far that
it may experience Antumbra.

9
 Path of totality – When moon is sufficiently close to earth, so that its apparent diameter exceeds
that of the sun, then the umbra of the moon’s shadow can just reach the earth’s surface. It
moves in a general west to east trend over a very narrow curved zone of surface known as path
of totality. An observein the path of totality will experience a total eclipse, in which sun is
completely obscured. The maximum duration of the totality is 7 minute 40 secs.

TRIVIA

 Ganymade is the largest moon of Jupitor (and in Solar System too)

 Charonis the only moon of the now dwarf planet Pluto.
 Venus is hottest planet though it is not closest to earth and it also has the most Circular Orbit.
 Length of day on Earth and Mars is almost same.
 Mercury has fastestorbital speed around sun and hence has smallest duration of year.
 Jupiter has highest axial speed and hence smallest day.
 Mercury is smallest planet
 Earth is most dense planet of Solar System, while Saturn is least dense.
 Saturn has maximum number of satellites.
 Saturn and Uranus have rings.
 Jupiter is the fastest rotating planet.
 Venus is called twin planet of Earthand is the nearest planet to earth also called morning and
evening star and is also the brightest planet. Venus rotates from East to West, while all other
planets except Uranus rotate from west to East. It is also the slowest rotating planet.It is also
called as twin planet of earth.
 Earth has maximum density in the solar system.
 Mercury and Venus have no satellites.
 Uranus rotates from North to South.
 Saturn is the Second largest planet.

10
  Nix Olympia is the highest mountain on Mars
 Escape Velocity of earth is around 11 km/sec
 Solstice is the two extreme positions of sun viz tropic of cancer -21st June - and tropic of
Capricorn – 22nd December.
 Equinox – The length of day and night on same latitude on two hemispheres is equal. They occur
at 21st March and 23rd September.
 Andromeda is nearest constellation.
 Existance of galaxies beyond our own milkyway was first established by Edwin Hubble.

Which one of the following is not related to the formation or modification of the present atmosphere?

a. Solar winds
b. Degassing
c. DIFFERENTIATION – IT IS ACTUALLY FORMATION OF DIFFERENT LAYERS OF EARTH SURFACE VIZ
CORE, MANTLE ETC
d. Photosynthesis

The distance between the earth and the moon is minimum when the moon is in:

a. Aphelion
b. Perihelion (it is for earth when it revolve around sun)
c. PERIGEE
d. Apogee

11
GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHY and FACTS – INDIA and WORLD
Climate is about the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years.

Equatorial region – 0 degree to 5/10 degree

Tropical region – 23.5 N to 23.5 South (It includes equatorial region)

Sub Tropical – 23.5 to 40 degree on each side.

INDIA

India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. The north-south extent from Kashmir to
Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km. And the east-west extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh is
about 2,900 km.

From south to north, India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes – 3,219 km

From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E longitudes - 2,933 km

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS of INDIA

The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions

I. The Himalayan Mountains

II. The Northern Plains
III. The Peninsular Plateau
IV. The Indian Desert
V. The Coastal Plains
VI. The Islands

IST – Indian Standard Time

There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the standard
meridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude. That is why 82°30' E has been selected as the
‘standard meridian’ of India. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours
and 30 minutes.

CLIMATE of INDIA

From the values of latitude, it is understood that the southern part of the country lies within the
tropics and the northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or the warm temperate zone.

12
MAPS and OTHER MEASUREMENT TOOLS and ACTIVITIES
Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. are
called physical or relief maps.

Some maps focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution
of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps.

There are three Components of Maps – distance, direction and symbol.

Scale of a Map –It is ratio of distance on map to the actual distance.

Cardinal Points – On a map, the four basic directions are called cardinal points.

Contour Line - A line on a map that traces locations where the value of a variable is constant. For
example, contour lines of elevation trace points of equal elevation across the map. All points on the "ten
foot" contour line are ten feet above sea level.

Contours – These are the lines of equal latitude.

Plan is a drawing of small area on large scale.

International Date Line - 180 is called international date line (0 degree is GMT). It is a zigzag line.

Climograph – It is a graphical representation of‘month wise’ temperature and rainfall of a region.

Synoptic Charts – These are the weather charts showing ‘daily’ or short term fluctuations of weather
elements.

Isobath –Lines of equal depth in the sea.

Isobrents –Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstormat the same time.

Isohels –Places of equal amount of sunshine.

Isonif –Places of equal snow.

Isopleth – It is a line on a map connecting places registering the same amount or ratio of some
geographical or meteorological parameter.

Isorymes –Line of equal frost.

Each meridian is .5 or half an hour separate from each other.

In general isotherms are straighter and widely spaced in the southern hemisphere than in northern
hemisphere. This is because the southern hemisphere has a broad expanse of waters and in the northern
hemisphere there is great contrast between oceans and continental landmass.

SCALES of WEATHER PHENOMENON

13
 I. The Synoptic Scale in meteorology (also known as large scale or cyclonic scale) is a horizontal
length scale of the order of 1000 kilometers (about 620 miles) or more.Most high and low-
pressure areas seen on weather maps such as surface weather analyses are synoptic-scale
systems.
II. Mesoscale meteorology is the study of weather systems smaller than synoptic scale systems but
larger than microscale and storm-scale cumulus systems. Horizontal dimensions generally range
from around 5 kilometers to several hundred kilometers. Examples of mesoscale weather
systems are sea breezes, squall lines, and mesoscale convective complexes.
III. Microscale meteorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than
mesoscale, about 1 km or less. Important topics in microscale meteorology include heat transfer
and gas exchange between soil, vegetation, and/or surface water and the atmosphere caused by
near-ground turbulence.

14
GEOMORPHOLOGY: EXTERNAL and INTERNAL FORCES – LAYERS OF
EARTH, CONTINENTAL MOVEMENTS THEORIES, EARTHQUAKES and
FORCES of CHANGE
Earth is mainly made up of Iron, followed by Oxygen.

There are many explanations for the movement of Continents and evolution of geography.

LAYERS of EARTH

Most of the information about interior of earth is obtained indirectly as samples from deep
inside cannot be collected. Earthquakes, gravitation, magnetic field, and meteors include some
of the indirect sources. Volcanic eruptions, hot springs, rocks, deep drillings, deep mines etc are
direct sources of internal information.

Just like an onion, the earth is made up of several concentric layers with one inside another.

I. Crust

The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all
the layers, just like an egg shell. It is about 35 km on the continental masses and only 5
km on the ocean floors. It is lighter than the layer beneath it and generally density of
material goes on increasing as we go down. Thus core (NiFe – Nickle+Ferrous) is
heaviest.

Oxygen is the largest constituent of the Crust. It is present in form of oxides of various
elements. Silicon is second largest substance. Upper layer of crust – very thin – is made
up of sedimentary rocks, while most of the crust is composed of crystalline igneous and
metamorphic rocks which are generally acidic in nature.

Half of crust is made from Feldspar which is a mineral made of Silicon, Oxygen and other
elements.

 Continental Crust – The main mineral constituents of the ‘continental crust’

aresilica and alumina. It is thus called ‘sial’ (si-silica and al-alumina). It is lighter
than the oceanic crust.
 Oceanic Crust – The ‘oceanic crust’ mainly consists of silica and magnesium; it is
therefore called ‘sima’ (si-silica and ma-magnesium)

Oceanic Crust vs Continental Crust –

 Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust. The mean

thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30
km.

15
  Oceanic crust is made up of heavier rocks having density of 3 g/cm3. This type of
rock found in the oceanic crust is Basalt. The mean density of material in
oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
II. Mantle

Second Layer is mantle. By volume it is the largest layer. It has higher density than that of
the crust.

Aesthenosphere – The mantle contains a weaker zone called Asthenosphere. It is from

this that the molten rock materials find their way to the surface. Asthenosphere is a
plastic layer type which has high temperature and upon which lithosphere floats. The
material in the upper mantle portion is called magma. The slow movement of
Asthenosphere also disturbs the layer of lithosphere also and leads to ‘folding’ and
‘faulting’ (termed as tectonic activities).

III. Core

Third Layer is core, the innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km. It is
mainly made up of nickel and iron and is called ‘nife’ (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous i.e. iron).
The central core has very high temperature and pressure. Due to this, it remains in solid
state.

Discontinuities – There are also some sharp discontinuities that demarcate the core from
mantle and mantle from crust –

 Mohorovick’s Discontinuity – Sharp boundary between crust and Mantle

 Guttenberg Discontinuity – The discontinuity between outer core and lower mantle is
called Guttenberg discontinuity.

16
 Lithosphere

Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth (covers both Oceans and
Land surface). It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is
an irregular surface with various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys,
etc. Landforms are found over the continents and also on the ocean floors.

PLATES

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally over
the asthenosphere as rigid units. Now it is known that Lithospehere is further subdivided into
various minor and 7 major plates. There are three types of plates –

 Continental Plates – these are comparatively lighter

 Oceanic Plates – these are comparatively heavier
 Partly continental partly oceanic plates

Pacific plate is largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be called a continental
plate.

Plate Movement

These plates move around very slowly – just a few millimetres each year. (Rates of Plate
Movement – The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid-
oceanic ridges help scientists determine the rates of plate movement.)

I. Continental Drift Theory – It was given by Wegener who claimed that

continents were part of a single mass and later drifted apart. According to
Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass and mega ocean
surrounded the same. The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant
all earth. The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA, meaning all water. He
suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was
caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force. The polar-fleeing force relates to
the rotation of the earth. It argued that the continents are "plowed" through
the sea. Evidence in support of the Continental Drift –
 The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)
 Rocks of Same Age across the Oceans
 Distribution of similar fossils
 Tillite – It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The
Gondawana system of sediments from India is known to have its
counter parts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
 Placer Deposits – The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the
Ghana coast and the absolute absence of source rock (placer deposits)

17
 in the region and instead presence of such rocks in Brazil also points to
the fact that Brazil and Ghana were part of one land.

The biggest limitation of Continental Drift Theory was that the basis it provided
for the force which moves the continents/plates was not held to be true by
many later studies. Considerable research was done after this theory, and it was
found that many of the postulates were true and some were replaced by other
discoveries.

Some argued that the movement or the moving force is the convectional
currents in the mantle due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences
in the mantle portion.

Mapping was also done on ocean floor, with the help of Sonar etc, which found
that ocean floor is not plain and there is a varying relief with mountains,
trenches etc and some of these features were much younger than many
features on continents. This pointed to the fact that some other force might
have been responsible for the creation of these rocks, figures etc.

II. Sea Floor Spreading – In the wake of new discoveries post-drift theory Hess
(1961) proposed his hypothesis, known as the ‘Sea Floor Spreading’. After the
theory of Sea Floor spreading, it has been found that Earth surface is not rigid
and solid as it appears and as it was proposed by Wegner. Instead, the upper
crust floats on Magma and hence can move. Thus, movement of plates is
because of the movement of the molten magma inside the earth. The molten
magma inside the earth moves in a circular manner. The movement of these
plates causes changes on the surface of the earth. The earth movements are
divided on the basis of the forces which cause them. Hess argued that constant
eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust
and the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side. The
ocean floor, thus spreads. The younger age of the oceanic crust as well as the
fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the other,
made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust. He further
maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at
the crest, sinks down at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
III. Plate Tectonics Theory – This theory was given in 1960s in wake of new
information like sea floor spreading. A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric
plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of
both continental and oceanic lithosphere (as against assumption of Wegner,
who assumed continental and oceanic mass as different categories). The theory
of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven
major and some minor plates. Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or
faults surround these major plates. These plates have been constantly moving

18
 over the globe throughout the history of the earth. It is not the continent that
moves as believed by Wegener. Moreover, it may be noted that all the plates,
without exception, have moved in the geological past, and shall continue to
move in the future as well. Wegener had thought of all the continents to have
initially existed as a super continent in the form of Pangaea. However, later
discoveries reveal that the continental masses, resting on the plates, have been
wandering all through the geological period, and Pangaea was a result of
converging of different continental masses that were parts of one or the other
plates and hence, was one of the phases of plate movements. Three type of
plate boundaries are proposed – convergent, divergent and transforming.

Boundary Interactions of Plates

I. Divergent Boundaries or Constructive Boundaries – Where new crust is generated as

the plates pull away from each other (as in case of Seafloor Spreading). The sites where
the plates move away from each other are called spreading sites, due to this at bottom
of oceans, new sea floor is added as a result of sea floor spreading.

Two drifting oceanic plates give rise to Mid Oceanic Ridges. The best-known example of
divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this, the American Plate(s) is/are
separated from the Eurasian and African Plates.

II. Convergent Boundaries or Destructive Boundaries – Where the crust is destroyed as

one plate dived under another. Also called Destruction Zone. When oceanic crust moves
towards continental crust, but being heavier/denser sinks and is destroyed and sea
Trenches and Island Ridges are formed (with volcanos). The location where sinking of a
plate occurs (heavier oceanic plates underride the lighter continental plates) is called a
Subduction Zone. (subduction zones are regions of maximum earthquakes in the world,
Circum Pacific Belt lies on such a zone) There are three ways in which convergence can

19
 occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and continental plate (as shown in figure
below); (ii) between two oceanic plates; and (iii) between two continental plates –
Continent Convergence.

A Wadati–Benioff zone is a deep active seismic area in a subduction zone.

III. Transform Boundaries or Conservative Boundaries – Where the crust is neither

produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Transform
faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid oceanic ridges.

Movement of the Indian Plate

The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of
continent— continent convergence.

In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of Myanmar towards the island
arc along the Java Trench. The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of
Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.

The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic ridge
(divergent boundary) running in roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading
site, a little south of New Zealand. India was a large island situated off the Australian
coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till about
225 million years ago. India is supposed to have started her northward journey about
200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea broke. India collided with Asia about
40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas.

20
 During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that
occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps. This started
somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period of time. Note
that the subcontinent was still close to the equator. From 40 million years ago and
thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas took place. Scientists believe that
the process is still continuing and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.

GEOMORPHIC FORCES

The forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces and the forces
that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces. Endogenic forces sometimes
produce sudden movements and at the other times produce slow movements. Sudden
movements like earthquakes and volcanoes cause mass destruction over the surface of the
earth.

I. Endogenic forces

Two main endogeneic processes are – Volcanism and Diastrophism.

Distrophism – Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth's crust, and more

especially to folding and faulting. It is classified as Epeirogenic and Orogenic based on
direction of movement viz – horizontal/tangential or vertical.

a. Epeirogeny or Epirogenic Forces is a vertical movement. Upwarping and

Downwarping are two epirogenic processes other being Isostacy (during
Isostacy all the landmass etc either lifts together or sinks together and remain in
hydrological equilibrium).
b. Orogeny or Orogenic Forces – Orogeny is a horizontal/tangential earth
movement, on the other hand, Folding, Faulting, and continental drift constitute
orogenic movements.
 Folding – it is the bending of the rock strata due to compression
tangential forces. Strata crumbles into folds with highs/crests/upfolds
called anticline and lows/trough/downfolds called synclines forming as a
result.
 Fault – It is a fracture of large magnitude in crustal surface.
Displacement occurs parallel to the plane of break. A fault is the
ultimate result of vast regional tensions. The fault plane makes an angle
with the horizontal termed as ‘dip’. While angle made with the vertical
is called ‘hade’. Horst or Block Mountain is the uplifted landmass
between two adjacent faults.

21
II. Exogenetic forces

All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation.
The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation. The
effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow and may be
imperceptible in a short time span.

a. Weathering – Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical

decomposition of rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and
climate. Weathering processes are conditioned by many complex geological,
climatic, topographic and vegetative factors. Climate is of particular importance.
Not only weathering processes differ from climate to climate, but also the depth
of the weathering mantle. There are three major groups of weathering
processes: (i) chemical (A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction act on the rocks to decompose,
dissolve or reduce them to a fine elastic state through chemical reactions by
oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.); (ii) physical or mechanical
(Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces.
The applied forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as overburden
pressure, load and shearing stress; (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii) water pressures due to ice
formation flow etc.); (iii) biological weathering (Due to activities of animals,
insects, plants and humans) processes.
Significance of weathering – Weathering processes are responsible for breaking
down the rocks into smaller fragments and preparing the way for formation of

22
 not only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass movements. Biomes and
biodiversity is basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests depend upon
the depth of weathering mantles. Erosion cannot be significant if the rocks are
not weathered.

Weathering vs Erosion – Weathering involves two processes that often work in

concert to decompose rocks. Both processes occur in place. No movement is
involved in weathering. Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in at
least some of the minerals within a rock. Mechanical weathering involves
physically breaking rocks into fragments without changing the chemical make-
up of the minerals within it. It’s important to keep in mind that weathering is a
surface or near-surface process. As soon as a rock particle (loosened by one of
the two weathering processes) moves, we call it erosion or mass wasting. So it
involves moving particles from one place to another. The most important force
of erosion is gravity. The most important agent of erosion is water.

b. Erosion and Deposition – Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock

debris or soil. When massive rocks break into smaller fragments through
weathering and any other process, erosional geomorphic agents like running
water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and transport it to other
places depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.

By erosion, relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn down. That means,
though weathering aids erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to take
place.

Weathering, mass-wasting and erosion are degradational processes. It is erosion

that is largely responsible for continuous changes that the earth’s surface is
undergoing. After weathering processes have had their actions on the earth
materials making up the surface of the earth, the geomorphic agents like
running water, ground water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion.

Work of rivers – A river while flowing may give rise to many types of landforms,
they fall under above categories –

 Erosion Land forms like– Valleys (Gorges, canyon etc)

 Depositional Landforms like – Alluvial deposits, Deltas, Flood plains etc.

Work of sea waves – The erosion and deposition of the sea waves gives rise to
coastal landforms. Sea waves continuously strike at the rocks. Cracks develop.
Over time they become larger and wider. Thus, hollow like caves are formed on
the rocks. They are called Sea Caves. As these cavities become bigger and bigger
only the roof of the caves remain, thus forming Sea Arches. Further, erosion
breaks the roof and only walls are left. These wall like features are called Stacks.

23
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water is called Sea Cliff.
The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forming Beaches.

Work of ice – Glaciers are “rivers” of ice which too erode the landscape by
bulldozing soil and stones to expose the solid rock below. Glaciers carve out
deep hollows. As the ice melts they get filled up with water and become
beautiful lakes in the mountains.

Maximum development of Glaciers occurs in Karakoram Range in Kashmir.

Siachin Glacier has the distinction of being the largest single glacier outside
poles. (Karakoram Highway – a link between China and Pakistan is very close to
this glacier, it increases its strategic value). Himalayan Glaciers are biggest
glaciers outside poles. The material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and
small, sand and silt gets deposited. These deposits form Glacial Moraines. Thus,
a moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris
(soil and rock) which can occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated
regions, such as those areas acted upon by a past glacial maximum. Moraines
may be composed of debris ranging in size from silt-sized glacial flour to large
boulders. Moraines may be on the glacier’s surface or deposited as piles or
sheets of debris where the glacier has melted. They can be of several type –
Lateral Moraines, Medieval moraine, Terminal Moraine. Material deposited at
either side is called lateral moraine. One forming at the melting front of the
glacier is called terminal moraine.

Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. The cirques
quite often are found at the heads of glacial valleys. They are deep, long and
wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls
at its head as well as sides.

Glacial Valleys/Troughs, Depositional Landforms, Horns and Serrated Ridges are

the other examples of the works of ice erosion.

24
 Work of wind – An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is wind.
In deserts you can see rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called
Mushroom Rocks. Winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the
upper part. Therefore, such rocks have narrower base and wider top. When the
wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another. When it stops
blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures. These are
called Sand Dunes. When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can
carry it over very long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is
called Loess. Large deposits of Loess is found in China.

c. Mass Movements – These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down
the slopes under the direct influence of gravity. It can be very slow (Creep is one
type under this category which can occur on moderately steep, soil covered
slopes. Movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except
through extended observation), rapid (These movements are mostly prevalent
in humid climatic regions and occur over gentle to steep slopes. Movement of
water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle terraces or
hillsides is known as 'earthflow'. Another type is 'Mudflow'. A third type is the
debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions with or without
vegetation cover and occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris
avalanche can be much faster than the mudflow. Debris avalanche is similar to
snow avalanche) or sudden (as in case of landslides).

25
EARTHQUAKE

Most of the earthquakes and Tsunamis occur in an area called ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’.

In an Earthquake, the place in the crust where the movement starts is called the Focus. The place
on the surface above the focus is called the Epicentre.

Origin and Cause – All natural earthquakes (there can be other non-natural like due to Reservoirs
for dams, mines collapse etc) take place in the lithosphere(upto 200km and it consists of Crust and
Upper most layer of mantle) and are mainly caused by activities in the

I. Tectonic plates – associated with faulting

II. Volcano eruption.
When plates/structure exert pressure on each other, at one point this becomes critical and plates
move releasing energy which takes shape of an earthquake. This energy release takes the form of
seismic waves.

Shallow Earthquakes – Whose epicenter lies near surface) are more dangerous.

Types of Earthquake Waves – Earthquake waves are basically of two types — Body waves and
Surface waves.

26
 Waves

Body Surface
Waves Waves

Primary Secodary or Long Waves

Rayleigh
waves Sheer Waves (Maximum
Waves
(Fastest) (Only Solids) destruction)

I. Body Waves – These are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in
all directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

P-Waves – They move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called
‘primary waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves and compress the material in the
same direction as they travel. They travel through all media i.e. gaseous, liquid and solid
materials. From studying the speed of these waves it is inferred that earth has an inner
solid core made up of extremely compact material.

S-Waves – They arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary
waves. An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid
materials. So they are also called Sheer waves, as they are able to make changes in the
material due to sheer stress only –which is only possible in solids. This characteristic of the
S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the
interior of the earth. The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave
direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material
through which they pass.

II. Surface Waves – The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of
waves called surface waves. These waves move along the surface. The surface waves are
the last to report on seismograph. These waves are most destructive. They cause
displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs. They are mainly –
Rayleigh Waves and Long Waves (R and L Waves respectively). Long waves are the ones
that cause maximum destruction to the buildings.

The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities.
The denser the material, the higher is the velocity.

Their order of appearance is – PSLR on seismograph

27
Shadow Zone of an Earthquake – Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far
off locations. However, there exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported on
seismograph. Such a zone is called the ‘shadow zone’. This is mainly due to the inability of
earthquake waves to penetrate some areas. For example – S waves cannot travel through molten
core and the study of different events reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether
different shadow zone.

Seismic Gaps – Earthquakes usually occur in a pattern where every major quake is preceded by
minor shocks (which may occur a few seconds or even a few years before) called foreshocks and
followed by another shocks (which may occur a few seconds or even a few years before) called
aftershocks.

Measurement of an Earthquake – Earthquake is measured either on the basis of the destruction

caused or the amount of the energy released.

Mercalli Scale is used for measuring destruction caused.

Richter Scale – Destruction may depend upon various factors – say Delhi vs Sahara desert –
another scale Richter Scale is used. It is a logarithmic scale and two consecutive integer values
represent 10 fold energy release than previous.

Earthquake Liquifaction – It refers to compaction and rolling over of soft alluvial deposits because
of seismic Waves.

Distribution of Earthquake Regions around the World

28
 I. Circum Pacific Belt – It is located along the edges of the Pacific Ocean, most of the
volcanoes in this belt are located on the high young folded mountains such as Rockies, the
Andes etc. Most of the deadly earthquakes also originate in this region. Reason is
subduction and it has maximum earthquake occurrence in the World. All types of quakes
viz – Shallow, Intermediate type and Deep type occur here.

II. Trans Eurasian Mountain – These are caused by Convergence or Collision. This belt has
Shallow and Intermediate type only.
III. Mid Oceanic Ridges – Here only shallow type earthquakes occur.

RIS – Reservoir Induced Seismicity – 1967 Koyana Earthquake in India and 2008 Sichuan
earthquake in China are such examples.

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Intrusive Forms – The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into
igneous rocks. The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava is still
in the crustal portion. Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are
classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust). The lava
that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive
forms. Lacoliths, Phacoliths, Batholiths, Dykes etc are some of the intrusive forms.

29
Which one of the following is a ‘direct source of information about the interior of the earth’?

a) Earthquake waves
b) Gravitational force
c) VOLCANOES
d) Earth magnetism

Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate along the Himalayan
mountains?

a) Ocean-continent convergence
b) Divergent boundary
c) Transform boundary
d) CONTINENT-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE

30
EXTERNAL PHYSIOGRAPHY of EARTH
The oldest landmass, (the Peninsula part), was a part of the Gondwana land. (It is the southern
part of the ancient super continent Pangea). The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great
complex of very ancient gneisses and granites, which constitutes a major part of it. Since the
Cambrian period, the Peninsula has been standing like a rigid block with the exception of some
of its western coast which is submerged beneath the sea and some other parts changed due to
tectonic activity without affecting the original basement. As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate,
it has been subjected to various vertical movements and block faulting. The rift valleys of the
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are some examples of it.

The Gondwana land included India, Australia, South Africa, South America and Antarctica as one
single land mass.

The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of
the Indo-Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwana land, towards north. The
northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with the much larger Eurasian Plate. Due to
this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosyncline known as the
Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya.

Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular
plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin. In due course of time this depression,
gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing from the mountains in the
north and the peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the
formation of the northern plains of India. From the view point of geology, Himalayan mountains
form an unstable zone. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The peninsular
plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

31
32
MOUNTAINS
Strike of a mountain is the compass direction of the line of intersection of an inclined stratum with an
imaginary horizontal plane. E.g. – Strike Valley.

Dip of a mountain refers to the maximum angle of slope of a tilted stratum, measured directly
downward from the horizontal plane.Dip is always perpendicular to Strike.

Mountains are basically of two types –

I. Block Mountains – These are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically. The
uplifted blocks are termed as horstsand the lowered blocks are called graben. The Rhine valley
and the Vosgesmountain in Europe are examples of such mountain systems. Satpura mountain
in India is an example of Block Mountain.
II. Fold Mountains – Fold Mountains are mountains formed mainly by the effects of folding on
layers within the upper part of the Earth's crust. In the time before either plate tectonic theory
developed, or the internal architecture of thrust belts became well understood, the term was
used for most mountain belts, such as the Himalayas, Alps, Andes.

Young Mountains Features –

 Rivers are youthful and the valleys are deep and their flow is fast.
 Landslide and volcanic activities are common
 Mountains are high as their erosion has still not taken much and/or they are still growing like
Himalyas
 Slope is steep

MOUNTAIN SYSTEM of INDIA

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

Himalayas are not only the physical barrier, they are also a climatic, drainage and cultural divide.

33
The mountains are supposed to emerge out of ‘The Tethy’s Sea’. The altitudinal variations are
greater in the eastern half than those in the western half. The Himalaya consists of three parallel
ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie between these ranges.

Himalaya as Young Mountains –

 Presence of Fossils in Shiwalik similar to Tibetan Plateau

 Frequent Occurrence of Earthquakes indicates that they have still to reach isostatic
equilibrium.
 Himalayan Rivers are still in their youthful age with characteristic V gorges, steep water
falls etc

The Himalayas along with some other peninsular mountains are young, weak and flexible in
their geological structure unlike the rigid and stable Peninsular Block. These mountains are
tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful stage. Various
landforms like gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative of this stage.

Broad ranges of Himalayas –

I. Northern Most Range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. It is
the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of
6,000 meters. It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks. Great Himalayas are
asymmetrical in nature. The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and
altered rocks. The core of some part of Himalayas is composed of granite with outer
cover as sedimentary. Its southern slope (towards India) is steep and northern slope
(towards Tibet) is gentle. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 meters and the
average width is of 50 Km and most of the tallest peaks lie here.
II. Mid Himalayas or Lessser Himalyas – Valley of Kashmir lies in these. These are less
hostile and most of the hill resorts like Kullu, Manali, Shimla, Nainital etc are located
here.
III. Shiwalik is the southernmost range and is least in Average height. Also called Outermost
Himalayas. They were almost continuous and blocked the courses of rivers which in past
led to formation of lakes which after drying led to formation of plains called Duns in the
West and called Duars in the east.

34
On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological features, the Himalayas
can be divided into the following sub-divisions:

I. Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas

 Mountain Ranges – It comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram,
Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal.
 Glaciars – Important glaciers of South Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are
also found in this region.
 Karewa Formation – The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Karewa
formations, which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of
saffron. (Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials
embedded with moraines. In Kashmiri language, they refer to lake deposits
found in the flat topped terraces of the Kashmir valley and on the Pir Panjals.
These deposits consist of clays, sands and silts.)
 The Kashmir and northwestern Himalayas are well-known for their scenic
beauty and picturesque landscape.
 Some famous places of pilgrimage such as Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar
-e-Sharif, etc. are also located here.
II. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas – The two distinguishing features of this region
from the point of view of physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
 River Basins – This part lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and the
Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. It is drained by two major river
systems of India, i.e. the Indus and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus include
the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj, and the tributaries of Ganga flowing
through this region include the Yamuna and the Ghaghara.
 Shiwalik – The lowest altitude portion of Himalyas
 Doons –Doons are the plain areas in the river valleys formed due to alluvial
deposits by the rivers. Some important duns located in this region are the
Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota dun,

35
 etc. Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns with an approximate length of 35-45
km and a width of 22-25 km.
 Nomads – In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the
Bhotia’s. These are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer
glasslands in the higher reaches) during summer months and return to the
valleys during winters.
 The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.
III. Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas – They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and
Bhutan Himalayas in the east. It is relatively small but is a most significant part of the
Himalayas. Known for its fast-flowing rivers such as Teesta.

 High Mountain Peaks – It is a region of high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga

(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys.
 Tribes – The higher reaches of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while
the southern part, particularly the Darjiling Himalayas, has a mixed population
of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
 Tea Plantations – The British, taking advantage of the physical conditions such
as moderate slope, thick soil cover with high organic content, well distributed
rainfall throughout the year and mild winters, introduced tea plantations in this
region.
 Duars – Duars are ‘flood plains’ and ‘foot hills’ of eastern Himalayas in North
East India around Bhutan. They are plains in foothills of eastern Himalayas. Duar
in Nepali means Gateway and this region form gateway to Bhutan from India.
The term duar is also interchangeably used with Terai or Doon in India.
IV. Arunachal Himalayas – The general direction of the mountain range is from southwest
to northeast. Some of the important mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu and
NamchaBarwa. These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the north to the
south, forming deep gorges. Bhramaputra flows through a deep gorge after crossing

36
 Namcha Barwa (It is the highest peak of Arunachal and Eastern Himalyas). Some of the
important rivers are the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Dihang, the Dibang and the Lohit.
These are perennial with the high rate of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric
power potential in the country.
 Tribes – An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous ethnic
tribal community inhabiting in these areas. Some of the prominent ones are the
Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of these communities
practice Jhumming. It is also known as shifting or slash and burn cultivation.
 Biodiversity – This region is rich in biodiversity which has been preserved by the
indigenous communities. Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley
transportation linkages are nominal. Hence, most of the interactions are carried
through the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam border.
V. Eastern Hills and Mountains – These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having
their general alignment from the north to the south direction. They are known by
different local names. In the north, they are known as Patkai Bum (famous for being the
boundary between India and Myanmar), Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the south as
Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups practicing
Jhum cultivation. Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous
small rivers. The Barak is an important river in Manipur and Mizoram.

Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the Brahmaputra. The range lies
between Tista river and Brahamputra river. While two rivers of Mizoram and Manipur
are the tributaries of the Barak River, which in turn is the tributary of Meghna; the rivers

37
 in the eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a
tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.

Loktak – The physiography of Manipur is unique by the presence of a large lake known
as ‘Loktak’ lake at the centre, surrounded by mountains from all sides. Mizoram which is
also known as the ‘Molassis basin’which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

Himalaya and Indian Climate

 They prevent Cold wave during winters that otherwise would blow from Tibet plateau
 They play important role in causing monsoon rains in India

38
  Rivers originating in Himalaya has led to huge alluvial deposits which have been cradle
of human civilization in India.

PENINSULAR and OTHER MOUNTAINS and HILLS

The Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the peninsular plateau. These
are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills. They are oldest fold mountains in India.
They extend from Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast direction. They are the one which
block the Bay of Bengal from reaching western region and render it as a rainshadow area. Its
highest peak is Gurushikhar in Mount Abu.

Satpura Range lies between Narmada and Tapti rivers. It is a classic example of the relict
mountains which are highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.

39
PLATEU
Plateu is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding area.
Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral deposits. As a result, many of the mining areas
in the world are located in the plateau areas. African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining. In
India huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found in the Chhotanagpur plateau. The reason
that Deccan Plateau is rich in minerals is that it is formed by the Basaltic rocks (lava eruptions or
extrusive igneous rocks) which are rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica
and iron ore in the Chhota Nagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.

The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that is fertile and good for cultivation. Many plateaus have scenic
spots and are of great attraction to tourists.

Relief of peninsular plateau is highly uneven.

Major Plateu in India are – Peninsular plateau, Chotanagpur plateau and The North-Eastern Plateau or
Meghalaya Plateau.

THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great complex of very ancient gneisses and granites,
which constitutes a major part of it. As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjected
to various vertical movements and block faulting since Cambarian period. The Peninsular
plateau has undergone recurrent phases of upliftment and submergence accompanied by
crustal faulting and fractures. However, it has not been affected much by tectonic forces. (The
Bhima fault needs special mention, because of its recurrent seismic activities). These spatial
variations have brought in elements of diversity in the relief of the Peninsular plateau. The
plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills. The river valleys here are shallow with
low gradients.

Composition – The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous
and metamorphic rocks mostly the Archaen Gneisses and Schists

Formation – It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus,
making it a part of the oldest landmass.

Slope – The general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east, which is also proved by
the pattern of the flow of rivers.

Rift Valleys – The rift valleys (rifts form after faulting of land, this indicates that the peninsular
block had been subjected to various geological movements) of the Narmada, the Tapi and the
Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are some examples of it.

Black Soil – The western and northwestern part of the plateau has an emphatic presence of
black soil.

40
Mountains and Hillocks – The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual mountains like the
Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, the Palkonda range and the
Mahendragiri hills, etc.

Complex Relief – This Peninsular plateau has undergone recurrent phases of upliftment and
submergence accompanied by crustal faulting and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special
mention, because of its recurrent seismic activities). These spatial variations have brought in
elements of diversity in the relief of the Peninsular plateau. The northwestern part of the
plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, Bhind and Morena
are some of the well-known examples.

This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan
Plateau.

I. Central High Land

The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a
major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands.

Metamorphised Area – This region has undergone metamorphic processes in its

geological history, which can be corroborated by the presence of metamorphic rocks
such as marble, slate, gneiss, etc.

Hills and Mountains – The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the
south and the Aravalis on the northwest. The further westward extension gradually
merges with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. An eastern extension of the
Central Highland is formed by the Rajmahal hills, to the south of which lies a large
reserve of mineral resources in the Chotanagpur plateau.

41
 Slope – The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the
Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope.

Rivers – Chambal, Ken, Betwa flow towards North and form Tributaries of Ganga. While
Narmada and Tapti drain towards West in Arabian Sea. Banas is the only significant
tributary of the river Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the west.

The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east.

Boundaries – The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the
Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward
extension, drained by the Damoder river.

Note – Narmada Valley is the dividing line of Central highland and Deccan Plateau

II. The Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada.

Hills and Mountains -The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north while the
Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions. ‘Anaimudi’

42
(2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai hills of the
Western Ghats

Deccan Trap – One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil
area known as Deccan Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks are igneous. It was
formed by the outpouring of basalt lava. Actually these rocks have denuded over time
and are responsible for the formation of black soil. ‘Trap’ in Swedish means – a ‘Step’ or
‘Stair’.

Ghats – The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern
edges of the Deccan Plateau respectively.

a. Western Ghats or Shayadri

The Western (also known as ‘Sahyadri’) Ghats are higher than the Eastern
Ghats.

Names – Western Ghats are locally known by different namessuch as Sahyadri

in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka andTamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and
Cardamom hills in Kerala.

Continous – While the Western Ghats are almost continuous, the Eastern Ghats
are broken and uneven.

Rain – The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist
winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats.

Height – The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to
south. Their average elevation is 900– 1600 metres as against 600 metres of the
Eastern Ghats.

Rivers – Most of the Peninsular Rivers have their origin in the Western Ghats.

b. Eastern Ghats

Irregular and Discontinous – The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi
Valley to the Nigiris in the south. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and
irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.

Low in Height – Compared to Western Ghats they are low

Eroded by Rivers – Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous and low hills are
highly eroded by the rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Kaveri, etc.

The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.

43
CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU

THE NORTH-EASTERN PLATEAU or MEGHALAYA PLATEAU

In fact it is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau. It is believed that due to the force
exerted by the northeastward movement of the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan origin,
a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau. Later, this
depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya
plateau stand detached from the main Peninsular Block.

The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three – The Garo Hills; The Khasi Hills; The
Jaintia Hills, named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region.

Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like
coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. This area receives maximum rainfall from the
south west monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface.
Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.

44
PLAINS
They are, generally, not more than 200 metres above mean sea level. Some plains are extremely level.
Others may be slightly rolling and undulating. Most of the plains are formed by rivers and their
tributaries. The rivers flow down the slopes of mountains and erode them. They carry forward the
eroded material. Then they deposit their load consisting of stones, sand and silt along their courses and
in their valleys. It is from these deposits that plains are formed.

Generally, plains are very fertile. Construction of transport network is easy. Thus, these plains are very
thickly-populated regions of the world. Some of the largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia
and North America. For example, in Asia, these plains are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in
India and the Yangtze in China.

PLAINS in INDIA

I. Doabs – The Indus and its tributaries–the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
originate in the Himalaya. This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs. (Do - Means two,
and Ab - means water)
II. Northern Plains – The Ganga Plain – The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They
provide the base for early civilisations. The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played
a crucial role in the industrialisation of the country. It extends between Ghaggar and Teesta
rivers. It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand
and West Bengal to its East, particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain. The northern
plains are generally described as flat land with no variations in its relief. It is not true. These vast
plains also have diverse relief features.

The states of Haryana and Delhi form a water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river
systems.

Regions of Northern Plains – From the north to the south, these can be divided into three major
zones – the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be further divided
into the Khadar and the Bhangar. So, there are four regions –

a. Bhabhar – It is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills
at the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, the streams and rivers coming from the
mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks and boulders, and at times, disappear in this
zone. It forms the Northern boundry of alluvial plains. As the region is made of assorted
sediments like pebbles which have high porosity and hence river streams sink in this
region. That’s why, except for rainy season, this area is dry. The area is not suitable for
agriculture and only big deep rooted trees thrive here.
b. Tarai – South of bhabhar belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet,
swampy and marshy region known as terai. This was a thickly forested region full of
wildlife. The region is wetter towards east for higher rainfall in the region. The forests
have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after

45
 partition. This has a luxurious growth of natural vegetation and houses a varied wild life
and hence most important from ecological perspective. However, Terai soil unlike
Alluvial soil is rich in Nitrogen, but is poor in Phosphate.
c. Alluvial Plains – They are further divided into new or younger alluvial plains and older
alluvial plains. Alluvial soil however lacks the process of Humification and as a result lack
Nitrogen. Therefore there is considerable use of Nitrogenous fertilizers in the northern
plains.
 Bhangar – The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium.
They lie above the flood
plains of the rivers and
present a terrace like
feature. This part is known
as bhangar. The soil in this
region contains calcareous
(CaCO3 rich) deposits locally known as kankar.
 Khadar – The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called khadar.
They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive
agriculture. Khader are formed in flood plains, in Punjab these are called Bets.
While khaddar carries fossil remains of the species which still roam around,
bhangar carry remains of older species also which no longer exist today. The
khader plains are flooded every year and have less kanker.

Apart from the above, there are also other types of plains –

 Reh or Kallar – These are barren, drier and saline parts in UP and Haryana. These have
increased due to increased irrigation.
 Bhur – Elevated piece of land situated along bank of Ganga in upper Ganga-Yamuna
doab formed by the sand accumulated by winds in hot dry season.
III. Northern Plains – Brahmputra plains – The Brahmaputra plains are known for their riverine
islands and sand bars. Most of these areas are subjected to periodic floods and shifting river
courses forming braided streams. The mouths of these mighty rivers also form some of the
largest deltas of the world, for example, the famous Sunderbans delta. Otherwise, this is a
featureless plain with a general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean sea level.
IV. Cosatal Plains – The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running
along the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
a. Western Coastal Planes – The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats
and the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain. It has following features –
 Coastal Division – The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai
– Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannad Plain, while the southern stretch
is referred to as the Malabar Coast.
 The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in the form of ‘Kayals’
or backwaters (backwater is a stretch of water that has become bypassed by the

46
 main flow of a stream, although still joined to it. It has a very low rate of flow),
which are used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its special
attraction for tourists.
 Submerged and Narrow Planes – The western coastal plains are an example of
submerged coastal plain. It is believed that the city of Dwaraka which was once
a part of the Indian mainland situated along the west coast is submerged under
water. There are other proofs like presence of submerged forests etc. Because
of this ‘submergence’ it is a narrow belt.
 The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards
north and south.
 Natural Harbours – Because of the submerged side the continental shelf is also
narrower, the narrow strip of plane and shelfprovides natural conditions for the
development of ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port NavhaSheva,
Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important natural ports
located along the west coast.
b. Eastern Coastal Planes – While Western Plains are formed due to submergence, they
are mainly formed by alluvial deposits.
 Coastal Division – The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level. In the
northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar. While the southern part is
known as the Coromandel Coast.
 Emergent Coast – As compared to the western coastal plain, the eastern coastal
plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast. Because of its
emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The continental
shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the
development of good ports and harbours.
 Deltas – There are well developed deltas here as coastal planes are wider with
low gradient, formed by the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal.
These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri.

Significance of Coastal Palins –

 Many crops like Rice and Coconut are grown here

 More than 98% of the sea trade is done through ports on these plains
 Sedimentary rocks in these plains carry mineral oils
 Kerala coast also carries Monazite deposits – Thorium ore

47
ROCKS, MINERALS and MINING
ROCKS

Rocks are made up of minerals. Minerals are chemical substances found in nature may be either
as elements and compounds. There are three major types of rocks: igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic rocks.

I. Igneous Rocks – When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed
are called igneous rocks. They are also called primary rocks as other rocks are said to be
derived of them. These are usually massive, having layers, hard, compact, free of fossils.
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. Texture depends upon size and
arrangement of grains or other physical conditions of the materials. If molten material is
cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large. Sudden cooling (at the
surface) results in small and smooth grains. There are two types of igneous rocks:
intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
 Extrusive Rocks – Lava (When Magma comes on surface) is one such rock and it
is actually fiery red molten Magma (lava which is inside surface) coming out
from the interior of the earth on its surface. When this molten lava comes on
the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in
such a way on the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks. Igneous rock occurs
in form of various bodies such as Batholiths (which are large masses of solid rock
bodies inside earth), Lacoliths, Dykes etc. They have a very fine grained structure
and hence a shiny surface. For example, Basalt. The Deccan plateau is made up
of basalt rocks. Upon erosion, the basaltic rocks have been converted into black
soil called – Regur.
 Intrusive Rocks – Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the
earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous rocks. Since they
cool down slowly they form large grains. Granite is an example of such a rock.
Grinding stones used to prepare paste/powder of spices and grains are made of
granite. Tors and Domes are characteristics of Granite landscape. It is the most
abundant of earth’s crust. Number of economic minerals extracted from it are
also more than sedimentary rock. Platinum, diamond, gold, copper, zinc, silver,
manganese, lead etc are found in such rocks.

Other igneous rocks are – quartz and feldspar

II. Sedimentary Rocks – Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken down
into small fragments. These smaller particles are called sediments. These sediments are
transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. Water is the most predominant carrier
and hence most of the sedimentary rocks are formed under water. These loose
sediments are compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of rocks
are called sedimentary rocks. For example, sandstone is made from grains of sand.

48
 Sedimentary rocks contain fossils also. Hence, sedimentary rocks can also be made up of
organic matter. Coal and limestone (made up of shells of sea organisms) are such
examples. Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic plain is of sedimentary nature. They
form almost 75% of the covered area of crust yet make up only 5% of total rocks. They
typically occur in layers. Carbonaceous rocks which produce ‘coal’ and ‘oil’ belong to
category of rocks called sedimentary.
III. Metamorphic Rocks – Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic
rocks under great heat and pressure. For example, clay changes into slate and limestone
into marble. Granite is converted into Gneiss; Shale into Schist; Sandstone into
Quartzite; Coal turns into Anthracite. Actually all rocks form a cycle called Rock Cycle,
Molten magma into Igneous rocks, Igneous into Sedimentary, Igneous and Sedimentary
into Metamorphic and metamorphic again under heat turns into molten Magma and the
cycle repeats.

CAVE STRUCTURES

Stalactite – A stalactite is a type of secondary mineral that hangs from the ceiling of limestone
caves. It is a type of dripstone. Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters.

Stalagmite – Stalagmites on
the other hand rise up from
the floor of the caves. In fact,
stalagmites form due to
dripping water from the
surface or through the thin
pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it. Both of
them form due to the dripping
of mineralized solutions and
the deposition of calcium
carbonate.

Column – If these formations

grow together, the result is known as a column.

ROCKS in INDIA

India has a diverse geology. Different regions in India contain rocks of all types belonging to
different geologic periods. Some of the rocks are badly deformed and transmuted while others
are recently deposited alluvium.

Deccan Trap – Firstly, the Deccan Trap covers almost all of Maharashtra, a part of Gujarat,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh marginally. It is believed that the Deccan Trap
was formed as result of sub-aerial volcanic activity associated with the continental deviation in

49
 this part of the Earth during the Mesozoic era. That is why the rocks found in this region are
generally igneous type.

The Precambrian rocks of India have been classified into two systems, namely the Dharwar
system and the Archaean system.

 The rocks of the Dharwar system are mainly sedimentary in origin, and occur in narrow
elongated synclines resting on the gneisses found in Bellary district, Mysore and the
Aravalis of Rajputana.
 A considerable area of peninsular India, the Indian Shield, consists of Archean gneisses
and schists which are the oldest rocks found in India.

MINERALS

Rocks are made up of different minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring homogeneous
substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition. Minerals
usually occur in a form called – ore. Minerals are metallic or non-metallic. Metallic are further
classified as ferrous or non-ferrous. Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as
fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which are derived from the buried animal and plant life
such as coal and petroleum. Other type of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin such as
mica, limestone and graphite, etc.

50
 Formation of Minerals – In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks,
crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes.
Diamond occurs in such veins and lodes.

Vein – It is a distinct sheet like body of crystallized minerals within a rock. Veins form when
mineral constituents carried by an aqueous solution within the rock mass are deposited through
precipitation. The hydraulic flow involved is usually due to hydrothermal circulation.

In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms are forced
upward through cavities towards the earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. Major
metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.

Placer Deposits – Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and
the base of hills. These deposits are called ‘Placer Deposits’ and generally contain minerals,
which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such
minerals.

Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of
soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is
formed this way.

MINERALS AROUND THE WORLD

I. Asia

China and India have large iron ore deposits. The continent produces more than half of the
world’s tin. China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin producers.

China also leads in production of lead, antimony and tungsten.

II. Europe

51
 Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world. The countries with large deposits of iron
ore are Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France.

Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel are found in Eastern Europe and
European Russia.

Germany produces Lignite

III. North America

The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones:

 the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes,

 the Appalachian region and
 the mountain ranges of the west.

Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are mined in the Canadian Shield Region, coal in the
Appalachians region. Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and
silver.

Canada produces Asbestos

US produces Coal and Copper

IV. South America

Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world.

Chile and Peru are leading producers of copper.

Brazil and Bolivia are among the world’s largest producers of tin.

South America also has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica,
platinum, asbestos and diamond.

Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia.

V. Africa

Africa is rich in mineral resources. It is the world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and
platinum. South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce a large portion of the world’s gold. The
other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite. Oil
is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

VI. Australia

Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. It is a leading producer of gold,
diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel. It is also rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese. Kalgoorlie
and Coolgardie areas of Western Australia have the largest deposits of gold.

52
MINERALS in INDIA

Extraction of Minerals in India is guided by New Mineral Policy of 1994 which has following
broad objectives –

I. To explore minerals on and offshore

II. To exploit them with the national and strategic interest in mind
III. To also keep in mind the environmental impact of such exploration and extractions
IV. To promote foreign trade in minerals
V. To promote research in minerals

Our country is well-placed in respect of ferrous minerals both in reserves and production.
However, India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals, like copper, except
bauxite.

Mineral Belts in India

Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old
crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar,
Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari.

Areas of high rainfall lack in soluble minerals like Limestone, Gypsum and Salt.

Northern Plains are poor in minerals because thick layers of alluvium are deposited on
the original surface.

Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India.

I. The North-Eastern Plateau Region – This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand),

Orissa Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh. It has variety of minerals
viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
Chota Nagpur Plateau is called ‘the Mineral heart’ of India.
II. The South-Western Plateau Region – This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and
contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and
bauxite. It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone. This belt
packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite. This belt does not have as
diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt. Kerala has deposits of
monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
III. The North-Western Region – This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and
part of Gujarat and minerals are associated with Dharwar system of rocks.
Copper, zinc have been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e.
sandstone, granite, marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also
extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry.
Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.

53
Major Mineral and their locations in India

I. Iron – India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very
high content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities, especially
valuable in the electrical industry. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore
in terms of the quantity used, but has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-
60 per cent).The mineral is found mainly in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka. The major iron ore belts in India are –
a. Orissa-Jharkhand Belt

In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the

Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of
Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi.

54
 b. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt

It lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high grade hematites are found in
the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chattisgarh. The range
of hills comprise of 14 deposits of super high grade hematite iron ore. It has the
best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from these mines is
exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port.

c. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur Belt

It is in Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudermukh mines located in
the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh
deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world. The ore is transported
as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.

II. Manganese – Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-
manganese alloy. Its sources lie near Iron ore mines in India. Nearly 10 kg of manganese
is required to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also used in manufacturing bleaching
powder, insecticides and paints.India’s manganese deposits lie in Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
III. Bauxite – Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like
substance that alumina and later aluminium is obtained. Bauxite deposits are formed by
the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Orissa is the
largest bauxite producing state in India with 45 per cent of the country’s total
production in 2000-01. Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important
bauxite deposits in the state.

Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

IV. Mica – Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin
sheets. These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be layered into a mica sheet of
a few centimeters high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown. Due to its
excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance
to high voltage, mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and
electronic industries. Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur
plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer. In
Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of Andhra
Pradesh is also an important producer in the country.

Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, AndhraPradesh and Rajasthan. India is
the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world.

V. Copper – It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and

Andhra Pradesh. India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper. The

55
 Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper. The Singbhum
district of Jharkhand is also a leading producer of copper. The Khetri mines in Rajasthan
are also famous.
VI. Limestone – Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
VII. Gold – Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the
deepest in the world which makes mining of this ore a very expensive process.
VIII. Salt – It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading
producers and exporters of salt.
IX. Natural gas – Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude
oil is brought to the surface. It can be used as a domestic and industrial fuel. Russia,
Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. In India
Jaisalmer, KrishnaGodavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have
natural gas resources.
X. Coal – Coal is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression.
a. Peat – Decaying plants in swamps produce peat which has a low carbon and
high moisture contents and low heating capacity.
b. Lignite - Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture
content. The principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used
for generation of electricity.
c. Bituminous -Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased
temperatures is bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal in commercial use.
Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminouscoalwhich has a special value for
smelting iron in blast furnaces.
d. Anthracite - Anthraciteis the highest quality hard coal.

In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little
over 200 million years in age and in tertiary deposits which are only about 55 million
years old, Gondwana rocks have 90% of Indian coal reserves. The major resources of
Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal, are located in Damodar valley (West
Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields. The Godavari,
Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits. Tertiary coals occur in the
north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Problems in coal mining –

a. There is no competition – Coal India is sole monopoly and investments are not
in accordance with the changing circumstances. As a result, power plants in
India are facing shortage.
b. Deep Mines – around 2/3rd of the deposits are deep seated which make them
uneconomical to extract despite investment
c. High Ash Content – Indian coal is of poor quality and this is the reason that
sometimes despite availability, coal is imported from countries like Indonesia

56
MINING

It can be of 3 types –

I. Open Cast Mining – Cheapest and easiest way in which overburden is removed to
extract the minerals or to get the raw materials. Limestone is often quarried in such a
manner
II. Underground Mining – When ore lies deep inside.
III. Alluvial Mining – When minerals occur in alluvial deposits they are usually recovered by
Placer Mining Method. This is done by mixing the alluvium with a great deal of water
and tilting or rotating the gravels until the lighter particles are washed off and leaving
behind the heavier ores – e.g. gold, tin chromium, platinum etc. It is easy mining as
compared with others.

Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks, leaving a residual mass of
weathered material?

(a) coal (b)‘BAUXITE’(c) gold (d) zinc

Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?

(a) oil (b) uranium (c) ‘THORIUM’ (d) coal

57
RIVER, OCEANS, LAKES, STRAITS, ESTURY, DELTA
The running water in the river erodes the landscape. When the river tumbles at steep angle over very
hard rocks or down a steep valley side it forms a waterfall.

RIVERS and FEATURES

I. Meander – As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming large bends known as
meanders. Meanders are formed when a river flows over a low gradient. It is common to find
meandering courses over floodplains and delta plains where stream gradients are very gentle.
As in case of Ganga river when it flows over low gradient Northern Planes. Process of meander
formation –
 Propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work laterally on the banks;
 Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with many irregularities
which can be used by water exerting pressure laterally;
 Coriolis Force acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. When the
gradient of the channel becomes extremely low, water flows leisurely and starts
working laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get transformed into a
small curvature in the banks; the curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of
the curve and erosion along the bank on the outside. If there is no deposition and no
erosion or undercutting, the tendency to meander is reduced. Normally, in meanders of
large rivers, there is active deposition along the convex bank and undercutting along the
concave bank.
II. Incised or Entrenched Meanders

In streams that flow rapidly over steep gradients, normally erosion is concentrated on the
bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion on the
sides of the valleys is not much when compared to the streams flowing on low and gentle
slopes. Because of active lateral erosion, streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop sinuous or
meandering courses. But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard rocks.
Such meanders are called Incised or Entrenched Meanders.

III. Ox-Bow Lake – Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of a meandering river,
the ends of the meander loop come closer and closer. In due course of time the meander loop
cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake, also called an ox-bow lake.

IV. Floodplain – ‘Deposition’ develops a floodplain just as ‘erosion’ makes valleys. Floodplain is a
major landform of river deposition. Large sized materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus, normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and clay are
carried by relatively slow moving waters in gentler channels usually found in the plains and
deposited over the bed and when the waters spill over the banks during flooding above the bed.
A river bed made of river deposits is the active floodplain.The floodplain above the bank is
inactive floodplain.

58
 V. Levee – The raised banks are called levees. Sometimes artificial levees are created or earth and
sandbags to contain a river during flooding. Natural levees are found along the banks of large
rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of rivers, quite
often cut into individual mounds. During flooding as the water spills over the bank, the velocity
of the water comes down and large sized and high specific gravity materials get dumped in the
immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They are high nearer the banks and slope gently away
from the river. The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood waters away
from the river. When rivers shift laterally, a series of natural levees can form.

VI. Point Bars – Point Bars also called meander bars are found on the convex side of meanders of
large rivers and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank.

VII. Drainage Basin – The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin. A River
basin is the portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It encompasses the entire land
surface dissected and drained by many streams and creeks that flow downhill into one another,
and eventually into one river. The final destination is an estuary or an ocean. As a bathtub
catches all the water that falls within its sides, a river basin sends all the water falling on the
surrounding land into a central river and out to the sea. Everyone lives in a river basin. Even if
we don't live near the water, we live on land that drains to a river or estuary or lake, and our
actions on that land affect water quality and quantity far downstream.

VIII. Catchment Area – As compared to river

basin, catchment areas on the other hand
is the area on which rain falls and is caught
to serve a river basin.

IX. Water Divide – Any elevated area, such as

a mountain or an upland, separates two

59
 drainage basins. Such an upland is known as a water divide.

X. Rift Valley – A rift valley is linear-shaped lowland between highlands or mountain ranges
created by the action of a geologic rift or fault. They form where Earth’s crust is being pulled
apart. Only Narmada and Tapti among the peninsular rivers form Rift Valleys.

XI. Braided Channel – When rivers carry coarse material, there can be selective deposition of
coarser materials causing formation of a central bar which diverts the flow towards the banks;
and this flow increases lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley widens, the water column is
reduced and more and more materials get deposited as islands and lateral bars developing a
number of separate channels of water flow. Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are
essential for the formation of braided pattern. Brahmputra is a river which forms braided
channel. Other rivers that form braided channel are Gandak and Son. Conditions which promote
braided channel formation are –
 An abundant supply of sediment
 High stream gradient
 Rapid and frequent variations in water discharge
 Erodible banks
 A steep channel gradient

XII. Bluff – It is river cut cliff or steep slope on the sides of a meander. This results from lateral
erosion. A line of bluffs often marks the edge of a former flood plain.
XIII. River Terraces – River Terraces were
created by the building up of river
gravel beds. River terraces are
surfaces marking old valley floor or
floodplain levels. They may be
bedrock surfaces without any alluvial
cover or alluvial terraces consisting
of stream deposits. River terraces are
basically products of erosion as they
result due to vertical erosion by the
stream into its own depositional
floodplain.

XIV. Silt is .02-.002mm while clay is even finer.

PATTERNS OF DRAINAGE

These are dendritic, trellis, rectangular, and radial patterns.

I. Dendritic – The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of
the terrain. The stream with its tributaries resembles the branches of a tree, thus the

60
 name dendritic. It mainly forms where underlying rocks are of a uniform type and
structures are simple.
II. Trellis – A river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis
pattern. A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to
each other. ‘Narmada’ and its tributaries form such pattern.
III. Rectangular – A rectangular drainage pattern develops on a strongly jointed rocky
terrain.
IV. Parallel Drainage System – A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by
steep slopes with some relief. Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and
straight, with very few tributaries, and all flow in the same direction.
V. Radial – The radial pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a
central peak or dome like structure. Rivers in Chota Nagpur Plateau follow this pattern
because plateau is in fact made of a series of step like plateaus in all directions which
are marked by waterfalls. It happens where there is a dome like structure.

OCEANS

Oceans are the major part of hydrosphere. They are all interconnected. The ocean waters are
always moving. The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the tides and the
ocean currents.

Bigger the oceans, lesser the annual range of temperatures.

More than 85% of fresh water is in ice caps, more than 10% is ground water and the rest is in
lakes, rivers (rivers carry smallest portion of fresh water) etc.

61
 West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator)
are bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are relatively low with a narrow
diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.

West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters
which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterized by cool summers and relatively
mild winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures.

Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical
latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the
subtropical anti-cyclones. The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen
and favor the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds
of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.

Slack Water – It is the water just before the rise and fall of sea water for the tidal phenomenon,
the water becomes stationary and this water is referred to as slack waters.

Tsunami – Tsunami is a Japanese word that means Harbor waves as the harbors get destroyed
whenever there is tsunami.

Ocean Waves – These are formed when gentle winds scrape across the ocean surface. The
stronger the wind blows, the bigger the wave becomes. Waves are actually the energy, not the
water as such, which moves across the ocean surface. Water particles only travel in a small circle
as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean
and the energy is released on shorelines.

Spits – Spits are long narrow ridges of sand which project from the coastline into the sea.

Bars – These form in the same way as a spit initially but bars are created where a spit grows
across a bay, joining two headlands. Behind the bar, a lagoon is created.

Tombolos – Tombolos are formed where a spit continues to grow outwards joining land to an
offshore island.

Major Oceans

62
 I. The Pacific Ocean is circular in shape.

II. The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest Ocean in the world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the
North and South Americas on the western side, and Europe and Africa on the eastern side. The
coastline of Atlantic Ocean is highly indented. This irregular and indented coastline provides ideal
location for natural harbors and ports. From the point of view of commerce, it is the busiest
Ocean. Commercially it is most important ocean due to large shipping traffic. Its coastline is
more than pacific and Indian ocean combined.

III. The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a country, that is, India. The shape of ocean is
almost triangular. In the north, it is bound by Asia, in the west by Africa and in the east by
Australia.

IV. The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle and surrounds the North Pole. It is connected
with the Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water known as Berring Strait.

Ocean topography

I. Continental Margins – These form the transition between continental shores and deep-sea
basins. They include continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise and deep-oceanic
trenches.
a. Continental shelves are the richest fishing grounds. They are mostly made of
sedimentary rocks. Petroleum products are also found in this. The continental shelf is
the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs. It
is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1° or even less. The
shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break. The width of the
continental shelves varies from one ocean to another. The continental shelves are
covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers, wind,
from the land and distributed by waves and currents. Massive sedimentary deposits
received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the source of fossil fuels.
b. The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It begins
where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope. The
gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°. The depth of the slope region varies
between 200 and 3,000 m. The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
c. Deep Sea Oceanic Trenches
II. Abyssal Plains – These are extensive plains that lie between the continental margins and mid-
oceanic ridges. The abyssal plains are the areas where the continental sediments that move
beyond the margins get deposited.
III. Mid-Oceanic Ridges – These form when two plates move away from each other and new
oceanic crust appears forming mid oceanic ridges with volcanoes. This forms an interconnected
chain of mountain system within the ocean.

63
Temperature Distribution In Oceans

The factors which affect the distribution of temperature of ocean water are –

I. Latitude: the temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the
poles because the amount of insolation decreases poleward.
II. Unequal distribution of land and water: the oceans in the northern hemisphere receive
more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the
southern hemisphere.
III. Prevailing wind: the winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm
surface water away form the coast resulting in the UPWELLING of cold water from
below. It results into the longitudinal variation in the temperature. Contrary to this, the
onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the temperature.
IV. Ocean currents: warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold
currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm current)
raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of
Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-
east coast of North America. All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean
currents locally. The enclosed seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher
temperature than the open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in the high latitudes have
lower temperature than the open seas.

64
 The Temperature-Depth Profile – The Temperature-Depth Profile for the ocean water shows
how the temperature decreases with the increasing depth. The profile shows a boundary region
between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers. The boundary usually begins
around 100 - 400 m below the sea surface
and extends several hundred of meters
downward. There are three layers of the
water in oceans.

 First layer is top layer and is thinnest

of around 500m thickness and
temperature varies from 20-25
degree Celsius.
 Second Layer is of around 1000m
and temperature is from 4-20
degree celcius.
 Third Layer carries 90% of water and
is coldest and deepest.

Thermocline – The boundary region, from

where there is a rapid decrease of
temperature, is called the thermocline.
About 90 per cent of the total volume of
water is found below the thermocline in the
deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures
approach 0° C.

The Oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher temperature than in the
southern hemisphere. The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly
towards north of it. (This is mainly because of presence of landmass and the phenomenon of hot
winds that are carried from landmasses)

Salinity of Oceans

27 part per thousand is the limit that is considered for brackishness. Oceans have on an average
35 parts per thousand.

Factors affecting ocean salinity are mentioned below:

 The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and
precipitation.
 Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from
rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
 Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.

65
  The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations. Salinity, temperature and
density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density
influences the salinity of water in an area. Salinity is lower on equatorial region because
this is the region of high precipitation. It is also lower near poles as glacier ice melts and
fresh water is added in this zone.

Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers. While it
is high in Red Sea due to high rates of evaporation. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay
of Bengal due to influx of river water. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due
to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water. It is low near equator due to high
precipitation (Just below surface near equator, salinity increases which again decreases with
depth as temperature decreases).

Change in salinity with depth – Surface salinity depends much on whether the surface is prone
to excess vaporisation or to excess river water discharge, but Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in
the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans. The lower salinity
water rests above the higher salinity dense water.

Halocline – Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the
halocline, where salinity increases sharply. Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of
seawater causes its density to increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
salinity water. This leads to stratification by salinity.

Salinity Difference and Currents – Water moves from areas of lower salinity to that of higher
salinity.

Along Coasts, salinity is lower, further coasts where rivers drain, Salinity is lowered. As
compared to Arabian Sea, salinity of Bay of Bengal is lower.

Bromide and Magnesium are two dissolved minerals that are recovered economically.

Movement of Ocean Waters

Ocean movements are mainly in form of – Waves, currents and tides.

Ocean Currents

‘Wind’ is one of the important factors that causes the flow of currents. Wind along with it drags
the ocean water also. They help in maintaining the heat balance.

Classification of ocean currents – Ocean currents are either classified as warm or cold or
depending upon their flow and strength. They can also be classified depending upon their
speed. They can be slow as well as fast.

 Streams have generally higher speed, well defined direction, easily identifiable
boundaries and flow like a river,

66
  Drift on the other hand have very low speeds and haphazard shapes

Warm Ocean Currents – Generally, the Warm Ocean Currents originate near the equator and
move towards the poles. Gulf stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico and its importance lies in
its warming effect. Warm currents help in increasing the rate of precipitation and hence bring
more rain to the coasts that they meet upon. This ensures that the prevailing winds are warmed
up and hence produce a mild climate and harbors in the Norway and Iceland are ice free.
Globally, major Warm Currents are –

 Atlantic Ocean – Gulf Stream, North equatorial Current, South Equatorial, Brazil Current;
 Pacific Ocean – Kuroshio, North Equatorial, South Equatorial;
 Indian Ocean – North equitorial, South West Monsoon. Irminger/Norweignean Current,
Agullus or Mozambique Current, Caribbean Current.

Cold Ocean Current – The cold currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or
lower latitudes. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm
current. They cool down the onshore wind and this lowers down the temperature of the
onshore winds and hence create the ice on the harbors. This also helps in maintain the aridity of
coastal desert areas. Cooling also cause fog on the coasts. Cold Currents are mainly –

 Atlantic Ocean – Labrador, Canary current, Benguella Current;

 Pacific Ocean– Peru Current, California Current and Alaska Current. (can be
remembered from PECOL) – Peru (Humboldt Current), Canaries Current, Oya Shio,
Labrador Current.

67
Meeting of Warm and Cold Currents – The ocean current influence the temperature conditions
of the area. Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface. The areas where
the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the world. Seas around
Japan and the eastern coast of North America are such examples. At East Central Coast of
America – where Labrador and Gulf Stream meet, N-W Pacific near Honshu Island. Southern
Africa. The countries lining the abundant waters of Southern Africa is Mozambique, South
Africa, Namibia and Angola. The eastern coastline being fed by the warm Mozambique current.
The western coastline by the cold Benguela current. The clash of warm and cold water triggering
an explosion of plankton as the mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen
and favor the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population. The areas where a
warm and cold current meet also experience foggy weather making it difficult for navigation.

Earth rotation and currents – Due to West-East rotation, currents tend to move from East to
West. Earth’s rotation also leads to apparent deflection, due to this currents have a ‘clockwise
motion’ in the northern hemisphere and an ‘anticlockwise’ in the ‘southern hemisphere’. As
water tends to pile up on the Western section of the basins and as a result there are counter

68
 currents also. (Motion of Cyclones is opposite to that of currents, Cyclones in Northern
hemisphere have an anticlockwise motion)

Atmosphere and Currents – Planetary winds also play an important role and due to their
frictional drag, they tend to move the currents along with them. In fact most of the currents
follow the path of planetary winds. With seasonal reversal of the planetary winds, direction of
currents also changes.

West Wind Drift – This current is there in the southern hemisphere near pole. A similar current
is not possible in the northern hemisphere due to presence of landmass. This is one of the
greatest currents and is the only current that flows un-impeded from West to East. WWD is a
response to the prevailing Westerlies.

TIDES

The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon, sun and the centrifugal force.

The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-
oceanic islands they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also
magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the
tide is channeled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents.

Types of tides – When water flows in towards land it is at flood tide. The water recedes during
the Ebb Tide. The water when reaches at its highest level is called High Tide. Spring tides are
also termed as high tides.

Equinoctial Spring Tides – The highest spring tides occur at the two equinoxes – spring of
autumn.

High tides help in navigation. They raise the water level close to the shores. This helps the ships
to arrive at the harbor more easily. The high tides also help in fishing. Many more fish come
closer to the shore during the high tide. This enables fishermen to get a plentiful catch.

Tides based on frequency –

 Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low
tides each day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
 Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The
successive high and low tides are approximately of the same height.
 Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides
generally occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the
Pacific Ocean.

Factors affecting tidal range –

69
  Distance of Moon from earth in its orbit – Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is
closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides occur. During this time the
tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from
earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited and the tidal ranges are less
than their average heights.
 Distance of Earth from Sun – When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around
3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and
unusually low tides. When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July
each year, tidal ranges are much less than average.

LAKES

Types –

I. Oligotrophic – Poorly nourished in terms of nutrients, it is generally newer of deep

lakes, have crystal clear blue or green water.
II. Eutrophic – Well nourished lake, sediments pass into oligotrophic lake and plant grow
and decomposes to form bottom sediments.

LAGOON

A lagoon is a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form
of barrier (which may also be called as a ‘bar’ if it is made of sand of the beach, or separated by
corals etc). i.e. A lagoon is a body of salt water separated from the deeper sea by a shallow or

70
 exposed barrier beach, sandbank, coral reef, or similar feature. Spits and bars form lagoons in
the coastal areas.

Lagoons either have a narrow entry or are landlocked. e.g. the Chilika lake, the Pulicat lake, the
Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for example, the
Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which is a salt water lake. Its water is used for producing salt.

Salinity may vary from brackish water to hyper-salinity depending on rainfall, evaporation and
through the addition of fresh seawater from storms, temporary flooding by the sea in winter or
tidal exchange.

When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get churned
and move readily building bars, barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons would eventually turn
into a swamp which would subsequently turn into a coastal plain.

Lagoon vs Estuary

 It is different from an estuary in the sense that estuaries are formed by erosional and
depositional activities of a river while lagoon is formed by the activities of the sand
deposition in forms of bards and spits.
 Further, a lagoon can be a closed or open, while estuary is always open from seaside.

Most of the fresh water lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin.
In other words, they formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled
with snowmelt.

STRAIT

A strait or straits is a narrow, typically navigable channel of water that connects two larger,
navigable bodies of water. It most commonly refers to a channel of water that lies between two
land masses.

71
 Straits are the converse of Isthmi/Isthamus. That is, while straits lie between two land masses
and connect two larger bodies of water, isthmi lie between two bodies of water and connect
two larger land masses.

Examples are – Strait of Hormuz connecting the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, through
which Persian Gulf petroleum is shipped to the world.

DELTA

Condition for Delta Formation – Whenever flow is checked or speed is slow or gradient is low,
delta is formed. On the other hand the Western Ghat rivers have much higher speed and narrow
coastal plain has a submerged topography. So, they have very small delta. On the other hand
Bay of Bengal falling rivers cover a considerable long distance and have much lesser speed hence
forming delta. Further, the river must carry a lot of silt which when get deposited on shores
obstruct the flow and creates branches. The adjoining sea should be shallow, otherwise the silt-
load will disappear into sea.

ESTUARY

It is a tidal mouth of river where the salt water of tide meets the fresh water of the river.
Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are
subject to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and
riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflow of both seawater and
freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both the water column and sediment, making
estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.

Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation.
Many species of fish and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts
in salt concentrations and are termed osmo-conformers and osmo-regulators. Large numbers of
bacteria are found within the sediment which have a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the
levels of oxygen within the sediment.

Delta vs Estuary

 Estuary usually have a single opening at the point where it meets sea, while delta have
many rivulets merging into sea.
 Estuary is tidal in nature and has comparatively lesser sediments near sea, while delta
has alluvial deposits.
 Estuaries usually carry rich sediments carried down by the rivers.
 As gradient of sea near an estuary is high, while it is low in case of delta. Estuaries are
sheltered from the most dramatic ocean actions but do experience the tidal
phenomenon.
 Estuary is a zone of mixing of fresh & saline water, but delta is made of fresh water's silt
near a sea

72
Human activities also have a grave effect on water bodies. Lakes are affected eutrophication, oceans are
affected by ocean acidification, coral bleaching, ground water is affected by pollution and salination.

73
RIVERS and WATER RESOURCES of INDIA
All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds –

I. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges

II. Vindhya and Satpura range in central India (The rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through these
ranges.)
III. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

Classification – Rivers are broadly divided into Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.

I. The Himalayan Rivers

Their major features are –

 They perform intensive erosion activity in their upper courses and

 Carry huge loads of silt and sand. The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from its
upper reaches and deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently,
the river changes its course. (This is the reason that Himalayan rivers change their
course sometimes)
 The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source to the sea.
 These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity carried
on simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
 Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in
their mountainous course
 While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes,
flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth.
 In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortous, but over the plains
they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
 In the middle and the lower courses. The streams within a drainage basin form certain
patterns, depending on the slope of land, underlying rock structure as well as the
climatic conditions of the area.

74
II. Peninsular Rivers

Their major features are –

 The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from
the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
 The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the water divide between
the major Peninsular rivers, discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and as small
rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
 Peninsular rivers are seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall. During the dry
season, even the large rivers have reduced flow of water in their channels.

75
  Peninsular rivers are characterized by fixed course, absence of meanders and
nonperennial flow of water.
 The Peninsular Rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to their
Himalayan counterparts.
 The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively small in size.
 Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the Western Ghats and flow towards
the Bay of Bengal.
 However, some of them originate in the central highlands and flow towards the west.
(they are Narmada and Tapti)

River Systems in India – A river Along with its tributaries is called a river System. Following are the
major river systems –

I. Northern River Systems

a. The Indus River System – The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar. Flowing
west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. It forms a picturesque
gorge in this part. Several tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra, the Shyok and the Hunza,
join it in the Kashmir region. The Indus plain has a very gentle slope. With a total length
of 2900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers.

According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per
cent of the total water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in
the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and western parts of Rajasthan.

Tributaries of Indus –

 The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag
situated at the foot of the PirPanjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of
Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan
through a deep narrow gorge.
 The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the
Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
 The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang
pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley
of the state.
b. The Ganga River System – The headwaters of the Ganga, called the ‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by
the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand. At
Haridwar the Ganga emerges from the mountains on to the plains.

Tributaries of Ganga – The Ganga is joined by many tributaries from the Himalayas, a
few of them being major rivers such as the

76
 Himalayan Tributaries or Left Bank Tributaries – The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the
Kosi are main tributaries. (Yamuna is an Himalayan tributary, but a Right bank tributary).
The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers,
which flood parts of the northern plains every year, causing widespread damage to life
and property but enriching the soil for the extensive agricultural lands.

Peninsular Tributaries or Right Bank Tributaries – The main tributaries, which come
from the peninsular uplands, are the Yamuna (a Himalayan River), Tons and the Son.
These rise from semi arid areas, have shorter courses and do not carry much water in
them. The Son is a largest south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in the
Amarkantak plateau. The river Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the
Himalayas. It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right bank tributary, meets the Ganga
at Allahabad. It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its ‘right
bank’ which originates from the Peninsular plateau

Enlarged with the waters from its right and left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows
eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is the northernmost point of the Ganga delta.

The river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows southwards

through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The mainstream, flows southwards into
Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further down stream, it is known as the
Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, flows
into the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these rivers is known as the Sunderban
delta.

Meandering of Ganga – It is due to low gradient – Ambala is located on the water divide
between the Indus and the Ganga river systems. The plains from Ambala to the
Sunderban stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its slope is hardly 300 meters. In
other words, there is a fall of just one meter for every 6 km. Therefore, the river
develops large meanders. This is also the reason that some other rivers like Kosi shift
their path frequently as gradient is very low and hence flood a large area.

c. The Brahmaputra River System – The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of

Mansarowarlake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer
than the Indus, and most of its course lies outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to
the Himalayas.

U-Turn or the Great Bend of Brahamputra – On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m),
it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters (it is due to syntaxial bending of the Himalaya) India in
Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by the
Dibang, the Lohit, and many other tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam. In
Tibet the river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry
area. In India it passes through a region of high rainfall. Here the river carries a large
volume of water and considerable amount of silt.

77
 Brahamputra as a Braided Channel – The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its
entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands. (Majuli is the largest river island
in the world) Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing
widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh. Braided Streams occur
in rivers with high slope and/or large sediment load. Braided channels are also typical of
environments that dramatically decrease channel depth, and consequently channel
velocity, such as river deltas, alluvial fans and peneplains.

Why Brahmaputra shifts its path frequently? – Unlike other north Indian rivers the
Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing the river bed to rise.
The river also shifts its channel frequently.

II. The Peninsular River Systems

The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from
north to south close to the western coast.

East Flowing Peninsular Rivers – Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of
Bengal. Eastern flowing rivers make deltas at their mouths. There are numerous small streams
flowing west of the Western Ghats. The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which
flow west and make estuaries.

a. The Godavari Basin – The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It rises from the
slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is about
1500 km. It drains into the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin is also the largest among the
peninsular rivers. The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin
area lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari is
joined by a number of tributaries such as the Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the
Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga. The last three tributaries are very large.
Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’.
b. The Mahanadi Basin – The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh. It flows
through Orissa to reach the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is about 860 km. Its
drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
c. The Krishna Basin – Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the Krishna flows for
about 1400 km and reaches the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the
Ghatprabha, the Musi and the Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage basin is
shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
d. The Kaveri Basin – The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and it
reaches the Bay of Bengal in south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu. Total length of the river
is about 760 km. Its main tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini. Its
basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It forks into two streams and
then rejoins again forming island like structure in Tamil Nadu at three places –
Sivasamudram, Srirangapattanam, Srirangam. Kaveri is the most harnessed river of India.

78
West Flowing Peninsular Rivers – Major rivers are Narmada and Tapti. The reason why they
flow westward is that – there is a fault plain parallel to Vindhyas formed during geological
upheavals formed by bending and sagging of the Northern part of Peninsula during formation of
Himalayas. Other main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharathpuzha and Periyar.

a. The Narmada Basin – The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. All
the tributaries of the Narmada are very short and most of these join the main stream at
right angles. (i.e. a Trellis Pattern). The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh
and Gujarat. It flows in a rift valley, flowing west between the Satpura and Vindhya
ranges. The Tapti River and Mahi River also flow through rift valleys, but between
different ranges. It forms an estuary and there are a number of islands in its estuary out
of which Aliabet is largest.
b. The Tapti Basin – The Tapti rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya
Pradesh. It also flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in
length. Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The coastal
plains between Western Ghats and the Arabian sea are very narrow. (The eastern
Coastal plains are much broader.) Hence, the coastal rivers are short. These two rivers
don’t form Delta because of two reasons –
 They flow through hard rocks and hence are not able to form tributaries.
 They flow in narrow valleys where tributaries are not formed.
 Unlike East flowing rivers which flow through a low gradient and hence have
slower speed, conditions are apt for delta formation. On the western Ghats
gradient is higher.

Other west flowing rivers are – Sharawati in Karnataka, Sabarmati and Mahi are the
two famous rivers of Gujarat, Mandovi and Juari are from Goa, Periyar in Kerala.

Himalyan vs Peninsular Rivers –

I. Himalayan rivers have large basins and catchment areas
II. Himalayan rivers have deeper valleys called gorges formed mainly due to upliftment of
Himalayas. While, peninsular rivers flow in relatively shallow valleys which are graded
due to long age of the rivers
III. Himalayan rivers follow Antecedent Drainage while Peninsular Rivers follow Consequent
drainage. (as Himalayan rivers existed before – ante – the emergence of topography)
IV. Himalayan rivers meander for they flow in plains with alluvial plains which allow them to
shift their path, while on the other hand peninsular rivers flow through rocky areas due
to which they take straight courses.
V. Himalayan rivers are young, form big deltas.

79
Multipurpose Projects – Major Projects are –

I. Bhakra Nangal Dam – It has two dams – Bhakra and Nangal. Bhakhra is a main dam and a
massive lake named Gobind Sagar lake is created to store water. Nangal is downstream and is an
auxiliary dam to check fluctuations in water.
II. Damodal Valley Project – The project involved multiple dams at places – Tilaiya, Konkar,
Durgapur Barrage etc. It primarily aimed at flood control, however this problem couldn’t be
solved fully.
III. Hirakund Dam – It has been built on river Mahanadi in Orissa.
IV. Kosi Project – It was made after an agreement was signed with Nepal. This made it possible to
tame the river Kosi which has notoriously came to be called as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
V. Chambal Valley Project – This has been executed in steps. Many dams like – Maharana Pratap,
Jawahar Sagar and Gandhi Sagar Dam are built on it. This has been made with collaboration of
two states – Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
VI. Narmada Valley
VII. Tihri (Uttrakhand)

National River Conservation Plan – The activities of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) phase-I, initiated in 1985,
were declared closed on 31st March 2000. The Steering Committee of the National River Conservation
Authority reviewed the progress of the GAP and necessary correction on the basis of lessons learnt and
experiences gained from GAP Phase-I. These have been applied to the major polluted rivers of the
country under the NRCP. The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-II, has been merged with the NRCP. The
expanded NRCP now covers 152 towns located along 27 interstate rivers in 16 states. Under this action
plan, pollution abatement works are being taken up in 57 towns. A total of 215 schemes of pollution
abatement have been sanctioned. So far, 69 schemes have been completed under this action plan. A
million litres of sewage is targeted to be intercepted, diverted and treated.

80
Ganga Action Plan and NGRBA

National Ganga River Basin Authority is now the central authority to tackle the issue of pollution
of Ganga. It replaced GAP in 2009 owing to its failure to deal with pollution in Ganga.

GAP was launched in 1985 as the first river action plan in India and first phase was supposed to
be completed in 1990, however it was delayed till 2000 and second phase was launched in
between.

As a part of the action plan the new approach follow a ‘basin approach’ and pollution of the
tributaries of Ganga is also included as a part of new plan.

Ganaga has been declared a ‘National River’ in 2009 and Prime Minister himself heads the apex
body.

The plan focus on following district for the checking of pollution, sewage treatment and
environmental monitoring plan – Haryana, Delhi (Yamuna), UP, Bihar, West Bengal.

However even after 25 years and more than Rs 1000 crore into the schemes the plan failed to
clean the Ganga .

WATER CONSERVATION

Israel has just 25cm average rainfall per annum but has never faced draught, India has 114 cm of
rainfall and is among one of the world's highest rain fed areas but still there are yearly draughts
in the country. It can be mainly attributed to improper management of water resources. Further,
as per UN World Water Report of 2003,by 2025, many parts of India will join the ranks of the
nations with severe water scarcity.

The release of water from dams during heavy rains aggravated the flood situation in
Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006. The floods have not only devastated life and property but also
caused extensive soil erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of
silt, a natural fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation.

It can be done through the recharging of borewell, abondened wells by directing rainwater. In
the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost
all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water. The
tankas were part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and were built
inside the main house or the courtyard.

Rain Water Harvesting Methods

Roof Top Harvesting for Urban Areas

a. Recharge Pit

81
b. Recharge Well – This technique is suitable where permeable horizon is not very below
the ground.
c. Recharge Trench – While recharge pits are suitable for smaller roof areas, recharge
trenches can be used for larger areas.

Rain Water Harvesting for Rural Areas

a. Gully Plug – In small gullies, obstacles may be made to store the water at places where
there is a break in slope.
b. Gabion Structure – In this technique local boulders are enmeshed with steel net to act
as a check dam.

82
 c. Contour Bunds – They are suitable for low rainfall areas where flow can be checked by
using bunds. They help in retaining moisture of the land. These are used where slope is
not steep and parallel bunds can be placed at suitable distance.

d. Percolation Tank
e. Recharge Shaft

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

It basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater

resources.

It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various
methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense watershed
management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural
(like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed. Watershed management
aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the
other. The success of watershed development largely depends upon community participation.

Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structures in the houses compulsory. No building can be
constructed without making structures for water harvesting.

83
RIVER INTER-LINKING

In 2012, SC delivered a judgment asking for the progress made on the front of river interlinking.

The court has government to set up a committee consisting of ministries and experts to chart
out a plan.

Several plans have been charted earlier but not even a single interlinkage has been built.

History – K L Rao – an engineer proposed for the first time such an idea, which envisaged linking
of flood prone ganga to cauveri during the rainy season. Captain Dinshaw Dastaur offered
another plan – Garland Canals– One for Himalayan rivers and other for Western Ghat rivers. In
2000, SC asked the government to speed up the project and get it completed by 2016. However
no progress has been made even 10 years after that.

Authority Responsible – Water is a state subject. NWDA – National Water Development

Agency is the authority which is responsible for the inter-basin transfer of river waters.

Plan –It aims to build huge storage tanks that will store water. NWDA has identified 30 linkages.
Which are divided into –

 Northern Himalayan Component and

 Southern Peninsular Component

Implementation – Though water is a state subject, Union can make appropriate regulations for
its use for greater national good. Inter-State rivers can be regulated by Union under entry 56 of
the Union list by passing legislation. Under this provision, Rivers Board Act 1956 was enacted
(however no River Board has been set up till date for various reasons like opposition from
states)

Center’s Argument on (Non) Progress – Center’s plea is that since water is a state subject, it
cannot do much without the support of states which are always in a quarreling mood when it
comes to river water sharing. However 7th schedule (division of powers between center and state
has ample scope to do it without their consent also to regulate interstate rivers). Another idea
can be introducing compensation in some other form to make states agree upon the issue.

Advantages of river interlinking –

 Will bring additional 40 million hectare under irrigation.

 It is argued that it will solve the problem of interstate water-disputes
 Provide cheaper inland transportation
 Groundwater recharging
 Less yearly burden on PM’s relief fund

Challenges in river interlinking –

84
  The biggest challenge is economic feasibility of the project. To transfer water from
Northern planes to Southern part over Vindhyas and other highlands, enormous energy
input will be required for ‘lifting’ water.
 Foremost argument is that almost all rivers are in flood mode at same time and
interlinking will simply mean that simply shifting the focus of flood area. Constructing of
large reservoirs to store such flood waters have huge costs and enormous
environmental impacts.
 Another argument is that there is no such ‘Surplus Waters’ especially in Northern rivers
as irrigation facilities in past 50 years have networked enormously, the adjacent regions
themselves consume the water.
 Floods are temporal phenomenon and are not a regular occurrence and when one part
is flooded (during monsoon), other parts are also less deficient of water during that
time.
 Feasibility studies not done except for Ken-Betwa link.

Central Water Commission has given its negative feedback on the feasibility of such projects.
Further, over the period, not only agricultural requirement of water has increased many a fold,
industries also consume a lot of water which leaves a little scope for surplus water.

GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT

It actually means exploitation of known ground water resources. It is expressed in percentage,

higher the percentage of exploitation. It is higher in Northern regions around Haryana and
Punjab and it is as high as 100% in states like Haryana. Mainly because –

 These regions are devoid of rivers and also receive lesser monsoon rains
 Terrain is softer unlike peninsula which is harder and bore wells can be easily made.

Bhoomijal Samvardhan Award and National Water Award – They were instituted in 2007. Their
main aim is to encourage NGOs, Gram Panchayats and ULBs etc to adopt innovative practices of
ground water augmentation.

Which one of the following rivers has the ‘highest replenishable ground water resource’ in the country?

a. The Indus
b. THE GANGA
c. The Brahmaputra
d. The Godavari

Which of the following is known as Dakhshin Ganga?

a. GODAVARI – As it is the largest river of South India. It is also referred as VRIHADA GANGA.
b. Krishan
c. Caveri
d. Mahanadi

85
Which one of the following rivers flows in a rift valley?

a. The Son
b. The Yamuna
c. THE NARMADA
d. The Luni

86
ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER PHENOMENON, CLIMATE and LAYERS OF
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600 kilometers. The atmosphere is divided
into five/six layers based on composition, temperature and other properties.

The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. These short waves heats up
the earth surface. The incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking
the earth’s surface. Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much
of the near infrared radiation.

35% of the solar energy is reflected back even before reaching earth. It is called 'Albedo of
Earth'. Rest of the energy which is absorbed is also reflected back in various forms.

Layers of the atmosphere stabilized around 600 million years ago during the Cambrian period.

Climate is the single most important factor affecting soil profile at a place

The lower part of the atmosphere is more homogenous due to constant mixing and churning.

Temperature change rate inverses with change in layers. For the first layer, it decreases as height
increases, for stratospehere it increases with the increase of the height. In mesosphere, it
decreases with the height, in thermosphere it increases with the height.

Carbon dioxide and water vapors both let go incoming short waves, but don’t let go the long
waves.

In general salt Particles form the ideal hygroscopic particles. (Around which moisture
accumulates)

Jet planes flying in the sky leave a white trail behind them. The moisture from their engines
condenses.

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE at A PLACE

There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are: latitude, altitude, pressure and
wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features.

I. Latitude – It decides amount of Insolation. Due to the curvature of the earth, the
amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air
temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles.

II. Altitude – As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere
becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during
summers.

87
 III. Pressure and Wind System – The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the
latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it influences the temperature and rainfall
pattern.

IV. Continentality (distance from sea) – The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate:
As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the
people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known as
continentality (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters).

V. Ocean currents and Onshore Winds – Ocean Currents along with onshore winds affect
the climate of the coastal areas, For example, any coastal area with warm or cold
currents flowing past it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore.

VI. Relief – Finally, relief too plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High
mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may also cause precipitation if they
are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of
mountains remains relatively dry.

TYPES of RAINFALL

On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the
orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall (in cyclonic rainfall a front is formed). See detail in
later part of notes.

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that
oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide
and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth. Various Layers are –

I. Troposphere – This layer is the most important layer of the atmosphere. Its average
height is 13 km. The air we breathe exists here. Almost all the weather phenomena like
rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.

An intermediary layer is called Tropopause, the lower latitude has higher convectional
currents, therefore height of tropopausealso varies and it also varies according to
seasons. It is more near equator. Near equator as insolation is high, convection currents
are strong.

II. Stratosphere – Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. It extends up to a height of
50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon,
making conditions most ideal for flying airplanes. This is mainly because of isothermal
conditions that exist in this sphere and hence there are least temperature variation and
there is also relatively absence of the clouds. There is also relative absence of strong
convectional currents.

88
 One important feature of stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ‘ozone’ gas. Ozone is
mainly produced in mid latitudes and tropical latitudes. In the lower layers ozone is
relatively very less. But it increases at a level of around 32 km, a layer known as ozone
belt is there. The absorbed UV radiation is responsible for the heating effect of the
ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from
intense, harmful form of energy.

Troposphere and Stratosphere are clearly separated. The air of the two spheres don’t
mix easily and it may take several months.

III. Mesosphere – This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the stratosphere. It
extends up to the height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the
space. Mesopause is the coldest (-90 or -95 degree celcius).

IV. Thermosphere – In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
IONOSPHERE is a part of this layer. This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio
waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. This is
made possible by following two layers –

a. Heaviside-Kenelley Layer – it is present in lower part of the Ionosphere and it

reflects back medium and long radiowaves to earth. It is intensely ionized and also
called E Layer.

b. Appleton Layer – It is present in the upper part of ionosphere. The Appleton layer
has the highest concentration of free electrons and ions of the atmospheric layers. It
reflects back short radio waves. It is called F2 layer.

V. Exospehre – The upper most layer of the atmosphere is known as exosphere. This layer
has very thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.

VI. Magnetosphere – Above 500 km, the motion of ions is strongly constrained by the
presence of the earth’s magnetic field. This region is called magnetosphere, it is
compressed by the solar wind on the sunlight side of earth and stretched outward in a
long tail on its night side. The colorful auroral display often seen in polar latitudes are
associated with the generation by solar energy outbursts of high energy particles in
magnetosphere, which are subsequently injected into the lower ionosphere.

INSOLATION

It is the incoming solar radiation. i.e. Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the
earth. The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. Hence the temp
gradient.

89
Oxygen gas is in negligible quantity at the height of atmosphere:

a) 90 km
b) 100 km
c) 120 km
d) 150 km
The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:

a) SHORT WAVE SOLAR RADIATION

b) Long wave terrestrial radiation
c) Reflected solar radiation
d) Scattered solar radiation

Which one of the following gases is transparent to incoming solar radiation (SHORT WAVES) and
opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation (LONG WAVES)?

a) Oxygen
b) Helium
c) Nitrogen
d) CARBON DIOXIDE

90
AIR, WIND, WATERCYLE, RAIN and CLOUD FORMATION
WINDS

A wind is named after the direction from which it blows, e.g. the wind blowing from the west is
called westerly. Various factors that affect direction and velocity of the winds are – pressure
gradient, temperature differential, Coriolis forces, friction

Every wind system is a set of two sub systems – Surface Wind system and High Altitude Wind
System. Surface wind system will develop if first its counterpart high altitude wind system
develops. As it shown in the Cells, for example – in Headly Cell, the Surface System constitute
Easterly Trade Winds, while High Altitude consists of what is termed as – Anti Trade Winds.

Note – Anti-Trade Winds are those that blow in a generally westerly direction in the upper air
above the easterly trade winds.

Winds can be broadly divided into three types – Permanent Winds, Seasonal, Secondary Winds
and Local Winds.

I. Permanent Winds or Primary Circulations – The trade winds, westerly and easterlies
are the permanent winds. These blow constantly throughout the year in a particular
direction and they are global in nature.

These play an important role in, and in turn get influenced too, formation of Weather
Cell.

a. Headly Cell – The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because
of convection caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds
from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone. The converged air rises
along with the convective cell. (as in the figure, Headly Cell) It reaches the top of
the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This
causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and S. Part of the accumulated air
sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high (denoted as STH in fig).
Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30o N and S
latitudes.

91
 Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the
Easterlies or Trade Winds. The easterlies from either side of the equator
converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from
the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is
called Hadley Cell. This is a hot cell, while polar cell is a colder cell.

b. Ferrel Cell – In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that
comes from the poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical
high. At the surface these winds are called WESTERLIES and the cell is known as
the Ferrel cell.
c. Polar Cell – At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and
blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the
polar cell.

These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere.
The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains
the general circulation.

92
II. Seasonal Winds or Secondary/Meso Scale – These winds change their direction in
different seasons. For example monsoons in India and cyclones.
a. Monsoon
b. Tropical Cyclones –
Tropical cyclones are wind
system with a low
pressure at the center. It
is a ‘Secondary type
circulation’ and it is
embedded in the
prevailing winds of the
region. These are violent
storms that originate over
oceans in tropical areas
and move over to the
coastal areas bringing
about large scale
destruction caused by
violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges.
This is one of the most devastating natural calamities.

Tropical cyclones in India both precede (April to June) as well as follow the
monsoon (Sept - November), however the latter are more frequent.

Energy of tropical cyclones comes from Latent Energy of condensation.

They are known as

 Cyclones in the Indian Ocean,

 Hurricanes in the Atlantic,
 Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea, and
 Willy-willies in the Western Australia.

Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.

93
For a cyclone, there is a zone of convergence (at bottom), and there is a zone of
divergence at top.

Characteristics

 Isobars are circular and symmetrical. At the center, the pressure is low
and pressure gradient is steep and hence winds are very strong.
 However ‘eye’ is calm and rainless.
 The winds form an upward moving spiral, so there are no marked wind
shifts.

Parts of a Cyclone –

 Eye – It is a region of calm with subsiding air.

 Eye Wall – Around the eye is the ‘eye wall’, where there is a strong
spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause.
 Rain Bands – From the eye wall ‘rain bands’ may radiate and rains of
cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.

Formation of Tropical Cyclone – The conditions favorable for the formation and
intensification of tropical storms are –

94
  Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
 High relative humidity which is provided by sea and high temperature
 Presence of the Coriolis force; They originate 8-10 degree away from
equator as they need strong coriolis forces for their formation.
 Small variations in the vertical wind speed; They facilitate formation of
Cumulus cloud convection with condensation of rising air.
 A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
 Upper divergence above the sea level system.

Easterlies and Tropical Cyclones in India – Around the month of October when
monsoon is retreating over India, the easterly jet stream steers the tropical
depressions into India. These depressions play a significant role in the
distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. A bulk of the
rainfall of the Coromondal coast is derived from these depressions and cyclones.
Such cyclonic storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea. The tracks of these
depressions are the areas of highest rainfall in India.

Intensification of Cyclone – The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from
the condensation process in the towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding
the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the
storm is further strengthened.

Weakening of Cyclone – On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and
the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is
called the ‘landfall of the cyclone’.

The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean
is between 600 - 1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per
day. The cyclone creates storm surges and they inundate the coastal low lands.
The storm peters out on the land.

After the cyclone has passed, the clouds vanish and the air clears. This signals
the approach of the following high pressure area, or anticyclone, in which
colder, drier air from the upper atmosphere circles down to earth in a clockwise
direction.

c. Extra Tropical Cyclones or Temperate Cyclones or Wave Cyclones

Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave

cyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as low pressure weather systems that
occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics) having neither
tropical nor polar characteristics.

95
Features –

 Extratropical cyclones are the everyday phenomena which, along with

anticyclones, drive the weather over much of the Earth, producing
anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales and
thunderstorms.
 Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front.

Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows
from the south and cold air from the north of the front. When the pressure
drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move
towards south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation. The cold
front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front.
The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates. The processes of wind circulation both at the surface and aloft are
closely interlinked.

Extra/Temperate Tropical vs Tropical Cyclones

 The extra tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not
present in the tropical cyclones.
 Tropical cyclone are thermal in origin and hence possess more energy
which they owe to warm oceanic waters where as extra-tropical
cyclones are frontal in origin. This is the reason that Tropical Cyclones
start dissipating as they approach land, as their source of energy is
cutoff.
 Extra Tropical Cyclones cover a larger area and can originate over both
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over the
seas and on reaching the land they dissipate.

96
 The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more
destructive.
 Tropical cyclones are less frequent, but more destructive on the other
hand Extra Tropical cyclones are less destructive but more frequent.
 The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical
cyclones, move from east to west.
 For Tropical cyclones, the circulation of air in the Northern Hemisphere
is Anti-Clockwise, and Clockwise in Southern Hemisphere. For Extra
Tropical it is opposite.
d. Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and tornadoes. They are of short
duration, occurring over a small area but are violent.

Thunderstorms – These are caused by intense convection on moist hot days.

Unstable moist air lifts up and as air condenses it releases latent heat. This
results into formation of cumulus cloud and when this process continues, it
leads to formation of a cumulonimbus cloud. A thunderstorm is a well-grown
cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightning. A thunderstorm is
characterized by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to
grow bigger and rise to greater height. This causes precipitation. Later,
downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the rain.

Hailstorm – When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature

prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm.

Dust storm – If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust

storms.

Tornado – From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a

trunk of an elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre,
causing massive destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado.
Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.

Sprouts – The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts. These violent storms
are the manifestation of the atmosphere’s adjustments to varying energy
distribution. The potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in
these storms and the restless atmosphere again returns to its stable state.

III. Local Winds – These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small
area. For example, land and sea breeze. Similarly loo is one. They are of following types
–
a. Hot – Local Hot winds are ‘Foehn’ in Alps (called Chinook in the USA) and
Simoom and ‘Loo’ in Northern India

97
 b. Cold – These include Mistral and Karaburan
c. Convectional – These are Land and SeaBreeze
d. Slope Winds – These are Katabatic and Anabatic Winds (also called Valley
Winds). Katabatic Winds or Drainage Winds produced by the flow of cold air
under the influence of gravity from higher to lower regions. During night, the
upper slope being more exposed gets more cooled by larger back radiation of
heat. The lower temperature produces high pressure. Air gets cooled, dense
and heavy. The lower slope is relatively warmer and has lower pressure. The
Katabatic winds are also termed ‘mountain breezes’ or ‘gravity winds’.
Anabatic Winds occur during the day. The upper slope gets heated and
develops low pressure, while the lower slope remains relatively cooler. The
higher pressure then promotes the upslope flow of air and this produces the
anabatic winds.

FORCES AFFECTING THE VELOCITY AND DIRECTION OF WIND

I. Pressure Gradient – Pressure Varies As Latitude Changes – Near the equator the sea level
pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low. Along 30° N and 30o S are found the
high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs. Further pole wards along 60o N and 60o S,
the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles the pressure is high and
it is known as the polar high. These pressure belts are not permanent and vary according to the
position of the sun. In summers, they shift 5-10 degrees towards poles. This shift is observed
maximum for the equatorial belt and minimum towards poles and as sun moves the movement
of the belts also follow the same path.

Low Pressure Areas – In areas where temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This
creates a low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.

High Pressure Areas – Areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It is therefore heavy.
Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and
sunny skies.

II. Frictional Forces – These are prevalent only near surface of the earth and is almost negligent
beyond 3 km, further they are very low on sea surfaces.

98
 III. Coriolis Force – The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This
force is called the Coriolis force. It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The deflection is more when the wind
velocity is high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum
at the poles and is absent at the equator.

The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to
each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it.

At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The
low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones
are not formed near the equator.

AIR MASS

An ‘Air-Mass’ is not same as ‘Wind’. An air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature
and water vapor content.

When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an
airmass.

Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles, and adopt the characteristics of
the surface below them. Thus these are huge masses of air at the lower part of troposphere
near earth surface. The weather at a place is characteristics of the air-mass that is affecting the
place. Faster an air-mass moves, faster the weather changes are.

Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognized: (i) Maritime tropical (mT); (ii)
Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP); (v) Continental
arctic (cA). Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold. The Figure shows the
Various Sources of the Air-Masses.

Note –An ‘Air-Mass’ is not same as ‘Wind’. An air mass is a volume of air defined by its
temperature and water vapor content and it is a much wider expanse in hundreds of mile and it
represents the weather of a place over which it hovers.

99
FRONTS

When two different ‘airmasses’ meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. The
process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: (a)
Cold; (b) Warm; (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded.

I. Cold Front - When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is
called the cold front. As the cold front nears your region, the barometer falls. The cold
air behind the front wedges under the warm air and lifts it sharply off the ground. Large
cumulonimbus clouds appear. These clouds often bring thunderstorms and rain showers.
As the cold front passes, the wind changes direction. The weather becomes clear and
colder and the barometer rises again.
II. Warm Front - Whereas if the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the
contact zone is a warm front. The warm air behind the front glides up and over the cold
air. The barometer falls and a long, steady rain begins. Gradually, the front passes and
the sky clears.
III. Occluded Front - When an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the
occluded front. Occluded Front –it results when a cold air front overtakes a warm front
and lifts the warm air mass completely off the ground. An occluded front forms when a
cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front. The occluded front is more
complicated than the others because two fronts interact. In the left diagram of the
occluded front, colder air wedges under warm air at the cold front. Warm air is glides up
and over another cold air mass at the warm front. As shown in the right diagram of
Occluded front, the warm air is squeezed out and lifted above the ground. Steady rains
falls at an occluded front.

100
 The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air
to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.

The steeper the slope of the front, the more violent are the storms associated with it.
The width of the front is usually 50-100 km; however, on the scale of the diagrams, it
looks like a line.

Frontolysis – In contrary to areas of "Frontogenesis", the areas where air masses diverge are
called areas of frontolysis (it is actually weakness or dissipation of the atmospheric front). Siberia
and Canada are examples of areas of frontolysis.

GEOSTROPHIC WIND

The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of
the surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.

When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced
by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as
the 'geotrophic wind'.

WATER CYCLE, CLOUDS and RAINS

Absolute Humidity – Water vapor present in the air is known as humidity. It is expressed
quantitatively in different ways. The actual amount of the water vapor present in the
atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water vapor per unit volume
of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic meter. The ability of the air to hold water
vapour depends entirely on its temperature. The absolute humidity differs from place to place
on the surface of the earth.

101
 Relative Humidity – The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its
full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity. At night the maximum
capacity is low, so Relative Humidity will be higher. Relative humidity is inversely proportional to
temperature. Relative humidity is highest at equator and decreases towards the poles. It is
minimum in subtropical anticyclones. With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain
moisture increases or decreases and the relative humidity is also affected. It is greater over the
oceans and least over the continents.

Dew Point – The air containing moisture to its full capacity i.e. air is saturated to 100% or
relative humidity is 100%, at a given temperature is said to be saturated. It means that the air at
the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at that stage.
The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point,
when the temperature of the air falls below the dew point temperature, vapor condenses.
Vapor upon condensation form Liquid Droplet, when dew point is greater than 0 degree. Vapor
form ice crystals when dew point is less than zero degree. In free air, condensation results from
cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei. Particles of dust,
smoke and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because they absorb water.

CLOUDS

Formation of Clouds – Expansions results in cooling and compression in heating, although heat
is neither added nor subtracted. This kind of temperature change is called Adiabatic Changes. An
adiabatic change is the one which involves change of pressure but no heat is added or
subtracted. Adiabatic Cooling is the only process by which the temperature of extensive and
thick masses of air is reduced below the ‘dew point’. Resulting condensation is on vast scale and
precipitation is abundant. Almost all earth’s precipitation is the result of ‘adiabatic cooling’.
Adiabatic cooling produces clouds and all precipitation falls from clouds. Warm air keeps on
rising, until it gets cools sufficiently and gets saturated as a result. As water vapors begin to
condense, clouds begin to form. Convection is one of the ways of formation of clouds, clouds can
also be formed when damp air flows over mountains, coldness of the mountains leads to
saturation of the air and clouds form. That’s why clouds are more on the mountains. Two
conditions are there for the formation –

 Air must be saturated

 There must be substantial quantity of small particles – called condensation nuclei.

Types of clouds – According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness
clouds are grouped under four types: (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.

I. Cirrus – Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8km– 12km). They are thin and
detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in color. They are
formed of ice crystals as at these high altitudes, temperature is low.

102
 II. Cumulus – Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height
of 4km– 7km m. They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They
have a flat base.
III. Stratus – As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the
sky. These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air
masses with different temperatures.
IV. Cumulonimbus – Cumulonimbus is a towering vertical cloud that is very tall, dense, and
involved in thunderstorms and other inclement weather and are in the form of anvil. It is
a result of atmospheric instability. They can create lightning and other dangerous severe
weather. Cumulonimbus clouds form from cumulus clouds when they grow bigger by
addition of moisture through convection etc. Cumulonimbus storm cells can produce
heavy rain of a convective nature and flash flooding, as well as straight-line winds. Most
storm cells die after about 20 minutes, when the precipitation causes more downdraft
than updraft, causing the energy to dissipate.
V. Nimbus – Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near
to the surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the
sun. Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground. Nimbus
clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapor.

There are other clouds also, which are combination of above like Cirrus Cumulus, Cumulus
Nimbus etc.

Clouds with great vertical extent are usually found near equator due to more convection.

103
RAIN

Types of rains – They can be of various types depending upon the process of precipitation,
obstacles etc.

I. Convectional Rain – The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection
currents. As it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes
place and cumulous clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall
takes place but this does not last long. Such rain is common in the summer or in the
hotter part of the day. It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior parts of
the continents, particularly in the northern hemisphere.

Whenever there is an ascending mass of air, it leads to more rain, whenever the air
descends, it leads to lower rains.

II. Orographic Rain – When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to
ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater
rainfall. After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope,
they descend, and their temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture
increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on

104
 the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It is also
known as the relief rain.
III. Cyclonic Rain - As in case of tropical and extra tropical cyclones

In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of
the continents. The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world
because of being great sources of water. Between the latitudes 35 and 40 N and S of the
equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west.

But, between 45 and 65 N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on
the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east. Wherever
mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward
side and it decreases towards the leeward side.

WORLD CLIMATE

Causes of climate (not of ‘weather’) change – The causes for climate change are many. They can
be grouped into astronomical and terrestrial causes.

I. The Astronomical Causes

105
  Sunspot Activity – The astronomical causes are the changes in solar output
associated with sunspot activities .Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the
sun which increase and decrease in a cyclical manner. According to some
meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and wetter
weather and greater storminess occur. A decrease in sunspot numbers is
associated with warm and drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
statistically significant.
 Millankovitch Oscillations – An another astronomical theory is Millankovitch
Oscillations, which infer cycles in the variations in the earth’s orbital
characteristics around the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the
earth’s axial tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation received from the sun,
which in turn, might have a bearing on the climate.
II. Terrestrial Causes
 Volcanism – Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change.
Volcanic eruption throws up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These
aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a considerable period of time reducing
the sun’s radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the recent Pinatoba and El
Cion volcanic eruptions, the average temperature of the earth fell to some
extent for some years. The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate
is the increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere which is likely to cause global warming.
 Green House Gases

106
CLIMATE in INDIA
The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found
mainly in the south and the southeast.

India is not affected by any major current.

In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal contrasts
are more in the interior of the country.

There is decrease in rainfall generally from east to west in the Northern Plains.

Most parts of the country receive rainfall from June to September. But some parts like the Tamil
Nadu get rain in Oct-Nov.

India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-
pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. They blow south, get deflected to the right due to the
Coriolis force, and move on towards the equatorial low-pressure area. Generally, these winds
carry very little moisture as they originate and blow over land. Therefore, they bring little or no
rain. Hence, India should have been an arid land, but, it is not so.

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA'S CLIMATE

I. Latitude – The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of
Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. It passes through 8 states – Tripura, Arunachal
radish, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Jharkhand. Almost half
of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the
remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore, India’s climate has
characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates.
II. Altitude – India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000
meters. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 meters. The
Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is
because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as
compared to central Asia. (and there is dominantly tropical climate and not subtropical)
III. Pressure And Surface Conditions – The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique.
Specific major factors that affect Indian Climate are –
 Pressure and surface winds;
 Upper air circulation;
 Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.

Winters pressure conditions – There is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry
winds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south.

Summers pressure conditions – A low-pressure area develops over interior Asia as well as over
northwestern India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer.

107
 Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly
direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian
subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the
warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India.

IV. Upper Air Circulation – The upper air circulation in the region is dominated by westerly flow.
‘The jet stream’ is an important flow. These jet streams are located approximately over27°-30°
North latitude. Over India these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas.
V. Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream – These jet streams are located approximately over 27°-30°
north latitude, therefore, they are known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over India, these
jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer. The western
cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and north-western parts of the country during
winters are brought in by this westerly flow. Summers Monsoon Rain - As long as Jet stream
remains in south of the Himalayas, it blocks the ‘Cyclonic Monsoon Cell’ that is developed near
equator. However, in summers, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the
Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun as subcontinent now receive more heat from
sun. As a result warmth and moisture are fed into the cell by a lower level tropical jet stream
which brings with it air masses laden with moisture from the Indian Ocean and it leads to onset
of Monsoon.

Winters –As monsoon retreats and winters arrive over Tibetan plateau, Jet stream also follow
the sun and cross Himalaya. This creates a high pressure zone. The mechanism affecting
monsoon is that the westerly jet causes high pressure over northern parts of the subcontinent
during the winter and push the winds shore wards towards ocean. This results in the north to
south flow of the winds in the form of the NE Monsoon. While these winds are dry as they pass
over plains, they pick moisture as they pass over Bay of Bengal and Cause rain in Tamil Nadu.

It is observed that presence of these Jet Stream causes thunderstorm in India during winters and
also brings some rains.

VI. Subtropical Easterly Jet Stream – An easterly jet stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet
stream blows over peninsular India, approximately over 14°N during the summer months and at
a mean height of 14 to 16 Kms (shown by dotted arrow in June month in figure below).

The high temperature over the Tibetan Plateau, as well as over Central Asia in general, during
the summer is believed to be the critical factor leading to the formation of the tropical easterly
jet over India in summer.

It is observed that when Easterly Jet Stream are stronger, India experience stronger Monsoon. In
a weak monsoon, Easterly Jet stream shifts towards Northwards at around 19°N.

VII. Western Disturbances or Western Cyclonic Disturbances – The western cyclonic disturbances
are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from the
Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western
regions of India. These are temperate cyclones*(or Sub Tropical Cyclone or Wave Cyclones, they

108
 always move from West to East, while Tropical move from East to West) from the
Mediterranean Sea. They lead to showers over the northern plains and are much useful for the
Rabi crop in winters. A few showers during month of December are beneficial to the Rabi Crop –
because it protects the rabbi crop from frost. They may come at any time in India, but their
frequency is higher in the Winters season and temperate cyclones are formed. They may have
following effects in India –
 Rainfall in the North Western Plains – including Haryana Punjab (beneficial for the rabi
Crop –wheat etc)
 A sudden drop in temperature – Cold Wave in Delhi
 Snowfall in the higher altitude of Himalayas
 Sometimes also leading to hails
VIII. Tropical Cyclones – Tropical cyclones occur during two intervals in India –
 May to June - During the monsoon
 October - November

These are part of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of the country.
Eastern coast is more vulnerable to these storms. The easterly jet stream steers the tropical
depressions into India.

CLIMATIC REGIONS in INDIA

Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important variables in that he used for his
classification. Major climatic regions as per popular Koppen’s classification are –

I. Tropical climates, where mean monthly temperature throughout the year is over 18°C.
II. Dry climates, where precipitation is very low in comparison to temperature, and hence,
dry. If dryness is less, it is semiarid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid (W).
III. Warm temperate climates, where mean temperature of the coldest month is between
18°C and minus 3°C.
IV. Cool temperate climates, where mean temperature of the warmest month is over 10°C,
and mean temperature of the coldest month is under minus 3°C.
V. Ice climates, where mean temperature of the warmest month is under 10°C.
VI. High Land – Cold due to elevation

109
110
THE MONSOONS
Monsoons are like a Heat Engine, which collects, concentrates, stores the sun’s energy of South
Indian Ocean and transports it to the great Northern plains and release it over the parched
landscape.

The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S. To
understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important –

I. The differential heating and cooling of land and water

It creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience
comparatively high pressure. This strengthens the ‘The Monsoon Trough’(i.e. the low
pressure system created due to heating of Indian subcontinent also known as ITCZ) and
the whole system acts as a magnet and attracts moisture laden winds. Over the north,
the process of condensation results into releasing of latent heat thereby sustaining high
temperature in northern region and hence low pressure region. I.e. conditions of
monsoon trough perpetuate themselves
II. The shift of the position of ‘Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)’ (Also called
‘monsoon trough’ or ‘Doldrums’) as Sun moves Northwards. The Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or Thermal Equator is a broad trough of low pressure in
equatorial latitudes (it always remains on the north of the equator due to effect of
landmass). This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge and this
is a low pressure zone. This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator
but moves north or south with the apparent movement of the sun. At the time of
monsoons, it shifts towards north (towards India) and hence attracts moisture laden
winds. According to meteorologists, Monsoon is the result of the shift of the ITCZ under
the influence of the vertical sun towards Tropic of Cancer. The ITCZ being the zone of
lowest pressure in the tropical region, is the target destination for the Trade winds of
both the hemispheres. Consequentially, with ITCZ at the Tropic of cancer (over Indian
peninsula), the South East Trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere have to cross the
equator to reach the ITCZ. However, due to Coriolis Effect, these South East trade winds
are deflected eastwards in the Northern Hemisphere transforming into South West
trades. These pick up the moisture while traveling from sea to land and cause
orographic rain once they hit the highlands of the Indian Peninsula. This results in the
South-West Monsoon.

111
 III. The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S
over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the
Indian Monsoon.
IV. The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated and a low pressure is created over plateau
It results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the
plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
V. The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer
It is also believed that the burst of monsoon succeeds the shift of this jet from South of
Himalayas to North of Himalayas as their shifting allows inflow of warm and wet winds
to the sub-continent

EFFECT of ENSO on INDIAN MOSNSOON

Apart from this, it has also been noticed that changes in the pressure conditions over the
southern oceans also affect the monsoons.

El Nino is actually a warm current that flows off the coast of Peru. La Nina is its opposite and is a
cold current which flows along the same coast, but in opposite direction. While Al-Nino is an
oceanic phenomenon, SO is a weather/atmospheric phenomenon. Since ocean currents are
closely linked with the atmospheric air circulations and pressure also, this change of El Nino to
La Nina also affects the pressure conditions. A standard measure is taken as the difference of
pressure of Tahiti (An Island in Pacific Ocean marked as ‘X’ and hence La Nino/La Nina) and
Darwin in Autralia (‘Z’ which is closer to India).

112
 Normal Situation – Normally, when the tropical Eastern Pacific Oceannear Tahiti (see Fig
marked as ‘X’) experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean (see Figure, marked
as ‘Y’) and Western Pacific Ocean near Darwin (‘Z’) experiences low pressure. It creates a
condition of negative pressure difference Darwin/Indian Ocean and Tahiti = Z/X – Y.

Abnormal Situation – But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the
eastern Pacific (X) has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean (Y) or Western
Pacific Ocean (Z). It creates a condition of positive pressure difference Darwin/Indian Ocean and
Tahiti = Z/X – Y

This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the Southern Oscillationor SO. Since El-
Nino/La Nina and SO are interlinked they together are referred as ENSO.

Effect of ENSO on India – Usually, if the pressure differences were negative, it would mean
below average and late monsoons.i.e. During El-Nino Conditionsor Normal Conditionsweak
monsoon is observed – though not always –and when La-Nina conditions exist though not
always.

ONSET of the MONSOON

The Monsoon, unlike the trade winds, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected
by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas.
The duration of the monsoon is between 100- 120 days from early June to mid-September.

Burst of monsoon – Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and
continues constantly for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be
distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers.

Pre-Monsoon Showers or Mango Showers – Mango showers are the pre-monsoon showers in
the Indian states of Karnataka, Kerala, Konkan and Goa that help in the ripening of mangoes.
Also known as April rains or Summer showers, they are a result of thunderstorms over the Bay
of Bengal. These summer rains normally come in the second half of the month of April. The
showers prevent the mangoes from dropping prematurely from trees and are crucial for the
mango cultivators of South India.

113
Bifurcation of Mosoon Winds – The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula
generally by the first week of June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch
and the Bay of Bengal branch.

The Arabian Sea branch further split into three branches –

a. Sahayadri Branch – Its one branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds
climb the slopes of the Western Ghats from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool, and as
a result, the windward side of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats in Maharashtra) and
Western Coastal Plain receive very heavy rainfall ranging between 250 cm and 400
cm.This is the reason Mumbai gets high rainfall (190 cm) and the regions like Khandala
even more (450cm) due to orographic rains and Pune doesn’t receive much as it falls on
leeward side of Ghats.

Rain shadow area of Western Ghats – After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds
descend and get heated up. This reduces humidity in the winds. As a result, these winds
cause little rainfall east of the Western Ghats. This region of low rainfall is known as the
rain-shadow area.

b. Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of Mumbai. Moving
along the Narmada and Tapi River valleys, these winds cause rainfall in extensive areas
of central India. But these don’t cause much rains as of Mumbai branch as there are no
orographic rains and this is the reason that Nagpur receives comparatively lesser rainfall
(while Mumbai receives 190 cm, Nagpur receives 60 cm)

The Chotanagpur plateau gets just 15 cm rainfall from this part of the branch as it has
lesser moisture by the time it reaches here. Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and
mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.

c. Saurastra Branch – A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula
and the Kachchh. It then passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, causing
only a scanty rainfall, but still some orographic effect is there which leads to relatively
high rainfall in Mount Abu (however surrounding planes are relatively drier). In Punjab
and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches, reinforced by
each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas,

The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh. But
the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the
Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south
and southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into
two under the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.

a. Northern Plains Branch – Its one branch moves westward due to obstruction by
Himalayas and moves along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.

114
 b. Brahmputra Valley Branch – The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the
north and the northeast, causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and
Khasi hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the
highest average annual rainfall in the world as it is located perpendicular to the
direction of Monsoons and orographic rains are caused in abundance.

Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end
of June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the
monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country.

The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the
northwestern part of the Ganga plains.

Arabian Sea branch is stronger than Bay of Bengal branch due to following reasons –

 Arabian sea branch is larger than Bay of Bengal Branch

 While Arabian Sea Branch enters into Indian peninsula in its entirety, the Bay of Bengal
branch enters partially with its parts also moving to other areas like Thailand, Myanmar
etc.

BREAK IN MONSOON-SHIFTING OF TROUGH TOWARDS HIMALAYAS

Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall.
Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In other words, the monsoon rains take place only for a few days
at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to
the movement of the low pressure zone or the monsoon trough. It is believed to be due to
collapse of Tibetan High and the trough shifts towards Himalayas and rainfall occurs in
Himalayan region leaving the plains dry and hence causing a break.

For various reasons, the ‘monsoon trough’ and its axis keep on moving northward or southward,
which determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies
over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts.

On the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells
in the plains, and widespread rain occur in the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan
rivers. These heavy rains bring in their wake, devastating floods causing damage to life and
property in the plains.

The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration of
monsoon rains. These depressions form at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross over to the
mainland. The depressions follow the axis of the ‘monsoon trough of low pressure’.The
monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The alternation of dry and wet spells varies in intensity,
frequency and duration. While it causes heavy floods in one part, it may be responsible for

115
 droughts in the other. It is often irregular in its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes
disturbs the farming schedule of millions of farmers all over the country.

WITHDRAWAL or THE RETREAT of THE MONSOON

By the end of September, the southwest monsoon becomes weak as the low pressure trough of
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in response to the southward march of the sun.

It is a more gradual process. The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in northwestern states of
India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of
the peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.

October Heat – The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in
temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity,
the weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’.

The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from south to north, from the
last week of April to the first week of May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively from north
to south from the first week of December to the first week of January. By this time the rest of
the country is already under the influence of the winter monsoon. Winter monsoons do not
cause rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is because firstly, they have little humidity;

116
CHARACTERISTICS of MONSOONAL RAINFALL

 It is mainly Orographic in Nature – Western Ghats, Himalayas plays an important role. At the
same time Aravali fails to play a role because it runs parallel to the advancing monsoons
 It occurs in Torrents – Only a few months cause majority of the rain
 It is variable in nature
 Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character
 Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance the windward side
of the Western Ghats register a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the north-
eastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern Himalayas.
 The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Kolkata
receives 119 cm during the southwest monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and
Delhi 56 cm.
 The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable run off and soil
erosion.
 The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days duration at a time. The wet spells are
interspersed with rainless interval known as ‘breaks’.
 Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of India because over three-fourths of the
total rain in the country is received during the southwest monsoon season. So even a weak
monsoons means a gamble with crops as farmers depend on it heavily and other irrigation
systems are not well developed. With still more than 50% population depending upon
agriculture, it has great economic impact.
 Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm.

MONSOONS AND THE ECONOMIC LIFE IN INDIA

 Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is because
about 64 per cent people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself
is based on southwest monsoon.
 Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperature above the threshold level to
grow the crops or plants throughout the year.
 Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
 Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
 Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately distributed rainfall.
If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where means of irrigation
are not developed.
 Sudden monsoon burst creates problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.

TAMILNADU and SOUTHWEST MONSOONS

Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season. There are two factors responsible for it –

117
  The Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest
monsoon.
 It lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon.

Tamil Nadu on the other hand gets rain from the retreating monsoon or the North East
Monsoon as it picks moisture from Bay of Bengal.

THAR DESERT and MONSOON

The reason that Thar has formed in West of India is probably explained by lack of rainfall. The
lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli
range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest
monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert
does not receive much rainfall.

118
SEASONS in INDIA
It is because of tilt of the earth’s axis that seasons come. If earth would have been not tilted, there
would have been same climate round the year.

The monsoon type of climate is characterized by a distinct seasonal pattern. The weather conditions
greatly change from one season to the other. These changes are particularly noticeable in the interior
parts of the country. The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is
variation in rainfall pattern.

Four main seasons can be identified in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather season, the
advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.

THE COLD WEATHER SEASON (WINTER)

The cold weather season begins from mid- November in northern India and stays till February.
December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. The temperature
decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of Chennai, on the eastern coast,
is between 24° - 25° Celsius, while in the northern plains, it ranges between 10°-15° Celsius.
Days are warm and nights are cold.

Effects of High Pressure of Central Asia & Western Asia – In winter months, the weather
conditions over India are generally influenced by the distribution of pressure in Central and
Western Asia. A high pressure centre in the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops
during winter. This centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of air at the low level from the
north towards the Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain range. The surface winds blowing
out of the high pressure centre over Central Asia reach India in the form of a dry continental air
mass.

Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.

Westerly Jet Streams and Cyclonic Disturbances – As sun changes its position, Jet Streams also
cross Himalaya and start moving over Indian planes at an altitude of more than 13 km. Actually,
it’s bifurcated by Tibetan highlands and Himalaya and the Indian arm influence the winter
climate. The western low pressure systems or cyclonic disturbances which originate over
Mediterranian Sea enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest during the
winter months are brought into India by the westerly jet stream.

An increase in the prevailing night temperature generally indicates an advance in the arrival of
these cyclones disturbances.

They cause the much-needed winter rains (winters rain are also caused in Tamil Nadu by North
East Monsoons when they move over Bay of Bengal) over the plains and snowfall in the
mountains. Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known as is small, they are of
immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.

119
 North Eastern Monsoons – During this season, the ‘North-East Trade Winds’ prevail over the
country. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season.
Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they blow
from Bay of Bengal sea to land. It happens due to creation of a feeble high pressure over plains
with cold Tibetan winds getting attracted towards it and shifting of ITCZ towards south of
equator. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and
the northwest. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low
humidity and feeble, variable winds. When the winds from plains pass over Bay of Bengal, they
pick moisture and cause rain in Tamilnadu.

The peninsular region does not have a well defined cold season. There is hardly any noticeable
seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due to the moderating influence of the
sea.

THE HOT WEATHER SEASON (SUMMER)

Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward. As
such, from March to May, it is hot weather season in India. The influence of the shifting of the
heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature recordings taken during March-May at different
latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan
plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May,
temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular
India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the oceans. The summer

120
 months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the northern part of the
country.

Loo – Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops –due to heating effect
of the sun as the heating belt shifts- in the region extending from the TharDesert in the
northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and southeast. Circulation of air begins
to set in around this trough. A striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are
strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India.
Sometimes they even continue until late in the evening. Direct exposure to these winds may
even prove to be fatal.

Dust Storms or Aandhis – Dust stormsare very common during the month of May in northern
India.They mainly form due to convective flow of air. These storms bring temporary relief as
they lower the temperature and may bring light rain and cool breeze.

‘Kaal Baisakhi’ or ‘Norwesters’ or ‘Kahais-Kalis’ – This is also the season for localised
thunderstormsborn out of convective movements of air, associated with violent winds,
torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail in the month of March to June. They originate
over Chota Nagpur plateau and are carried away towards east by Westerly winds. In West
Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’. The rainfall brought by these Norwesters
is called – ‘Spring Storm Showers’. In Assam this rainfall in the month of May is very useful for
tea cultivation and is known as ‘Tea Showers’.

Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showersare common especially, in
Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to as
‘mango showers’.

On western parts of the peninsula temperatures are lower due to moderating effect of sea.
Another reason is the prevailing westerly winds.

ADVANCING MONSOON (THE RAINY SEASON)

By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the
trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds originate over the warm
subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They cross the equator and blow in a southwesterly
direction entering the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon. As these winds blow over
warm oceans, they bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are strong and
blow at an average velocity of 30 km per hour. With the exception of the extreme north-west,
the monsoon winds cover the country in about a month. The inflow of the south-west monsoon
into India brings about a total change in the weather. Early in the season, the windward side of
the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan Plateau and
parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in the rain shadow
area.

121
The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country.
Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the
world.

Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat
get scanty rainfall.

122
DESERTS
Deserts can be either Cold or Hot.
Main reason/reasons for the formation of African and Eurasian desert belt – These desert
(Sahara, Steppes of Russia) belts lie in the vicinity of cold currents which have a desiccating
effect on air.

Tropical Deserts – Tropical deserts lie in the trade wind zone but experience little rainfall
because easterly trade winds bring rains on the eastern margins of the continents and western
coasts are left dry. Causes for formation of Tropical Hot Deserts are –

 The formation of the subtropical high-pressure cell which remains throughout year - The
descending air of the subtropical high adiabatically warms causing the air to dry out and
inhibit condensation.
 The rain shadow effect in the belt of easterly trade winds – Easterly trade winds cause
rains only on eastern parts of the continents
 The effect of the cold currents off the west coast of the continents at these latitudes.

THAR

To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian desert.

It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region
receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation
cover. It is because of these characteristic features that this is also known as Marusthali.

It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea. This can be
corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around
Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is estimated to be 180
million years). Though the underlying rock structure of the desert is an extension of the
Peninsular plateau, yet, due to extreme arid conditions, its surface features have been carved by

123
 physical weathering and wind actions. Some of the well pronounced desert land features
present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).

On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts: the northern part is
sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh.

Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. The Luni river flowing in the southern part of the
desert is of some significance. It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and
the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of
Aravali and is known as Luni. Low precipitation and high evaporation makes it a water deficit
region.

DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM by GOVERNMENT of INDIA

The desert development program covers both the hot and clod deserts of India.

Currently it is run as a part of IWMP (Integrated Watershed Management Program) scheme and
a separate dedicated scheme – Desert Development Program is in Operation which covers
states of Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal.

Apart from this central scheme, other efforts are also worth noticeable –

 Command Area Development program is now strengthened to extend the reach of

projecs like Indira Canal to more drier areas
 Sustainable practices like Dryland farming are being promoted in these areas
 Social Forestry is being promoted to conserve the land and promote green drive among
the dry areas.

124
ISLANDS
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

The coastal line has some coral deposits, and beautiful beaches. These islands receive
convectional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation. The islands of the Arabian sea
include Lakshadweep and Minicoy. Lakshadweep islands are of coral origin.There are
approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.

Topographical and Geographical Features –

 The archipelago of Lakshadweep consists of 12 islands, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks.

There are 10 inhabited and 17 uninhabited islands.
 The climate of Lakshadweep is similar to the climatic conditions of Kerala. The island
experiences a tropical climate.
 The main language spoken here is Malayalam except in Minicoy, where Mahi is spoken.
 About 81.49% of the people are literate.
 More than 93% of the population is indigenous.
 It has a virgin, fragile eco system.
 Lakshadweep is scattered into many coral islands. The total area of Lakshadweep is 32
sq km. It is the smallest union territory of India.
 Though smallest in area, Lakshadweep has extensive lagoon area of about 4,200Sq Km,
20000Sq Km of territorial waters and about four lakh Sq Km of economic zone.

Nine Degree Channel – The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the nine degree
channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south of the Canannore Island.

ANDEMAN & NICOBAR ISLAND

Topography and Geographical Features

 There are two groups of Islands – Andeman and Nicobar

 They evolved due to the magma formations, hence are of volcanic originas they are
located on the plate boundaries and lie on dormant volcanos. Their upper layer is made
up of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale.
 Andaman Sea is the boundary between two tectonic plates, the Burma plate and the
Sunda Plate. These plates (or microplates) are believed to have formerly been part of
the larger Eurasian Plate. The boundary between two major tectonic plates results in
high seismic activity in the region.
 The Andaman group consists of approximately 259 islands. The Nicobar group of islands
consists of approximately 61 islands.
 These hilly islandsarc covered with impenetrable evergreen forests and are separated by
trails and coves. Over 90% area of these islands is covered with evergreen tropical

125
 rainfed forests, while 86% area is declared as notified forest reserve under the Forest
Act. They are comparatively of higher elevation than Laksdweep Islands.
 The topography of the area of both these groups of islands is commonly hilly and
rippling. The flat islands are relatively less in number. The main hill range runs from
north to south.
 These islands demonstrate a uniform tropical, warm and humid climate.
 The normal annual rainfall is 318 cm., but it is irregular. It ranges from approximately
300 cm. in the north to about 380 cm. in the south. The major precipitation occurs
during the south- west and north-east monsoons from April to November.
 The northern and eastern parts are shallower than 180 meters (600 ft) due to the silt
deposited by the Irrawaddy River. This major river flows into the sea from the north
through Burma.
 On the east of the Great Andaman lie two volcanic islands – the Narcondam and the
Barren Islands. Barren Island is the only active volcano.

Inhabitants – the Great Andamanese, who collectively represented at least 10 distinct sub-
groups and languages; the Jarawa; the Jangil (or Rutland Jarawa); the Onge

Ten Degree Channel – The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the
Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide.

The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)).

Duncan Passage – Little Andeman are separated from Great Andemans by this passage.

126
FORESTS and VEGETATION
Vegetation is classified into three groups – Forests, Grasslands and Shrubs

FORESTS

According to state records, the forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of the
country. Following are the major types of forests in India. forest area and the actual forest cover
are not the same. The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the forest land
irrespective of the existence of trees, while the actual forest cover is the area occupied by
forests with canopy. The former is like a theoretical record, the latter is actual on the ground.

I. Tropical Rain Forests or Evergreen Forests

They occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall. They are so dense that sunlight
doesn’t reach the ground. Many species of trees are found in these forests, which shed
their leaves at different times of the As a result, they always appear green and are called
evergreen forest. Important trees found in these forests are mahogany, ebony and
rosewood. (Names that we don’t hear so often)Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of
North-Eastern states and a narrow strip of the Western slope of the Western Ghats are
home of these forests.

The tropical evergreen forest in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the lungs of the
earth.

II. Tropical Deciduous Forests or Monsoon Forests

Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India, northern
Australia and in Central America. These regions experience seasonal changes. Trees shed
their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.

In a large part of our country we have this type of forest. These forests are also called
Monsoon Forests. They are less dense. They shed their leaves at a particular time of the
year – in spring and at onset of summer. Important trees of these forests are sal, teak,
peepal, neem and shisham. (The names that we hear often) They are found in Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and in parts of
Maharashtra.

Tropical Deciduous Forests are economically most important forests of India

III. Tropical Thorn Forests

Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These
consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of south west
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In these
forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of scrub

127
 vegetation. Important species found are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem,
khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as the under growth.

IV. Mangrove and Littoral Swamp Forests

These forests can survive in saline water and on marginal lands. They are found mainly
in Sunderbans. Sundari is a well-known species of trees in mangrove forests after which
Sunderbans have been named.

Mangroves have deeper roots, that’s the reason that they are not easily uprooted by the
storms etc and hence preserve the coastal areas.

They are under a constant threat due to anthropogenic activity and they have been
reduced by 25% in past 30 years.

Their benefits include –

a. Source of Ecological diversity and are a source of many unusual species like salt
water crocodile, Bengal Tiger
b. Conserve the coastal area erosion
c. Act as a shield for natural calamities like Tsunami
d. They can grow in salty water and hence are important from ecological point of
view
e. They also provide an important energy source and nutrient input to tropical
estuaries.
V. Mediterranean Vegetation

Mediterranean climate is characterized by the hot and dry summers and wet winters.
(as opposed to Indian climate which has dry winters and wet summers). Mediterranean
areas are around the Mediterranean sea, California, central region of Chile, Parts of
South Africa. All Mediterranean regions are west facing coastal regions of the world,
these regions receive rainfall due to westerlies.

The east and north east margins of the continents are covered by temperate evergreen
and deciduous trees. The west and south west margins of the continents are different.
They have Mediterranean vegetation. It is mostly found in the areas around the
Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia, hence the name. (Though, This kind of
vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the
USA, south west Africa, south western South America and South west Australia also)

These regions are marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters. Citrus fruits such
as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here because people have
removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they want to. There isn’t much
wildlife here.

128
 Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help of their thick barks
and wax coated leaves which help them reduce transpiration.

Mediterranean regions are known as ‘Orchards of the World’ for their fruit cultivation.
Vineyards of the world are also found in this region.

VI. Temperate Evergreen Forests – Mid Latitudes, Eastern Costal Areas

The temperate evergreen forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region. They
are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south east USA,
South China and in South East Brazil. They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like
oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.

VII. Temperate Deciduous Forests – Towards Higher Latitudes, North and Eastern Costs

As we go towards higher latitudes, there are more temperate deciduous forests. These
are found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also found in
the coastal regions of Western Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry season. The
common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc.

VIII. Coniferous Forests or Montane Forests

In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere the spectacular Coniferous
forests are found. These are also called as Taiga. These forests are also seen in the
higher altitudes. These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is used for
manufacturing paper and newsprint. Match boxes and packing boxes are also made
from softwood. Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests.
Temperate coniferous forests cover the largest part of earth.

GRASSLANDS

Climate plays an important role in the formation of grasslands; it is generally used as a basis to
divide the world’s grasslands into two broad categories: those that occur in the temperate
region and those that occur in the tropical regions.

As per some studies, grasslands have been depleted by as much as 50% since pre-agriculture
levels.

I. Tropical
Grasslands – These
grow on either side
of the equator and
extend till the
tropics. This
vegetation grows in
the areas of

129
 moderate to low amount of rainfall.

They can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 meters in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa are
of this type.

Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands.

Tropical Grasslands around the world -

 East Africa- Savanna

 Brazil- Campos
 Venezuela- Llanos
II. Temperate Grasslands – Temperate name is misnomer, greatest climate variations are
found in this region. These are found in the midlatitudinal zones and in the interior part
of the continents. The temperate zone includes – 23.5degree North/North to 66.5
degree North/South.

Usually, grass here is short and nutritious. Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common
in the temperate region.

They were at the heart of industrialized country and due to overgrazing, clearing of
grassland for industries, they have also faced depletion.

Temperate Grasslands around the world -

 Argentina- Pampas
 N. America- Prairie
 S. Africa- Veld
 C. Asia- Steppe
 Australia- Down

The Prairies – The temperate grasslands of North America are known as the Prairies.
Prairies cover parts of United States of America and parts of Canada. It is a region of flat,
gently sloping or hilly land. For the most part, prairies are treeless but, near the low
lying plains, flanking river valleys, woodlands can be found. Tall grass, upto two meters
high, dominates, the landscape. It is actually a ‘sea of grass’. The Prairies were home of
other tribes also like the Apache, the Crow, the Cree and the Pawnee. Prairies are also
known as the “Granaries of the world," Due to huge wheat production. Being located in
the heart of a continent, the climate is of continental type with extreme temperatures.
The summers are warm with temperatures of around 20°C, while in winter -20°C has
been recorded in Winnipeg, Canada. In winters a thick blanket of snow covers this
region. The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass. Due to the
absence of the north-south barrier, a local wind “Chinook” blows here. Chinook is a hot
wind that blows in winter and therefore raises the temperature in a short time. This

130
 increase in temperature results in the melting of snow, making pasture land available for
grazing of animals. It is also called ‘Snow eater’. It is called Fohn in Switzerland.

The Velds – The temperate grasslands of South Africa are called the velds. Velds are
rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m. It is bound by the
Drakensburg Mountains on the east. To its west lies the Kalahari desert. On the
northeastern part, “high velds” are located that attain a height of more than 1600 m, in
some places. The velds have rich reserve of minerals.Iron and steel industry has
developed where coal and iron are present. Gold and diamond mining are major
occupations of people of this region. Johannesburg is known for being the gold capital of
the world. Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines. Sheep rearing is the most
important occupation of the people. Sheep is bred mainly for wool and has given rise to
the wool industry in the velds. Merino sheepis a popular species and their wool is very
warm.

III. Thorny Bushes – These are found in the dry desert like regions. Tropical deserts are
located in the western margins of the continents. In the Polar region, only mosses,
lichens and very small shrubs are found here. It grows during the very short summer.
This is called Tundra type of vegetation.

131
TYPES OF VEGETATION IN INDIA
Usually precipitation is the biggest factor in deciding the vegetation. However, towards
Himalayas temperature also plays an important role. Influence of topography and soil is also
important and is seen in case of Mangrove forests.

Forest Cover – In terms of forest cover, Northern plains are least covered. In terms of
percentage forest cover of India is just 19% out of which also only 12% are dense forests and
remaining are sparse and degraded forests. Major forest belt lies in the Himalayan region which
– from Kashmir to Assam – constitute around 25% of the forest cover of India.

The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country-

I. Tropical Evergreen Forests

II. Tropical Deciduous Forests
III. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
IV. Montane Forests
V. Mangrove Forests

132
 Minor Forest Produce – Grass, bamboo, canes, leaves, medicinal plants, spices, oils, edible
products like wild fruits, animal products etc

LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS and WETLANDS

Littoral Forests – These are the forests which are found along the coast.

Swamp Forests – On the other hand swamp forests are not found in continuous stretches and
are mostly confined to delta regions. Sundarbans are such Swamp forest.

WETLAND

133
A wetland is an ecosystem in which the land surface is saturated or is covered with standing
water for a part of the year. Worldwide most extensive wetlands are in Arctic Tundra.

Significance of Wetlands –

 Biodiversity - Wetlands are known for their enormous biodiversity and are breeding
grounds for many species.
 Natural Water Purifiers - Wetlands also improve water quality by acting as natural water
purifiers, removing silt and absorbing toxins.
 Prevent Salt Intrusion in Coastal Areas - The flow of ground water through coastal
marshes prevents salt water intrusion that would otherwise contaminate wells.
 Save From Coastal Erosion - Coastal wetlands also help stablise shore lines and reduce
the damage by waves.
 Carbon Sinks - Vegetation of wetlands also absorbs good amount of the Co2 generated
by human activities. Thereby wetlands act as lungs of earth.

Types of wetlands –

 Swamps – Wetlands with trees

 Marshes – Wetlands without trees. Water in marshes and swamps is shallow enough to
allow full penetration of sunlight, therefore photosynthesis activity is high.
 Bogs and Fenns – Water logged areas saturated by groundwater or rain water. Bogs are
generally developed where drainage is blocked due to combination of Anaerobic
conditions of low temperature, biological activity is slowed down and organic matter is
only partially decomposed to form ‘peat’ which release humic acid that tinges water
brown.

Wetlands in India – India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent of this
comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. The
country’s wetlands have been grouped into eight categories, viz.

I. The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other
wetlands of the southern west coast;
II. The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan (Sambhar lake), Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
III. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh;
IV. The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (Chilika Lake);
V. The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain – Terai region;
VI. The floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast
India and the Himalayan foothills;
VII. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir (Dal Lake) and Ladakh; and
VIII. The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

134
 Ramsar Convention and India –35 sites in India are under the Convention of Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar Convention). Chilka was the first such site. Lake Sambhar,
Sundarbans, Dal lake, Ropar/Roopnagar, Loktak lake etc are some other sites.

SOCIAL FORESTRY

Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren
lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The
National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.

Objective of Social Forestry – The main thrust of social forestry is to reduce pressure on the
traditional forest areas by developing plantation of fuel wood, fodder and grasses. The practice
of social forestry has become very popular during the last three decades.

Need for Social Forestry in India –This need for a social forestry scheme was felt as India has a
dominant rural population that still depends largely on fuelwood and other biomass for their
cooking and heating. This demand for fuel wood will not come down but the area under forest
will reduce further due to the growing population and increasing human activities.

There were 5components of Social forestry -Urban forestry, Rural forestry, Agro forestry,
Community Forestry and Farm forestry.

I. Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately
owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
II. Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry.
III. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of
the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous
production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit. Community forestry involves the
raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and temple land,
roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
IV. Community forestry programme aims at providing benefits to the community as a
whole. Community forestry provides a means under which the people of landless classes
can associate themselves in treeraising and thus, get those benefits which otherwise are
restricted for landowners.
V. Farm Forestry – Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers
grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farm lands. Forest
departments of various states distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to small and
medium farmers. Several lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and
pastures, land around homes and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under non-
commercial farm forestry.

Weaknesses and Failure of Social Forestry in India –

135
  Further the success was only in the field of ‘Farm Forestry’ which was driven by big
farmers who were encouraged by the supply of free saplings by the government.
 Trees were grown for investment purpose and not for needs of rural and tribal folks
which led to deforestation as usual
 No real attempt was made to involve the landless in the social forestry program and
both women and tribal –who could have been big contributors – were left out.
 There was poor ecological focus. It is a general feeling that trees like eucalyptus and
poplar depleted soil nutrients in states of Haryana and Punjab.
 Low coverage – Village needs are far from being satisfied from the community forestry
program
 Encroachment of Community Land
 Low incentives for villagers to take pains on plantation
 Most social forestry programmes are undertaken on community wastelands, roadside
and canal margins where it is very difficult to grow and protect the saplings.
 Rules and regulations regarding the harvesting, transport and marketing have to be
simplified so as to eliminate hurdles in obtaining permission.
 Absence of requirement and resource survey
 Lack of awareness
 Improper method of planting and caring
 Indiscriminate grazing

National Forest Policy – 2 National Forest Policies have been formulated till date. First was in 1952 and
it lead to start of various programs like – ‘Social Forestry Program’ (1976) along with afforestation
measures. A ‘Wasteland Development Board’ was also setup in 1980s. However, the policy failed to
meet the targets and instead of adding forest area, deforestation happened. The second was National
Forest Policy 1988. It also didn’t fare well. While policies are framed by central government and funds
also flow from central government, it is the state governments and their forest departments which are
responsible for the conservation of forests. And they have failed miserably on that front.

Steps taken by government to protect flora and fauna

 Biosphere Reserves – 17 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora
and fauna. Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand,
the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been
included in the world network of Biosphere reserves
 National Parks –More than 100 National Parks, 490 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens
are set up to take care of Natural heritage.
 Various institutions like – Indian Institute of Forest Management, Wild Life Institute of India has
been set up.
 Flagships schemes like MNREGS will also have a provision of including afforestation works as
part of defined categories of work.

136
SOILS, DEGRADATION, EROSION and CONSERVATION
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. The
major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and
other life-forms and time. Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent.
Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air. The actual amount of each of
these depends upon the type of soil. Soils are living systems. Like any other organism, they too
develop and decay, get degraded, respond to proper treatment if administered in time.

Soil Texture – It refers to degree of coarseness or fineness of the mineral matter in the soil, it is
determined by the proportion of Silt and Clay and Sand particle presence. Texture affects many a
things like – Water Flow and Water Retention, Degree of Aeration, Availability and Retention of
Nutrients in the Soil.

Soil Profile – It is vertical section of the soil and it has different horizontal layers. Topmost layer is
‘Layer of Leaching’, next is ‘Layer of Accumulation’ followed by partially weathered rocks and
finally unweathered rocks.

Humus is the organic part of the soil, while minerals are the inorganic part of the soil.

Leaching – The removal of soluble materials from the surface soil to lower levels by water is called
Leaching.

Acidity and Alkinity of Soil – Soil water absorbs acid materials formed by the decomposition of
organic and inorganic matter. These weak acid solutions react with the soluble bases present in
soil to from neutral insoluble materials. Thus acid ground water removes soluble bases from the
soil. Most plants grow in soils that are neutral, i.e. neither acidic nor basic. Acidity occurs in soils
of humid regions, while alkalinity occurs in soils of drier regions where little leaching takes place.

Loamy Soil – It is one in which none of the 3 (Sand, Clay and Silt) dominate the other two. (Sand-
40%, Silt-40% and Clay-20%).

The Clay Humus Complex – It is essential for a fertile soil as it provides the soil with a high
nutrient and water holding capacity. Humus acts as a cement, binding soil particles together, thus
reducing the risk of erosion.

Laterisation – It is process of de-silication i.e. removal of silica and as a result, there is an over-
concentration of oxides of Iron and Aluminum. This happens in areas of high rainfall.

Soil Treatment – Excessive use of chemical fertilisers makes the soil acidic. Plants do not grow
well when the soil is either too acidic or too basic. When the soil is too acidic, it is treated with
bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).If the soil is basic, organic
matter is added to it. Organic matter releases acids which neutralizes the basic nature of the soil.

Horizons/Layers in Soil or the Soil Profile

137
  Top Layer – This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. It is called the
topsoil or the A-horizon. It is generally dark in color as it is rich in humus and minerals.
organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water,
which are necessary for the growth of plants.
 The next layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals. This layer is generally
harder and more compact.
 Rest of the layers are more composed of the rocks and are denser. It is composed of the
loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil formation process and
eventually forms the above two layers.
SOIL EROSION

Caused by water, wind, human activities (wrong agricultural practices, deforestation etc) etc.

Causes of Soil Erosion

 Wind Erosion
 Water Erosion –Gully Erosion, floods
 Glacial Erosion
 Tidal Erosion
 Shifting Cultivation
 Over Grazing
 Over irrigation and water logging

Effects of Soil Erosion

 Top Soil Erosion

 Flooding
 Decrease in moisture retention capacity of soil
 Loss of vegetation
 Silting of rivers and canals
 Landslide incidence increase

Water Erosion –

Sands and silt are the soils which are more prone to water erosion.

Intensity of erosion is in this order – Splash<Sheet<Rill<Gully<Ravine

I. Splash Erosion – It is called by falling of the raindrops.

II. Sheet Erosion -is erosion in which top layer is eroded. Improper ploughing
techniques can also lead to erosion. This type of erosion is more prominent on
steeper slopes. It is more harmful because it erodes the top layer and renders the
soil unfit for cultivation.
III. Rill Erosion - linear grooves are formed. If erosion due to water continues
unchecked for significant amount of time finger shaped erosion may happen due

138
 to washing away of silt. The rill channels can temporarily be obliterated by tillage.
However, tillage loosens the soil making it more susceptible to rill erosion.

IV. Gully Erosion - On the other hand in gully erosion, erosion takes place due to rain
etc when the grooves as in rill erosion widen as in Chambals behads. It is a more
serious type of erosion. Ravines are formed if Gully erosion is unchecked.
It is a more serious problem in areas where rivers flow. It is quite prominent in
Banas, Chambal, Narmada etc.

Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs in arid and semi arid areas.

I. Saltation

When soil particle is very fine or medium, wind removes this by carrying it away
along with it.

II. Surface Creep

When soil is coarser, it is not carried away by wind in air but rolls over the
surface and upper layer is removed.

139
DEGRADATION OF SOIL

Degradation of soil due to human activities can take various forms – salinisation, erosion, silting,
barreness, desertification etc.

In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining
have caused severe land degradation.

Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares, about 174 million hectare face
degradation problems like wind and water erosion.

 In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one of
the main reasons for land degradation.
 In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible
for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity.

Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures

I. Mulching

In agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain
moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth. The bare ground

140
 between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil
moisture.

II. Contour Barriers

Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front
of the barriers to collect water.

III. Rock Dam

Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil
loss.

IV. Terrace Farming

These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops.
They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion

141
 V. Intercropping

Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect
the soil from rain wash.

VI. Contour Ploughing

Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to
flow down the slope

VII. Sand Fencing

A sand fence, is a type of fence, similar to a snow fence used to force wind blown,
drifting sand to accumulate in a desired place. Sand fences are employed to control
erosion and to recruit new material in desert areas.

VIII. Buffer Strip

A buffer strip is an area of land maintained in permanent vegetation that helps to
control air, soil, and water quality, along with other environmental problems, dealing
primarily on land that is used in agriculture.

142
IX. Strip Cropping: Strip cropping is a method of farming used when a slope is too steep or
too long, or when other types of farming may not prevent soil erosion. Large fields can
be divided into strips. Different crops with different maturity time are sown so that at
no time fields are completely exposed. Taller crops break the wind and act as barriers,
while smaller crops stem the flow of ware and help in retaining the water. Alternatively,
stripes of fallow lands can be used in areas where soil is not so fertile and alternate
stripes are sown leaving alternate stripes fallow.

X. Zero Tillage or No-Tillage

No-till farming (also called zero tillage or direct planting or pasture cropping) is a way of
growing crops from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. No-till is an
agricultural technique which increases the amount ofwater and organic matter
(nutrients) in the soil and decreases erosion. It increases the amount and variety of life in
and on the soil but may require herbicide usage.

No-till has carbon sequestration potential through storage of soil organic matter in the
soil of crop fields.

XI. Shelter Belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind
movement to protect soil cover

143
144
TYPES OF SOILS IN INDIA
Alluvial Soils

Alluvium is the solid material carried by river, and eventually deposited on the river bed, on
nearby flooded land, or in lakes in deltas. It may include silt, sand, gravel and organic material.

Geographical Spread – This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, the entire
northern plains are made of alluvial soil. These have been deposited by three important
Himalayan river systems– the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in
Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal
plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.

Soil Profile across the Valley –

 As we move inlands towards the river valleys (In geology, a valley or dale is a depression
with predominant extent in one direction. A very deep river valley may be called a
canyon or gorge. The terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography
to characterize the form of valleys.), soil particles appear some what bigger in size.
 In the upper reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of the break of slope, the soils
are coarse. Such soils are more common in piedmont (piedmont plateaus are the
plateau which are situated between mountain and a plain or sea) plains such as Duars,
Chos and Terai.

Types of Alluvium and Age of it – Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils are
also described on the basis of their age. The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey
to ash grey. Its shades depend on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and
the time taken for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated. According to their
age alluvial soils can be classified as -

 Old alluvial (Bangar) and

 New alluvial (Khadar) Khader has more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops, however they are poor in Nitrogen. It is not
suitable for Cotton and other water retentive crops.

Utility and Application – Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively
cultivated and densely populated.

Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive after proper treatment and
irrigation.

Black Soil

145
 Found in Deccan Plateau, these soils are black in colour and are also known as Regur Soils. They
develop under semi arid conditions. They have high moisture retentive capacity. They swell and
become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil develop
wide cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self ploughing’.

Utility and Application – It is best suited for growing crops and plants with deep roots. Black soil
is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil. It is believed that climatic
condition along with the parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of
black soil.

Spread – This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction
along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.

Composition and Properties – The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material.
They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, they are rich in soil
nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These soils are generally
poor in phosphoric contents and humus is also low. They develop deep cracks during hot
weather, which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. These soils are sticky when wet and
difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon
period.

Red and Yellow Soils

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern
parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
70% part of Tamil Nadu is made up of Red Soil. Usually found in areas of comparatively low
rainfall.

These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks.During dry summer season, evaporation exceeds precipitation and Iron and Aluminium
oxides are transported to surface through capillary action and thus giving soil red color.

Red Soils are suitable for cultivation of pulses and coarse grains.

They don’t retain moisture so are easily cultivable during rainy season.

It forms largest soil group in India.

It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Laterite Soil

Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil
develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall.This is the result of intense leaching

146
(To remove soluble or other constituents from by the action of a percolating liquid) due to heavy
rain. This is acidic in nature as lime and silica are leached away.

Most believe that this type of soil is formed due to intense weathering an leaching in alternate
cycles of wet and dry seasons.

These can be distinguished from other soils by their acidity. Tea plantation require acidity which
is there in the laterite soil. It is, therefore, common in these areas.

Laterite soils are formed under monsoonal conditions and lie at highland areas of plateau.

Composition and Characteristics – Humus content of the soil is low because most of the micro
organisms, particularly the decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.
Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers.

Spread – These soils are mainly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and
the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.

Usage and Utility – After adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the
hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful forgrowing tea and coffee.
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like
cashew nut.

Laterite soil is also used as a good building material. They can be easily cut from the source but
when dried becomes very hard. Since they are already weathered, they are not prone to further
weathering and hence provide for a durable construction.

147
Arid Soils

Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in texture and saline in
nature. In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating
the water. Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks
humus and moisture. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the
increasing calcium content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons
restrict the infiltration of water. After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been
in the case of western Rajasthan. They generally lack Nitrogen.

Peaty Soil

They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this

148
 gives a rich humus and organic content to the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up
to 40-50 per cent. It is highly deficient in potash and phosphorous. Found in some parts of
Orissa, WB, Bihar etc.

Characteristics of Indian Soil –

I. Most soils are old and mature

II. Indian soils are largely deficient in Nitrogen and humus
III. Plains have thick soil cover while hilly areas have thin covers
IV. Fertility is varied – Alluvial are more fertile, laterite are less fertile
V. Since Indian soils have been used for agriculture for thousands of years, their fertility has been
lost significantly and they are in need of scientific treatment.

149
NATURAL DISASTERS and HAZARDS

EARTHQUAKES

The Indian plate is moving at a speed of one centimeter per year towards the north and
northeastern direction and this movement of plates is being constantly obstructed by the
Eurasian plate from the north. As a result of this, both the plates are said to be locked with each
other resulting in accumulation of energy at different points of time. Excessive accumulation of
energy results in building up of stress, which ultimately leads to the breaking up of the lock and
the sudden release of energy causes earthquakes along the Himalayan arch. Some of the most
vulnerable states are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and the
Darjeeling and subdivision of West Bengal and all the seven states of the northeast.

Reservoir Induced Seismicity is another cause and the Koyna dam earthquake is attributed to
such type.

DRAUGHT

150
 Meteorological Drought: It is a situation when there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall
marked with mal-distribution of the same over time and space.

Agricultural Drought: It is also known as soil moisture drought, characterised by low soil
moisture that is necessary to support the crops, thereby resulting in crop failures. Moreover, if
an area has more than 30 per cent of its gross cropped area under irrigation, the area is
excluded from the drought-prone category.

Hydrological Drought: It results when the availability of water in different storages and
reservoirs like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.

Ecological Drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water
and as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem.

AVALANCHE

Avalanche is descending of material down a slope.

It can be of various types depending upon material –

 Snow Avalanche
 Debris Avalanche
 Rock Avalanche

TSUNAMI

Most destructive tsunamis are generated from large, ‘shallow’ earthquake with an epicenter or
fault line near or on the sea floor. Usually earthquakes stronger than 7.5 on Richter Scale can
produce a destructive tsunami.

A tsunami is not a single wave but a series of waves.

There are seismic and non-seismic causes of Tsunamis –

 Seismic – Earthquake and Volcanoes

 Non-Seismic – Rock fell, icefall, meteorite crash

The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the depth

of water. It is more in the deeper water than in the ocean
deep. Also, height of wave is inversely proportional to the
speed. Speed of Tsunami is higher in oceans and low on
shores on the other hand,a wave of one meter in sea can
produce waves of 15 meter on coastal areas.

As a result of this, the impact of tsunami is less over the ocean and more near the coast where
they cause large-scale devastations. Therefore, a ship at sea is not much affected by tsunami
and it is difficult to detect a tsunami in the deeper parts of sea as change in water level is not

151
 perceptible.It is so because over deep water the tsunami has very long wave-length and limited
wave-height. Thus, a tsunami wave raises the ship only a meter or two and each rise and fall
takes several minutes (as wavelength is long). As opposed to this, when a tsunami enters
shallow water, its wave-length gets reduced and the period remains unchanged, which increases
the wave height.

Tsunami is not a mass of flowing water, but it is a transfer of energy(as every sea wave is) in
which one molecule hits another and so on.

CYCLONES

FLOODS

LANDSLIDED

152
ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION, ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Some basic terms and concepts –

 Habitat – A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality of the physical and chemical factors
that constitute the general environment.
 Ecosystem – A system consisting of biotic and abiotic components is known as ecosystem. From
a structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors. Ecosystems are of
two major types: terrestrial and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into
‘biomes’.
 Biomes – A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The
boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate. Therefore, a biome
can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific
conditions. There are five major biomes – forest, desert, grassland, aquatic, tundra. Factors that
affect a biome are – Annual variation in temperature, mineral availability, rainfall etc. Of all the
biomes, tundra is the most continuous as it occurs almost unbroken along the poleward margins
of the Northern Continent. It is also the most fragile as it lacks diversity.
 Eco-Tone – It refers to a transition zone between two biomes. It generally has higher species
diversity as compared to any neighboring biomes.
 Eco-region – An ecoregion (ecological region), sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically
and geographically defined area that is smaller than an ecozone and larger than an ecosystem.
Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic,
geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities and species. The biodiversity of
flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterize an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of
other ecoregions. In theory, biodiversity or conservation ecoregions are relatively large areas of
land or water where the probability of encounter of different species and communities at any
given point remain relatively constant, within an acceptable range of variation (largely
undefined at this point).

The greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests was during the colonial period due to the expansion of
the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities. Even after
Independence, agricultural expansion continues to be one of the major causes of depletion of forest
resources. Many species became extinct from India, for example -Cheetah became extinct from India in
50s.

Some of our environmental activists say that the promotion of a few favored species, in many parts of
India, has been carried through the ironically-termed ‘enrichment plantation’, in which a single
commercially valuable species was extensively planted and other species eliminated. For instance, teak
monoculture has damaged the natural forest in South India and Chir Pine plantations in the Himalayas
have replaced the Himalayan oak and Rhododendron forests.

Situation in India –

 Over half of India’s natural forests are gone

153
  One-third of its wetlands drained out,
 70 per cent of its surface water bodies polluted,
 40 per cent of its mangroves wiped out,
 With continued hunting and trade of wild animals and commercially valuable plants, thousands
of plant and animal species are heading towards extinction.

Species on the basis of their vulnerability (from most vulnerable to less vulnerable) –

I. Endangered Species (Most Vulnerable) – These are species which are in danger of extinction.
The survival of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their
population continue to operate. The examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian
wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow antler deer in Manipur), etc.
II. Vulnerable Species – These are species whose population has declined to levels from where it is
likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue
to operate. The examples of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
III. Rare Species (Less Vulnerable) – Species with small population may move into the endangered
or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples
of such species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.

MEASURES to CONSERVE FLORA and FAUNA

National Parks, Reserved Forests and Protected Forests – Wild life reserves in India are classified
in these categories.

I. Wild Life Sanctuaries – They are relatively open to human activity and human
interaction is not completely barred. In a sanctuary, hunting without permission is
barred and grazing of cattle is regulated.
II. National Park – A natural area designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or
more ecosystems for present and future generations. They enjoy highest degree of
protection and human activity is totally banned. The National parks of India are IUCN
category II protected areas. India's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey
National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park. Today there are more than 100
National parks.
III. Reserved Forests – More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved
forests. Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of
forest and wildlife resources are concerned. As of present, reserved forests and
protected forests differ in one important way: Rights to all activities like hunting,
grazing, etc in reserved forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise.
In reserved forests, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to
communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or
wholly from forest resources or products. Thus, typically reserved forests enjoy a higher
degree of protection with respect to protected forests. However, it is possible that
certain protected forests may enjoy more protection with respect to certain reserved
forests.

154
IV. Biosphere Reserves in India – They are internationally recognized, nominated by
national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they
are located and are a part of UN ‘Man and Biosphere’ program. Biosphere reserves
serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating integrated
management of land, water and biodiversity. Collectively, biosphere reserves form a
world network: the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR). Within this network,
exchanges of information, experience and personnel are facilitated. There are over 500
biosphere reserves in over 100 countries. In India there are 7 as a part of this chain (out
of its total 17 biosphere reserves). Functions of Biosphere Reserves are threefold –
 A conservation function – to contribute to the conservation of landscapes,
ecosystems, species and genetic variation;
 A development function – to foster economic and human development which is
socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable;
 A logistic function – to provide support for research, monitoring, education and
information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation
and development.

In India there are 17 Biosphere reserves, out of which 7 biosphere reserves are part of
World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Efforts are on to include the rest also in this list.

Core areas of these biospheres are protected under Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and
Indian Forest Act 1927.

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), the first of the 17 biosphere reserves of India, was
established in September 1986.

Some other Biosphere reserves are –

 Nokrek Meghalaya
 Agasthyamalai Kerala, Tamil Nadu
 Manas Assam
 Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh
 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh
 Sunderbans Bengal
 Gulf of Mannar Tamilnadu
 Simlipal Orissa
 Achanakamar Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh
 Dihang Dibang Arunachal Pradesh
 Dibru Saikhova Assam
 Agasthyamalai Kerala
V. Protected Forests – Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as
declared by the Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further
depletion. Protected forests are of two kinds -demarcated protected forests and

155
 undemarcated protected forests, based on whether the limits of the forest have been
specified by a formal notification.

Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which
in turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a
higher degree of protection and government funding. The national parks protect the
entire ecosystem, while wildlife sanctuaries has special purpose of preserving animals
and birds.

For example, Sariska National Park was declared a reserved forest in 1955, upgraded to
the status of a wildlife sanctuary in 1958, becoming a Tiger Reserve in 1978. Sariska
became a National Park in 1992.

Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for
protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages
of reserved forests of its total forest area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests.

Apart from above two classifications, these are other forests and wastelands belonging
to both government and private individuals and communities called Unclassed Forests.

VI. Special Projects

 Project Tiger – It was launched in 1973 when population of tigers reached
critically low level under this tiger reserves have been set up. As a result
population of Tigers has slowly improved.
 Project Elephant – It was launched in 1991.
VII. International Treaties and Summits
 CITES
 Rio Summit -1992
 Biosphere Reserves
 Ramsar Wetland Convention
 Biological Hotspots – These are the biogeographic regions with a significant
repository of biodiversity. They are under threat from anthropogenic activities.
These regions have high number of endemic species, yet their combined area of
remaining area constitute very small percentage of global land (around 2%).
Each hotspot faces extreme threats and has already lost at least 70% of its
original vegetation. There are 34 such hotspots around the world and some are
there in India too. Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are two important
biological hotspots of India. Some areas are richer in species than others. Areas
rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity. These sites support

156
 nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species,
with a very high share of endemic species.

WASTELANDS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT in INDIA

Wasteland is defined as the land that is lying unused or the land that is not used to its optimum.
Snow Covered/Glacial land, Barren Rocky/Sheet Rock, Land affected by salinity/alkalinity,
Gullied/or ravinous land, Upland with or without scrub, Water logged & Marshy, Steep sloping
area, Shifting cultivation land, Mining/Industrial Wastelands, Degraded/pastures/grazing land,
Underutilized/degraded notified forest land, Degraded land under plantation crop etc are
notified as wastelands in India. So it has to broad categories –

 Culturable Wastelands – Culturable has potential of being converted into agricultural

land. These are those lands which has been in use for cultivation but has been
abandoned for various reasons like – deficiency in soil, wrong agricultural practices etc.
For long term conservation, such lands should be put under afforestation and not under
cultivation. Rajasthan has largest Cultivable waste lands in India
 Non-Culturable Wastelands

Spread of Wastelands – To record the spread, ‘Wastelands Atlas of India’ is prepared by

National Remote Sensing Centre and Ministry of Rural Development (2010).

Wasteland Conseravtion Efforts – India shares 16% of the world population, while its land is
only 2% of the total geographical area of the world. Naturally, the pressure on the land is often
beyond its carrying capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, especially the farmlands in the

157
India are in the constant process of various degrees of degradation and are fast turning into
wastelands. In this wake wasteland development is very important.

Various efforts by government in India are –

I. The National Wasteland Development Board is responsible for regenerating private,

non-forest and degraded land.
II. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)
 The major activities taken up under the scheme are:
 In situ soil and moisture conservation measures like terracing, bunding,
trenching, vegetative barriers and drainage line treatment.
 Planting and sowing of multi-purpose trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes and
pasture land development.
 Encouraging natural regeneration.
 Promotion of agro-forestry & horticulture.
 Wood substitution and fuel wood conservation measures.
 Awareness raising, training & extension.
 Encouraging people's participation through community organization and
capacity building.
 Drainage Line treatment by vegetative and engineering structures
 Development of small water Harvesting Structures.

Various other schemes like – DPAP, and other Watershed Management schemes by both state
and central government aim at reducing wastelands.

158
AGRICULTURE, CROPS, IRRIGATION and CULTIVATION and OTHER
FARMING METHODS
India is one of the countries with the highest proportions of arable land. Put of its total area 43%
is net sown area. Out of this only 35% is irrigated.

CULTIVATION PRACTICES

I. Intensive Farming or Intensive Agriculture – It is an agricultural production system

characterized by the high inputs of capital, labour, or heavy usage of technologies such as
pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area. This is in contrast to many sorts of
sustainable agriculture such as organic farming or extensive agriculture, which involve higher
inputs of labor, and energy relative to the area of land farmed, but focus on maintaining the
long-term ecological health of the farmland, also the product which is being produced is
generally produced with few or no chemicals.
II. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture – In 'Intensive Subsistence Agriculture 'the farmer cultivates a
small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. This type of farming is practiced in areas
of high population pressure on land. It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production. Intensive subsistence
agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south,
southeast and east Asia.
III. Extensive Farming – Extensive farming or Extensive agriculture (as opposed to Intensive
farming) is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and
capital, relative to the land area being farmed. Extensive farming most commonly refers to
sheep and cattle farming in areas with low agricultural productivity, but can also refer to large-
scale growing of wheat, barley and other grain crops. Nomadic herding is an extreme example of
extensive farming, where herders move their animals to use feed from occasional rainfalls.
Extensive farming is found in the mid-latitude sections of most continents, as well as in desert
regions where water for cropping is not available. The nature of extensive farming means it
requires less rainfall than intensive farming. Yields tend to be much lower than with intensive
farming in the short term.
IV. Shifting Cultivation or Primitive Subsistence Farming or Jhumming or Slash and Burn
Cultivation – A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then
mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown. After the soil
loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting
cultivation is also known as ‘Slash And Burn’ agriculture or Jhoom Cultivation in North East.
Orissa has the biggest area under such cultivation. As trees are cleared for sowing of seeds, it is
considered unfriendly to environment. Further, its productivity is also low.

This type of farming is still practiced in few pockets of India. Primitive subsistence agriculture is
practiced on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging
sticks, and family/community labour. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural
fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown. It is

159
 practiced in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of Southeast Asia
and Northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.

This type of cultivation is predominant in the eastern and north-eastern regions on hill slopes
and in forest areas such as Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Crops such as rain fed rice, corn, buck
wheat, small millets, root crops, and vegetables are grown in this system. 85% of the total
cultivation in northeast India is by shifting cultivation. Due to increasing requirement for
cultivation of land, the cycle of cultivation followed by leaving land fallow has reduced from 25–
30 years to 2–3 years. This significant drop in uncultivated land does not give the land enough
time to return to its natural condition. Because of this, the resilience of the ecosystem has
broken down and the land is increasingly deteriorating.

V. Commercial Farming – The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses
of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and
pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation of agriculture
varies from one region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and
Punjab, but in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop.
VI. Plantation – It is also a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop is
grown on a large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Plantations
cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All
the produce is used as raw material in respective industries. In India, tea, coffee, rubber,
sugarcane, banana, etc. are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in
Karnataka are important types of plantations.
VII. Mediterranean Agriculture – Mediterranean climate is characterised by wet winters and dry
summers. Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised commercial agriculture. It is practised
in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean sea in Europe and in north Africa from
Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa
and south and south western parts of Australia. This region is an important supplier of citrus
fruits.
Viticulture
Grape cultivation is a specialty of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the
world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various
countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This
region also produces olives and figs. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that
more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is
great demand in European and North American markets.
VIII. Horticulture – Market gardening and horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high value crops
such as vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets. Farms are small and are
located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre where high income
group of consumers is located. It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the
use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder

160
 regions. This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of
north west Europe, north eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions.
India is second largest fruit producer after China.
IX. Co-Operative Farming – A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their
resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact
and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative. Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure
all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most favourable terms and help in
processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
X. Fishing or Aquaculture – Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic
organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves
cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be
contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Mariculture refers to
aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Fishing grounds of world – Largest fishing
ground in the world North Sea, near Japan etc in high latitude. The reasons for concentration of
fishing grounds in high latitude are –
 Supply of Planktons – The best fishing grounds are located above continental shelves
which are not more than 200 meters below the water surface where planktons of all
kinds are most abundant.
 Cool Climate – It has been found that marine life is best developed in oceans with a
temperature lower than 20 degree Celsius. Tropical waters are too warm and the fish
species are generally of less commercial value.
XI. Dryland Agriculture – Dryland agriculture is associated with agriculture in absence of irrigation
facilities. Thus this type of agriculture is wholly dependent upon rain. This type of agriculture is
significance from Indian point of view because more that 75% of the cultivable land fall under
rainfed area. A not so well developed canal system and sinking ground water further makes it
significant. It is divided into 3 types –
 Dry Farming – Moisture/Precipitation is less than 750 mm annually
 Dryland Faming – Mositure is more than 750 but less than 1000mm
 Rainfed Farming – Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm.

Crops that are grown in such areas are – Pulses, Winter Wheat, Mllets like - Bajra

Dry land farming depends upon the moisture holding capacity of the soil and many measures
are taken to promote this – like mulching, clearing of weeds, contour ploughing etc.

However, dry land farming is also more prone to erosion especially wind and water. In rainy
areas this is more acute such as Maharashtra and Punjab where in peak rainy season erosion is
more.

XII. Organic Farming – A key characteristic of organic farming is the rejection of genetically
engineered plants and animals. It doesn’t employ any pesticides or any other chemical imputs.

161
XIII. Mixed Farming – This type of farming is found in developed countries and it involves farming of
both crops and animals. It is different from Mixed Cropping, where only two or more crops are
grown together.

Bad Cultivation/Farming Practices –

 Over-cropping – When too many crops are grown without any replacement of the minerals of
the minerals
 Monoculture – Growing of single crop
 Shifting Cultivation
 Overgrazing
 Slope Cultivation – Soil Erosion is always enhanced when the cleared area of land is on a steep
slope, because this allows gully erosion.

IRRIGATION

On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and
rain fed (barani). Following are the major types –

I. Irrigated Farming
a. Wells and Tubewells – They dominate irrigation in Gujarat
b. Canal Irrigation – It is more suitable in areas where –
 Gradient is low
 Perennial sources of waters are available
 Soil is deep and fertile

In India, the Northern planes have very low gradient and this makes them
suitable for irrigation by canals as canals can take water to far off places without
lifting requirement.

c. Tank Irrigation – On the other hand in Peninsula relief is un-even and surface is
hard/rocky which makes it unsuitable for canal irrigation.
 Due to rocky surface percolation is very poor and farmers often make
check dams on streams in rainy seasons to store water.
 Further rivers are seasonal and dry up after rains pass.
 Scattered nature of agriculture and population also favors tank
irrigation.

This is the reason that in southern states Tank Irrigationis more prevalent while
in north Canal and Tubewell irrigation is more prevalent. Andhra is the leading
state where tank irrigation is practiced.

II. Rainfed Farming

162
 It is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season
into 'dryland' and 'wetland' farming.

 Dryland Farming – In India, the Dryland Farming is largely confined to the

regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions grow hardy and
drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops)
and practise various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water
harvesting.
 Wetland Farming – In Wetland Farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture
requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil
erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice,
jute and sugarcane and practice aquaculture*in the fresh water bodies.

COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT

The command area is the area around the dam, where the benefits of the dam, such as
irrigation water, electricity, etc., reach.

Command Area Development Programme – The gap between irrigation potential created (by
dams and canals) and irrigation potential utilized prompted the Irrigation Commission in 1972 to
make specific recommendations for systematic and integrated development of commands of
irrigation projects. The command area development programme (CADP) was initiated in the
year 1974-75 under Centrally Sponsored Scheme, with the objective of fast utilization of created
irrigation potential and optimum agriculture production from irrigable land.

Under this program, central assistance is provided to the State Governments in the form of
grant for carrying out on-farm development and water management activities such as
construction of field channels (for carrying water from canal outlet up to the farms) and field,
intermediate and link drains; repairing of canal systems (up to capacity of150 cusec), trainings,
adaptive trials, demonstrations, implementation/promotion of participatory irrigation
management, monitoring, evaluation etc.

Advantages of CAD –

 This improved the utilization of the water.

 This has also helped in reducing wind erosion and siltation of canal systems.
 Spread of canal irrigation has led to increase in cultivated area and intensity of cropping.

Side effects of CAD –

 Intensive irrigation and excessive use of water has led to the emergence of twin
environmental problems of water logging and soil salinity.
 The traditional crops sown in the area, gram, bajra and jowar have been replaced by
wheat, cotton, groundnut and rice. This is the result of intensive irrigation.

CROPPING SEASONS

163
 India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid.

I. Rabi Crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer
from April to June. Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and
mustard. Though, these crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north
and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and
other rabi crops. Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western
temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops.
II. Kharif Crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season
are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean.
III. Zaid – In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the
summer months known as the Zaid season. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’
are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber etc.

CROPS

A large variety of crops are grown to meet the requirement of the growing population. Crops
also supply raw materials for agro based industries. Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and
millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee.

Climate conditions play an important role in deciding number of crops per year. In favorable
climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops a year are grown.

I. Rice – Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is the staple diet of the tropical and
sub-tropical regions. Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world
after China.

Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall(everything high). It grows best
in alluvialclayey soil, which can retain water.

China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt.

Some of the most important rice-growing regions are Assam, WestBengal, coastal
regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the
(Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy has also become an
important crop of Punjab and Haryana.

It is grown in both Kharif and Rabi season. In south where climate remains humid
throughout the year, it can be grown flexibly. But in North winters don’t allow this
tropical crop and hence it is grown in Kharif.

Eastern Coast produces more rice than Western Coast.

164
II. Wheat – Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfallduring growing seasonand
bright sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in well drained loamy soil.

It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.

Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and
India. In India it is grown in winter.

There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains
in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan. The major wheat-producing states
are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

III. Millets or Coarse Grains – They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on
less fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to
moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India.
Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.

They requires comparitivly lesser time -3/4 months - for reaping. These are highly
suitable for dryland farming.

Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known
as ‘Coarse Grains’, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in
iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.

Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production. It is a
rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.
Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.

Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer
of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow
black soils. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu. Apart from
these states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh
are also important for the production of ragi.

IV. Maize – Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs
well-drained fertile soils. (It needs conditions similar to wheat). Maize is grown in North
America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.
V. Pulses – India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses that are grown
in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram. Among these, peas and
gram are sown in rabi and while others in kharif season.
Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.

165
 Being leguminous crops (leguminous crops have bacteria that help in fixing nitrogen,
their roots have nodules that contain Nitrogen fixing bacteria that hence help in sooil
management and reduce the need of adding nitrogenous fertilizers.), all these crops
except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore,
these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops.
Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and Karnataka.
VI. Oil Seeds – India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different oil seeds are
grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country.
Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til),
soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of these are edible
and used as cooking mediums. However, some of these are also used as raw material in
the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced
in the country. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Linseed and mustard (Sarson) are rabi crops.
Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown
both as rabi and kharif crop.
VII. Fiber Crops – Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in
India. The first three are derived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained
from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially mulberry. Rearing of silk
worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

Cotton

India is the original home to cotton plant.

India is the first country in the world to develop hybrid variety of cotton.

Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free
days (frost is fatal for cotton) and bright sunshine for its growth. It grows best
on black and alluvial soils.

Sea-breeze is beneficial for quality of the fibre. The ideal situation for plantation
is lowlands near the sea coast or on islands in semi-tropical latitudes.

China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton.
It is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.

There were 394 cotton mills in India before partition, out of this 14 mills went to
Pakistan. Remaining 380 mills which were left in India. However 40 % cotton
producing area became area of Pakistan. Thus India was forced to import raw
cotton to keep the mills alive

166
 Jute

Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.

It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and
humid climate (cotton requires dry climate).

This crop is grown in the tropical areas.India and Bangladesh are the leading
producers of jute.

Jute requires highly nutritive soil and the crop exhausts the soil-nutrients very
rapidly. That is the reason that it is grown in the regions where soil is flooded
every year by new alluvium.

It is a labor intensive crop, but this is grown in areas where labor is easily
available. Its contribution towards employment is immense.

VIII. Sugarcane – It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid
climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. and
100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a variety of
soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest
producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary),
khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Sugarcane looses weight due to presence of heat. So this crop is grown near the areas
where mills are easily accessible.
Like jute it is both labor intensive and requires nutrient rich soil as it exhaust them
easily.
India is second largest sugar producing country after Brazil.
IX. Horticulture Crops – India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges of
Nagpur and Cherapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya,
grapes of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the world over.
X. Rubber – It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than
200 cm i.e. high rainfall. And temperature above 25°C. Rubber is an important industrial
raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala (it produces 90% of Indian production), Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India
ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers.

167
 XI. Tobacco – It was introduced in India by Portugese. Hot and moist climate; rich soil. Soil
is more important factor in growth of tobacco than climate. This is the reason that
tobacco is scattered all over India and no single region has monopoly.
XII. Coffee – Coffee requires warm and wet climate and welldrained loamy soil. Hill slopes
are more suitable for growth of this crop. Coffee plant requires humid tropical climate,
while tea can be cultivated in both tropical and sub tropical areas. Brazil is the leading
producer followed by Columbia and India.
XIII. Tea – The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep
and fertile well-drainedsoil (that’s why it’s is grown on slopes), rich in humus and
organic matter. Lterite soil can be used for cultivation of tea. Tea bushes require warm
and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers evenly distributed
over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a labour intensive
industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour. Tea is processed within the tea
garden to restore its freshness. Alternate warm and cold spells help in its growth and it
is a shade loving plant. Presence of Potash and Phosphorous give it a special flaour, as in
case of Darjeeling Tea.

FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers normally contain three main ingredients namely nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Nitrogen: imports a healthy green colour to the leaves.

Phosphorus: hastens leaf development and promotes root growth.

Potassium: plays an essential part in the formation of starch.

AGRICULTURAL GROWTH IN INDIA

Agricultural production stagnated during late 1950s. To overcome this problem, Intensive
Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP)were
launched. But two consecutive droughts during mid-1960s resulted in food crisis in the country.
Consequently, the foodgrains were imported from other countries. New seed varieties of wheat
(Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding varieties (HYVs) were available for
cultivation by mid-1960s. India took advantage of this and introduced package technology
comprising HYVs, along with chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation
was a basic pre-requisite for the success of this new agricultural technology. This strategy of
agricultural development paid dividends instantly and increased the foodgrains production at
very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural growth came to be known as ‘Green Revolution’. But
green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only.

GREEN REVOLUTION

Components of green revolution in India

168
 I. HYV – They required fertiliesers
II. Irrigation – Command Area Development
III. Fertilisers
IV. Credit
V. Mechanisation
VI. Land reforms and Consolidation
VII. Agricultural Universities

Shortcomings of green revolution

I. Inter-Crop imbalances – Some crops like coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds etc suffered
as focus shifted to others
II. Regional Imbalances
III. Environmental Impact – Overuse of fertilizers, water
IV. Inequalities

Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single crop is grown on a large
area?

a. Shifting Agriculture
b. Plantation Agriculture
c. Horticulture
d. Intensive Agriculture

What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of forest has shown an increase in the
last forty years?

a. Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation

b. Increase in community forest land
c. Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth– (i.e. growth is only superficial and actual
growth is not indicated in this, which might be even negative)
d. Better peoples’ participation in managing forest area.

Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigated areas?

a. Gully erosion
b. Salinisation of soils
c. Wind erosion
d. Siltation of land

Salinisation occurs in following areas –

a. Arid conditions in general and capillary action in particular

b. Low lying coastal areas
c. Over irrigated coastal areas

169
170
INDUSTRIES
Sunrise Industries – Emerging industries are also known as ‘Sunrise Industries’. These include
Information technology, Wellness, Hospitality and Knowledge.

Footloose Industry – Footloose industry is a general term for an industry that can be placed and located
at any location without effect from factors such as resources or transport. These industries often have
spatially fixed costs, which means that the costs of the products do not change despite where the
product is assembled. Diamonds and computer chips are some examples of footloose industries. These
industries can be located at a wide variety of places as these are not weight losing or raw material
specific. Moreover, they produce in relatively small quantities, employing smaller workforce and are
considered to be more efficient from an ecological point of view. These are generally not polluting
industries.

Agro based Industries

Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into
finished products for rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food
processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats
and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.

Textile Industry in India

In the ancient and the medieval times, it used to be only a cottage industry. India was famous
worldwide for the production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and
other different varieties of fine cotton cloth. The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam,
Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton pieces of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were
known worldwide for their quality and design. But the production of hand woven cotton textile
was expensive and time consuming.

In 18th century, power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in the
Great Britain and later in other parts of the world. Today India, China, Japan and USA are the
important producers of cotton textiles.

The first textile mill in the country was established at Fort Gloster near Kolkata in 1818 but it
closed down after some time. In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai.
This city had several advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing centre. It was very close to
the cotton producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cotton used to be brought to
Mumbai port to be transported to England. Therefore, cotton was available in Mumbai city
itself. Moreover, Mumbai even then was the financial centre and the capital needed to start an
industry was available there. As a large town, providing employment opportunities attracted
labour in large numbers. Hence, cheap and abundant labour too was available locally. The
machinery required for a cotton textile mill could be directly imported from England.

About one-third of the Indian textiles industry’s total production is exported.

171
 Cotton Industry

By 1947, the number of mills in India went up to 423 but the scenario changed after
partition, and this industry suffered a major recession. This was due to the fact that the
most of the good quality cotton growing areas had gone to West Pakistan and India was
left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent of the cotton producing area.

The rapid development of this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of the abundant
availability of hydel power for the mills. Lower labour costs at centers like Ujjain,
Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be located
away from cotton producing areas.

Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them produce yarn rather than
cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre with nearly half the mills
located there.

Jute

India is largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an
exporter after Bangladesh. There are about 70 jute mills in India. Most of these are
located in West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt (98
km long and 3 km wide). Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are:
proximity of the jute producing areas, inexpensive water transport, supported by a good
network of railways, roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to
the mills, abundant water for processing raw jute, cheap labor from West Bengal and
adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban centre
provides banking, insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods.

Waterways has been important since ancient times, in fact most of the cities were
situated on the banks of rivers which facilitated trade as well as navigation

Sugar Industry in India

This industry is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector. In recent
years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western
states, especially in Maharashtra, this is because the cane produced here has a higher sucrose
content. The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing season. Moreover, the cooperatives
are more successful in these states.

Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per
cent depending on its variety. Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been
harvested from the field. Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24
hours of its harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing regions.
Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than

172
 one-third of the total production of the sugar in the country. (Earlier UP had an edge over other
states).

Problems in Sugar Industry

 Low Yield
 Short Crushing Season – Leads to labor idling and machinery idling
 Small and Un-economic Mills
 Old Machinery

North v/s South in Sugar Industry

 Peninsualr India has tropical climate which suits Sugarcane crop, hence there is higher
yield in South.
 Sucrose Condition is also high in Southern sugarcane
 Crushing Season is also much longer – 7/8 months as compared to 3/4 months in North
 Cooperatives are also better managed in South than North
 Most of the mills in South are new so they have modern machinery

Iron and Steel Industry in India

Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4:2:1. Some
quantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel.

Unlike integrated bigger steel plants, Mini steel plantsare smaller, have electric furnaces, use
steel scrap and sponge iron. They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce mild
and alloy steel of given specifications.

Hi-Technology Industry

These highly skilled specialists greatly outnumber the actual production (blue collar) workers.
Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic
controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and
pharmaceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry. Neatly spaced, low,
modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures, factories
and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. Planned business parks for high-tech
start-ups have become part of regional and local development schemes. High-tech industries
which are regionally concentrated, self-sustained and highly specialized are called technopolies.
The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle are examples of
technopolies.

IT Industry in India

The state government of Karnataka was the first to announce an IT Policy in 1992. Bangalore has
the largest number of educational institutions and IT colleges in India.

173
174
DEMOGRAPHICS, TRIBES, POPULATION PARAMETERS and DIASPORA
Population Change has three major components – Fertility, Mortality and Migration

Some Demographic Figures –

 Arunachal Pradesh is the state with lowest population density of just around 13 per square km.
It is mainly because of very thick forests and difficult terrain.
 West Bengal has highest population density.
 India has adopted Population Policy in 2000. Its broad aim is to stabilize the population by 2045.
However this was later revised to 2060.

POPULATION PYRAMID

It shows the distribution of the population in the various age groups as a percentage of the total
population.

Progressive Pyramid – In a population pyramid, if the base is wider –as in case of developing
countries - it is a termed as Progressive Pyramid.

Regressive Pyramid – On the other hand if the pyramid is more cylindrical –as in case of
developedcountries - it is termed as Regressive Pyramid.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

It can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area. The theory tells us that
population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low deaths
as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society.
These changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.

175
 The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to
compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. The population growth is
slow and most of the people are engaged in agriculture where large families are an asset. Life
expectancy is low, people are mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology. Two hundred
years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage. India was still at this stage till 1950s.
At the beginning of the 20th century population of India was almost 1/5th of today’s population
at 23 Crore.

Fertility remains high in the beginning of second stage but it declines with time. This is
accompanied by reduced mortality rate. Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead
to decline in mortality. Because of this gap the net addition to population is high. This is also
termed as ‘Population Explosion’ in case of India. India underwent this stage in 1951-81.

In the last stage, both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is either stable
or grows slowly and there are definite signs of slowdown. The population becomes urbanized,
literate and has high technical knowhow and deliberately controls the family size.

MALTHUSIAN HYPOTHESIS

Thomas Malthus in his theory (1793) in his ‘Essay on Principles of Population’ stated that the
number of people would increase faster than the food supply (Malthusian Hypothesis). Any
further increase would result in a population crash caused by famine, disease and war. The
preventive checks are better than the physical checks. For the sustainability of our resources,
the world will have to control the rapid population increase.

DEMOGRAPHIC POLARISATION

It refers to relatively contrasting features of demographics of two different regions.

Past censuses revealed that India was demographically divided into a relatively forward
Southern region and relatively backward Northern region. However, recently there have been a
number of measures which has led to lessening of this polarization.

RACIAL GROUPS in INDIA

176
 Recent scientific evidences have debunked the racial theories which segregate humans into
distinct races. It is now agreed that there are no clear cut races as there are no defining
features. In India, first classification of the racial groups was made around a century ago by
Herbert Risely and findings were published in a book 'The Peoples of India'. He classified Indians
among 3 racial groups –

 The Dravidians
 The Indo-Aryans
 The Mongoloids

Later on detailed studies were done and historian Ramchandra Guha, Majumdar and others
came up with following Classification which is today most widely accepted –

I. The Negrito – They are the oldest racial group and are belived to come from Africa. They
are survived in their original habitat in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Jarawas,
Onges, Sentelenese and GreatAndamanitribes are the examples. Studies have indicated
that the Onges tribes have been living in the Andamans for the last 60,000 years.
II. The Proto-Australoid – This group was the next to come to India after the Negritos.
Austrics tribes, which are spread over whole of India, Myanmar and the islands of South
East Asia. The Austrics were the main builders of the Indus Valley Civilizations. Kol and
Munda are their surviving languages.
III. The Mongoloid – These people have features that are common to those of the people of
Mongolia, China and Tibet. These tribal groups are located in the North- Eastern part of
India in states like Assam, Nagaland and Meghalaya as also in Ladakh and Sikkim.
IV. Mediterranean or Dravidians – This group came to India from the South-West Asia and
appears to be the people of the same stock as the people of Asia Minor and Crete and
the pre- Hellenic Aegeans of Greece. This group has a sub-type called Oriental group.
V. Nordic – Nordics or Indo-Aryans are the last immigrants into India. Nordic Aryans were a
branch of Indo-Iranians, who had originally left their homes in Central Asia, some 5000
years ago, and had settled in Mesopotamia for some centuries.

The ancestry of the present tribal population of India is traced chiefly to the first three types -
The Negrito, the Proto-Australoid and the Mongoloid.

TRIBES in INDIA

Denotified Tribes – Denotified tribes (DNTs), also known as vimukta jati, are the tribes that
were originally listed under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, as Criminal Tribes and "addicted to
the systematic commission of non-bailable offences." Once a tribe became "notified" as
criminal, all its members were required to register with the local magistrate, failing which they
would be charged with a crime under the Indian Penal Code. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1952
repealed the notification, i.e. ‘de-notified’ the tribal communities but a series of Acts instead
classified them as ‘Habitual offenders’. The denotified tribes were reclassified as ‘habitual
offenders’ in 1959. In 2007, the UN’s anti-discrimination body Committee on the Elimination of

177
 Racial Discrimination (CERD) asked India to repeal the Habitual Offenders Act (1952) and
effectively rehabilitate the ‘denotified’ and ‘nomadictribes’.

The National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (NCDNSNT) is a
national commission set under Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of
India, to study various developmental aspects of denotified and nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes
in India. The Commission was first set up in 2003, and reconstituted in 2005 as the earlier
commission could not be able to make much headway for number of reasons.

Scheduled Tribes – Also called prrimitive tribal groups. They are the tribes which are in defined
as per the Article 342 of the Constitution. They are declared ‘Scheduled’ by president after
consultation with the Governors in the states concerned. Their population is either stagnant or
declining and they use primitive methods of living.There is no definition of Scheduled Tribes in
Constitution. However there are no fixed criteria laid down in constitution, a tribal area is put in
the scheduled list after president declares it as the one in consultation with state concerned.
Following are the broad criteria considered (as a convention, not as a rule) while declaring a
tribal area as a scheduled tribe –

 Indicative of primitive traits

 Distinctive Culture
 Shyness of contact with community at large
 Geographical isolation i.e. backwardness

Tribes constitute more than 8% of Indian population. Major Tribes in India are –

 Apatamis – Arunachal Pradesh

 Baiga – Madhya Pradesh
 Bhotia – They are from Mangoloid group and inhabitants of HP, Uttrakhand and UP
 Bonda – The Bondaare an ancient tribe of people numbering approximately 12,000 (2011
census) who live in the isolated hill regions of the Malkangiri district of southwesternmost Orissa
 Gond – They live in central India and derive their name from the Gondwana land. The Gonds
have scheduled tribe status in most of the Indian states and are the second largest tribe in the
country and are believed to be of Dravidian or Mediterranean stock.
 Ho - These Indian tribes are also known as the Lanka Kol or the Bihar Ho tribes. Classified as
Causasian, Ho literary means 'Man'.These famous tribes of India are found in Singbhum district
of Bihar, and the mayurbhanj district of Orissa.
 Jarawas, Onge, Sentenelse – They belong to Andeman and are from Negrroid group. (while
Shompen and Nicobarese are from Mongoloid group)Jarawas are the oldest inhabitants of India.
Jarawas are left only in a few hundreds – less than 300 to be precise - and are very vulnerable to
external environment and diseases. In this view government has formulated a policy ‘The Policy
on Jarawa Tribes of Andeman’ that advocates minimum interference.
 Kol People - The Kol people is a generic name for the Munda, Ho, and Oraon tribes (Adivasi) of
eastern India who live in the states of Jharkhand, Orissa, and West Bengal, and spread over into

178
 parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh, and
Nepal.
 Kukis – They belong to Manipur
 Lambadis – These tribes are found in Karnataka.
 Lepcha – The Lepchaare the aboriginal people of Sikkim, who number between 30,000 and
50,000. Many Lepcha are also found in western and southwestern Bhutan, Tibet, Darjeeling
 Lushais - are tribes of Mizoram.
 Munda - The Munda are tribal people of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region. Found in Bihar,
Orissa, Jharkhand.
 Oraon - They are also known as Kurukh tribes. These tribes are mainly found in the states of
Jharkhand, Bihar, WestBengal and Orissa.
 Saharia - Saharia is an indigenous Munda-speaking tribe in the Madhya Pradesh
 Santhanls – They are the largest tribal community in India and are spread over Orissa, Jharkhand
etc.
 Shompen – They are the Mangolian tribes of Andeman and Nicobar
 Todas – They live in Nilgiri hills and are limited to just a few hundred in their population

TRIBAL WELFARE in INDIA

 There is a separate ministry of Tribal affairs has been set up.

 In 2003, National Commission on Scheduled Tribes was set up.
 TRIFED is the central marketing agency for tribal products.
 The Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) Strategy has been adopted for all round development of tribal areas
throughout the country since Fifth Five Year Plan. Under TSP following are the subschemes –
 Integrated Area Development Project (ITDPs)
 Modified Area Development Approach (MADA)

INDIAN DIASPORA

I. Old Diaspora or the The First Wave – During colonial period (British period) millions of the
indenturedlabourers were sent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana),
Fiji and South Africa by British from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe,
Martinique and Surinam by French and Dutch and by Portuguese from Goa, Daman and Diu to
Angola, Mozambique to work as plantation workers. All such migrations were covered under the
time-bound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act). However, the living conditions
of these indentured labourers were not better than the slaves.
II. New Diaspora of The Second Wave of migrants ventured out into the neighboring countries in
recent times as professionals, artisans, traders and factory workers, in search of economic
opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and
the trend still continues. There was a steady outflow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labour in
the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s. There was also some outflow of
entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to Western Countries.

179
180
TRANSPORT and COMMUNICATION

ROAD TRANSPORTATION

Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways – The government has launched a major road
development project linking Delhi-Kolkata- Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super
Highways.

The North-South Corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu)

East-West Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat)

181
 The major objective of these Super Highways is to reduce the time and distance between the
mega cities of India. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway
Authority of India (NHAI).

WATER TRANSPORT

Inland Water Transport – Before the advent of railways, waterways were the chief mode of
transport in India. It is fuel efficient and environmental friendly mode of transportation.

Advantages

 It is the cheapest mode of transport in a country. As there is no investment needed to

develop roads/rails.
 It is also labor intensive transport system and hence benefits the weaker sections.
 From energy point of view also it is most efficient.

Bottlenecks

 Shallow rivers, silting and dry season pose major challenge

 Crafts are older
 Lack of coordination between hydal projects and flood control
 Diversion of water for irrigation purpose also creates issues

Current Situation – India has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of rivers,
canals, backwaters and creeks. The total navigable length is 14,500 km, out of which about 70%
can be used by mechanised crafts. It is dominant mode of transport in West Bengal and Assam
and to a greater extant in Bihar also. Half of traffic from Assam to Calcutta is by inland water
transport. Till 6th Year plan the inland waterways system was a neglected lot. New government
in 2014, laid stress on developing national waterways as these are least polluting and the most
efficient mode of transportation. Government is also planning to boost coastal transportation as
well.

Under-Utilised – Freight transportation by waterways is highly underutilised in India compared

to other large countries and geographic areas like the United States, China and the European
Union. The total cargo moved (in tonne kilometers) by the inland waterway was just 0.1% of the
total inland traffic in India, compared to the 21% figure for United States.

Prominent Areas – Cargo transportation in an organised manner is confined to a few waterways

in Goa, West Bengal, Assam and Kerala.

Authority – ‘Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI)’ is the statutory authority in charge of
the waterways in India. Its headquarters is located in NOIDA (UP). It does the function of
building the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the economic feasibility of
new projects and also administration and regulation.

182
 National Waterways – Like National Highways, there are 6 National Waterways too. Out of
which thrust has been on to develop 2 of them – Ganga river system or NW1 and Brahmputra
System or NW2. Ganga is the most important waterway and it has been declared National
Waterway no. -1.

PORTS and SHIPPING

Shipping – Indian Shipping Industry was grossly underdeveloped before independence mainly
due to stiff foreign competition and absence of government incentives. After Independence
considerable growth has been made, but still Indian shipping accounts for only 1% of the total
volume traded across the world.

Ports

I. Paradip – It is especially developed to export iron ore to Japan.

183
 II. Kandla– It is a sea port situated at the head of the Gulf of Kuch in Gujarat State. It was
the first port to be developed after independence. It has a free trade zone.It is a Tidal
Port.
III. Haldia is a riverine port on the bank of river Hugli. Its main purpose is to reduce
congestion on Kolkata port.
IV. Kolkata Port - Being a riverine port it also suffers from many drawbacks like – silting,
sandy bars and islands have formed at several places, river bends at several places and
depth is also declining gradually.
V. Chennai – It is the oldest artificial harbor in India.
VI. Ennore – It has been recently developed to reduce load on Chennai port.

Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-west corridor?

a. Mumbai and Nagpur

b. Mumbai and Kolkata
c. SILCHER AND PORBANDAR
d. Nagpur and Siligudi

184
DEFINITIONS
ADVECTION

The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle
latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather is caused by advection alone.
In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called ‘loo’ is
the outcome of advection process.

ALBEDO

This is the reflected energy that is received from Sun, even before it reached earth. 35% of the
solar energy is reflected back even before reaching earth. It is called 'Albedo of Earth'. It is
highest at poles around 80% and it is
around 30% in tropics.

The major determinants of the Albedo

are –

a. The amount of clouds over.

Clouds increase albedo. Lower
clouds have higher albedo
b. Particulate matter in the
atmosphere
c. Angle of sun’s rays, higher the
angle more the atmosphere
must be penetrated, there by greater loss of radiation.
d. Type of Surface, smoother the surface higher the radiation – It is more on snow and very
less on forest area.
ALGAL BLOOMS

An algal bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae (typically

microscopic) in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine
environments. Typically, only one or a small number of phytoplankton species are involved.

Of particular note are harmful algal blooms (HABs), which are algal bloom events involving toxic
or otherwise harmful phytoplankton. Such blooms often take on a red or brown hue and are
known as RED TIDES.

It is unclear what causes HABs; their occurrence in some locations appears to be entirely
natural, while in others they appear to be a result of human activities.The frequency and
severity of HABs in some parts of the worldhave been linked to increased nutrient loading from
human activities.The growth of marine phytoplankton (both non-toxic and toxic) is generally

185
 limited by the availability of nitrates and phosphates, which can be abundant in coastal
upwelling zones as well as in agricultural run-off.

ANTECEDENT DRAINAGE or STREAM

An antecedent stream or antecedent drainage is a stream that follows a course that formed
before the tectonic uplift of the surrounding terrain and maintained its course through
continuous downcutting of its valley. Also referred to as a "superposed stream."

The Himalayan Rivers are great examples of antecedent origin i.e. these rivers originated well
before the Himalayan region was uplifted. The rivers Indus, Ganga and Sutlej originated in
Tibetan side and now traverse to the existing mountain ranges cutting deep Gorges.

ANTICLINE and SYNCLINE

Anticline - In structural geology, an anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at
its core.On a geologic map, anticlines are usually recognized by a sequence of rock layers that
are progressively older toward the center of the fold.

Syncline - In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of
the structure. Synclines are typically a downward fold.

ANTICYCLONE

186
 An anti-cyclone - also known as a high pressure area- is a large atmospheric circulation system
with the wind flowing clockwise around it in the Northern Hemisphere, and counter-clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere. Anticyclone conditions form when atmospheric pressure is high and
temperature is low.

Anticyclones form from air masses cooling more than their surroundings (The air mass cooling
that results in an anticyclone forming can be caused by either conduction as the air flows over a
relatively cool ocean surface, or through the loss of infrared radiation over land during the fall,
winter, or spring when little sunlight is available to warm the air mass.), which causes the air to
contract slightly making the air denser.Since dense air weighs more, the weight of the
atmosphere overlying a location increases, causing increased surface air pressure.

Anticyclones (commonly known as highs) are predictors of fair weather.

While Cyclones (commonly known as lows) generally are indicators of rain, clouds, and other
forms of bad weather. A cyclone is indicated by fall in barometer reading. The strongest
anticyclones occur over snow-covered portions of Asia and North America in the winter when
clear, dry air masses cool from a loss of infrared radiation, while little sunlight is absorbed to
offset that infrared cooling.

ANTIPODES

In geography, the antipodes of any place on Earth is the point on the Earth's surface which is
diametrically opposite to it. Two points that are antipodal to one another are connected by a
straight line running through the centre of the Earth.

APPARENT SOLAR DAY

See SIDERAL DAY

187
AQUIFER

A saturated geological unit (e.g. sands, gravels, fractured rock) which can yield water to wells at
a sufficient rate to support a well.

ARGILLACEOUS

Containing, made of, or resembling clay; clayey.

ATOLL

An atoll is a coral island (or islands) that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.

Atoll Formation –

AURORA

They are produced by the magnetic field interactions in the ionosphere of earth when charged
magnetic particles enter into earth’s atmosphere. These can be spotted more prominent on
poles as there are extended spells of darkness and higher gravitational forces. The colored lights
produced correspond to the green and red emission lines from the oxygen and nitrogen
molecules that have been excited by the magnetic particles from the Sun.

Aurora occur at height of around 100 km and extend upto 400 km. A large number of these take
place in ionosphere. These are also affected by solar cycles, solar rotation and seasons. The light
occurs where charged particles from the solar wind enter the upper atmosphere. These particles

188
 are deflected by the earth’s magnetic field and descend through the atmosphere towards both
poles. The areas which more frequently occurs towards 20 degree from geometric poles and it
occur more frequently towards midnight. During sunspot maxima sun releases maximum
charged particles, these soon reach earth and are captured by the magnetic field of earth.

AUTOTROPH

An autotroph, (self-feeding) or producer, is an organism that produces complex organic

compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) from simple substances present in its
surroundings. For example - using energy from light (by photosynthesis) or inorganic chemical
reactions (chemosynthesis). They are the producers in a food chain, such as plants on land or
algae in water. They are able to make their own food.

HETEROTROPH on the other hand who cannot make their own food by such process.

BAGAR

Eastern part of Thar desert upto Aravali Range is a semi arid plane known as Bagar.

BAILEY’s BEADS

As the moon "grazes" by the Sun during a solar eclipse, the rugged lunar limb topography allows
beads of sunlight to shine through in some places, and not in others.

A similar phenomenon is ‘Diamond Ring Effect’.

BARCHAN or BARKAN

These are arc shaped sand dunes that are formed in sandy deserts like Thar in India.

189
BASE LEVEL of EROSION

It is the ultimate level of erosion for a river, this level of erosion may change in a longer time. In
India this type of erosion is mainly seen in peninsular rivers.

BEINIOFF ZONE

A Benioff or Wadati–Benioff zone is a deep active seismic area in a subduction zone. Differential
motion along the zone produces deep-seated earthquakes, the foci of which may be as deep as
about 700 kilometres (430 mi). They develop beneath volcanic island arcs and continental
margins above active subduction zones.

BHORGHAT, THAL GHAT and PALGHAT

190
 These are the breaks in the Western Ghats which facilitates connectivity between the western
coastal plains and pennisnsular plateau.

Bhorghaat and Thalghat lie in the Konkan area providing rail and road connection from Konkan
plains to peninsular/Deccan plateau.

Palghat lies in the Malabar area. It connects the plains of Tamilnadu to the coastal plains of
Kerala. It is believed to be a rift valley.

BIOSPHERE

The biosphere includes all the living components of the earth. It consists of all plants and
animals

BIOMASS GASSIFICATION

It is a thermochemical process in which ‘fuel gas’ is formed as a result of ‘partial combustion’ of

the biomass, such as wood, crop residues, agro industrial wastes etc. Its main advantage is that
it enables conversion of Solid Biomass fuel into a more convenient and versatile fuel.

It is less carbon intensive than burning the biomass directly. So it is of immense importance for
rural lighting. India has huge potential and some states have taken initiatives to setup such
plants.

BREAKWATER

A manmade barrier built out from the sea coast to break the force of the waves and so protect
the shore. As in Mumbai.

Bt

As in Bt Brinjal or Bt cotton. It is the name prefixed to the transgenic crops which have a strain
of a soil bacteria (Bacilus Thuringiensis). Presence of this protectsthe crops against insects.

191
BUYS BALLOT’s LAW

In Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with his back to the wind, low pressure lies to his
left and high pressure lies to his right.

CALDERA

These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that when
they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure. The
collapsed depressions are called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that the magma
chamber supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in close vicinity. A large, bowl-shaped
crater associated with a volcanic vent. A caldera can form from a volcanic blast or the collapse of
a volcanic cone into an emptied magma chamber.

CARBONATION

Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed
in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.

CARRYING CAPACITY

Carrying capacity of a species or a biological environment is the maximum size of a population

that environment can sustain. It is argued that for sustainable development a species –say
human beings – and their activities should not breach the carrying capacity. As a corollary, the
environment acts adversely if carrying capacity is breached and natural calamities etc restore
the balance.

CAY

A cay is a small, low-elevation, sandy island formed on the surface of coral reefs.

Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans (including
in the Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide
habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people.

A cay is formed when ocean currents transport loose sediment across the surface of a reef to a
depositional node, where the current slows or converges with another current, releasing its
sediment load.

The island resulting from sediment accumulation is made up almost entirely of biogenic
sediment – the skeletal remains of plants and animals – from the surrounding reef ecosystems.

CELESTIAL EQUATOR

192
 The celestial equator is a great circle on the imaginary celestial sphere, in the same plane as the
Earth's equator. In other words, it is a projection of the terrestrial equator out into space. As a
result of the Earth's axial tilt, the celestial equator is inclined by 23.4° with respect to the ecliptic
plane.

CHOS

These are seasonal local streams in Himachal and Punjab which dissect the mountainous
regions. They have played a lead role in erosion of the area in Punjab and other states.

CIRCLE OF ILLUMINATIONS

Sun at any given time illuminate only one half of the earth, it is called Circle of illumination or it
is the circle which separates day from night.

CLOUD

CLOUD vs FOG vs MIST

Fog forms due to presence of warm air above cold air. The cold air below cools down the warm
air which in turns lead to condensation of the moisture around dust particles in form of fog.

The chief difference between fogs and clouds is their place in the atmosphere. That is the
height.

193
 Mist is a type of fog in which visibility is more.

COAL LIQUEFACTION

The process of converting solid coal into a liquid fuel such as synthetic crude oil or methanol.

COGENERATION

It employs simultaneous generation of power (electrical or mechanical) and thermal energy

from a single fuel source.

(THE) COLD DESERT – LADAKH

Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar mountains in the south enclose it. Several
rivers flow through Ladakh, Indus being the most important among them. The rivers form deep
valleys and gorges. Several glaciers are found in Ladakh, for example the Gangri glacier.

COMMAND AREA

The area served by a canal system through supply of water for irrigation and other purposes.

COMPOST and VERMI-COMPOST

The process in which farm waste material like livestock excreta (cow dung etc.), vegetable
waste, animal refuse, domestic waste, sewage waste, straw, eradicated weeds etc. is
decomposed in pits is known as composting. The compost is rich in organic matter and
nutrients. Compost is also prepared by using earthworms to hasten the process of
decomposition of plant and animal refuse. This is called vermicompost.

CONSEQUENT DRAINAGE

It refers to drainage which follows the structure of an area. The drainage of Peninsular plateau
region in general is of consequent type. (On the other hand, Himalayan River System is of
Antecedent Type River System)

CONTINENTALITY

The great ranges of temperature occur in land areas far from a ocean – a phenomenon called
continentality. In a given latitude, continentality increases with distance from the open seas. The
most extreme form of continental climate occurs in central asia where annual temperature
range is 60 degree Celsius.

CONURBATION

The term is applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of
originally separate towns or cities.

CORIOLIS FORCE

194
 An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting
winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern
hemisphere. This is also known as ‘Ferrel's Law’.These forces are negligible near equator and are
stronger near the poles.

CORALS

Coral reefs are masses of limestone and dolomite. These are accumulated by ‘Coral Polyps’,
corals forms due to accumulation of skeleton. The corals are cemented by solution and
calcareous sand. The reefs are essentially the remains of calcareous organisms and algae.

Corals for their formation require clear water and sediment free environment. Living corals
occur in depression or toward the outer margin of the reef into open sea.

Most of the Corals are found in the 20 degree Isotherms.

Coral reefs are a characteristic of Pacific Ocean.

There are broadly 3 types of coral reefs –

a. Fringing Reefs (Reefs along the coastline which also seem to forming the part of land)
b. Barrier Reef (A series of Coral reefs away from the coast). A barrier reef is largest of all
three.
c. Atoll (a group of reefs in form of clustered islands with lagoons in between). A fringing
reef can take ten thousand years to form, and an atoll can take up to 30 million years.
CORAL BLEACHING

Corals contain plant-like organisms called zooxanthellae that live symbiotically within their
tissue. Zooxanthellae provide their coral host with food and oxygen and in return, the
zooxanthellae receive nutrients, carbon dioxide, and an enemy-free shelter. When water
temperatures increase this critical yet delicate symbiotic relationship breaks down and the
zooxanthellae are expelled, often leading to the coral’s death. The phenomenon is called “coral
bleaching” because the coral animal appears to turn white after the zooxanthellae loss. This is
because without their zooxanthellae symbionts, which contain various photosynthetic pigments,
corals are nearly transparent and the white. Increased CO2 means increased acidification of
water making it difficult for corals to secrete their CaCO3 skeleton.

COVER CROPS

Cover crops can be used to suppress weeds, build productive soil, and help control pests and
diseases.

One of the primary uses of cover crops is to increase soil fertility. These types of cover crops are
referred to as "green manure." Green manure crops are commonly leguminous and hence they
fix nitrogen in soil.

195
 By reducing soil erosion, cover crops often also reduce both the rate and quantity of water that
drains off the field.

Thick cover crop stands often compete well with weeds during the cover crop growth period.

CRATON

A craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere. Having often survived cycles of
merging and rifting of continents, cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates.

They are characteristically composed of ancient crystalline basement rock, which may be
covered by younger sedimentary rock. They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that
extend as much as a few hundred kilometers into the Earth's mantle.

The term craton is used to distinguish the stable portion of the continental crust from regions
that are more geologically active and unstable. Cratons can be described as shields, in which the
basement rock crops out at the surface, and platforms, in which the basement is overlain by
sediments and sedimentary rock.

CONDENSATION vs PRECIPITATION

Condensation is a physical change in which gaseous water vapors upon cooling becomes liquid
droplets. It may happen anywhere – say on the outer surface of a cold body. Precipitation on the
other hand is the process by which droplets becomes heavier enough to sustain gravitational
pull and fall from the clouds.

CROPPING INTENSITY

It is the number of crops sown per year. It is ratio of gross cropping area and net cropping area.

It depends upon various factors like irrigation, climate, topography etc.

In India it is low at just a little more than one. Scientific techniques can be used to shorten the
harvesting cycle by using proper seeds and irrigation and cultivation techniques.

DANDAKARANYA

Dandakaranya roughly translates from Sanskrit to ‘The Jungle (aranya) of Punishment

(dandakas)’. It is a dense forest area that includes the Abujhmar Hills in the west and the Eastern
Ghats in the east, including parts of the Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
states.

While in ancient India it is associated with Mythological stories of Ramayana, in Modern India it
is associated with Naxal hit area.

196
DAY LIGHT SAVING TIME

As summer days become longer, in some countries there is a practice of putting the clocks
ahead to use the energy resources efficiently.

It brings the benefits like – Energy Conservation, increased leisure time, etc.

Followed in Sub-tropical countries like - Australia, US UK etc as there are greater variations in
day and night lengths and twilights are longer.

The practice is not suitable for the tropical countries – like India, as variations in the days as
seasons change is comparatively lower and there is also not much twilight.

DEW

As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate
greater than that at which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.

Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces, in late summer it is formed most easily
on surfaces which are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground .i.e. surface should be
away from a source of heat, such as grass, leaves, railings, car roofs, and bridges.

Dew forms ideally when there are clear sky, little or no wind, high relative humidity and
relatively long nights. For frost also similar conditions are required.

DIAMOND RING EFFECT

The diamond ring effect is a feature of total solar eclipses.Just before the sun disappears or just
after it emerges from behind the moon, the rugged lunar limb topography allows beads of

197
 sunlight to shine through. This effect is called BAILY'S BEADS, in honor of Francis Baily who first
noted the phenomenon in 1836.

DIFFERENTIATED PLANET

A planet that has layers composed of elements and minerals of different densities. As an
example, Earth is a differentiated planet because it has a metal-rich core, surrounded by a rocky
mantle, and covered by a crust of low-density minerals.

DIKE

A dike or dyke in geology is a type of ‘sheet intrusion’ referring to any geologic body that cuts
across -

- planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation

- massive rock formations, like igneous/magmatic intrusions and salt diapirs.

Dikes can therefore be either intrusive or sedimentary in origin.

DOLDRUMS

See ITCZ

198
DRAINAGE DIVIDE

The boundary between two adjacent drainage basins. Drainage divides are ridge crests (or less
obvious locations where slope of the landscape changes direction).

DUST DEVIL

It is a dusty whirlwind normally a few feet in diameter and about 100 feet tall, sometimes also
wider and higher.

ECLIPTIC PLANE

The ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun on the celestial sphere as seen from the Earth's
center, and also the plane of this path, which is coplanar with the orbit of the Earth around the
Sun.

Since earth’s axis is inclined, its celestial equator and ecliptic plane don’t coincide, but meet only
during time of equinox.

ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY

It is the percentage of usable energy transferred from one trophic level to another. It depends
upon the species involved in such a transfer.

ECOREGION

199
 An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller
than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are larger than an
ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic,
geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities and species. The biodiversity of
flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of
other ecoregions.

ECOZONE

An ecozone is the broadest biogeographic division of the Earth's land surface, based on
distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.

Ecozones delineate large areas of the Earth's surface within which organisms have been evolving
in relative isolation over long periods of time, separated from one another by geographic
features, such as oceans, broad deserts, or high mountain ranges, that constitute barriers to
migration.

They are distinct from biomes, also known as major habitat types, which are divisions of the
Earth's surface based on life form, or the adaptation of plants and animals to climatic, soil, and
other conditions. Biomes are characterized by similar climax vegetation. Each ecozone may
include a number of different biomes.

EFFLUENT STREAM

A stream that gains water from ground water flow. These streams are typical of humid climates
where water tables are high. The discharge of an effluent stream can be sustained by ground
water flow for long periods of time between runoff-producing rainfall or snowmelt. Effluent
streams generally increase in discharge downstream and contain water throughout the year.
The opposite is an influent stream.

ENDORHEIC BASINS

That do not drain to the ocean.

200
ESKER

An esker is a long winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, examples of which occur in
glaciated and formerly glaciated regions of Europe and North America. Eskers are frequently
several kilometres long and, because of their peculiar uniform shape, are somewhat like railway
embankments.

EUPHOTIC ZONE or PHOTIC ZONE

The photic zone or euphotic zone is the depth of the water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to
sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur. The depth of the photic zone can be affected
greatly by seasonal turbidity.

201
 PELAGIC ZONE -Any water in a sea or lake that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore
can be said to be in the pelagic zone and sunlight in this zone is not much.Fish that live in the
pelagic zone are called pelagic fish. Pelagic life decreases with increasing depth. The pelagic
zone can be contrasted with the benthic and demersal zones at the bottom of the sea. The
benthic zone is the ecological region at the very bottom of the sea.

BENTHIC ZONE - The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water
such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers.
Organisms living in this zone are called benthos.

NERITIC ZONE - The neritic zone, also called coastal waters, the coastal ocean or the sublittoral
zone,is the part of the ocean extending from the low tide mark to the edge of the continental
shelf, with a relatively shallow depth extending to about 200 meters

EUTROPHICATION

It is a process where water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant
growth. Eutrophication is when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients. This can be a
problem in marine habitats such as lakes as it can cause algal blooms. Eutrophication due to
human activities is called Cultural Eutrophication.

One example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to
increased levels of nutrients.

202
 NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS include hypoxia, the
depletion of oxygen in the water,
which induces reductions in
specific fish and other animal
populations. Other species (such
as Nomura's jellyfish in Japanese
waters) may experience an
increase in population that
negatively affects other species.

Ecological Impacts of
Eutrophication

 Increased biomass of phytoplankton

 Dissolved oxygen depletion, this leads to increase in Biological Oxygen Demand

 Loss of desirable fish species

 Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species

 Increases in blooms of gelatinous zooplankton

 Increased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae

 Changes in macrophyte species composition and biomass

 Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)

EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES

Industries involved in mineral resource exploration, acquisition, assessment, development or

production.

FAULT

In geology, a fault is a planar ‘fracture’ or ‘discontinuity’ in a volume of rock, across which there
has been significant displacement along the fractures as a result of earth movement.

Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces.

Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most
earthquakes.

A ‘fault line’ is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the fault plane and
the Earth's surface.

203
 Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, geologists use the term ‘fault zone’
when referring to the zone of complex deformation associated with the fault plane.

The dip is the measurement of how steeply the fault plane slopes. (as in given figure, it is 60 and
30 degrees)

TYPES of FAULTS –

- DIP SLIP FAULTS - Together, normal and reverse faults are called DIP-SLIP FAULTS,
because the movement on them occurs along the dip direction—either down or up,
respectively.
NORMAL FAULTS form when the hanging wall(Where the fault plane is sloping, the
upper side is the ‘hanging wall’ and the lower side is the ‘footwall’.) drops down. The
forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides apart, or extensional.The block
above the fault has moved down relative to the block below the fault.
REVERSE FAULTS form when the hanging wall moves up. The forces creating reverse
faults are compressional, pushing the sides together.The block above the fault has
moved upwards relative to the block below the fault.

- STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS have walls that move sideways, not up or down. That is, the slip
occurs along the strike, not up or down the dip. In these faults the fault plane is usually
vertical, so there is no hanging wall or footwall. The forces creating these faults are
lateral or horizontal, carrying the sides past each other.

FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAIN

204
 A linear mountain that is bounded on both sides by normal faults.

FERREL'S LAW

See CORIOLIS FORCES

FJORD

A deep, narrow, steep-walled, U-shaped valley that was carved by a glacier and sometimes is
now occupied by the sea.

FLUVIAL

Fluvial is a term used in geography and Earth science to refer to the processes associated with
rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them.

FOG

See CLOUD

FOLIATION

The planar or layered characteristics of metamorphic rocks that are evidence of the pressures
and/or temperatures to which the rock was exposed.

These can be structural such as cleavage, textural such as mineral grain flattening or elongation,
or compositional such as mineral segregation banding.

FUMAROLE

A vent that emits hot gases, usually associated with past or current magmatic activity below.

For Picture, see Subduction Zone

GEOSYNCLINE

A major trough or downwarp of the Earth's crust, in which great thicknesses of sedimentary
and/or volcanic rocks have accumulated.

It is a term is used for a subsiding linear trough that was caused by the accumulation of
sedimentary rock strata deposited in a basin and subsequently compressed, deformed, and
uplifted into a mountain range.

The classic geosyncline is divided into two parts, namely a miogeocline, and a eugeocline which
lies to the seaward side. The miogeocline is made up of sediments which form the continental
shelf. The eugeocline consists of sediments on the continental rise in deeper water some
distance offshore.

GEOTEXTILES

205
 Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which, when used in association with soil, have the ability to
separate, filter, reinforce, protect, or drain.

Typically made from polypropylene or polyester.

Geotextiles and related products have many applications and currently support many civil
engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures,
reservoirs, canals, dams, bank protection, coastal engineering and construction site silt fences.

Usually geotextiles are placed at the tension surface to strengthen the soil. Geotextiles are also
used for sand dune armoring to protect upland coastal property from storm surge, wave action
and flooding.Geotextiles can improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional Methods.

Government of India in 2012-13 budget allocated Rs 500 for a pilot project for application of
Geotextiles in Northeastern region

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth.

SOURCE of GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -At the core of the Earth, thermal energy is created by
radioactive decay and temperatures may reach over 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat conducts
from the core to surrounding cooler rock.

EXTRAXTION -From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic
times. The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply
humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Current
sources of geothermal energy lie near magma sources, hot springs etc.

LIMITATIONS -Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally

friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries.Fluids drawn
from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3). These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid
rain, and noxious smells if released.

206
 SUSTAINABILITY -Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because any projected heat
extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content. Human extraction taps a minute
fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it.

GLOBAL HEAT BALANCE

Towards poles from 35 N and South, Insolation is lesser than the Out Radiation

Insolation<Out-Radiation

On the other hand from equator till 35 degree on both sides, Insolation is higher than the out
radiation.

Insolation>Out-Radiation

Hence, between 35 degree North and 35 degree south, there is surplus of energy. On the other
hand, region towards poles is energy deficit.

This imbalance is corrected by ‘Atmospheric circulation’ (80%) and ‘Oceanic convection’ (20%).

GMT and TIME ZONE CALCULATION

Russia is divided into 9 time Zones, China into one. Given almost two hours difference between
east and west, India could have been divided into two time zones, but it’s not. This is mainly
because of the it is usually done to benefit from daylight saving time, which cannot be applied
here. World is divided into 24 time zones and the first starts at 7.5 degree (or half an hour ahead
of GMT) west and east and rest at interval of 15 degree or 15*4 = 60 minutes. Most of the
countries chose one of these prime meridians. India has also chosen 82.5 degree East, which is
5.5 hours ahead of GMT.

1 degree = 4 minute.

On east of GMT, time is Added. On West it is subtracted. Eg – As Australia is around 100 degree
to the east of India, when it is noon in India, it will be12+100*4/60 in Australia.

To calculate time, say at 40 degree EAST and 110 Degree East, if time is given for say 40
degree East, it means, we have to add the difference (110-40=70) equivalent time
(70*4=280/60 hrs) as 110 is in the East of 40 degree east. If longitude was given in the
west say – 30 degree west, then time will be 30+40=70 degree i.e. 70*4/60 hrs lesser (as
40 degree west is to the west of 40 degree East)

GRAFTING

Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues from one plant are inserted into those of
another. The technique is most commonly used in asexual propagation of commercially grown
plants for the horticultural and agricultural trades. In stem grafting, a common grafting method,
a shoot of a selected, desired plant cultivar is grafted onto the stock of another type.

207
GREAT CIRCLE

A circle on the earth’s surfacewhose plane passes through its centre, and bisects it into two
hemispheres. Two opposing meridians together form a Great Circle. The shortest distance
between any two points on the earth’s surface is the arc of the Great Circle which passes
through them. 0° latitude forms a Great Circle. (The latitude or longitude 75°W should be
combined with 75°E to obtain the Great Circle).

GULF STREAM

The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift,
is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates at the tip of Florida, and
follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the
Atlantic Ocean. The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward
accelerating current off the east coast of North America. At about 40°0′N 30°0′W / 40°N 30°W /
40; -30, it splits in two, with the northern stream crossing to northern Europe and the southern
stream recirculating off West Africa.

The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to
Newfoundland, and the west coast of Europe. Although there has been recent debate, there is
consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would
otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift, one of the branches from the tail of the Gulf
Stream. It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its presence has led to the development of strong
cyclones of all types, both within the atmosphere and within the ocean. The Gulf Stream is also
a significant potential source of renewable power generation.

208
GUYOTS

Mountains of volcanic origin sometimes get flattened at the top. These are called guyots.

HANGING VALLEY

A hanging valley is a ‘tributary valley’ with the ‘floor at a higher relief than the main channel’
into which it flows. They are most commonly associated with U-shaped valleys.

209
HEAT BUDGET

It has been found that the yearly mean temperature of the earth remains constant. The
incoming short wave radiation is balanced by an equal amount of long wave.i.e. amount of heat
received by earth is equal to amount of heat lost.The highest temperature in January and July
occurs on land and he high specific heat of water.

HORSE LATITUDE

Horse Latitudes or Subtropical High are subtropical latitudes between 30 and 35 degrees both
north and south. This region, under a ridge of high pressure called the subtropical high, is an
area which receives little precipitation and has variable winds mixed with calm weather.

Also called belts of calm.

Folklore - Due to its calm, sailors used to drop the dead horses into sea due to unavailability of
water.

HYDROSEEDING

Hydroseeding is a planting process which utilizes a slurry of seed and mulch. The slurry is
transported in a tank, sprayed over prepared ground by a tractor, truck or even helicopter. It is
done usually for a large area.

Aircraft application may also be used on burned wilderness areas after a fire, and in such uses
may contain only soil stabilizer to avoid introducing non-native plant species.

HYDROPONICS

210
 It means cultivation of the plants without use of soil. i.e. it is the science of growing plants in
nutrients elements without presence of an inert medium. (such as gravel, vermiculture, saw
dust etc). Plant needs 17 nutrients apart from Sunlight, Water and CO2.

INDUSTRIAL SICKNESS

Industrial Sick Unit is defined as a unit which has incurred accumulated loss in any year
exceeding its net worth. There is The Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) is
assigned with the responsibility of hearing cases that apply for being declared sick and deciding
whether or not the unit deserves to be termed "sick."

REASONS - A unit may be sick for external as well as internal reasons like – Mismanagement,
Raw material supply technology obsolescence.

In the light of the above consequences of sickness and its growing incidence by size, region and
industry followed by its far-reaching adverse socio-economic effects, the Government has been
taking many steps and remedial measures in order to tackle this problem in India. The most
significant measure has been the enactment of the Sick Industrial Companies (Special
Provisions) Act,1985 (SICA).

INLAND DRAINAGE

Some rivers are not able to reach sea and drain in the land itself. Ghaggar is the biggest river to
have an inland drainage.

IN SITU CONSERVATION and EX SITU CONSERVATION

IN-SITU CONSERVATION – Conservation of animals and plants in their natural habitat i.e. in Wild.
Biosphere reserves, national parks are such efforts.

EX-SITU CONSERVATION – Conservation of species outside their natural habitation. This is

carried out when the species are on the brink of extinction or are threatened by other species or
environment in their natural habitat.

INTENSITY of IRRIGATION

It is defined as a percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area.

INTENSITY of RAINFALL

The intensity of rainfall is a measure of the amount of rain that falls over time. The intensity of
rain is measured in the height of the water layer covering the ground in a period of time. It is
usually measured in mm.

ISOSTASY

Isostasy is a term used in geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the
earth's lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates "float" at an elevation

211
 which depends on their thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different
topographic heights can exist at the Earth's surface. When a certain area of lithosphere reaches
the state of isostasy, it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas)
are not in isostatic equilibrium.

ITCZ or DOLDRUMS or THERMAL EQUATOR

The Inter tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is the area encircling the earth near the equator
where winds (trade winds) originating in the northern and southern hemispheres come
together.The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that circle the globe near
the equator.

When it lies near the equator, it is called the ‘near-equatorial trough’.

Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred
to as a ‘monsoon trough’.

In the seamen's speech the zone is referred as the ‘Doldrums’because of its erratic weather
patterns with stagnant calms and violent thunder storms.

ITCZ and INDIAN MONSOON

According to meteorologists, Monsoon is the result of the shift of the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) under the influence of the vertical sun towards Tropic of
Cancer.The ITCZ being the zone of lowest pressure in the tropical region, is the target
destination for the Trade winds of both the hemispheres. Consequentially, with ITCZ at
the Tropic of cancer (over Indian peninsula), the South East Trade winds of the Southern
Hemisphere have to cross the equator to reach the ITCZ.However, due to Coriolis effect,
these South East trade winds are deflected eastwards in the Northern Hemisphere
transforming into South West trades. These pick up the moisture while traveling from
sea to land and cause orographic rain once they hit the highlands of the Indian
Peninsula. This results in the South-West Monsoon.

JET LAG

As we travel and time zones shift, it disturbs the circadian rhythm (Rhythm in the metabolic
system of the most of the living organisms which suits their sleeping and waking cycles) and we
feel tired.

JET STREAMS

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmospheres.

212
 The main jet streams are located near the tropopause. The major jet streams on Earth are
westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths typically have a meandering shape; jet
streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in
various directions including the opposite direction of most of the jet.

The strongest jet streams are the Polar jets, at around 7–12 km (23,000–39,000 ft) above sea
level. The polar jet stream can be thought of as the result of this frontogenesis process in
midlatitudes.

The higher and somewhat weakerSubtropical jets at around 10–16 km (33,000–52,000 ft).

Causes of Origin -Jet streams are caused by a combination of

- a planet's rotation on its axis and

- atmospheric heating

JOINT

In terms of geology, it is a fracture in a rock etc. It is the most important determinant of

resistance of rocks to weathering.

KAREWAS

213
 In the Kashmir valley, there is an unconsolidated gravel sand and mud succession appearing as
plateaus above the present plain of Jhelum and its tributaries. These ‘plateau-like terraces’ are
called ‘Karewas’ or ‘Vudra’ in the local language.

Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines. In
Kashmiri language, they refer to lake deposits found in the flat topped terraces of the Kashmir
valley and on the pir panjals. These deposits consist of clays, sands and silts.

KARST TOPOGRAPHY

A landscape that is characterized by the features of ‘solution weathering’ and erosion ‘in the
subsurface’ which is usually made of carbonate rock. These features include caves, sinkholes,
disappearing streams and subsurface drainage. This geological process, occurring over many
thousands of years. It occurs in rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the
where the surface water as well as groundwater through the chemical process of solution and
precipitation deposition develop varieties of landforms. These two processes of solution and
precipitation are active in limestones or dolomites occurring either exclusively or interbedded
with other rocks. Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the
action of groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst
topography after the typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the
Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.

KEYSTONE SPECIES

It is a species or group of species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is much larger
and more profound than as expected from its mere abundance. Top predators may not be
necessarily keystone species.

LAYERING

214
 Layering is a means of plant propagation in which a portion of an aerial stem grows roots while
still attached to the parent plant and then detaches as an independent plant.

LEACHING

Where rainfall is having a downward movement water through soil, and transports mineral salts
with it, a process known as leaching.

CAPILLARY ACTION

Where rainfall is light or where evapo-transpiration exceeds precipitation, water and

mineral salts are drawn upwards toward the surface by the process of capillary action.
Leaching tends to produce acidic soils whereas capillary action make soil alkaline.

To reduce acidic character, a farmer generally mixes CaCO3 (Source of Ca ion to soil). Soil may
become acidic also from reason of incomplete decomposition of organic material. Decomposition
may be incomplete due to – lack of heat or water logged conditions.

LIMITS to GROWTH MODEL

The Limits to Growth is a 1972 book about the computer modeling of unchecked economic and
population growth with finite resource supplies.The book echoes some of the concerns and
predictions of Thomas Malthus in An Essay on the Principle of Population.

(SOIL) LIQUIFACTION

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by

earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. Under such conditions, soil behaves like a jelly and
the structures above it – say buildings set – cannot stand erect.Liquefaction occurs in saturated
soils, that is, soils in which the space between individual particles is completely filled with water.
This water exerts a pressure on the soil particles that influences how tightly the particles
themselves are pressed together. Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is relatively low.
However, earthquake shaking can cause the water pressure to increase to the point where the
soil particles can readily move with respect to each other.

215
Therefore it is very important for dams, bridges etc to check for this phenomenon.

Earthquakes can cause soil liquefaction where loosely packed, water-logged sediments come
loose from the intense shaking of the earthquake. Liquefaction and related phenomena have
been responsible for tremendous amounts of damage in historical earthquakes around the
world.

216
LITTORAL DRIFT

The process whereby beach material is gradually shifted laterally as a result of waves meeting
the shore at an oblique angle.

LIVING MODIFIED ORGANISM

Living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology are broadly equivalent
to genetically modified organisms. The difference between an LMO and a GMO is that a Living
Modified Organism is capable of growing, and typically refers to agricultural crops.

Genetically Modified Organisms include both LMOs and organisms which are not capable of
growing, i.e. are dead.

LOAD

The total amount of sediment being carried by a stream or a glacier.Includes suspended

materials, dissolved materials and materials moved along Earth's surface.

LODE

A rich accumulation of minerals in ‘solid rock’. Frequently in the form of a vein, layer or an area
with a large concentration of disseminated particles.

Contrasts with placer deposits.

MACRO NUTRIENTS

There are sixteen nutrients which are essential for plants. Air supplies carbon and oxygen,
hydrogen comes from water, and soil supplies the other thirteen nutrients to plants. Amongst
these thirteen nutrients, six are required in large quantities and are therefore called
macronutrients.The other seven nutrients are used by plants in small quantities and are
therefore called micro-nutrients.

MARGINAL WORKER

It is a person who works for less than 183 days in a year.

MARICULTURE

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms

for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks,
ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater.

MASCARENE HIGH

This is a high pressure areaat sea levelsouth of equator in the Indian ocean near Mascarene
Island, near Madagascar.The position and intensity of this high are considered to closely linked
to the South Summer Monsoon Activities.

217
MASS WASTING

It is the movement of material down the slope under the influence of gravity. It is a transitional
phenomenon between weathering and erosion. It can be of various types – Land Slide, Debris
avalanche, Earth flow, mud flow etc.

MERIDIAN

It is an imaginary line extending from North to south pole at right angles to equator. Meridian
passing through Greenwich is taken in deciding the longitude and it is termed as Prime
Meridian.

MICRO IRRIGATION or DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation or localized irrigation, is an
irrigation method which saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots
of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of
valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.It is done with the help of narrow tubes which deliver water
directly to the base of the plant.

Advantages –

- Save Water
- Save Fertilizers

NATIONAL WATER GRID

It is a plan for inter connection of the surplus and deficit basins of the rivers also known as river
inter-linking plan.

NITROGEN FIXATION

Plants need nitrogen for survival but cannot take it directly from atmosphere. Bacteria that live
in the soil and roots of some plants take nitrogen from the air and change its form so that plants
can use it.

NORWESTERS

Norwesters are thunderstorms that commence in March and continue with increased frequency
till the monsoon establishes over North-East India. During the Pre monsoon season/period that
is from March to May; West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand (chhotanagpur),
Bangladesh and North Eastern States of India are affected by violent Thunderstorms. They are
also known as Kaalbaisakhi, because of their demon like destructive nature. Most of the
Norwesters are accompanied by strong squalls and sometimes by hail.

OCEAN GYRE

218
 The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. These large accumulations of water and
the flow around them are called Gyres. These produce large circular currents in all the ocean
basins.

There are five major gyre as shown below -

 Indian Ocean Gyre

 North Atlantic Gyre
 North Pacific Gyre
 South Atlantic Gyre
 South Pacific Gyre

OUTFALL

A location where water is discharged. Normally used in reference to where a water treatment
facility releases treated water into the environment.

PALEGIC ZONE

Any water in a sea or lake that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore can be said to be
in the pelagic zone.Fish that live in the pelagic zone are called pelagic fish. Pelagic life decreases
with increasing depth.

PERMAFROST

It refers to permanently frozen sub soil within less than 1 meter.When upper layer melts, the
sublayer still remains frozen and it results into marshy regions.

PERMEABILITY

219
 See POROSITY

PHYTOPLANKTON

They are the very small autotrophic plants normally found in water. Most phytoplankton are too
small to be individually seen with the unaided eye. However, when present in high enough
numbers, they may appear as a green discoloration of the water due to the presence of
chlorophyll within their cells.

Phytoplankton account for half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth.Phytoplankton are

photosynthesizing microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans
and bodies of fresh water. They are agents for "primary production," the creation of organic
compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food
web.

They are agents of primary production in food chain and Phytoplankton area key food item in
both aquaculture and mariculture for fishes etc.

Their growth depends upon a lot of factors like dissolved nutrients, sunlight, temperature and
ocean currents. In some areas the discharge by human activities is leading to more dissolved
nutrients and leading to uncontrolled growth of phytoplanktons which can be harmful for
aquatic life as they cover the upper layer and doesn’t allow proper dissolution of oxygen. For
example – Harmful Algal Blooms are one such phytoplankton group which release harmful
toxins as well.

PLACER DEPOSIT

In geology, a placer deposit or placer is an accumulation of valuable minerals formed by gravity

separation during sedimentary processes.

Types of placer deposits include alluvium, eluvium, beachplacers etc.

220
 Placer materials must be both dense and resistant to weathering processes. To accumulate in
placers, mineral particles must be significantly denser than quartz, as quartz is usually the
largest component of sand or gravel.

Gold, magnetite, and diamonds can be found in placer deposits.

In India, such deposits are found along the coastal areas.

PLASTICULTURE

Use of plastic in agriculture. It can be used in various ways like – To give green house effect. To
act as a mulch to conserve water.

PLUTON

A pluton in geology is a body of intrusive igneous rock (called a plutonic rock) that crystallized
from magma slowly cooling ‘below the surface’ of the Earth. Plutons include batholiths, stocks,
dikes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, and other igneous bodies.

Other related Concepts –

BATHOLITH - A batholith is a large ‘former magma chamber’, often many miles across.

SILL - A sill is a ‘sheetlike injection’of magma between layers of sedimentary rock.

DIKE - A dike is a sheetlike body that fills a ‘fracture’ that cuts across other rocks.

LACOLITH - A laccolith is a small magma chamber at ‘shallow depth’ (roughly lens shaped).

221
POROSITY

POROSITY vs PERMEABILITY

The porosity of a medium, which is a measure of its ability to hold water in its pore spaces. On
the other hand, permeability is a measure of its ability to allow water to flow through its pores
and fissures.

They may not be synonymous. Clay is porous but not permeable, granite is nonporous but may
have permeability on account of fissures and cracks.

PROTO-SUN

An intermediate stage in the development of a star in which a large cloud of dust and gases
gradually condenses through gravitational actions.

PULSAR

A pulsar (portmanteau of pulsatingstar) is a ‘highly magnetized’, ‘rotating neutron star’ that

emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can only be observed when the beam
of emission is pointing towards the Earth, much the way a lighthouse can only be seen when the
light is pointed in the direction of an observer, and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of
emission.

Neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very
precise interval, between pulses that range from roughly milliseconds to seconds for an
individual pulsar.

QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES

Apart from Primary, Secondary and Tertiary activities in an economy, Quaternary activities
involve some of the following: the collection, production and dissemination of information or

222
 even the production of information. Quaternary activities centre around research, development
and may be seen as an advanced form of services involving specialised knowledge and technical
skills.

QUINARY ACTIVITIES

Thehighest level of decision makers or policy makers perform quinary activities. These are subtly
different from the knowledge based industries that the quinary sector in general deals with

RAPIDS

Part of a river where the current flows with great swiftness, and the water is broken. It is caused
by sudden steepening of the stream or by a series of hard rocky outcrops that break up the flow
in midstream.

RECHARGE AREA

The geographic area where water infiltrates into the ground and enters an aquifer.

RECUMBENT FOLD

An overturned fold that has two limbs which are nearly horizontal.

REVERSE MIGRATION

Migration from Urban to Rural areas. Such migration is characteristic of advance urabanisation
when quality of life in urban areas deteriorates.

RIBBON LAKE

A ribbon lake or loch is a long and narrow, finger-shaped lake, usually found in a glacial trough.
Its formation begins when a glacier moves over an area containing alternate bands of hard and
soft bedrock. The sharp-edged boulders that are picked up by the glacier and carried at the
bottom of the glacier erode the softer rock more quickly by abrasion, thus creating a hollow
called a rock basin. A ribbon lake is also one of a number of glacial landscapes.

223
RIBBON SETTLEMENT

Historically suburbs grow first along major roads leading into towns. This type of urban growth is
known as ribbon settlement.

RIVER REGIME

River regime of an alluvial river is the variability in its discharge throughout the course of a year
in response to precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, and drainage basin
characteristics

ROARING FORTIES

The Roaring Forties is the name given to strong westerly winds found in the Southern
Hemisphere, generally between the latitudes of 40 and 50 degrees.Air displaced from the
Equator towards the South Pole. The Roaring Forties was a major aid to trade ships sailing from
Europe to the East Indies or Australasia during the Age of Sail, and in modern usage is favoured
by yachtsmen on round-the-world voyages and competitions.

ROCK SALT

Halite, commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride (NaCl). Halite forms
isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be of some other
color depending on the amount and type of impurities.

USE - Halite is often for managing ice. Because brine (a solution of water and salt) has a lower
freezing point than pure water, putting salt or saltwater on ice that is near 0°C will cause it to
melt. (This effect is called the FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION.) It is common for homeowners in
cold climates to spread salt on their walkways and driveways after a snow storm to melt the ice.

SARGARROS SEA WEED

In the central part of North Atlantic Ocean, a vast oval shaped area is formed by the currents like
– North Equatorial Current, Gulf Stream, Cannaries Current etc. All these flow in clock wise
direction (as the currents do in Northern hemisphere due to deflection by earth’s rotation). Due

224
 this, within the circular area a calm area is formed which has led to the growth of enormous
amounts of weed.

SCHIST

The schists constitute a group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly notable for the
preponderance of minerals such as micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others.

SEA FLOOR SPREADING

Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is
formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor
spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

This happens at ‘Divergent Boundaries’.

The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and carries the continents with it) as it expands from a
central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s. The theory is
well-accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the
plastic, very weak upper mantle, or asthenosphere.

The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in the
oceanic crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old. Some of the continental rock
formations. (This is also a proof of sea floor spreading)

SEDANTRY CULTIVATION

Farming system in which the farmer remains settled in one place. It contrasts with shifting
cultivation and nomadic pastoralism.

SEIF DUNES or LONGITUDINAL DUNES

225
 Longitudinal dunes (also called Seif dunes, after the Arabic word for "sword"), elongate parallel
to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif
dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (980 ft) in
height and 300 km (190 mi) in length.

SERICULTURE

Rearing of Silk – India is the only country to rear all 5 commercial varieties of silk

SHALE

Sedimentry rock made up of compressed mud or clay. It splits easily into thin layers.

SHOALING or WAVE SHOALING

Wave shoaling is the effect by which surface waves entering shallower water increase in wave
height (which is about twice the amplitude). This phenomenon is observed near shores. This can
be catastrophic during times of Tsunami.

SIDERAL DAY

SIDERAL DAY vs APPARENT SOLAR DAY

A sidereal day is a ‘time scale that is based on the Earth's rate of rotation measured relative to
the fixed distant stars’. From a given observation point, a star found at one location in the sky
will be found at nearly the same location on another night at the same sidereal time. A mean
sidereal day is about 23 hours, 56 minutes.

The apparent solar day is the time between two successive transits of the sun over the same
meridian.

226
 The Earth makes a rotation around its axis in a sidereal day; during that time it moves a short
distance (about 1°) along its orbit around the sun. So after a sidereal day has passed the Earth
still needs to rotate a bit more before the sun reaches its highest point. A solar day is, therefore,
nearly 4 minutes longer than a sidereal day.

SLEET

Rain and snow mixed, snow that partially melts as it falls.

SNOWLINE

It is the lowest level of the perpetual snow.

Snowline depends upon precipitation, latitude and topography. Total precipitation in the in
Western Himalayas is in form of Snow only. Snowline is at lowest elevation in the Southern
Slopes than on the Northern Slopes, because southern slopes are steeper and receive more
precipitation as compared to northern slopes.

SOLIFLUCTION

The slow, downhill movement of soil or other material in areas typically underlain by frozen
ground. It occurs in glacial environments where melting during the warm season leads to water
saturation in the thawed surface material (active layer), causing a form of downslope "flow" to
occur.

Where the underlying ground is permanently frozen (permafrost) the process is often called
GELIFLUCTION.

227
SPECIATION

In speciation, the original population of orgnasims with similar genes called gene pool is divided
into 2 or more gene pool, each of this gene pool acquire a new set of characteristics through
mutation and selection specialization follows most commonly from physical division of gene
pool.

STEP MIGRATION

Step migration is a migration pattern that consists of a series of small, less extreme locational
changes. For example, if a person moves from a farm to a small town, then to a larger town and
finally a city, it is an example of step migration.

SUBDUCTION ZONE

An area at a ‘convergent plate boundary’ where an ‘oceanic plate’ is being forced down into the
mantle beneath another plate.

228
 These can be identified by a zone of progressively ‘deeper earthquakes’.

SUNSPOTS

Sun’s outer photosphere shows some dark circular areas known as sunspots. These are the
areas of relatively low temperature than surrounding areas. Intense magnetic field is associated
with sunspots. When there is minimum activity it is termed as ‘MAUNDER MINIMUM’. This
period of minimum activities is correlated with the advance of glacials and periods of colds.
Sunspots occur in cycles and generally follow a 11 year term.

SUPER EARTH

It is a planet which has mass much higher than that of the earth, but much lesser than the other
planets.

SUPER MOON

This is a full moon when it is closest to earth in its orbit.

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

These are the weather charts ‘showing daily or short term fluctuations’ of weather elements.

SYNTAXIAL BEND

The gently arching ranges of the Himalayan mountains on their Western and Eastern
extremeties are sharply bent southward called syntaxial bends. On the both the ends, the great
mountains appear to bend round a pivotal point. The western point is situated south of Pamir
where the Karakoram meets the Hidukush (near Nanga Parbat, where Indus has made a gorge)

229
 and eastern Point is in Arunanchal Pradesh where the strike of mountain changes sharply from
easterly to southerly trend.

The bends are supposed to be formed due to meeting of the tectonic plates in such a fashion
that both the bends mark the corner meeting points of plates.

This is due to this syntaxial bending on the Eastern side that Brahmputra takes a U turn.

TARGET GROUP PLANNING

With the planning experience of about one and half decades, it was realised that regional
imbalances in economic development were getting accentuated. In order to arrest the
accentuation of regional and social disparties, the Planning Commission introduced the ‘target
area’ and target group approaches to planning. Some of the examples of programmes directed
towards the development of target areas are Command Area Development Programme,Drought
Prone Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Hill Area Development
Programme. The Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers
Development Agency (MFDA) which are the examples of target group programme.

TEMPERATE CYCLONE

See TROPICAL CYCLONE

TEMPERATURE ANOMALY

The temperature anomaly or thermal anomalyis defined as the difference between the mean
temperature of any place and the mean temperature of its parallel. The deviation is caused by
the land, oceans etc.

THE THALWEG PRINCIPLE

The thalweg principle is the principle in which the boundary between two political states
separated by a watercourse is denoted as the thalweg (lowest points that make a line) of that
watercourse, if those two states have agreed to use the thalweg definition. Various states have
also defined their watercourse international boundaries by a median line, left bank, right bank,
etc.

In the recent controversy over defining boundary over Sir Creek, Pakistan urged to follow the
Thalweg principle.

THERMAL INVERSION or TEMPERATURE INVERSION

LAPSE RATE – Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal
lapse rate.

230
 Normally atmospheric temperature decrease as we go up. Conditions when temperature
increases as we go up constitute state of temperature inversion. Most common example is
Tropopause after which inversion takes place.

Temperature inversion layers, also called thermal inversions or just inversion layers, are areas
where the normal decrease in air temperature with increasing altitude is reversed and air above
the ground is warmer than the air below it. Inversion layers can occur anywhere from close to
ground level up to thousands of feet into the atmosphere.

A long winter night with clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the
day is radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air
above. Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.

AIR DRAINAGE and INVERSION -The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air
drainage. Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during night, flows under the influence of
gravity. Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to
pile up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called AIR DRAINAGE.

Inversion layers are significant to meteorology because they block atmospheric flow which
causes the air over an area experiencing an inversion to become stable.

- Weather Phenomenon - This can then result in various types of weather patterns.Tornados,
freezing rains etc are associated with inversion.

- Smog and Pollution - More importantly though, areas with heavy pollution are prone to
unhealthy air and an increase in smogwhen an inversion is present because they trap
pollutants at ground level instead of circulating them away.

THERMAL SPRINGS

Thermal springs are common in areas where there was volcanic activity in prehistoric times and
in areas where rock layers have been broken and folded in geologically recent times.

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION

The term thermohaline circulation (THC) refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation
that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.The
adjective thermohaline derives from thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to
salt content, factors which together determine the density of sea water. The thermohaline
circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global
conveyor belt.

231
TIDAL PORT

In tidal ports, the water levels within the port are subject to change with the ocean tides. All
coastal ports with no river feeding system are tidal ports. Like Kandla.

In a non-tidal port, there is usually a river feeding the water levels in the port, minimizing the
effects of the moon and the tidal changes.

TORRID ZONES

The climatic zone lying betweenthe Tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn, where the
weather is almost always hot and the sun shines directly overhead twice each year.

TRADE WINDS
Trade winds are one of the most regular winds. They flow from colder sub-tropical regions to
relatively hotter tropical regions and move towards a bit west (due to Coriollis Forces) and hit
eastern coasts of continents.
They carry a lot of moisture and that’s the reason that they bring a lot of rain on the eastern
coasts of the continents.
This is also the reason that Western coasts remain dry and most of the world’s biggest deserts
like Kalahari, Sahara, Atacama (Australia) are found on the western coasts of the continents.

232
 Countries favorably influenced by trade winds are – Florida, West Indies, Brazil, Central America,
Madagascar etc
They are one of the three Planetary or Permanent winds – (Easterly) Trades, (Sub tropical)
Westerlies and Polar (Eaterlies) winds
TRAJEDY of COMMONS

It is used to describe misuse and overuse of those community resources which are available to
all and often free of cost. When cost of usage is not expressed in market terms, it leads to
overexploitation as users don’t appreciate worth of such resources. For examples – grasslands
and waterbodies are often so overused that they become unfit for use.

TRANSHUMANCE

It involves seasonal movement of pastoralists from one area to another for search of food,
escaping from weather etc. The declining importance of pastoralism in the economy of the
region can be gauged from the fact that at present only about one-tenth of the total households
practise transhumance.

TROJANS, Trojan Aesteroids

These are the asteroids that share an orbit with planet earth. In astronomy, a Trojan is a minor
planet or natural satellite (moon) that shares an orbit with a planet or larger moon, but does not
collide with it

TROPHIC LEVEL

The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.

TROPICAL CYCLONE

Both temperate and tropical cyclones are low pressure adiabatic systems.

Temperate Cyclone - The temperate cyclones are those which occur in mid latitudes i.e. 400 to
600 N & S. These are formed due to convergence of the warm (tropical) and Cold (Polar)
airmasses.These cyclones, being convergence of contrasting airmasses, have clear and well
developed fronts.

Tropical cyclones – These are those which occur in lower latitudes, normally 100 to 300 N & S
latitudes and are caused due to the convergence of warm dry and warm moist airmasses(This is
the reason they don’t form during winters in the Bay of Bengal as at that time there is cold
temperature which doesn’t facilitate evaporation much). These cyclones do not experience
fronts, or if have, then very weak fronts.

TWILIGHT

Twilight occurs due to Diffusion,Scattering and presence of particle in the atmosphere. Duration
and time of the twilight depends upon various factors like inclination of the sun rays. Equator as

233
 inclination is perpendicular twilight time is short. It increases as we go towards polls. Due to this,
when sun is in Northern hemisphere, nights are very small.

UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY

Underwater archaeology is archaeology practised underwater. As with all other branches of

archaeology it evolved from its roots in pre-history and in the classical era to include sites from
the historical and industrial eras. In the shipwreck field alone individual shipwrecks can be of
significant historical importance either because of the magnitude of loss of life (such as the
Titanic).

UPWELLING

Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler,

and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually
nutrient-depleted surface water. The increased availability in upwelling regions results in high
levels of primary productivity and thus fishery production. Approximately 25% of the total global
marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5% of the total ocean
area.Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest
impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields.

URBAN AGGLOMERATION

It refers to a large continuously urbanized stretch working as one functional whole though it
may comprise administratively different units and may contain one or more urban areas with
their respective outgrowths if any.

VALLEYS vs GORGE vs CANYON

234
 Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies;
the gullies will further deepen, widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending upon
dimensions and shape, many types of valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon, etc. can be
recognized.

V-Shaped and U-Shaped Valley

U-Shaped valley is generally carved by glaciersand is normally U-shaped. The valley

becomes visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it.Examples of U-shaped
valleys are found in every mountainous region that has experienced glaciation, usually
during the Pleistocene ice ages. Most present U-shaped valleys started as V-shaped
before glaciation. The glaciers carved it out wider and deeper, simultaneously changing
the shape.

e.g. - Peninsular rivers have almost reached maturity and pass through lower
elevation and have U Shaped valleys.

V-Shaped valleys are usually found near the source of a river, where the steeper
gradient means that there is a great deal of corrasion (grinding away by rock particles)
along the stream bed, and erosion cuts downwards more than it does sideways.

e.g. - Himalayan region rivers pass through conical peaks, high elevation and
have V-Shaped valleys

A Gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides (as shown below, the Gorge formed by
Kaveri) and a Canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes (As shown below, formed by
river Colorado)

VULTURES IN INDIA – ON THE BRINK of EXTINCTION

235
 Vultures in the Indian subcontinent were dying of kidney failure shortly after scavenging
livestock treated with diclofenac,a painkiller that is similar to aspirin or ibuprofen. Consumption
of diclofenac via caracass leads to concentration of Uric Acid and ultimately death due to Renal
failure. The drug is now banned for animals, however detailed studies of other substitutes are
still not there and further it is still manufactured clandestinely and there is no ban on it for
human use.

Untlil mid 1990s it was believed that there were around 4 crore vulture which were eliminated
by more than 90% and became endangered. They now fall under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife
Protection Act 1972.

WARPING

A slight bend, uplift or subsidence of Earth's crust on a regional scale.

WALKER CIRCULATION

The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure
system over the eastern Pacificocean, and a low pressure system over Indonesia. When the
Walker circulation weakens or reverses, an El Niño results.

On the other hand, ‘Walker cell’ is a conceptual model of the air flow in the tropics in the lower
atmosphere (troposphere). According to this model parcels of air follow a closed circulation in
the zonal and vertical directions. This circulation, which is roughly consistent with observations,
is caused by differences in heat distribution between ocean and land.

WATER TABLE

236
 Water table is the highest level of the zone of saturation. Water table is the upper surface of the
groundwater zone where the rock medium is saturated with water atmospheric pressure is called
the water table.

The zone above the water table through which water percolates down to the water table is
called Zone of Aeration.

During extreme dry weather water table reaches a minimum which is called Permanent Water
Table.

On the other hand, during extremely wet weather conditions, the water table reaches near the
surface, the zone between the highest water table and the ground surface is known as the Zone
of Permanent Aeration.

WATERSHED

It has two meanings,

One is water divide, an elevated line from where the water flows in different directions
into river basins. Major water divides in India are – Himalyas, Satpura Vindhyas etc and
Western Ghats

In other sense, it is a catchment or drainage area. It refers to all the land with a common
outlet for its surface water. In this sense, Watershed is a geo-hydrological area that
drains at a common point.

The geographic area that contributes runoff to a stream.It can be outlined on a

topographic map by tracing the points of highest elevation (usually ridge crests)
between two adjacent stream valleys. The watershed of a large river usually contains
the watersheds of many smaller streams. Also referred to as a "drainage basin"

WATERSHED vs RIVER/RIVER BASIN

237
 The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small
rivulets and rills are often referred to as watersheds. There is, however, a slight
difference between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area
while the basins cover larger areas.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT/MANAGEMENT

Watershed development refers to the conservation regeneration and the judicious use of all the
resources – natural (like land, water plants, animals) and human – within the watershed area.
Watershed Management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the environment
between natural resources on the one side and man and animals on the other.

WESTERLIES

Prevailing winds that blow from west to east between 30 degrees & 60degrees latitude in the
hemisphere.

They are one of the three Planetary or Permanent winds – (Easterly) Trades, (Sub tropical)
Westerlies and Polar (Eaterlies) winds
These are less regular than the trade winds and are more variable in the Northern
Hemisphereand are stronger in Southern Hemisphere (due to presence of Land Mass). They
carry warm equatorial waters and Winds to the Western coasts of the temperate lands. These
are the winds that bring precipitation to the western coasts (especially in 40-60 degree) which
are left dry by the moisture rich trade winds.
In southern hemisphere they are also called as – Roaring 40s. Furious 50s, Shreiking 60s. As in
the western hemisphere, the weather is cloudy and winds become violent.
Countries favorably influenced by polar westerlies are – Western Europe, New Zealand and
South Chile.
WET LANDS

A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or
seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water.
Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can
be saltwater, freshwater, or brackish. The world's largest wetland is the Pantanal which
straddles Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay in South America.

Wetlands are considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems. Plant life found in
wetlands includes mangrove, water lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, black spruce, cypress, gum,
and many others.

Importance –

I. The wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems, comparable to tropical
evergreens forests in the biosphere & play a significance role in the ecological
sustainability of a region.

238
 II. The wetlands can play a crucial role in the conservation of biodiversity as it inhibits a
large number of rare, endangered & unexplored specie.

III. Also, they act as carbon-sinks & thus climate stabilizers which are vital in the present
context to combat mass extinction.

RAMSAR Convention is the major convention working in its direction. The Ramsar Convention
(The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat) is
an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands, i.e., to stem
the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, recognising the
fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific, and
recreational value. It is named after the town of Ramsar in Iran.

According to its sustainable use approach, the inhabitants are not displaced and they are
encouraged to help in conserving the wetlands.

Some sites in India under Ramsar Convention (there are 25) –

 Chilka Lake, Orissa – First site to be covered under this convention.

 Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan – Largest Saline inland Wetland
 Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir
 Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Orissa
 Deepor Beel,Assam
 Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan
 Vembanad-Kol Wetland, Kerala
 Ropar, Punjab
 Chandra Taal,Himachal Pradesh
 Rudrasagar Lake, Tripura
 Pong Dam Lake, Himachal Pradesh
 Kolleru Lake, Andhra Pradesh

Rajasthan has largest inland saline wetlands.

THE MONTREUX RECORD is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International
Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred or is likely to occur.

ZOOPLANKTONS

Plankton are organisms drifting in oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water. They are of two types
– Pjytoplankton and Zooplanktons. While phytoplanktons are autotrophs (make their own food)
– i.e. plants. Zooplanktons are heterotrophs (feed on others) and feed on phytoplanktons.

Individual zooplankton are usually too small to be seen with the naked eye, but some, such as
jellyfish, are large. Their populations are often linked with growth of phytoplanktons.

239
240
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS – UPSC and OTHERS
WHY OCCUPTATIONAL STRUCTURE HAS REMAINED MORE OR LESS SAME IN INDIA

This is because focus has been on Capital Intensive industries which employ small number of
people.

Agriculture remains saturated and Industry has failed to absorb the surplus labor from
agriculture.

WTO and INDIA

After World War 2, developed countries put enormous subsidies into their industrial
development and as a result after a few decades many of them emerged as key industrial
economies with highly competitive products. At the same time there were other challengers
that emerged after 1980s – Indian and China along with many other developing countries.

International trade was still limited and most of that among the developed countries. At this
point a need was felt to –

 Access new markets

 Deal with the growing economies like India and China

Hence at the Uruguay Round, a decision was taken to set up a new body (WTO) to manage the
growing trade and it finally emerged in 1994 replacing GATT. Uruguay round called major cuts
on agricultural subsidies and promotions of trade.

Doha round of talks aimed at – Lowering the tariff and non-tariff barriers of trade. However
many contentious issues remained like that of Agriculture, Differential Treatment and
Intellectual Property Rights issues and talks have been stalled since 2008.

RISE in FISCAL DEFICIT in INDIA

Main Reasons for current situation are –

 Fiscal Stimulus that government provided during financial crisis pulled the government
revenues down (as it provided stimulus by lowering taxes)
 Subsidies still remain higher
 Due to higher debt, interest obligations also swelled

POLICY MEASURES to REMOVE REGIONAL DISPARITIES in INDIA

Various Policy measures taken by Government are –

 Special Area Development Programmes – Empowered Action Group states is one such
schemes in which states of Bihar UP Orissa etc are clubbed together and many special
measures are taken exclusively for them.

241
  Promoting Investment in Backward areas – Tax benefits are provided, concessional
finance is provided
 Backwardness as a Criterion – Finance Commission in its various measures have used
backwardness as one of the criteria to allocate resources. Special fund has been
established for North eastern Region

WHY IS INDIA’S NORTH-SOUTH DISTANCE (3214 KM) MORE THAN THE EAST-WEST DISTANCE (2933),
THOUGH BOTH LATITUDINAL AND LONGITUDINAL EXTENT OF INDIA IS ABOUT 30 DEGREE?

This is because the distance between the longitudes decreases near the pole whereas the
distances between latitudes remain the same everywhere.

TROPICAL FORESTS CAN BE BETTER USED FOR AGRICULTURE AFTER CLEARING

Tropical forests are not suitable because they receive more rains and due to that leaching
happens continuously and soil is deficient in nutrients.

INDIAN FLYING FOX

It is actually a large bat found in India and feeds on fruits.

TRADE MARK vs GEOGRAPHIC INDICATION

Trade mark is for private purpose, GI is for a whole area and is a community right that lives in
that area.
Trade mark can be licensed but a GI cannot be.

FREQUENCY of FLOODS in NORTHERN RIVERS has INCREASED

Because silting has increased and erosion has increased. Another major reason is deforestation.

MOST HARNESSED RIVER in INDIA

Cauvery

TEA vs COFFEE

Coffee requires hot and humid tropical climate, while tea can be cultivated in tropical as well as
sub-tropical cold climate

Coffee is propagated by seeds while tea is propagated by either seeds, leaves etc

BENEFITS of BIODIVERSITY

Formation and maintenance of soil structure and retention of moisture

Loss of biodiversity leads to loss of topsoil

BLUE REVOLUTION

242
 Blue Revolution is the water equivalent of the green revolution and primarily refers to the
management of water resources that can steer humanity to achieve drinking water and crop
irrigation security.
The term "blue revolution" also refers to the remarkable emergence of aquaculture as an
important and highly productive agricultural activity.

DESERT NATIONAL PARK

Desert National Park, Rajasthan, India, is situated in the west Indian state of Rajasthan near the
town of Jaisalmer. This is one of the largest national parks. The Desert National Park is an
excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert. It is the only desert park of its kind.
Endangered Great Indian Bustard is its major attraction.

BUCKINGHAM CANAL

It is a canal that runs parallel to the Corromandal coast from Andhra to Tamilnadu. It has been
an important waterway – National Water Way 4 – since the time of British. It is also said the
canal helped in mitigating the devastating effect of Tsunami when it hit the eastern coast a few
years back.

CHILKA LAKE

It is the second largest lagoon lake in the world and largest in Asia. It is ecological more
important because it is home to thousands of migratory birds and its saline ecology is an habitat
of rich marine life.
It is the first wetland site in India to come under Ramsar Convention.

BEAS SUTLEJ LINK PROJECT

Beas Sutlej Link (BSL) project, the largest hydro-electric-cum-tunnelling project in the country
diverts about 4716 million cubic meter of. Beas river water

KRA ISTHMUS

The east part of the landbridge belongs to Thailand, while the west part belongs to Myanmar. It
is a possible site to develop a canal that can link Indian Ocean to South East Asia by shortening
the route by bypassing the strait of Malacca.

243
STRAIT of MALACCA

The Strait of Malacca is a narrow, 805 km stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula
(Peninsular Malaysia) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca
Sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1414 to 1511. From an economic and
strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the
world. The strait is the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean,
linking major Asian economies such as India, China, Japan and South Korea.

It is further significant because China’s significant amount of trade is through this strait.

It is however a shallow and narrower strait and bigger vessels cannot pass through it in large
number at once and hence limiting the traffic volume. Its dredging can lead to improved traffic.

LOWER GANGETIC PLAIN

Area of Bihar, Bengal

NEW MOORE ISLAND

New Moore Island was a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of Bengal, off
the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region. It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the
aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970, and disappeared at some later point. It is also said that
the island is one of the earliest causality of global warming.

TROPOSPHERE and TURBULANCE

The troposphere is an unstable layer and air is constantly moving.As a results jets flying in this
zone have bumpy ride and they fly in higher above this layer in stratosphere.

WHY OZONE DEPLETION is MORE TOWARDS POLES?

244
 Chlorofluorocarbon gases (CFCs) and related halocarbon gases are the main cause of ozone
depletion all over the world.
CFCs released from Western countries take several years to reach the stratosphere where the
ozone layer is. Westerly winds and other winds take them towards the poles where they are
trapped inside the polar stratospheric clouds.The hole is Antarctica occurs in the spring
(September to December) when sunlight is there.
The hole is enhanced due the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PS clouds).They are
formed during the winters and are strongest during that times but no depletion takes place at
that time because of absence of Sun. The ice in these PS clouds provides surfaces for the
chemical reactions that destroy the ozone which is catalyzed by the sunlight during spring time.
In presence of sunlight, the clouds melt and the trapped compounds (chlorine and chlorine
monoxide from the CFCs) are released. In the presence of ultraviolet light these gases release
chlorine and bromine atoms which destroy some of the ozone in the ozone layer. Ozone in the
lower stratosphere is destroyed and the ozone hole appears.
By the end of spring warmer December temperatures break up the vortex and destroy the PS
clouds. Sunlight starts creating ozone again and the hole begins to repair.

WHY is CHERAPOONJI WETTEST

One branch of monsoon enters from Bay of Bengal to the eastern region. By this time the
monsoons are still very rich with moisture due to proximity with sea. As these winds enter the
funnel shaped Cherapoonji valleythe moisture laden winds rise along the slope and bring heavy
rains.

MEASURES towards SOIL CONSERVATION in INDIA

Soil Conservation is of great importance in the widespread regions of low and uncertain rainfall,
in the Indian states of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Generally shallow soils are seen in these areas.
Major erosion activities –
 Water Erosion – The period of heavy rainfall from August to October is the period of the
heaviest erosion in these regions.
 Wind Erosion – It has been acutely responsible for destroying the precious topsoil in
many Indian states like Gujarat, Rajasthan etc.
 Human Activities – Apart from these, bad faming practices, over grazing, elimination of
forest cover in catchment areas are responsible for soil erosion.
An extreme example of sand movement from the coast is to be seen in the Saurashtra region of
Gujarat where the once-flourishing ports are now covered with advancing sand dunes.
Land Use and Soil Conservation – Soil conservation in rural area in its widest sense includes not
only control over erosion but all those measures like improvement of soil defects, application of
manures and fertilizers, proper crop rotations, irrigation, drainage etc. In this sense, soil
conservation is very much associated to the improvement of land use in general.
Soil Conservation Measures –

245
  Trees- are the prime medium of soil conservation; they act as windbreaks, reducing the
force of the wind, and the grasses bind the sandy soils.
 State Wide Efforts -Steps for conservation of soil have been taken for the past few
decades in states like Punjab (afforestation activities in the Shivalik Hills) and Mumbai
(binding and terracing work in the Deccan area).
 Discouraging Shifting Cultivation - Conservation measures are specially started in areas
like the forests of Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, shifting cultivation, which
is practiced by the tribal people living in these areas, is a major cause of destruction of
forests.
 The National Project on Management of Soil Health and Fertility (NPMSF) - To improve
soil health and fertility. It is the new scheme and comprises three main
components.These components are:
a. Strengthening of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs)
b. Promoting Use of Integrated Nutrient Management, and
c. Strengthening of Fertilizer Quality Control Laboratories.
-

BHITRAKANIKA

Bhiterakanika are the mangroves wetlands in Orissa. It is a national park and home to Salt Water
Crocodile.

ARAVALI HILLS AS A DIVIDE BETWEEN MEWAR AND MARWAR

Aravali hills has resulted into a rainshadow area towards its north which is termed as Marwar
where average rainfall is low and only seasonal stream is Luni river. Annual rainfall is low,
ranging from 10-40cms. Temperatures range from 48 to 50 degrees Celsius in the summer, to
below freezing point in winter. This is closer to the great Thar and there are sandy deserts to be
seen. While the southern part receive much better rainfall at 600 mm and is termed as Mewar.
Mewar has a tropical climate.Over 90% of the rain typically falls in the period June to September
every year, during the southwest monsoon.

HOW MEGHALYA PLATEAU WAS DETACHED FROM PENINSULA?

Due to force exerted exerted by the northeastward movement of theIndian plate at the time of
the Himalayanorigin, a huge fault was created between theRajmahal hills and the Meghalaya
plateau. Later, this depression got filled up by thedeposition activity of the numerous
rivers.Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglongplateau stand detached from the mainPeninsular
Block.

LOCAL STORMS DURING HOT WEATHER SEASON and THEIR ECONOMIC IMPACT

Origin and Causes - During summer months, peninsula becomes hot and low pressure trough is
developed. At times, a confluence of this low pressure trough and moisture laden winds
generate local storms. An abrupt contact between dry and moist air-masses gives rise to local

246
 storms of immense strength. These local storms are connected with brutal winds, uncontrolled
downpour and even hail storms.
Types –
 ‘Norwester’, which affect the areas of Bihar, West Bengal etc are such local storms and
are known as ‘kaal-baisakhi’for their violent nature. They may cause damage to
property and life and disrupt the routine.
 However there are certain local storms which are beneficial too.
 In North, ‘loo’– a hot local wind blows and it’s harmful for man and life. Local ‘dust-
storms’in this season are often accompanied by the thunderstorms and showers and
bring much needed relief.
 In the month of April, on the coast of Kerala local storms cause pre-monsoon
showerscalled ‘mango showers’which benefit the mango crop in ripening.
 Another showers caused by local storms are the ‘BLOSSOM SHOWER’, with this shower,
coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.

CAUSES of CHAMBAL RAVINES

One of the major reasons is the soil erosion. Chambal rivers are among the oldest rivers and it
has now a fixed path. Over the years gradual erosion has led to formation of ravines.

WHY ARE THE SOUTHERN SLOPES IN HIMALAYAN REGION COVERED WITH THICK VEGETATION COVER AS
COMPARED TO NORTHERN SLOPES OF THE SAME HILLS?

Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer and Southern slopes receive
more sunlight. Further, they are exposed to monsoon rains.

MONSOON AS RELEASE of ENERGY

Monsoon is a complex weather phenomenon. It can also be depicted as a heat transfer chain.
Near hot equator, water absorbs heat and is converted into vapours by absorbing latent heat of
vaporization. This is an adiabatic process. As it moves over the peninsula it reaches a region of
low pressure and precipitation occurs releasing Latent heat of Condensation.

IS IT CORRECT TO SAY LAND of INDIA SLOPES FROM WEST to EAST

Yes, as most the rivers drain in the Bay of Bengal – both Himalayan and Peninsular

BOMBAY HAS LONGER SUNSHINE AFTER OFFICE HOURS THAN CALCUTTA

Because India has only one Standard time and while Sun rises early at Calcutta it sets late in
Bombay

TROPIC OF CANCER PASSES THROUGH MID OF INDIA, BUT STILL IT IS REGARDED AS A TROPICAL
COUNTRY

247
 As Earth's highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayan system bars the influx of
frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North
India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam
keeps most regions in India hot in summer.

CORROMANDAL COAST IS WIDER THAN WESTERN COASTAL PLANES

Because Western Coastal area are submerged type in topography, while Eastern plains are of
Emergent topography. This is also the reason why Western Coasts have more natural harbors.

CASE AGAINST MECHANISATION of AGRICULTURE

Following are the points of contentions –

 It is not suitable for small and fragmented land holdings like those in India. It has been
more successful in countries like US and Canada where average land holdings are more
than 100 Acres
 It will render many laborers jobless and India has still not a well developed
manufacturing industry to absorb this surplus labor.
 Right now cattle is used for sowing the seeds, mechanization will also lead to surplus
cattle
 Finally, mechanization doesn’t address the problem of productivity of land per se which
is the major issue in India

WHY HAVE THE WESTERN SLOPES OF THE WESTERN GHATS COVERED WITH THICK FORESTS AND NOT
THE EASTERN SLOPES?

Because it receives more rainfall as compared to Eastern Part, which is a rain shadow area.

ORCHIDS in INDIA

Arunachal Pradesh has climate suitable for the cultivation of flowers.

DESERT NATIONAL PARK

The park is home to the great Indian bustard, which is at the brink of extinction. it is situated in
jaisalmer, rajasthan & is an excellence example of the ecosystem of the that desert & its rich
fauna.

248
TRIVIA
 Spiral Galaxy is most common type of galaxy
 First postal stamp was issued in 1852
 Karnataka has largest length of roads
 First census took place in 1872, while first synchronous census took place in 1881
 2011 census is 15th census
 Central Sheep Breeding Farm was established at Hisar
 Sheep for wool are best bred in Dry Climate
 NH7 is the longest highway from Varanasi to Bombay
 NH1 is from New Delhi to Amritsar
 NH2 is from New Delhi to Calcutta
 NH4 is from Bombay to Chennai
 NH5 is from Calcutta to Madras
 NH8 is from New Delhi to Bombay
 Dachigam National Park protects Hangul (a deer) in Kashmir
 Nagarjunsagar Tiger reserve is the largest tiger reserve in India
 Only ape found in India is Holock Gibbon in Assam
 Bengal is largest rice producing state, Haryana and Punjab lead in terms of productivity
 Total length of land frontier of India (15,200 km) is almost twice that of coastline (7,516)
 Southernmost point of mainland is Cape of Comorin.
 Arunachal Pradesh has highest coverage under forests
 Quinine is extracted from the bark and wood of a tree – Cinchoana
 Coca shrub’s leaves are source of the drug cocaine
 Jaffarabadi and Surti and Nili Ravi are breeds of buffalo
 Sahiwal and Nagori are breeds of Cow
 Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait separate India and Sri Lanka
 UP is largest wheat producing state
 India is the second largest producer of sugarcane.
 Andeman and Nicobar are considered to be extension of ‘Arakan Yoma’ of Burma
 India is second largest in Asia
 Dal lake of Sri Nagar was carved ourt of Alluvial deposits of Jhelum
 Zozila pass of Kashmir connects the only road to Leh from Srinagar.
 Little Andeman is separated from great Andeman by Duncan Passage
 Ganga comprises of two head streams – Alaknanda and Bhagirathi
 Dodabeta is the highest peak of Nilgiri Hills
 Bengali is second largest language spoken in India.
 Patkai Bum forms boundry between Arunachal Preadesh and Burma/Myanmar
 Nathu La, Jelep La are passes in Sikkim
 Palghat is a pass between Nilgiris and Annamalai and connects Kerala and Tamil Nadu

249
 Anai Mudi is the highest peak of South India.
 Eastern and Western Ghats meet at Nilgiri Hills.
 Mahendragri hills is the highest peak of Eastern Ghats.
 Sharavati river flows from east to west
 Pullicat lake is a lagoon separated from sea by Sriharikota island and is on border of TN and
Andhra
 Kolleru Lake is located between Krishna and Godavari
 Rameshwaram Island is between India and Sri Lanka and is of coral origin
 Vembnad lake is in Kerala
 Hussain Sagar lake is in Andhra
 Pygmyies are of origin of Congo/Zaire
 Kyrgiz are of origin of Steppes in Asia
 Masai are from East Africa
 Bushmen are from Kalahari desert
 Working age population constitutes 15-59
 Cirrus and small cumulus clouds are associated with the fair weather.
 Drzzle is produced by Stratus and Strato Cumulous cloud.
 Sargasso Sea is in Atlantic Ocean
 Oceanic Ridges form at divergent boundry
 Tide producing forces of Sun and Moon are in the ratio – 4:9
 Region of maximum salinity over the Indian coast is along Gulf of Kutch.
 Busiest ocean route is North Atlantic route.
 Damodar Valley is the first multipurpose project in India. It produces both hydro and coal based
power.
 Largest number of Buddhists in India – Maharashtra
 Longest National Highway – Kanyakumari to Varanasi
 Eastern Coast produces more rice than Western Coast.
 CASIPIAN SEA –It is the biggest lake in the world. It is situated in USSR and Iran
 Silk is produced through the cultivation of silk worms in parts of Bihar and Assam.
 Countries in Descending order of Size –
a. Russia
b. Canada
c. USA
d. China
e. Brazil
f. Australia
g. India
 An imaginary line joining the magnetic poles is 11.3 degree inclined to the planet’s axis of
rotation.
 90% of the galaxy is made of Dark Matter.

250
 Nearest galaxy is Andromeda.
 Our Galaxy is spiral shaped and has around 200 billion stars.
 Canada has longest coastline.
 Indonesia has maximum number of live volcanoes
 China is a country with maximum number of perennial rivers
 Andes – It is the longest mountain range of the World.
 Mediterranean Seaseparates Africa and Europe
 Cannaries Islands in Africa is a territory of Spain.
 South Sudan is the latest and 54th country in African continent and 193rd UN member
 International boundries –
a. 38th parallel – North and South Korea
b. 49th parallel – USA and Canada
c. Radcliff Line – Line between India and Pakistan
d. Durand Line – Line between Pakistan and Afhanistan
 Panama Canal – Connects Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. It joins Gulf of Panama and Gulf of
Darien. Constructon of this canal in 1914 eliminated the hazardous voyage round the stormy
Cape Horn.
 Suez canal – Connects Mediterranean sea and Red sea. It is also called Lifeline of
Commonwealth Countries. It is shortcut between Europe and Asian countries.
 North Atlantic Route is busiest of sea trade route of the world. It also has biggest number of
natural harbors that also a factor for larger trade.
 Gibralter Strait divides Africa from Europe.
 Don Juan lakeis the most saline lake in the world.
 1 Nautical Mile = 1.85 kms
 1 Astronomical Unit – Distance between sun and Earth
 1 Parsec – 3.26 light years
 Mount El Burs is the highest mountain of Europe and is in Russia
 Mount McKinley is the highest mountain of North America
 Mount Kilminjaro is the highest mountain of Africa
 Lake Assal is the most saline lake of Africa.
 Doda Beta is the highest peak of Nilgiris.
 Java Trench is the deepest point in Indian Ocean.
 WEATHER AND CLIMATE -The average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time
represents the climate.
 WE DON’T FEEL AIR PRESSURE BECAUSE... the air presses us from all directions and our body
exerts a counter pressure.
 Nitrogenous fertilisers constitute major portion of fertilisers in India.
 Earth Dia – 12757 (eqator), 12714 (polar) - .3% difference
 Littoral – Along the coast line

251
 Lava is of two types – Basic, this type is rich in Mg and Fe and Poor in Silica and it has fast
moving and fluid lava. On the other hand Acidic lava is poor in Mg and Fe but rich in Silica. It is
more viscous due to silica. This type of eruption is more destructive.
 Lava vs Magma – While Lava is the molten rock flowing at the surface of the earth, magma is the
molten rock flowing below the surface of earth.
 Crater is the depression formed at the mouth of a volcano. Enlarged form of a crater is known as
Caldera.
 TROPIC of CANCER – Mexico (Americas); Algeria, Libya, Egypt (Africa); Saudi Arabia, Oman
(Middle East); Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan (Asia)
 TROPIC of CAPRICORN (23.5 degree West) – Chile, Argentina, Parague, Brazil (South America);
Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Madagascar (Africa); Australia
 Isthmus – It is a narrow piece of land connecting two water bodies.
 HUMIFICATION - The formation of humus
 Mansarover Lake: is in Tibet. Near it, the rivers having their source are the Brahamputra, the
Sutlej and the Indus.
 Masai (Tribes): of the East African plateau are the example of pastoral peoples. They are a tall,
strong, warlike race, partly negroid in type. They treat their cattle with great respect and
affection and do not kill them for food or for sale as meat.
 Taiga Belt: lies between the Tibet-type climate and the Tundras.
 Willy Willy: is a tropical cyclone of the north-west Australia.
 EMPOWERED ACTION GROUP – It is a group of 8 socio economically backward states which have
lagged behind demographic transition and have relatively higher IMR.
 FOLDING process for mountain formation and FAULTING – Normal and Reverse Fault
 Eastward flowing Peninsular rivers are supposed to show least erosion activities.
 Depression over an area means – atmospheric pressure in that area is lower than the
surrounding areas.
 When state of atmosphere is defined as calm, it indicates the absence of Horizontal Movement
of Air.
 Cereals are the important crops of the temperate grasslands.
 Australia is largest Producer of Bauxite
 Punjab irrigates largest percentage of land
 Main advantage of Transplantation Method of Sowing Rice is – It is helpful in achieveing an
economical use of water and a higher yield of grain.
 Wheat is not suitable for growing in South because, Winters there are too warm and it require
low temperatures
 Pulses are grown all over country except in areas of High Rainfall
 Formation of potholes in river beds is an example of corrasion (not corrosion).
 Seasonal contrasts are minimum at mid latitudes.
 Whenever there is an ascending mass of air, it leads to more rain, whenever the air descends, it
leads to lower rains.
 Ganga plain experiences a dry winter.

252
 Ocean Currents have least influence on the climate of India.
 Coniferous forest of high altitude yield soft wood.
 Peaty soil is found in Kerala
 Balck soils and Alluvial soils are the soils which have served agriculture for many years without
need for fallowing
 Bamboo is usually grown at a very low height from sea level.
 Standard time (in case a single standard time), it is taken from the meridian which passes
through the center of that country.
 Environmental Lapse Rate – The average rate of change in the temperature with the increase in
height.
 Brazil is largest producer of Coffee
 India is largest Producer of groundnuts
 China is largest Producer of Tobacco
 Japan is largest Producer of Fish
 Humans probably started cultivation some 9000 years ago only.
 Hurricanes or Typhoons develop over ocean water only.
 Jogfalls is situated on Sharavati River
 Beasflows through the states of Punjab and Haryana
 Cauveriflows through the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
 Gangabeyond Farraka in Bangladesh is known as Padma
 The fog that commonly occurs along the sea coast is of the advection type.
 Indus and Brahmputra have origin at nearby places.
 River Damodar ends river Hooghly
 Narmada (a west flowing river, other being Tapti) divides the Deccan table land from Northern
India.
 3 pm is generally hottest period all over India.
 Irregularity in the amount of rain in different parts of the North Indian planes during different
years is mainly due to - Variations in the location of the axis of the low pressure trough.
 North east of India experiences monsoon type with cold humid winter and short summer.
 Punjab doesn’t get rains from Arabian Sea currents alone during the south west monsoons
 Madhaya Padesh has very little alluvial soil. Alluvial soil occurs near rivers and Coastal Plains.
Alluvial soils are rich in Potash but poor in Phosphorous.
 Gratest Variety of Flowers is found in UP hills.
 Khaddar Soil is found in flood plains.
 Reserved Forest are termed so because they are reserved for commercial exploitation and are
prohibited for grazing.
 Sandlewood is a tropical deciduous plant that is peculiear to the Deccan.
 Aryans were Nordic People.
 UP has maximum number of people belonging to the SC
 Elephanta caves have trimurti statues

253
 First Multipurpose project of India after independence was – Damodar Valley Project.
 Lac is produced by Tropical Deciduous Forest
 Lahore is on Ravi River
 Atlantic Ocean is called Herring Pond (for it is one of the best fishing ground and for the Herring
fish which is found here)
 Fujiyama - Holy Mountain
 Venice – Queen of Adriatic
 Ocean of Storms – A waterless area on moon’s surface
 Rome – City of seven hills, Eternal City
 Rust –Disease of Wheat
 Korea –Land of Morning calm
 San Fransisco – Land of Golden Gate
 New York is on Hudson River
 Krishna Godavari Basin – Rice Bowl of India
 Arctic is smallest ocean of the world
 Inundation Canals – Flood waters of the rivers is diverted for irrigational purposes
 Around 35% of the total cultivated land is irrigated in India
 Badlands – These are highly dissected land surface with deep gullies due to rapid rain erosion
 India is largest producer of Mica in the world with Bihar leading the production in India
 Gypsum is found in Rajasthan
 Gondwana coalfields are found in Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh. Nearly 98% of India’s coal
comes from Gondwana fields
 Savannah Region is characterized by grassland with scattered trees
 Marble is a metamorphic rock
 Caves of the world are formed through a compressional movement.
 Copper Lead and Zinc ores are together are found in Rajasthan
 Ilmenite is found in beach Sand
 Asbestos is found in Chota Nagpur plateau
 Karnataka is leading silk producer
 First cotton mill was established in Fort Gloste in Calcutta.
 Vishakhapattanam is a land locked and protected port
 Tropic of cancer passes through – Rajasthan, Tripura, Mizoram, Jharkhand
 White Coal is a name given to Hydroelectric power.
 Limestone is formed by deposit of animal shells and skeletons.
 While focus of an Earthquake lies at its actual place of origin, Epicenter lies just above it on the
surface.
 Caverns, Skinholes and Dry valleys are characteristic of limestone topography.
 Mesofauna help in aeration of the soil.
 Continental mass is older than Sea Floor.
 Changing of the color of a rock into yellow or red is due to – Oxidation

254
  Energy of tropical cyclones comes from Latent Energy of condensation.
 Saturation can be either achieved either by either cooling or adding more moisture. If nuclei are
not present, condensation will occur if the water vapors coagulate together.
 Territorial Waters of India extend upto 12 Nautical Miles.
 Rameshwaram Island lies between India and Srilanka.
 Aravali Mountains are the oldest mountain ranges in India. Mount Abu lies in this range.
 Denuded rocks are found in Peninsular Plateau
 Deccan Plateau has the boldest general relief among the other main geographical forms.

CITY COUNTRY RIVER

 Allahabad India At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

 Agra India Yamuna
 Ayodhya India Saryu
 Ahmedabad India Sabarmati
 Badrinath India Alaknanda
 Bareilly India Ram Ganga
 Cuttack India Mahanadi
 Curnool India Tungabhadra
 Dibrugarh India Brahmaputra
 Ferozpur India Satluj
 Ludhiana India Satluj
 Guwahati India Brahmaputra
 Hardwar India Ganga
 Hyderabad India Musi
 Jabalpur India Narmada
 Jamshedpur India Swarnarekha
 Jaunpur India Gomti
 Lucknow India Gomti
 Kanpur India Ganga
 Kota India Chambal
 Kolkata India Hooghly
 Mathura India Yamuna
 Nasik India Godavari
 Patna India Ganga
 Panjim India Mandavi
 Srinagar India Jhelum
 Surat India Tapti
 Sambalpur India Mahanadi
 Serirangapatam India Cauvery
 Tiruchurapalli India Cauvery

255
 Ujjain India Kshipra
 Vijayvada India Krishna
 Varanasi India Ganga

WORLD RIVERS

 Canton China Si-Kiang

 Chung King China Yang-tse-King
 Nanking China Yang-tse-Kiang
 Shanghai China Yang-tse-Kiang
 Ottawa Canada Ottawa
 Quebec Canada St. Lawrence
 Montreal Canada St. Lawrence
 New York U.S.A. Hudson
 New Orleans U.S.A. Mississippi
 Saint Luis U.S.A. Mississippi
 Philadelphia U.S.A. Delaware
 Washington D.C. U.S.A. Potomac
 Adelaide Australia Torrens
 Sidney Australia Darling
 Perth Australia Swan
 Moscow Russia Moskva
 Leningrad Russia Neva
 Stalingrad Russia Volga
 Cologne Germany Rhine
 Bonn Germany Rhine
 Dandzing Germany Vistula
 Hamburg Germany Elve
 Dresden Germany Elve
 Berlin Germany Spree
 Liverpool England Messey
 Bristol U. K. Avon
 Lisbon Portugal Tagus
 Bangkok Thailand Chao Praya
 Basra Iraq Euphrates and Tigris
 Baghdad Iraq Tigris
 Buenos Aires Argentina Laplata
 Karachi Pakistan Indus
 Lahore Pakistan Ravi
 Amsterdam Netherlands Amsel
 Rotterdam The Netherlands New Mass

256
 Alexandria Egypt Nile
 Ankara Turkey Kazil
 Chittagong Bangladesh Majyani
 Dublin Ireland Liffy
 Vienna Austria Danube
 Budapest Hungary Daunbe
 Prague Czech Republic Vitava
 Rome Italy Tiber
 Tokyo Japan Arakava
 Warsaw Poland Vistula
 Yangoon Myanmar Irrawaddy
 MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN INDIA
 Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): on the Krishna river near Nandikona village (about 44 km
from Hyderabad.)
 Tungabhadra (Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnatka): On the Tungabhadra river.

GEOGRAPHICAL SOBRIQUETS

 Bengal’s Sorrow Damodar River—

 City of Sky-scrapers New York ---
 City of Seven Hills Rome----
 City of Dreaming Spires Oxford
 City of palaces Kolkata
 City of Golden Gate San Francisco
 City of Magnificent Buildings Washington D.C.
 City of Eternal Springs Quito(S.America)
 Emerald Isle Ireland
 Garden City Chicago
 Gate of Tears Strait of Bab-el Mandeb
 Granite City Aberdeen (Scotland)
 Hermit Kingdom Korea
 Herring Pond Atlantic Ocean
 Holy Land Jerusalem
 Island Continent Australia
 Island of Cloves Zanzibar
 Isle of Pearls Bahrein (Peesian Gulf)
 Key of the Mediterranean Gibralter
 Land of Cakes Scotland
 Land of Golden Fleece Australia
 Land of the Thousand Lakes Finland
 Land of Thousand Elephants Laos

257
  Loneliest Island Tristan De Gunha (Mid-Atlantic)
 Manchester of Japan Osaka
 Pillars of Hercules Strait of Gibraltar
 Pearl of the Antilles Cuba
 Playground of Europe Switzerland
 Quaker City Philadelphia
 Queen of the Adriatic Venice
 Roof of the World The Pamirs
 Venice of the North Stockholm
 Windy City Chicago
 Whiteman’s grave Guinea Coast of Africa
 Yellow River Huang Ho (China)

CROPS

 Bajra (millets): Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.
 Barley: U.P., Bihar, Haryana. Its cultivation requires cool climate.
 Cardamom: Karnataka. India is the largest producer of cardamom in the world.
 Cashewnut: Kerala.
 Cinchona: Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri Hills); West Bengal (Darjeeling).
 Coconut: Kerala is the leading producer of coconut in India. A coconut tree normally yield 60-70
nuts in a year.
 Coffee: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri Hills) and Kerala. It is a tropical shrub.
 Cotton: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Maharashtra.
 Cotton Seeds: Maharashtra, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 Gram and Pulses: U.P., Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 Groundnut: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
 Hemp: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and U.P.
 Jute: Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 Linseed: Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, U.P., Maharashtra and West Bengal.
 Maize: U.P., Bihar and the Punjab.
 Mustard and Rape-seed (Sarson): U.P., West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar and Orissa.
 Poppy (opium plant):Mostly in North U.P., Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
and Kashmir.
 Rice: Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Rice is sown
on the largest acreage in India.
 Rubber: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
 Saffron: Jammu and Kashmir. It is obtained from the stigma of the saffron plant.
 Silk: Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal and Assam.
 Spices: Pepper in Kerala and West Bengal;
 Chillies in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra;

258
  Cardamom in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; Betelnuts in West Bengal and South India.
 Sugarcane: U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra.
 Tea: Assam, West Bengal, Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri Hills), Uttarkhand (Dehradun) and
Himachal Pradesh (Kangra Hills).
 Tobacco: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, U.P., West Bengal, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
 Wheat: U.P., Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. To some extent in Bihar, Rajasthan and
Maharashtra. It is sown in October-November and reaped in April.

MINERALS IN INDIA

 Antimony: Antimony deposits are found in the Punjab and Karnataka.

 Asbestos: Karnataka and Rajasthan.
 Barytes: (Barium Sulphate) Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Manbhum and Singhbhum districts of
Jharkhand.
 Bantonite: Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.
 Bauxite: Ranchi and Palamau districts of Jharkhand, Belgaum, Kharia and Thana districts of
Maharashtra; Balaghat, Jabalpur, Mandia and Bilaspur districts of Madhya Pradesh. It is an ore
of aluminium.
 Beryllium Sands: Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kashmir and Bihar.
 China Clay: Rajmahal Hills, Singhbhum district of Bihar, Kerala.
 Chromite: Singhbhum and Bhagalpur (Jharkhand); Ratnagiri, Salem (Tamil Nadu); Karnataka;
Keonjhar (Orissa); Ladakh (Kashmir).
 Coal: Raniganj (West Bengal); Jharia, Giridih, Karanpur (Bihar); Bokaro, (Jharkhand) Panch Valley
and Chanda (M.P.); Singareni (Andhra Pradesh) and Mukum (Assam).
 Cobalt: Rajasthan and Kerala.
 Copper: Jharkhand (Singhbhum and Barajamda); Rajasthan (Khetri).
 Corborundum: Khasi Hills (Assam); Rewa (M.P.); Salem (Tamil Nadu); Karnataka and Jammu &
Kashmir.
 Feldspar: Burdwan (West Bengal); Rewa (M.P.); Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu); Alwar and Ajmer
(Rajasthan).
 Fuller’s Earth: (soft clay used in soap-making) is found in Rajasthan, M.P. and Karnataka.
 Gold: Kolar gold-fields (Karnataka).
 Graphite: Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and
Kerala.
 Gypsum: Bikaner and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu), Gujarat- G for Gujrat, G
for Gypsum and Himachal Pradesh.
 Heavy Water: Talchar in Orissa; Kota in Rajasthan; Baroda in Gujarat; Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu;
Nangal in Punjab.
 Ilmenite: Kerala. Occurs in the “Bank Sands” of the beaches near Quilon.
 Iron Ore: Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Keonjhar and Mayurbhanj (Orissa).
 Kaynite: largest deposits occur at Kharswan near Jamshedpur, Singhbhum (Jharkhandr).

259
  Lac: W. Bengal.
 Lead: Zawar in Udaipur and at the Banjavi mines in Jaipur (Rajasthan).
 Lignite: Neyveli in South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
 Limestone: Singareni and Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Panchmahal (Gujarat), Balaghat, Bhandara,
 Chhindwara, Nagpur, Indore (MP), Vishakhapatnam (AP), Sandur (Tamil Nadu).
 Manganese: Madhya Pradesh.
 Marble: Jaipur (Rajasthan).
 Mica: Koderma in Hazaribagh district, Monghyr (Bihar), Nellore in Andhra Pradesh.
 Monazite Sands: are found in abundance in Travancore coast (Kerala State). Thorium is
processed from Monazite sands.
 Nitre: Bihar, U.P., Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
 Petroleum: Digboi, Badarpur, Musimpur and Patharia fields of Assam, Cambay basin near
Baroda where oilfields have been discovered and production has started. Large-scale drilling for
oil is in progress in India in Bombay and Gujarat.
 Pitchblende: Gaya (Bihar).
 Red Stone: Jodhpur (Rajasthan).
 Salt: Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan), and is also obtained from ocean water of Ranns of Kutch, on the
north-western and south-eastern littoral (sea-shore) of India.
 Saltpetre: Punjab, U.P. and Bihar.
 Silmanite: Khasi Hills (Assam); Rewa (M.P.). Silmanite is used in the manufacture of furnace-
lining in iron and steel industry. It is also used in glass and ceramic industry.
 Silver: Karnataka; Singhbhum and Manbhum (Jharkhand); Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
 Steatite: Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, U.P., Karnataka and Rajasthan.
 Tin: (Bihar) Hazaribagh district.
 Thorium: (Processed from monazite sand) Travancore (Kerala).
 Tungsten: Bihar, Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Marwar.
 Uranium: Bihar.
 Zinc: from Zawar mines in Udaipur (Rajasthan).
 Zircon: occurs in the beach sands of Kerala and Cape Comorin.
 Bihar produces 40% of the mineral wealth of India.

PLACES

 Adina Mosque: Pandua (West Bengal)

 Ajanta Caves: Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
 Akbar’s Tomb: Sikandra, Agra
 Aksherdham: Gandhinagar, Gujarat
 Amarnath Cave: Kashmir
 Amber Palace: Jaipur (Rajasthan)
 Anand Bhawan: Allahabad
 Bibi Ka Maqbra: Aurangabad

260
 Birla Planetarium: Kolkata
 Black Pagoda: Konarak (Orissa)
 Bodhistava: Ajanta Caves
 Brihadeeswara: Tanjore Temple
 Brindaban Gardens: Mysore
 Buland Darwaza: Fatehpur Sikri
 Char Minar: Hyderabad
 Cheena Kesava Temple: Bellur
 Chilka Lake: East Coast of India near Bhubaneswar
 Dal Lake: Srinagar
 Dilwara Temples: Mt Abu
 Elephanta Caves: Mumbai
 Ellora Caves: Aurangabad
 Gateway of India: Mumbai
 Golden Temple: Amritsar
 Gol Gumbaz: Bijapur
 Hanging Gardens: Mumbai
 Hawa Mahal: Jaipur
 Howrah Bridge: Kolkata
 Island Palace: Udaipur
 Itmad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb: Agra
 Jagannath Temple: Puri
 Jahaz Mahal: Mandu
 Jai Stambha (Tower of Victory): Chittorgarh
 Jama Masjid: Delhi
 Jantar Mantar: New Delhi
 Jog (Gersoppa) Falls: Mysore
 Kailasa Temple: Ellora
 Kalan Masjid: Delhi
 Kanyakumari Temple: Cape Comorin (Tamil Nadu)
 Khajuraho: Bhopal
 Konarak: Puri
 Lakshmi Vilas Palace: Baroda
 Lal Bagh Garden: Bengaluru
 Lalgarh Palace: Bikaner
 Lingaraj Temple: Bhubaneswar
 Mahakaleshwar Temple: Ujjain
 Maheshmurti (Trimurti): Elephanta Caves
 Mahmud Gawan’s Mosque: Bidar
 Malabar Hill: Mumbai

261
  Marble Rocks: Jabalpur
 Marina: Chennai
 Minakshi Temple: Madurai
 Mt Girnar (Jain Temples): Junagadh
 Nagin Lake: Srinagar
 Nataraja: Chennai
 Nishat Bagh: Srinagar
 Padmanabha Temple: Thiruvanthapuram
 Palitana: Junagadh
 Panch Mahal: Fatehpur Sikri
 Pichola Lake: Udaipur
 Qutab Minar: Delhi
 Raj Ghat: Delhi
 Rashtrapati Bhawan: Delhi
 Red Fort: Delhi
 Sanchi Tope (The Great Stupa): Sanchi, Bhopal
 Santa Cruz: Mumbai
 Shakti Sthal: Delhi
 Shalimar Bagh: Srinagar
 Shahi Chashma: Srinagar
 Shanti Van: Delhi
 Shore Temple: Mahabalipuram
 Sidi Sayyid Mosque: Ahmedabad
 Somnathpur Temple: Mysore
 Statue of Gomateswara: Mysore
 Statue of Ugra: Hampi
 Sunderbans: West Bengal
 Sun Temple: Konarak
 Taj Mahal: Agra
 Tehzeeb Mahal: Srinagar
 Tirupati Temple: Andhra Pradesh
 Tower of Silence: Mumbai (of the Parsis)
 Victoria Memorial: Kolkata
 Victoria Garden: Mumbai
 Vijay Ghat: Delhi

AFRICA

Temperate grassland of S Africa is called VELD. In these angora goats are reared. Kalahari Desert
is one of the biggest deserts of Africa. Horn of Africa is a volcanic plateau comprising parts of
Somalia, Ethiopia, Eretria, Djibouti.

262
Lake Victoria’s water is shared by the countries- Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania

Coast line of the continent is considered very regular. So it lacks good natural harbors and lacks
coastal planes. Most of the African continent consists of plateaus.

Maghreb – it is one of the two major highlands in the Saharan desert and hosts Atlas mountain
which are also young mountains like Himalayas.

The great rivers of Africa start from the high plateau of the Central Africa as it is located around
equator and receives high precipitation. Rivers drop down from the edges of the great plateau
and form waterfalls which make them unfit for navigation. This was the reason that the central
part of the continent remain unexplored for so long.

Suez Isthmus – Connects Africa and Asia, a canal was later made through this Isthmus known as
Suez Canal.

Strait of Gibraltar separates Africa from Europe and also provide for missing of the
Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Waters.

263