DATA STRUCTURE,

RESEARCH METHODS
AND STATISTICS
- differentiate correlational, experimental, and
nonexperimental research and describe the data structures
associated with each.
- define independent, dependent, and quasi-independent
variables and recognize examples of each
INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

➤ Studies that are conducted simply

to describe individual variables as
they exist naturally.
➤ Example:
➤ A researcher may conduct
survey to describe eating,
sleeping, and study habits of a
group of college students.
➤ Numerical scores are described
with the use of mean, median,
mode.
➤ Non-numerical scores are
typically described with the use
of percentage or proportion in
each category.
 RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN VARIABLES
EXAMPLES
➤ Is there a relationship between the amount of violence in the
video games played by children and the amount of aggressive
behavior they display?
➤ Is there a relationship between the quality of breakfast and
academic performance for elementary school children?
➤ Is there a relationship between the number of hours of sleep
and grade point average for college student?
➤ Is there a relationship between the level of statistical
knowledge and confidence in conducting research?
➤ Is there a relationship between life satisfaction and
happiness?
THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD
➤ One group with two variables measured for each individual.
➤ Example:
➤ Research has demonstrated a relationship between sleep
habits, especially wake-up time, and academic performance
for college students (Trockel, Barnes, and Egget, 2000).
➤ The researchers used a survey to measure wake-up time and
school records to measure academic performance for each
student.
➤ The researchers then look for consistent patterns in the data
to provide evidence for a relationship between variables. (As
wake-up time changes from one student to another, is there
also a tendency for academic performance to change?)
EXAMPLE

Student Wake-up Time Academic Performance

A 11 2.4
B 9 3.6
C 9 3.2
D 12 2.2
E 7 3.8
F 10 2.2
G 10 3.0
H 8 3.0
 Relationship between Wake-up Time and Academic Performance
3.8
Academic Performance

2.85

1.9

0.95

0
0 4.5 9 13.5 18
Wake-Up Time
CORRELATIONAL METHOD
➤ Two different variables are
observed to determine
whether there is a relationship
between them.
➤ Note: measurement process
used for a correlational study
simply classifies individuals
into categories that do not
correspond to a numerical
value.
EXAMPLE
➤ A researcher could classify a group of college students by
gender (male or female) and by cell-phone preference (talk or
text).

Gender Talk Text Total This type of data can be coded

with numbers (for example, male
= 0 and female = 1) so that it is
Males 30 20 50 possible to compute a correlation

This example can be computed

Females 25 25 50 using a statistical method called
chi-square test.
LIMITATION
➤ Results from correlational
study can demonstrate the
existence of a relationship
between variables, but they do
not provide explanation for
the relationship—cannot
demonstrate cause-and-effect
relationship.
EXPERIMENTAL AND NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS
➤ Comparing two (or more) groups of scores
➤ The relationship between variables is examined by using one
of the variables to define the groups, and then measuring the
second variable to obtain scores for each group.
EXAMPLE
➤ Polman, de Castro, and van Aken (2008) randomly divided a
sample of 10-year-old boys into two groups. One group then
played a violent video game and the second played a
nonviolent video game. After the game-playing session, the
children went free play period and were monitored for
aggressive behaviors (hitting, kicking, pushing, frightening,
name calling, fighting, quarreling, or teasing another child).
They collected the following data
One variable (type of video game)
is used to define groups
A second variable (aggressive
behavior) is measured to obtain
scored within each group
Violent Nonviolent
7 8
8 4
10 8
7 3
9 6
8 5
6 3
10 4
9 4
6 5
Compare groups of scores
➤ The researchers then compare the scores for the violent-video
group with the scores for the nonviolent-video group.
➤ A systematic difference the two groups provides evidence for
a relationship between playing violent video games and
aggressive behavior for 10-year-old boys.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND
NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS

➤ Results from an experiment

allow a cause-and-effect
explanation.
➤ We can conclude that changes
in one variable are responsible
for causing differences in a
second variable.
➤ A nonexperimental method
study does not permit a cause-
and-effect explanation.
➤ We can say that changes in
one variable are accompanied
by changes in a second
variable.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
➤ The goal of experimental research is to demonstrate a cause-
and-effect relationship between two variables.
➤ It attempts to show that changing the value of one variable
causes changes to occur in the second variable.
➤ An experiment attempts to control all other variables to
prevent them from influencing results.
TWO CHARACTERISTICS
➤ Manipulation: researchers
manipulate one variable by
changing its value from level
to another.
➤ Control: researchers exercise
control over research situation
to ensure that other,
extraneous variables fo not
influence the relationship
being examined.
VARIABLES
➤ Participant variables: personal
characteristics of participants
such as age, gender, and
intelligence.
➤ Whenever a research study
allows more than one
explanation for the results,
the study is said to be
confounded because it is
impossible to reach an
unambiguous conclusion.
➤ Environmental variables:
lighting, time of the day, and
weather conditions.
THREE BASIC TECHNIQUES TO CONTROL OTHER VARIABLES

➤ Random assignment: each

participant has an equal
chance of being assigned to
each of the treatment
conditions.
➤ Matching: to ensure
equivalent groups or
environments.
➤ Holding them constant:
holding age and gender (or
any other variables) constant.
TERMINOLOGIES
➤ Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the
researcher. In behavioral research, the independent variable
usually consists of the two or more treatment conditions to
which they are exposed. The independent variable consists of
the antecedent conditions that were manipulated prior to
observing the dependent variable.
➤ Dependent variable: the one that is observed to assess the
effect of the treatment.
TERMINOLOGIES
➤ Control condition: individuals or animals do not receive the
experimental treatment. Instead, they either receive no
treatment or they receive a neutral, placebo treatment. The
purpose of a control condition is to provide a baseline for
comparison with the experimental condition.
➤ Experimental conditions: individuals do receive the
experimental treatment.
NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS: NONEQUIVALENT GROUPS
Variable #1: Subject gender (the quasi-
independent variable)
Boys Girls
Not manipulated, but used to create two
groups of subjects.
17 12

19 10

16 14
Variable #2: Verbal test scores
(dependent variable) 12 15
Measured in each of the two groups.
17 13

18 12

15 11

16 13
Any difference?
NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS: PRE-POST STUDY
Variable #1: Time (the quasi-
independent variable)
Before therapy After therapy
Not manipulated, but used to create two
groups of subjects.
17 12

19 10

16 14
Variable #2: Depression scores
(dependent variable)
12 15
Measured at each of the two groups
different times 17 13

18 12

15 11

16 13
Any difference?
POP QUIZ
1. In a correlational study, how many variables are measured for
each individual and how many groups of scores are obtained?
A. 1 variable and 1 group
B. 1 variable and 2 groups
C. 2 variables and 1 group
D. 2 variables and 2 groups
2. A research study comparing alcohol use for college students
in the United States and Canada reports that more Canadian
students drink but American students drink more (Kuo, Adlaf,
Lee, Gliksman, Demers, and Wechsler, 2002). What research
design did they use?
A. correlational
B. experimental
C. nonexperimental
D. noncorrelational
2. Stephens, Atkins, and Kignston (2009) found that
participants were able to tolerate more pain when they shouted
their favorite swear words over and over than when they
shouted neutral words. For this study, what is the independent
variable?
A. the amount of pain tolerated
B. the participants who shouted swear words
C. the participants who shouted neutral words
D. the kind of word shouted by the participants