Physics Record Writing Class XII PDF

PHYSICS PRACTICAL RECORD WRITING
FOR CLASS XII

@
Educate EnrichEnlighten
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TOPIC
EXPERIMENTS 1 TO 15
ACTIVITIES 1 TO 5
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
02
EXPERIMENT - 1
Aim : To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph
of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus :
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) V and an ammeter (0 -3) A of ap-
propriate range, a battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a meter
scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Theory :
According to the Ohm’s law, the current flowing through a conduc-
tor is directly proportional to the difference across its ends, provided
the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure, etc.) of the
conductor remains the same. If I be the current flowing through a
conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then ac-
cording to Ohm’s Law,
Or V  I or V  RI
Where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of

the conductor.
V
Or R ...Working formula
I
R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of
the conductor. In SI units, the potential difference V is measured in volt

and the current I in ampere, the resistance R is measured in ohm.
(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that
the ratio V/I remains constant for a given resistance. Therefore,

a graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I)
must be a straight line.
V
(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance,   R  .
 I 
03
Observations
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l = .........
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = ......
Range of the given voltmeter=.......
3. Least Count
Least count of ammeter =.......
Least count of voltmeter=.......
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 =......
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 =.....
5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, c1 e1 ......
Zero correction for voltmeter,
Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings
Serial No of Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltammeter Reading V (V)

Obs
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected V
(1) R
Io I = Io+ C1 Vo V = Vo+ C2 I
(Ohm)
(2a) (2b) (3a) (3b)
(4)
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of resistance, R = ohms.
04
Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the
arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove
the insulations, if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit
diagram. While making connections ensure that +ve marked

terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the +ve
terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also
note the zero error, if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter
and voltmeter are working properly.
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable
current passes through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
7. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and

current I from ammeter.
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and
voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
10. Take at least five sets of independent observations.
11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals,
stretch it and find its length by the metre scale.
12. Record your observations.
05
06
Calculations :
1. Find the ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V (column 3b) and
current I (column 2b), Taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.
The graph comes to be a straight line.
From the graph, the resistance can be calculated.
AB I
In ABC tan = 
CB V
V
Or cot =
I
V
But R =
I
R = cot
R = ............. 
V
3. Constant ratio gives resistance of the wire.
I
4. Resistance of the wire =...........  .
Result :
R
(i) Resistance per cm of the wire   ..........  cm -1.
L
(ii) The graph between V and I is a straight line.
07
08
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after
removing the insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand
paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.

4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to
avoid heating of resistance(otherwise its resistance will increase).
6. The electric current through resistance wire should not be very
high, so as to avoid heating effect of current.
7. The switch should be open when you are not taking readings.
Sources of Error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
09
Circuit Diagram
Meter Bridge
10
EXPERIMENT - 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence
determine the resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.
Apparatus
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery elimi-
nator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a
resistance wire, a screw guage, a meter scale, a set square, connect-
ing wires and a piece of sand paper.
Theory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by, X  (100  l) x R
l
Where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and
unknown resistance X in the right gap of meter bridge. cm is the
length of meter bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
(ii) Specific resistance (  )of the material of the given wire is given by,
XD 2
 m
4L
Where L is the length of D is the diameter of the given wire.

Procedure
For Resistance
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined
in the right gap between C and B. Take care that no part of the
wire forms a loop.

3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between
A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box.
Plug the key K.
11
Obervations
1. Length of given wire, L = ..........cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)
Serial No of Resistance from Balancing B C = (100 -  ) Unknown resis-

Obs the Resistance box Length AB =  tance
(1) R (100 l)
(cm) X R
l
(ohm) (4) (ohm)
(2) (5)
1. .......... .......... .......... X1=............

2. .......... .......... .......... X2=............
3. .......... .......... .......... X3=............
4. .......... .......... .......... X4=............
3. Least count of the screw guage Pitch of screw guage = .......mm

Total no. Of divisions on the circular scale = .........
pitch
 L.C of the given screw guage =
No.of divisions on the circular scale
= ........mm
Zero error e = ........mm
Zero correction, c = - e = .......mm
12
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end
of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer
shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are
correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault
in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the
fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till
galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is
touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that
there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is
nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e between 45 cm to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D (with the help of set square) to know
balancing length, AD = .
11. Take at least four set of observations in the same way by changing
the value of R in steps.
Where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.
13
Table for diameter (D) of the wire
Serial Linear Scale Circular Scale Reading Observed Corrected
Of Obs. Reading N No. Of Circular Value n x (L.C) diameter Diameter

scale division on
(1) (mm) reference line (mm) D0 = N+n x L.C D = D0 +c
(n)
(2) (3b) (mm) (mm)
(3a)
(4) (5)
1.
(a)
D1(a)= D1(a)=............
(b)
D1(b)= D1(b)= ............
2.
(a) D2(a)= D2(a)= ............
(b) D2(b)= D2(b)= ............
3.
(a) D3(a)= D3(a)= ............
(b) D3(b)= D3(b)= ............
4. D4(a)= D4(a)= ............

(a)
(b) D4(b)= D4(b)= ............
14
For Specific Resistance
13. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals,
stretch it and find its length byusing a meter scale.
14. Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places, in two
mutually perpendicular directions at each place with the help of
screw guage.
15. Record your observations as given in tables.
Calculations
1. Calculation for X
1. From position of D, find cm and write in column 3 of Table .
2. Find length (100 - ) am and write in column 4.
3. Calculate X and write in column 5.
X1 X2 X3 X4
Mean X ........ohm
4
2. Calculation for D
D 1 a  D 2 b  ...........  D 4 a  D 4 b
Mean corrected diameter =
8
= ..........mm = .........cm
3. Calculation for Specific Resistance
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
D 2
  X.
4L
= .........ohm-cm
= .........ohm-m
Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given
wire (if given wire ( if given),
  0
Percentage error  X 100
0
= ......%.
15
16
Result
1. The value of unknown resistance, X = .....
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = .....
3. Percentage error= ......
Precautions
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations
are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of par
allax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two
mutually perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.
Sources of Error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

4. The screw guage may have faults like back lash error and wrong
pitch.
17
(i) In series
(ii) Resistances in series
18
EXPERIMENT - 3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistance using a
meter bridge.
Apparatus
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a
galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistance wires or
two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and
connecting wires.
Theory
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by,
100  
r X R where R is the resistance from the resistance box in

the left gap and is the length of the metre bridge wire from
zero end upto balance point.
(ii) When two resistances and are connected in series, then their
combined resistance, R s r1 r2
Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as and .
2. To find and proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (If and
are not known.)
3. Connect the two coils and in series as shown in figure in the
right gap of metre bridge and find the resistance of this
combination. Take at least three sets of observations.

4. Record your observations as follows.
19
Observations
Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial No of Resistance Balancing Length Resistance Mean resistance
Length
Coil Observa ons From the DC = 100-  (ohm
resistance AD =   100  l
(1) (2) (cm) r  xR (7)
Box (ohm) (cm)  l 
(5) (6)
(3) (4)
R1 only 1.
R1 =
2. .......................
3.
R2 only 1.
2. R2 =
.......................
3.
R1 and R 2 1.
In series
Rsp =
2.
.......................
3.
20
Calculations
1. Calculations for only, only, and in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of
Theoretical value of
Difference (if any)=.............
Result
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical
values of s are same. Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.
Precautions
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after
removing the insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand
paper.
avoid heating of resistance(otherwise its resistance will increase).
21
Circuit Diagram
(iii) In parallel
(iv) Resistances in parallel
22
EXPERIMENT - 4
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using
a meter bridge.
Apparatus
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanom-
eter, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance
coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and connecting
wires.
Theory
(iii) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by,
100  
r X R where R is the resis tance from the resistance

box in the left gap and is the length of the metre bridge
wire from zero end upto balance point.
(iv) When and are connected in parallel, then their
r1 r2
combined resistance, R p 
r1  r2
Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as and .
2. To find and proceed same way as in Experiment 1.
(If and are not known.)
3. Connect the two coils and in parallel as shown in figure in

the right gap of metre bridge and find the resistance of
this combination. Take at least three sets of observations.
4. Record your observations as follows.
23
Observations
Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial No of Resistance Balancing Length Resistance Mean resistance
Coil Observa ons From the Length DC = 100-  (ohm

resistance  100  l 
(1) (2) AD =  (cm) r  xR (7)
Box (ohm)  l 
(cm) (5) (6)
(3)
(4)
R1 only 1.
2. R1 = .......................
3.
R2 only 1.
2. R2 = .......................
3.
R1 and 2 1.
In parallel
2. Rp = .......................
3.
24
Calculations :
Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of p= ............

r1 r2
Theoretical value of R p 
r1  r2
=.........
Difference (if any)=.............
Result
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical

values of p are same. Hence, law of resistances in parallel is verified.
Precautions
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after re
moving the insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand
paper.
avoid heating of resistance(otherwise its resistance will in
crease).
25
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
26
EXPERIMENT - 5
AIM:To compare the E.M.Fs of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter,

a voltmeter, a galvanometer, a battery (or battery eliminator),
a rheostat of low resistance, a resistance box, a one way key, a two way
key, a jockey, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
E1 l 1
THEORY : 
E2 l 2
Where and 2 are the e.m.f. of two given cells and l 1 and are the
corresponding balancing lengths on potentiometer wire.
PROCEDURE :
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in circuit diagram figure.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper

wires with a sand paper.
3. Measure the e.m.f. (E) of the battery and the e.m.fs. ( and 2 ) of
the cells. See that and also .
4. Connect the positive pole of the battery (a battery of constant

e.m.f.) to the zero end (P) of the potentiometer and the negative
pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low resistance
rheostat to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.
5. Connect the positive poles of the cells and 2 to the terminal at

the zero end (P) and the negative poles of the terminal a and b of
the two way key.

6. Connect the common terminal c of the two-way key through a
galvanometer (G) and a resistance box (R.B.) to the jockey J.
27
OBSERVATIONS
1. E.M.F. of battery (or battery eliminator), E = .......
E.M.F. of Leclanche cell, = .......
E.M.F. of Daniel cell, 2 = .......

2. Least count of the ammeter = .......
Zero error of the ammeter = .......
3. Table for lengths
Serial Corrected am-

meter reading Balance point when Balance point when 2
No. Of (Leclanche cell) in the circuit (Daniel cell) in the circuit
Obs. (A) E1 l 1

l 1 (cm)
(cm) E2 l 2
1 2 1 2
Mean l 1 Mean 
(1) (2) (3a) (3b)
 (4a) (4b)
 (5)
(3c) (4c)
1. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
2. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
3. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
28
7. Take maximum current from the battery making rheostat
resistance zero.
8. Insert the plug in the one-way key (K) in circuit and also in
between the terminals a and c of the two-way key.
9. Take out a 2,000 ohms plug from the resistance box (R.B.).
10. Press the jockey at the zero end and note the direction of
deflection in the galvanometer.
11. Press the jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire.
If the direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case,
the connections are correct. (if the deflection is in the same

direction then either connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the
auxiliary battery is less).
12. Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wires till you obtain
a point where galvanometer shows no deflection.
13. Put the 2000 ohms plug back in the resistance box and obtain
the null point position accurately.

14. Note the length l 1 of the wire for the cell . Also note the current as
indicated by the ammeter.

15. Disconnect the cell by removing the plug from gap ac of
two-way key and connect the cell 2 by inserting plug into gap
bc of two-way key.
16. Take out a 2000 ohms plug from resistance box R.B. and slide
the jockey along potentiometer wire so as to obtain no deflection
position.
17. Put the 2000 ohms plug back in the resistance box and obtain ac
curate position of null point for second cell 2 .
18. Note the length of wire in this position for the cell 2 . However,
make sure that ammeter reading is same as in step 14.
29
30
19. Repeat the observations alternately for each cell again for the
same value of current.
20. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtained

at least three sets of observations in a similar way.
21. Record your observations as given below.
CALCULATIONS
1. For each observation find mean l 1 and mean  and record in
column 3c and 4c.

2. Find for each set, by dividing mean l 1 (column 3c) by mean
 (column 4c).
3. Find mean .
RESULT
E1
The ratio of E.M.Fs.,  ......
E2
PRECAUTIONS

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the
observations are to be taken.

3. The positive poles of the battery E and cells and 2 should,
all be connected to the terminal at the zero of the wires.

4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire.
It should touch the wire gently.

5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a
particular set of observation. If necessary, adjust the rheostat
for this purpose.
31
32
6. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.fs
of the either of the two cells.
7. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from

resistance box before the jockey is moved along the wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The instruments screw may be loose.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross section and
matrial density througyh out its length .
33
34
EXPERIMENT - 6
AIM : To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell
using potentiometer.
APPARATUS :
A potentiometer, a battery (or battery eliminator), two one-way
keys, a rheostat of low resistance, a galvanometer, a high resis-
tance box, a fractional resistance box, an ammeter, a voltmeter,
a cell (say Leclanche cell), a jockey, connecting wires and a piece
of sand paper.
THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is given by
 l l 
r  1 2 R
 l2 
Where l 1 and are the balancing lengths without shunt and with
shunt, respectively, and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with
the given cell.
PROCEDURE
1. Make the connections accordingly, as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make
tight connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
4. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f. of the
battery is more than that of the given cell, otherwise null or
balance point will not be obtained (E’>E).
35
36
5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat
resistance small.
6. To test the correctness of the connections. (Insert the plug in the

key K 1 and note the ammeter reading. Take out 2000 Ω
resistance plug from the resistance box. Place the jockey first at
the end P of the wire and then at the end Q. If the galvanometer
shows deflection in opposite directions in the two cases, the con-
nections are correct).
7. Without inserting the plug in the key K 2 adjust the rheostat so
that a null point is obtained on the fourth wire of potentiometer.
8. Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in its position in resistance box
and by slightly adjusting the jockey near the previously obtained

position of null point, obtain the null point position
accurately.
9. Measure the balancing length l 1 between this point and the end
P of the wire.
10. Take out the 2000 ohms plug again from the resistance box R.B.
Introduce the plugs in key K 1 , as well as in key K 2 . Take out a
small resistance (1-5 Ω) from the resistance box R connected in
parallel with the cell.
11. Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null
point.
12. Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in R.B. and if necessary
make further adjustment for sharp null point.
13. Measure the balancing length  from end P.
14. Remove the plug keys at K 1 and K 2 . Wait for sometime and for the
same value of current (as shown by the ammeter), repeat the steps
7 to 13.
37
OBSERVATIONS
1. E.M.F. of battery (or battery eleminator)
E.M.F. of cell
2. Table for Lengths
Serial Ammeter Position of null point (cm) Shunt re- Internal re-
No. Of sistance sistance
Obs. Reading
Without shunt R With shunt R R (ohm) l l 
(A) r   1 2  R
(i) (ii) Mean (i) (ii) Mean  l2 
l1 (Ohm)
 
(1)
(3a) (3b) (3c) (3d) (3e) (3f) (5)
(4)
(2)  
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
38
15. Repeat the observations for different values of R repeating each
observation twice.
16. Record your observations as given below.
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate value of r for each set and write it in column 5.

2. Take mean of values of r recorded in column 5.
RESULT
The internal resistance of the given cell is......  .
PRECAUTIONS
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
1. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.
2. For one set of observation the ammeter reading should remain
constant.
3. Current should be passed for short time only, while finding the
null point.
4. Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point lies on last
wire of the potentiometer.
5. Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.
6. Jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.
39
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
40
EXPERIMENT - 7
AIM : To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection

method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery elimi-
nator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys,
a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given range,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half
deflection method is given by,
R .S
G ... 1
R S
Where R is the resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
(ii) The figure of merit,

E
k ... 2
R G
Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and  is the deflection produced with
resistance R.
(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,
Ig nk ... 3
Where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale

on either side of zero.
41
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection meth-
od
Serial No. Resistance Deection Shunt resis- Half deec- Galvanome-

tance tion ter resistance
Of Obs R in the galva-
nometer Ѳ S RS
(ohm)  G
R S
(ohm) 2 (ohm)
(3) (6)
(5)
(4)
(1) (2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
2. Table for figure of merit
Serial No. Number of e.m.f. of the Resistance Deection Figure of

Of Obs cells cells E(V) from R.B. merit
or reading Ѳ(div.)
(Battery of battery R (ohm)
eliminator) E
eliminator k
RG 
(3)
(2) (6)
(1) (4)
(5)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n =......
42
PROCEDURE
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.

3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance
box R and insert the key K 1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in
number and within the scale.
5. Note the deflection., let it be θ

6. Insert the key K 2 also and without changing the value of R,
adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the galvanometer

reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., .
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R
and adjusting S every time.
(b) Figure of merit

9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its
E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the cell and –ve of
voltmeter with –ve of the cell. Let it be E.

10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 
(say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.
12. Note the value of resistance R and deflection  .

13. Now change the value of R and note galvanometer deflection
again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with
different voltage like 2, 4, 6, 8, volts from the battery eliminator.

15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.
43
44
1.Calculation for G
RS
(i) Calculation G, using formula, G  and write it in
R S
column 6 of Table 1.
(ii) Take mean of values of G recorded in column 6 of Table 1.
2. Calculation for k
E
(i) Calculate k, using formula, k  and write it in
RG 
column 6 of Table 2.
(ii) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.
RESULT
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = ...... Ω
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A div .
PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be
introduced in the circuit (otherwis e for small resistance
an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or amme
ter can be damaged).
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
45
46
EXPERIMENT - 8
AIM : To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and
figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range and to

verify the same.
APPARATUS
A Weston type galvanometer, an ammeter of 0-3 A. range a battery of

two cells or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance
boxes, two one way keys, a rheostat connecting wires and a piece of
sand paper.
THEORY
The shunt resistance required for conversion,
Ig  G
S
I  Ig
Where I is the range of conversion.
PROCUDURE
1. Count the total number of divisions on either side of zero of the
galvanometer scale. Let it be n.
2. Calculate the current ( g) for full scale deflection i.e., g .
3. Calculate the value of shunt resistance, for conversion into
ammeter, using the formula,
Ig  G
S
I  Ig
Where I is the range of conversion.
47
48
(The value of shunt resistance S is usually very small and a
resistance box of that range is not available. Such small resistances
are obtained by taking wires of copper, constantan, manganin,
eureka, etc., of a suitable diameter and length).

4. Cut a length of the wire 2 cm more than the calculated value
l. Mark two points on the wire, one cm away from each end. Con-
nect this wire to the two terminals of the galva nometer such that
the marked points are just outside the terminal screws.
This galvanometer with shunt wire, will now work as an ammeter

of range I.
5. Make the electric connections as shown in circuit diagram.
6. Insert the key and adjust the rheostat so that the galvanometer
shows nearly maximum deflection.
7. Note the reading on the galvanometer scale and also correspond
ing reading on the ammeter.
CALCULATION
Resistance of the galvanometer, G  ......
 Figure of merit, k  ......
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n  ......

Current for full scale deflection, Ig  nk
......
Range of conversion, I  ......

Ig .G
 Shunt resistance S  ......
I  Ig
VERIFICATION
Least count of the galvanometer converted into ammeter
......
49
Table for verification for converted ammeter
Serial No. Galvanometer Reading Ammeter Difference

Of Obs Deection Current in Amp. Reading (Error)
Ѳ (A)
(2a) (2b) (A) (A)
(1) (3) (4)
1.
2.
3.
4.
50
RESULT
As the difference in actual and measured value of currents
(as recorded, in column 4) is very small, the conversion is perfect.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The ammeter used for verification should preferably be of the
same range, as the range of conversion.
4. The diameter of the wire to be used for shut resistance, should be

measured accurately.
5. Length of shunt wire used should be neither too small nor too
large.
6. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.
7. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the
same range, as the range of conversion.
8. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.
51
52
EXPERIMENT - 9
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
1 1
between u and v or between and .
u v
APPARATUS
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two

outer uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens with lens hold-
er, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a kitting needle and a
half metre scale.
THEORY
The relation between u, v and [for a convex lens is,
where, f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens

v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
PROGEDURE
To determine rough focal length
1. Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or
building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted
wall (screen) and move the mirror forward and backward to get
a sharp image on the wall.
4. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (acreen).
This will be equ 0 the rough focal length of the mirror.
53
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = _____ cm
Actual length of the knitting needle x = _____ cm
Observed distance between the object needle and the lens
when knittiag needle is placed between them y = _____cm
Observed distance between the image needle and the
lens when knitting needle is placed between them z = _____ cm
Table for
Serial Posi on of Observed Corrected

1
No. of distance distance
v
Obs. Object Lens O Image OA = OC = u v (cm–1)
needle C
needle A (cm) (cm) u (cm) v (cm) (cm) (cm–1)
(cm)
(cm)
(2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b) (5) (6)
(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
54
To set the lens
5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the up-
right at 50 cm mark
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular
to the length of th5 Optical hench,
7. Keep the upright fixed in this position thronghout. To set the ob-
ject needle
8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it in
outer laterally move. able upright near xero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in
full ems) nearly 1 5 times the obtained rough focal length of the
lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizon-
tal line through the Optical centre of the lens.
11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object nee-
dle upright.
To set the image needle
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other
end of the optical bench, Al inverted and enlarged image of the
object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must he in the middle
of the Lens.
13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth up-
right near the other end of the optical bench.
14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in
line with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The im-
age tip and the image needle tip have parallax.
55
56
16. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
17. Note the position of the index mark on base of the image nee-
dle upright.
18. Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright
of the lens, the object needle and the image needle in the table
against observation 2.
To determine index correction
19. Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of
lens and tip of the object needle and also for distance between opti-
cal centre of lens and tip of the image needle as described.
To get more observations
20. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get
observation 2 and 1. Repent the experiment.
21. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of
observation 2) in steps of 1 cm to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Re-
peat the experiment.
22. Record all the observations as given ahead.
CALCULATIONS
Calculations of focal length by graphical methods.

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along
X¢-axis and v along Y-axis. According to sign conventions, in this
case, u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various points for dif-
ferent sets of values of u and v from observation table second quad-
rant. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown
in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bi-
secting ÐYOX¢) and meeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC
perpendicular on X¢- and Y-axes, respectively.
57
58
The values of u and v will be same for point A. So, the coordinates of
point A must be (2f, 2f), because for a convex lens, when u = 2f, v =
2f.
Hence, AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f
 Mean value of f = _________ cm

1 1
(ii) and Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent
u v
1
along X¢-axis and along Y-axis. By sign conventions if nega-
v
1
tive and is positive. Plot the various points for different set of val-
v
ues of from the observation table. The graph comes out to be
straight line as shown in graph between .
The straight line cuts the two axes OX¢ and OY at an angle of 45°
at points P and Q, respectively and making equal intercepts on the
axes. Measure the distance OP and OQ.
1 1
Then focal length, f  
OP OQ
= _______.
59
60
RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:
1. focal length,
2. (u – v) graph = ______ cm and
3. graph = ______ cm
PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same
height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a
distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only
real, inverted image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and e should he applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
61
62
EXPERIMENT - 10
AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave
mirror and to find the focal length.
APPARATUS
An optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two out-
er uprights with lateral movement), concave mirror, a mirror holder,
two optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle and a half
metre scale.
THEORY
1 1 1
From mirror formula,  
f v u
uv
We have, f
uv
where, f = focal length of concave mirror.
u = distance of object needle from pole of the mirror.
v = distance of image needle from pole of the mirror.
PROCEDURE
To determine rough focal length
1. Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or
building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted
wall (screen) and move the mirror forward and backward to
get a sharp image on the wall.
4. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen).
This will be equal to the rough focal length of the mirror.
63
64
To set the mirror
5. Place fixed upright near zero end of the optical bench and the
two other uprights (with lateral movement) near the other end.
6. Clamp the holder with mirror in the fixed upright keeping mirror
face towards other end of the bench and surface perpendicular to
its length.
7. Make mirror surface vertical using levelling screws of the optical
bench. (In final adjustment, the principal axis of the mirror must
be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench).

8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of mirror upright.
To set the object needle
9. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in sec-
ond upright.
10. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance
(in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the obtained rough focal length of
the mirror.
11. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal
line through the pole of the mirror.
12.With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end
of the optical bench. An inverted and enlarged image of the nee-
dle will be seen Tip of the image must lie in the middle of the mir-
ror (If image is not seen, move object needle upright away from
the mirror).
13. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object nee-
dle upright.
65
66
To set the image needle
14. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third upright
and move the upright near the other end of the optical bench.
15. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line
with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
16. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated . The image
tip and the image needle tip have parallax.
17. Remove the parallax as described . The paral lax gets removed
tip-to-tip.
18. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image nee-
dle upright.
19. Record all the positions of the index marks in the table against
observation 2.
To determine index correction
20. Find index correction for distance between pole of mirror and tip
of the object and also for distance between pole of mirror and tip
of the image needle as described.
21. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get
observation 2 and j Repeat the experiment.
22. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of
observation 2) in steps of 1 cm to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Re-
peat the experiment.
23. Record all the observations as given ahead.
67
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = _______
Actual length of the knitting needle, x = _______
Observed distance between the mirror and object needle when Knitting
needle is placed in between them, y = _______
Observed distance between the mirror and image needle when
Knitting needle is placed in between them, z = ______
1 1
Table for u, v and ,
u v
Serial Position of Observed dis- Corrected dis- Focal
No. of tance tance length
uv
Obs. f=
Concave Object Image PO = u PI = v u v v+u
1
(1) mirror P needle needle
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) u
(cm) (2a) O (cm) I (cm)
(3a) (3b) (cm–1) (cm–1)
(2b) (2c) (4a) (4b)
(5) (6)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
68
CALCULATIONS
Calculations of focal length by graphical methods
(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along
X-axis and u along Y’-axis. According to sign conventions, in this
case a and v both are negative. Plot the various points for different
sets of values of u and v from the observation table. The graph comes
out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 450 with either axis (i.e., bi-
secting Y’ OX’) and meeting the curve at point A. Draw AR and AD
perpendicular on X’ – and Y’– axes respectively. The values of u and
v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must be (2f,
2f) because for a concave mirror u and v are equal only when the
object is placed at the centre of curvature.
Hence u = v = R = 2f
EXPLANATION
From mirror formula applied to point A
1 1 1
 
f u v
1 2 2 u v
As u  v,  or and f  or
f u v 2 2
Hence, half the values of either coordinate of A (i.e., distance OD or

OB) gives the focal length of the concave mirror.
OD
f    _________
2
OB
Also f    __________
2
Mean value of f = – _____.
69
85
70
RESULT
The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from:
uv
(i) focal length calculated from f  _______ cm
vu
(ii) (u – v) graph = – _________ cm
1 1
(iii)    graph = – _________ cm
u v
PRECAUTIONS
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to

the central line of the optical bench.
2. The uprights should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle land im-
age of the needle 0.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm
away from the needle.
5. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height
as that of pole of the concave mirror.
6. Index correction for a and v should be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
71
72
EXPERIMENT - 11
AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward
bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt
battery, a high resistance rheostat, one 0–3 volt voltmeter, one 0–50
volt voltmeter, one 0–100 mA ammeter, one 0–100 µA ammeter, one

way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.
THEORY
Forward-bias characteristics: When the p-section of the diode is
connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is con-
nected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to
be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward
current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At
about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly.
The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current
increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
Reverse-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is
connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-sec-
tion of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same bat-
tery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small
reverse current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But
when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value.
73
OBSERVATIONS
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = ______ V
Least count of voltmeter = ______ V
Zero error of voltmeter = ______ V
Range of mull-ammeter = ______ mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = ______ mA
Zero error of mull-ammeter = ______ mA
1. Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current
Serial No. of Obs. Forward-bias Voltage Forward current IF (mA)

(1) (2) (3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Note: The readings are as a sample
For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = _____ V
Least count of voltmeter = _____ V
Zero error of voltmeter = _____ V
Range of micro-ammeter = _____ A
Least count of micro-ammeter = _____ A
Zero error of micro-ammeter = _____
74
This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large
current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The
breakdown voltage may starts from one volt to several hundred volts, de-
pending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.
PROCEDURE
For forward-bias
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter
(mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative
end and insert the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will
give zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bi-
as voltage (V,) of 0.1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current

remains zero. (It is due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
7. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
8. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current- Cur-
rent increases first slowly and then rapidly, till V becomes 0.7 V.
9. Make V = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “for-
ward break. down” stage.
10. If the 17F increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the for
ward current does change much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
75
2. Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current
Serial No. of Obs. Reverse-bias Voltage VR (V) Reverse current IR (A)
(1) (2) (3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
76
For reverse-bias
12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter
(V) and micro-ammeter (µA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near
positive end and insert the key K. VoltmeterV and

micro-ammeter µA will give zero reading.
16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias
volt age (VR) of 0.5 V, feebly reverse current starts flowing.

17. Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly
and then rapidly till V5 becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make R = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents
“reverse break. down” stage. Note the current and take out the
key at once.
CALCULATIONS
For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF (column 2) and for

ward current IF (column 3) taking
VF along K-axis and IF along Y-axis.
77
This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction diode.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.
78
For reverse-bias
Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR (column 2) and re-
verse current IR (column 3) taking VR along X-axis and B along
Y-axis.
RESULT
Junction resistance for forward-bias ______________ Ohms.
Junction resistance for reverse-bias ______________ Ohms.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not
being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.
3. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.
79
80
EXPERIMENT - 12
AIM: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to deter
mine its reverse breakdown voltage.
APPARATUS
A Zener diode (with small reverse breakdown voltage of about 6 volts),
[i.e., VZ = 6 V], a ten volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, two 0–10
V voltmeter, one 0–100 mA ammeter, one 20 Ω resistance, one way

key, connecting wires.
THEORY
Zener Diode It is a semiconductor diode, in which the n-type and the
p-type sections are heavily doped, i.e., they have more percentage of
impurity atoms. This heavy doping results in a low value of reverse
breakdown voltage (BVR). This value can be controlled during man-
ufacture.
The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener diode, is called Zener volt-
age (VZ). The reverse current that results after the breakdown, is
called Zener current (IZ).
Circuit Parameters
In the given circuit
VI = Input (reverse bias) voltage
V0 = Output voltage (RL/IL)

R1 = Input resistance
RL = Load resistance
II = Input current (reverse current)
IZ = Zener diode current
IL = Load current Relations
81
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of voltmeter (V1) = ________ V
Zero error of voltmeter (V1) = ________ V
Least count of micro - ammeter = ________  A
Zero error of micro -ammeter = ________  A.
Table for VI, I1 and V0
Serial No. of Obs. Input voltage (VI) (V) Input current (II) (A) Output voltage V0 (V)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1. …… ……
2. …… ……
:
:
:
20. …… ……
21. …… ……
Plot a graph between input voltage VI (column 2) and input current
(column 3), taking VI along X-axis and II along Y-axis.
74
82
Relations
IL = II = IZ
V0 = VI – RIII
Initially as V1 is increased, I1 increases a little, then V0 increases.

At breakdown, increase of VI increases II by large amount, so that V0 =
VI – RIII becomes constant.
This constant value of V0 which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is

called Zener voltage
Formula used
V0 = VI – RIII
Constant value of V0 gives reverse breakdown voltage.
PROCECURE
1. Arrange apparatus as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeters and milliammeter.

(micro-ammeter)
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative
end and insert the key K. Voltmeters and milli-ammeter will give
zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply some reverse
bias voltage (VI) Milli-ammeter reading remains zero. Voltmeters
give equal readings.
[i.e., V0 = V1  II = 0 (eqn. 2))
6. As VI is further increased, II starts flowing. Then V0 becomes less than
VI. Note the values of VI, II and V0.
83
CALCULATIONS :
Plot a Graph between input voltage V1 (Column 2) and input Current

(Column 3), taking VI along X - Asis and II along Y - Axis
84
7. Go on increasing VI in small steps of 0.5 V. Note corresponding val-
ues of II and V0 which will be found to have increased.
8. As VI is made more and more, II and V0 are found to increase. Val-

ues are noted.
9. At one stage, as VI is increased further, II increases by large amount
and V0 does not increase. This is reverse breakdown situation.
10. As V1 is increased further, only II is found to increase, V0 becomes con-
stant. Note values of VI, II and V0.
11. Increase V1 to a value of 10 V, noting corresponding values.
RESULT
The reverse breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is ……..V
PRECAUTIONS
1. All connection should be neat, clean and tight.
being used.
3. Zero corrections must be applied to different meters.
4. Zener diode should be connected in reverse bias.
85
86
EXPERIMENT - 13
AIM : To study the characteristics of a common emitter npn (or pup)
transistor and to find out the values of current and voltage gains.
APPARATUS
An n-p-n transistor, a three volt battery, a 30 volt battery, two high
resistance rheostats, one 0–3 volt voltmeter, one 0–30 volt voltmeter,
one 0–50 pA micro-ammeter, one 0–50 mA milli-ammeter, two one
way keys, connecting wires.
THEORY
In common-emitter circuit of a transistor, emitter-base make input

section and emitter-collector make output section. As usual, base
junction (input junction) is forward biased and collector junction
(output junction) is reverse biased.
Resistance offered by base junction, is called input resistance (R I). It

has a very small due to forward biasing.
Resistance offered by collector junction, is called output resistance

(R0). It has a high reverse biasing.
Due to high output resistance (resistance in output section), a high

resistance can be used as load resistance (RL). Generally RL = R0.
RL R0
The ratio  measures resistance gain of the common emitter
RI RI
transistor. It is of the order of one thousand. The current equation I e
= Ib + Ic.
Also, emitter current (Ie) divides itself into base current (Ib) and
collector current (Ic). In n-p-n transistor, Ic is about 98% of Ie, base
current Ib remains only 2% of Ie. A little change in Ib causes a large
87
88
change (about 49 times) in Ic. The ratio of change in collector current
to the corresponding change in base current, measures current gain
in common emitter transistor. It is represented by symbol
Ic
i.e.,  
Ib
For the example given above,  becomes 49.
The product of current gain andthe resistance gain measures voltage
gain of the common emitter transistor. It is about fifty times the resis-
tance gain.
Formula used
Vb
Input resistance, R1 
Ib
Vc
Output resistance, R0 
Ic
R0
Resistance gain, 
RI
Ic
Current gain, 
Ib
Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain

R0
i.e., AV   
RI
PROCEDURE
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in figure.

3. Note least count and zero errors of voltmeters and ammeters
4. Make voltmeter readings zero in V1 and V2 and insert the keys.
89
1. Table for base voltage and base current
Serial No. of Base voltage Base current (Ib) for collector voltage
Obs. (Vb) (V) Vc = 0V (A) Vc = 10 V (A) Vc = 20 V (A)
(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (3c)
2. Table for collector voltage and collector current

Serial No. of Collector volt- Collector current (Ic) for base current
Obs. age (Vc) (V) Ib = 50 A Ib = 100 A Ib = 150 A
(mA) (mA) (mA)
(1) (2) (a) (3b) (3c)
90
For input characteristics
5. Apply forward bias voltage on base junction. Read base voltage

(Vb) from V1 and base current (Ib) from µA.
6. Go on increasing Vb till Ib suddenly. Note corresponding values
of l for each value of Vb.
7. Make collector voltage Vc = 10 V and repeat steps 5 and 6.

8. Repeat step 7 with Vc = 20 V and 30 V.
9. Make all readings zero.
For Output characteristics
10. Keep collector voltage (Vc) zero. Adjust base voltage Vb to make
base current Ib = 10 µA. Though collector voltage Vc is zero; but

there is collector current Ic. Note it.
11. Make collector voltage 10 V, 20 V and 30 V and note the corre
sponding collector currents.
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 with Ib = 20 µA, 30 µA, and 40 µA

13. Record your observations as given below:
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of voltmeter, V1 = ________ V

Zero error of voltmeter, V1 = ________ V
Least count of voltmeter, V2 = ________ V

Zero error of voltmeter, V2 = ________ V
Least count of milli-ammeter = ______ mA
Zero error of mull-ammeter = ______ mA

Least count of micro-ammeter = ______ µA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = ______ mA
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92
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculation for input resistance (R1)
Plot a graph between base voltage Vb (column 2–table 1) and base

current Ib (column 3a–table 1) for zero collector voltage Vc, taking
Vb, along X-axis and I along Y-axis. Plot graphs for different values
of Vc.
These graphs are called ‘input characteristics’ of the transistor.

The slope of graphs becomes large at the ends. The slope gives value
Ib Vb
of . Its reciprocal gives input resistance R1. As graphs run
Vb Ib
parallel near the ends, all give same value of R1.
2. Calculation for Output resistance (Ro)
Plot a graph between collector voltage Vc (column 2–table 2) and
collector current Ic (column 3a – table 2) for 10 µA base current Ib,
tanking Vc along X-axis and Ic along Y-axis.
Plot graphs for different values of Ib.
These graphs are called ‘output characteristics’ of the transistor.
The slope of graphs becomes almost zero at ends. The slope gives value
Ic Vc
of . Its reciprocal gives output resistance Ro. As graphs run par-
Vc Ic
allel near the ends, all give same value of Ro.
3. Calculation for current gain (3)
Plot a graph between base current Ib (columns 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d–ta-
ble 2) and corresponding collector current Ic (from same columns)
for 30 volts collector voltage Vc, taking Ib along X-axis and Ic along
Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line. The graph is called
current gain characteristic of the common emitter transistor.
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94
The slope of the straight line gives value of c
which is the value of
b
current gain of the common emitter transistor.
4. Calculation for voltage gain
From relation, Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain

R0
Av   
RI
RESULT
For the given common emitter transistor,

Current gain,  = _________.
Voltage gain, Av = ________.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.
3. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.
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96
EXPERIMENT - 14
AIM : To determine refractive index of a glass slob using a travelling
microscope.
APPARATUS
Three glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travel-
ling microscope, lycopodium powder. A slab is a piece of transparent
material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent and op-
posite faces are parallel. The dimension along which the light trav-
els inside the slab is called its thickness.
A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope
It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It

can be moved up and down, carrying a Vernier scale moving along
the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and
vernier scale reading.
THEORY
real thickness of slab

From relation, n
apparent thickness of slab
97
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope = cm.
Table for Microscope Readings
Value of 1MSD = ____________m
Total No of VSD = ________________
S
Last count LC =
N
Serial No. Reading on verical scale when microscope Real thick- A p p a r e n t R e f r a c -

is focussed on ness (R3 – R1) thickness (R3 tive index
Cross-mark Cross-mark L yc o p d i u m (cm) R  R1
– R2) (cm) n 3
R3  R2
without slab with slab R2 powder R3
R1 (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
n1  n 2  n 3
Mean n 
3
98
PROCEDURE
Adjustment of travelling microscope
1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a
window so that sufficient light falls on it.

2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope
becomes horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye
piece so that the cross wires are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the
microscope
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope.
The mark will serve as point P.
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P,
so that there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the
image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R 1) on
the vertical scale
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image
P1 of the cross-mark
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder en the surface
of the slab.
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the
particle near S.
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Step 7).
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100
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.
RESULT
R 3  R1
The ratio is constant.
R3  R2
It gives refractive indox of the material of the glass slab.
PRECAUTIONS
1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only
to avoid back lash error.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.
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102
EXPERIMENT - 15
AIM : To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by
plotting a graph between angle of incidence and the angle of
deviation
APPARATUS
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil,
half-metre scale, 5pins graph paper and a protractor.
THEORY
The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by,
 A  Dm 
sin  
n  2 
A
sin  
2
where, Dm is angle of minimum deviation and A is angle of the prism
PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the
help of drawing pins or tape.

2. Draw a straight line XX1 parallel to the length of the paper
nearly in the middle of paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3, ... on the straight line XX’ at suitable
distances of about L
4. Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3, ... on points Q1, Q2, Q3 ... as
shown in diagram:
5. Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3, ... making angles of
35°, 40°, ____ 60° (w value of the angles on the paper)
respectively with the normals.
103
OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism ‘a’ = ______
Serial No. of Obs. Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation D
1. 35
2. 40
3. 45
4. 50
5. 55
6. 60
104
105
106
CALCULATIONS
Plot a graph between angle of incidence
the value of angle of minimum deviation Dm corresponding to the

lowest point of the graph.
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm = _________
 A  Dm 
sin  
Then, n  2 
A
sin  
2
RESULT
(i) i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence
(i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first decreases,
attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing
for further increase in angle of incidence.

(ii) Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = __________
(iii) Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ______
PRECAUTIONS
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°--60.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm.
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident
and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
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108
ACTIVITY - 1
AIM : To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), Current (AC) and check
continuity of a given circuit Multimenter.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

Apparatus .Three carbon resistors one standard resistance coil, a
battery eliminator with tapping (2V, 4V and 6V) a step down

transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2V and 4V) a resistor of 100
ohm, a plug key and multicenter.
THEORY
Multimeter.It is a single measuring device acting as on ammeter
a voltmeter and an Ohmmeter. For this reason it is also called
AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating
as well as direct voltage in addition to resistance. For this purpose
Its panel is divided into five different sections.
There are many ranges in each sections so that it can measure
from micro (10-6) to mega (106)units. Rotations of a Knob changes
the sections and the range in one sections.
- Rotations of knob for change in ammeter range , brings shunt
resistance of different values incircuit in parallel with the coil.
- Rotations of Knob for change in voltmeter range, brigs series
resistance of different values in circuit in series with the coil.
- Rotation of knob for change in Ohmmeter range brings different
resistance in circuit in series with the multimeter cell.
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110
1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic
circuits and their values very over a very wide range .A colour
code is used to indicate the value of the resistance.
2. A carbon resistance has four different coloured range or bands
on its surface. The first bands a,b and determine the value of the
resistance and the fourth band d gives of accuracy called

tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor ,R (a,b 10c T%) 
3. To read the value of carbon resistance , the following sentence is
of great helpful.
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The bold face letter B,B,R O,Y,G,B,VG and W, in above sentence corre-
sponding the colour Black , Brown Red Orange ,Yellow ,Green ,Blue ,Vi-
olet, Gray and white respectively for a and b while for the third c they
correspond to the multipliers 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109
and 101 respectively.
4. The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors.
Letter Colour Figure Multiplier Colour Tolerance
(Help to memory) a.b. (c) (for the fourth band) T
B Black 0 100 Gold 5%
B Brown 1 101 Silver 10%

R Red 2 102 No Colour 20%
O Orange 3 103
Y Yellow 4 104
G Green 5 105
B Blue 6 106
V Violet 7 107
G Grey 8 108
W White 9 109
Gold
Silver
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112
PROCEDURE
(a) Resistance
1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R1,R2,R3.
2. Note the colour of first second third ring for each resistor.
3. Plug in the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals .
Select the appropriate range, short the other ends of probes and
adjust Zero. Turn the terminal marks ‘Adjust’ such that the
needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads Zero
Ohm.
4.Separate the metallic of the probes .Insert the resistor R1 to be
measured in between the metallic ends of the two probes and read
the deflection of the pointer the range selected.
5.Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R2 and R3 each time selecting
the appropriate range and testing the Zero.
6.Now convert using colour code table, the value s of resistors in
Ohm and Write their values with tolerance.
D.C Voltage
1. Select a D.C Source of potential Difference , 6V battery eliminator
or a battery
2. Plug the probes in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C .Volt , by turning the selector switch to range 10.D.C
Volts
4.Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery
terminal marked +and black on and not the reading
5.Insert red probe in terminal marked 4V, 2V in succession

and note riding
113
OBSERVATIONS
(a) For measurement of resistance:
Resistor Used Colour and codes of rings Value and toler- Value by Value by
ance from colour Multimeter Multimeter
code (  ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4
R1
R2
R3
(b) Measurement of Voltage
A.C or D.C Obs Voltage reading as measurement Difference in Volt-

Volts S.No by multimeter V(Volt) age reading and volt.
marked 2 V – V2 (volts)
114
(c) A.C Volts
1. Turn the selector A.C (200 volts)
2. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminal of A.C
source of potential drop and note the reading.
3. Use red probe in terminal 4V and 2V in succession and
record the reading.
(d) Continuity of given Circuit
1. Set the selector switch to Ohm range M 
2. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B. Full Scale
defection indicates continuity.
3. Similarly check in succession the continuity between t
erminals B and C and terminals C and D.
Never place the probes ends between terminals connected with the
terminals of the battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark
0 and a buzzer sounds when probes are connected to ends components
teased.
INFERENCE
1. The measured values by multimeter, match with decodes
values of resistors.
2. A.C and D.C voltages marked on Voltage sources match
with voltage measured by multimeter.
PRECAUTIONS
Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone
through thoroughly as it is a very handily instrument
115
116
ACTIVITY - 2
AIM: To assemble the components of Given Electrical Circuit
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

Apparatus .A Voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range
a battery ,a rheostat one way key.
Material : An unknown resistance of resistance coil , connecting
wires , a piece of sand Paper
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components (Resistors , inductor etc) in series
with each other as shown in diagram and then in series with
the battery
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit to measure to
current
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resis-tor to measure
the potential difference
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is
completed
117
118
ACTIVITY - 3
AIM :To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and
a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATRIAL
Apparatus. Multimeter.
Material. Above mixed collection of items.
THEORY
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have
to be considered.
1. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward
biased and does n conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit
light while conducting. Hence, it do5 not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It

also conducts when, forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals represent

emitter (E), baa (B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in the form
of a chip. [Se figure (UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when either for-
ward biased or reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or re-
verse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with
A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two-terminal device. It does not conduct
when either forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor
is connected to a D.C. source, then multi meter shows full scale

current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that
initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.
119
OBSERVATIONS
No. of Number of Name of de- No. of Obs. Possible cur- Name of device
Obs. legs vice rent ow
1. More than 3 IC 4. Unidirectional, Diode
emit no light
2. Three Transistor 5. Unidirectional, LED
emits light
3. Two Capacitor, 6. Both directions Resistor
Diode, LED or (steady)
resistor
7. Initially high Capacitor
but decays to
zero
120
PROCEDURE
1. If the item has four or more terminals and has the form of a chip,
it is an I.C. (integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.

3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or
a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead:
Connect the battery eliminator, reversing key, the items to be iden
tified and the multimeter. switch on the circuit and carefully
observe the movement of the pointer of the multimeter.
(i) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and

does not move when reversed and there is no light emission,
the item is a diode.
(ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and
does not move when reversed and there is light emission, the
item is a LED.
(iii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and
also when reversed, the item is a resistor.
(iv) If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way
and also when reversed, the item is a capacitor.
121
122
ACTIVITY - 4
To use a multimeter to:
(a) identify base of transistor
(b) distinguish between npn and pnp type transistors.
(c) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a
diode and an LED.
(d) check whether a given electronic component (e.g. diode,
transistor or IC) is in working order.
APPARATUS
A multimeter, transistors, npn and pnp, an IC (integrated circuit

7408 or 7432 each with 14 legs), a diode and an LED.
THEORY
joined in an opposite manner such that the middle part is common
to both. When an n-type of semi-conductor is sandwitched between

two p-type of semiconductors, the transistor is p-n-p type but when
p-type of semi-conductor, the transistor is npri transistor. Input sec-
tion is forward biased and output section of a transistor is reversed
biased. The base current is small but emitter and collector current
is large. Ie = Ib + Ic.
(a) Identify the base. If one of the three terminals of the transistor
is so chosen that conduction take place in both the cases when a
multimeter is connected between the chosen terminal and either
of the remaining two terminals, then the chosen terminal is the
base.
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124
(b) To find out whether the transistor is p-n-p or n-p-n. For conduc-
tion to be possible in both the above said cases, if the common
terminal of the transistor has to be connected to +ve, then the
transistor is n-p-n type. But if the common terminal has to be
connected to –ve for making the conduction possible in both the
case, then the transistor is p-n-p type.
(c) Identifying an IC. An IC has minimum of eight legs. Most of the
IC packages have flat back.
(d) A diode or an LED conducts only when forward biased and in
reverse biasing, there is no flow of current.

(e) When a diode is in working order, it will allow the current to
flow in one direction, when forward biased.
PROCEDURE
1. Use the selector switch and put the multimeter in ohm range (R).
2. Insert the metallic end of the back lead in common terminal of
the multimeter and that of the red in the terminal marked P.
3. Connect the other metallic end of the black lead to the leg of the
transistor marked ‘3’ and the red lead to the leg marked ‘2’ as
shown in Figure (a) and note whether the resistance shown by
the pointer is high or low. Now reverse the contacts of the leads
with the legs ‘2’ and ‘3’ i.e., leg (3) to–ve and (2) to + ve as shown
in Figure (b) and note again whether the resistance shown in
high or low.
125
(a) A high resistance would mean 3 and 1 are both n-type and 2 is
p-type the base.
(b) A low resistance would mean a forward biasing of 3 and 1 (i.e., 3
is n, 1 isp and 2 is p).
It means base is 3 and the transistor is p-n-p type.
126
Two possibilities arise
1. The resistance is high in both cases in figure (a) and figure (b).
Then proceed as explained further in figure (c), (d), (e) and
(f) and locate the base log and the type of transistor n-p-n or
p-n-p.
2. If resistance shown as in figure (a) is high in one when 3 is
+ve and 2 is –ve and low in other[3 is –ve and 2 is + ve figure

(b)], then proceed as explained in part II of the Figure. Con-
nect 3to –ve by red lead and 1 to +ve black lead as in figure
(c) and (d).
Identifying the emitter and collector leads (Raving known the

base). In a transistor, the emitter region is heavily doped relative
to the collector region. Therefore, the forward resistance of emitter
base should be lower than that of collector base. Using ohm-meter
(multimeter set at R) the forward resistance of the lead with base
having lower value implies that the lead is Emitter and the other
offering higher forward with base is the collector.
When reverse biased, a diode does not conduct. An LED behaves the
same way except that a diode when conducts emits light.
A transistor conducts only when base-emitter is forward biased
and does not conduct when base-collector is forward biased.
(c) IC (integrated circuit). Look for number of legs of the device.
Eight or more than tight leg simply that the component is an
IC.
(d) Unidirectional flow of current
127
128
Case of junction diode
1. Connect the +ve marked end of the diode to +ve terminal of a 6

V variable D.C. battery adjusted to minimum voltage.
2. Select the D.C. current at 10 m.A range by using the selector
switch. Insert one the metallic ends of probe in terminal P(+)
and the black metallic end into the terminal marked common.
3. Connect the other metallize end of red probe to the free end of
the diode and the metallic end of black probe into the –ve ter-
minal of the battery eliminator and read the value of current
by varying the output of the eliminator. Since the diode is for-
ward biased, it allows the current to pass.
4. Now reverse the terminals of the diode such that the end marked
–ve is at potential and the one marked + is at lower potential.
Again observe the current in multimeter on the appropriate
D.C. milliampere scale. No current reading multimeter would
indicate that the diode allows the flow of current in c. only, i.e.,
the current is unidirectional in a diode.
5. Now replace the diode by the LED and repeat the steps to estab-
lish that an LED also allows the flow of current only when it is
forward biased as well as emits light.
129
130
(e) Checking whether diode, transistor in IC is in working order
1. A diode will conduct only in one direction i.e., first connect the
ends of diode to the two metal ends of the probes and reverse the
connecting points. If it conducts in one case, then diode is in
working order. If conducts in both cases or does not conducts both

cases, then it is damaged.
2. Select any two terminals between which there is no conduction
in forward or biasing, these will be emitter and collector, if it is
not so transistor is damaged. Now use third terminal as base and
check whether it conducts with one of the terminals and does not
conduct with other terminal showing lower resistance in forward
biasing between base-emitter end higher resistance in forward
biasing between base ad collector.
3. See the number marked on IC 7408 or 7432 Fig. (a) and (b) and
its specification from the manual. Check the functioning of var-
ious gates e.g., four AND gates on 7408 or four OR gates on 7432
(14 terminals on each). On 7408, two terminals for 0 V and 5 V
and 4 gates (AND) each gate with input A, B and output Y, i.e.,. 3
terminals or 2 + 4 = 3 = 14 terminals in all.
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132
ACTIVITY - 5
AIM: To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the
source) on an LDR.
APPARATUS
Light source, light dependent resistors (L.D.R.5) of different variety, a
multimeter (or meter bridge), a source of intense light (a lamp bulb
with battery eliminator) and a convex lens.
Light Dependent Resistor
The light dependent resistance are the devices for detecting and mea-
suring electromagnetic waves (light etc.). Its working is based upon
the principle of variation of the photoconductivity when radiation is
incident upon it and absorbed by it.
A light dependent resistor is prepared from cadminum sulphide. Its
resistance depends upon the intensity and duration of light incident
on it.
A good quality LDR shows a resistance variation from 1 MW in com-
plete darkness to about 10 W in full day light. The intensity of light
decreases inversely with increase the square of distance.
PROCEDURE
1. Turn the selector switch and set it on R for the measurement o
resistance in multimeter.
2. Plug the metallic ends of black probe in terminal marked com
mon in multimeter and that of red in terminal marked as P

(or +). Short the other metallic ends and adjust the ‘R adjusting’
to get full scale deflection reading at zero ohm in the meter.
133
OBSERVATION RECORD
Table for Light Exposure Time and Resistance
Serial No. of Obs. Distance of source Resistance of L.D.R. R Decrease in Resistance

from L.D.R. (cm) (ohm) R (ohm)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
134
3. Touch the metallic probes to the two metal ends of the L.D.R. [Fig.
(a)] and read the value of resistance when (a) the source is kept
at a distance of 2 cm, fixing the source of light in a stand and
keeping the L.D.R. vertically below it.
(i) Moving the source to 4 cm distance from the L.D.R. and
(ii) Moving the source to 6, 8 and 10 cm from L.D.R. and
repeating observation three more times.
CONCLUSION
When the distance between light source and L.D.R. increases the
resistance of L.D.R. decreases.
Note. Same activity can be done by varying the exposure time in

steps for same source of same LDR and for same distance.
PRECAUTIONS
1. No stray light should fall on the L.D.R. It is better to work in a

dark room.
2. Connect L.D.R. carefully to the voltage source.
135
PHYSICS
CLASS XII
PRACTICAL EXAM MODEL PAPER
Physics Practical Code : 042 Max Marks : 30

Duration : 3Hrs
1. To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current. 8 Marks
2. To nd the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to nd the
focal length. 8 Marks
4. Investigatory Project 3 Marks
5. Practical Record (Experiments and Activities) 6 Marks
6. Viva and Experiments, Activities and project 5 Marks
136
PHYSICS
CLASS XII
INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS
1. To study various factors on which the internal resistance EMF of a cell depends
2. To study the variations in current owing in a circuit containing a LDR because of
a variation
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to illuminate ‘ the LDR
(Keeping all the lamps at a xed distance)
(b) In the Distance of a Incandescent Lamp, (of xed power), used to
illuminate the LDR.
3. To nd the refraction indicates of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane
mirror a equiconvex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an
adjustable object needle.
4. To design an appropriate logic gate combination for a given truth table.
5. To invert the relation between the ratio of :

a) Input and output voltage and
b) Number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of self designed
transformer
6. To invert the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle incidence using a
hallow prism lled , one by one with different transparent uids .
7. To estimate the charge on each of the two identical Styrofoam(or pitch) balls
suspended in a vertical plane by making use of coulomb’s law.
8. To step – up a common vase transistor circuit and to study its input and output
character tics and to calculate its current gain.
9. To study the factor on which the self inductance of a coil depends by observing
the effect of this coil when put in series with a resistor (Bulb) in a circuit fed up by
an AC source of adjustable frequency.
10. To construct a switch using a transistor and to draw the graph between the input
and output voltage and mark the cut – off saturation and active region.
11. To study the earth’s magnetic eld using a tangent galvanometer.
137
PHYSICS
CLASS XII
RECORD WRITING AND LAB SESSION INSTRUCTIONS
* Records must be written in a blue ball point or dot pen. Ink pens or gel inks are not
allowed.
* Everybody should carry their observation manual with them in every lab class.
* Lab sessions will not be carried out for the students who are absent for a lab class with
out completing the session that they have missed.
* Lab records should be consequently complete along with the lab sessions each day.
* Without completing the record portions of previous lab, one will not be allowed to per
form the next lab.
* Aim , Apparatus , Principle , Formaula and Procedure Should be done on right side (Ruled
Page)
* Tabular Column, Diagrams, Model Graphs and Calculations should be done on left side
(Unruled Page).
* The record books should be covered & name labelled prior to all.
* The index should be completed along with the lab cycles.
* All the regular routine Experiments carried out during the lab cycles should be per
form daily on a regular basis in order to perform well in the nal lab cycle.
138

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PHYSICS PRACTICAL RECORD WRITING

FOR CLASS XII

Where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of

the conductor. In SI units, the potential difference V is measured in volt

the ratio V/I remains constant for a given resistance. Therefore,

Zero correction for voltmeter,

Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Serial No of Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltammeter Reading V (V)

Mean value of resistance, R = ohms.

3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit

diagram. While making connections ensure that +ve marked

7. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and

3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.

Where L is the length of D is the diameter of the given wire.

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

wire forms a loop.

Serial No of Resistance from Balancing B C = (100 -  ) Unknown resis-

1. .......... .......... .......... X1=............

3. .......... .......... .......... X3=............

4. .......... .......... .......... X4=............

3. Least count of the screw guage Pitch of screw guage = .......mm

Of Obs. Reading N No. Of Circular Value n x (L.C) diameter Diameter

4. D4(a)= D4(a)= ............

8. The wire should not make a loop.

3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

(ii) Resistances in series

combination. Take at least three sets of observations.

(iv) Resistances in parallel

3. Connect the two coils and in parallel as shown in figure in

Resistance Serial No of Resistance Balancing Length Resistance Mean resistance

Coil Observa ons From the Length DC = 100-  (ohm

Experimental value of p= ............

Difference (if any)=.............

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical

Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter,

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper

4. Connect the positive pole of the battery (a battery of constant

5. Connect the positive poles of the cells and 2 to the terminal at

the two way key.

E.M.F. of Leclanche cell, = .......

E.M.F. of Daniel cell, 2 = .......

Serial Corrected am-

deflection in the galvanometer.

the connections are correct. (if the deflection is in the same

the null point position accurately.

indicated by the ammeter.

curate position of null point for second cell 2 .

20. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtained

column 3c and 4c.

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

observations are to be taken.

all be connected to the terminal at the zero of the wires.

It should touch the wire gently.

for this purpose.

7. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from

matrial density througyh out its length .

6. To test the correctness of the connections. (Insert the plug in the

and by slightly adjusting the jockey near the previously obtained

1. Calculate value of r for each set and write it in column 5.

The internal resistance of the given cell is......  .

AIM : To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection

(ii) The figure of merit,

Where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale