AISC 360-16 Introduction to Structural Steel Design

AISC 360-16 INTRODUCTION Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – INTRODUCTION

These Structural Steel Design notes are based on AISC 360-16 and the 2018
International Building Code (IBC).
STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES ...................................................... 3

DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................ 3
W-SHAPES ..................................................................................................... 3
EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO01 ..................................................................... 6
C-SHAPES ...................................................................................................... 7
EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO02 ..................................................................... 9
WT-SHAPES ................................................................................................. 10
STRUCTURAL STEELS .................................................................................... 12

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS ............................................................ 12
MATERIAL TOUGHNESS .................................................................................. 17

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS ........................................................................... 17
CHARPY V-NOTCH TEST ............................................................................ 18
BRITTLE FRACTURE ........................................................................................ 20

INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANICS .......................................... 20
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE....................................................................... 21
EFFECT OF MULTIAXIAL STRESS ............................................................. 22
EFFECT OF THICKNESS ............................................................................. 23
EFFECT OF DYNAMIC LOADING ................................................................ 24
EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO03 ................................................................... 26
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES .................................................................................. 27

KEY TERMINOLOGY .................................................................................... 27
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD) ................................................... 28
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) ........................................................ 29
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD) ................................. 30
PROBABILISTIC BASIS OF LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ................ 31
LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

FOR LRFD .......................................................................................................... 32
STRENGTH LOAD COMBINATIONS ........................................................... 32
RESISTANCE FACTORS ............................................................................. 33
NOMINAL STRENGTH ................................................................................. 33
AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD.......................... 34

SERVICE LOADS.......................................................................................... 34
LRFD LOAD COMBINATIONS ...................................................................... 34
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH LOAD COMBINATIONS ..................................... 35
SAFETY FACTORS ...................................................................................... 35
AISC SPECIFICATION ....................................................................................... 36
STEEL CONSTRUCTION MANUAL .................................................................. 37

AISC MANUAL, 15TH EDITION .................................................................... 37

STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES

Structural steel is produced in standard steel cross-section shapes which are “hot
rolled” and readily available at regional distribution centers.
DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES
Dimensional properties such as moment of inertia, section modulus, and area are
summarized in the AISC Steel Construction Manual.
W-SHAPES
 W-Shapes are the most commonly used structural shapes
 Used mostly for columns and beams

Manual Page 1-26. Table 1-1. W- Manual Page 1-27. Table 1-1. W-
Shapes, Dimensions Shapes, Dimensions
 Part 1 of the AISC Manual includes information regarding the cross-sectional

properties of structural steel members.
 Most tables span two facing pages to include all of the measured and
calculated cross-sectional properties.
 The table include a sketch that shows key dimensions of the member cross-
section, including d, tw, bf, and tf.
 Some of the key dimensions are given both as numbers to three significant
figures and as fractions.
 Numbers are used in engineering calculations.
 Fractions are used when preparing drawings.
 Let’s look in detail at one of the shapes.

W12x26
You will find this near the bottom of Manual Pages 1-26 and 1-27.
 W12: nominally 12 inches deep
 x26: nominally weighs 26 pounds per foot
 d  actual depth  12.2 in for calculations,  12 1 in for drawings

4
 t w  web thickness 0.230 in for calculations,  1 in for drawings

4
 b f  flange width  6.49 in for calculations,  6 1 in for drawings

2
 t f  flange thickness  0.380 in for calculations,  3 in for drawings

8

EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO01

GIVEN: W12x26
REQUIRED: Determine A, I x , S x , rx and compare with Manual table values

SOLUTION:
A  26.49 in 0.380 in   12.2 in  20.380 in 0.230 in 
 4.93  2.64  7.57 in 2 {7.65 in2 in table}
I x  4.93 in  2 12.2 in  0.380 in  2  26.49 in 0.380 in 3  0.230 in 12.2 in  20.380 in 3


 2  12 12
 172.9  0.1  28.8  202 in 4
{204 in4 in table}
Ix 202 in 4
Sx    33.1in 3 {33.4 in3 in table}
c  12.2 in 
 
 2 
Ix 202 in 4
rx    5.17 in {5.17" in table}
A 7.57 in 2
A = 7.57 in2, Ix = 202 in4, Sx = 33.1 in3, rx = 5.17 in

C-SHAPES
 C-shapes are commonly used for lightly loaded beams

Manual Page 1-38. Table 1-5. C- Manual Page 1-39. Table 1-5. C-
Shapes - Dimensions. Shapes - Dimensions.
C8x11.5
 C8: exactly 8 inches deep
 x11.5: nominally weighs 11.5 pounds per foot
 d  actual depth  8.00 in for calculations,  8 in for drawings
 t w  web thickness  0.220 in for calculations,  1 in for drawings

4
 b f  flange width  2.26 in for calculations,  2 1 in for drawings
4
 t f  average flange thickness  0.390 in for calculations,  3 in for drawings
8


GIVEN: C8x11.5
REQUIRED: Calculate A, I x , S x , rx and compare with Manual table values

SOLUTION:
A  22.26 in 0.390 in   8.00 in  20.390 in 0.220 in 
 1.76  1.59  3.35 in 2 {3.37 in2 in table}
 8.00 in  0.390 in  
I x  1.76 in 2 
2

22.26 in 0.390 in 
3

0.220 in 8.00 in  20.390 in 
3

 2  12 12
 25.5  0.02  6.9  32.4 in 4 {32.5 in4 in table}
Ix 32.4 in 4
Sx    8.10 in 3 {8.14 in3 in table}
c  8.00 in 
 
 2 
Ix 32.4 in 4
rx    3.11in {3.11” in table}
A 3.35 in 2
A = 3.35 in2, Ix = 32.4 in4, Sx = 8.10 in3, rx = 3.11 in

WT-SHAPES
 WT-Shapes are cut from W-Shapes and are readily available
 Used as bracing members and in connections

Manual Page 1-70. Table 1-8. WT- Manual Page 1-71. Table 1-8. WT-
Shapes - Dimensions. Shapes - Dimensions.
WT6x13
 If you make a longitudinal cut at mid-depth along the web of the W-Shape,
you will make two WT-shapes.
 For example a WT6x13 is cut from the W12x26 shape.
 WT6: nominally 6 inches deep
 X13: nominally weighs 13 pounds per foot

STRUCTURAL STEELS
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Tensile Tests
Material strength properties are obtained in testing laboratories by performing

various standardized tests. One of the most important tests is for the tensile
strength properties of a particular type or grade of steel.
Different grades of steel will yield test results with some similarities, and many
differences. Values obtained from tensile strength test are summarized in ASTM
specifications and used in AISC design equations.
Machined material sample.
 During the tension test, an increase in force results in an increase in

stress, strain, and tension member length.
Typical stress-strain curve.
 Let’s describe the four typical ranges of material behavior during the
tension test.

Elastic Range
Test specimen starts at zero stress. The stress-strain relationship is constant to

the proportional limit. Fy is the unit stress at this point.
 The slope of the stress-strain curve in elastic range is constant for lower
grades of steel to proportional limit/yield point.
Young's Modulus = Modulus of Elasticity  E  29000 ksi
PL
L   L
AE
P  EA
 Material in the elastic Range is obeying Hooke’s Law where stresses are
proportional to strain.
 If the test specimen is unloaded in elastic range, it will return to its original
dimensions.
Plastic Range
 The test specimen continues to strain with no change in stress.
 If the test specimen is unloaded in plastic range, it will not return to its
original shape; it is permanently deformed.
Strain-Hardening Range
At the end of the plastic range plateau, an increase in applied load will again be
required to further strain the test specimen.
 The material is said to be strain-hardening, for it once again is behaving in

a quasi-elastic manner.
 The specimen shows a linear increase in stress with increase in strain,

defined by the strain-hardening modulus E st  .
Necking And Failure
 The cross-section is reducing (necking).
 Shortly afterwards, the cross-section has fractured and can carry no load
(failure)

Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to do useful work beyond the elastic range.
One measure of ductility is:
 fracture
 yield
Ductility is an important property for structural design.
 Material ductility allows the redistribution of local stresses at bolt holes,

welds, and changes in connection geometry.
 Seismic design procedures allow the permanent deformation of structures

to resist earthquake loads. Permanent deformation is preferable to sudden
building collapse.
Text Page 10, Figure 1.4
Structural steel materials can be idealized by three parameters for design.
 Fy : specified minimum yield stress
 E : modulus of elasticity = 29,000 ksi
 Fu : maximum tensile strength

Common Material
Structural steels are essentially iron with some carbon.
 Additional chemicals can be added to the “mix” to obtain desired material

properties, such as strength and ductility.
 Structural steels can be grouped according to their chemical content.
Plan Carbon Steels: F y  36 ksi Fu  58 ksi
Low-Alloy Steels: F y  50 ksi Fu  65 ksi
High-Alloy Steels: Fy  90  100 ksi Fu  100  130 ksi
Material Properties
Material properties include chemical content, yield strength, and ultimate

strength.
 These properties are summarized in American Society of Testing and

Materials (ASTM) specifications.
 Strength parameters (Fy and Fu) are usually specified as minimum tested
values.

Manual Pages 2-48 and 2-49. Table 2-4. Applicable ASTM Specifications
For Various Structural Shapes
 All applicable shapes are defined in the Manual.

MATERIAL TOUGHNESS
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness is a measure of the energy required to cause an item to
fracture and fail when subject to tensile stresses.
Fracture toughness is indicated by the area under a stress-strain curve.
Fracture toughness is not related to steel strength. Most structural steels can
fracture either in a brittle or ductile manner.
Brittle Fractures
 Brittle fractures (cleavage fractures) occur with little or no elongation in

area and with very little energy absorption.
 When brittle fractures are viewed on a fine scale, they are characterized
by a smooth mirror like appearance.
Ductile Fractures
 Ductile fractures occur after considerable strain deformation.
 When ductile fractures are viewed on a fine scale, they are characterized
by a rough fibrous appearance.
 It takes more energy to fracture a ductile material than a brittle material.

CHARPY V-NOTCH TEST

Fracture toughness for materials can be established by using fracture-mechanics
test methods. Traditionally, the fracture toughness for low- and intermediate-
strength steels has been characterized, primarily by testing Charpy V-notch
(CVN) specimens at different temperatures. The Charpy V-Notch (CVN) test
produces failures at very high strain rates, i.e., impact loads.
ASTM E23-18 – Standard Test Methods For Notched Bar Impact Testing Of
Metallic Materials
 The specification includes both the Charpy Test, involving simply-

supported beam and the Izod Test, involving cantilever beam.
 Both tests involve striking a standard specimen with a controlled weight

pendulum traveling at a set speed. The amount of energy absorbed in
fracturing the test piece is measured and this gives an indication of the
notch toughness of the test material.
 These tests show that metals can be classified as being either brittle or
ductile. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact
tested, a tough ductile metal a large amount of energy.
 These tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each
other or with a requirement in a specification; they cannot be used to
calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal.
 The standard Charpy-V Type A

specimen is 55mm long, 10mm
square and has a 2mm deep
notch with a tip radius of
0.25mm machined on one face.
 To carry out the test the

standard specimen is supported
at its two ends on an anvil and
struck on the opposite face to
the notch by a pendulum.
 The specimen is fractured and

the pendulum swings through,
the height of the swing being a
measure of the amount of
energy absorbed in fracturing
the specimen.

CVN Data Presentation
 If impact testing is carried out over a range of temperatures the results of

energy absorbed versus temperature can be plotted to give an “S Curve”.
 Usually, three specimens are tested at any one temperature and the
results averaged.
 Carbon and low alloy steels exhibit a change in fracture behavior as the
temperature falls with the failure mode changing from ductile to brittle.
 At low temperatures (lower shelf), the fracture surface is characterized

by cleavage fractures
 At high temperatures (upper shelf), the fracture is characterized by

pure ductile tearing.
 Austenitic stainless steels, nickel and aluminum alloys do not show this
change in fracture behavior, the fracture remaining ductile even to very
low temperatures. This is one reason why these types of alloys are used
in cryogenic applications.
Quality Control
Although most codes and specifications were developed using more complex
and expensive fracture toughness tests, the CVN test is usually specified for
material purchase and quality control.

BRITTLE FRACTURE
INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANICS1
Fracture mechanics is based on a tensile stress analysis in the vicinity of a notch
or crack. The fundamental concept is that stress field ahead of a notch or crack
(flaw) can be characterized in terms of a single parameter, the stress intensity
factor (K1) with units of ksi inch . When the value of K1 reaches a critical value
(K1c), unstable crack growth and fracture occurs.
The stress-intensity factor at failure (K1c) is a material property with units of

ksi inch . K1c must be established by testing the structural material to failure at
various temperatures and loading rates.
The fundamental acceptance relationship for a given flaw size, in a given

material, at a range of operating temperatures, at a given loading rate is:
K1 < K1c
Experimental testing has resulted in loose correlations between K1c values and
CVN values.
1
Barsom, John M. and Rolfe, Stanley T, Fracture And Fatigue Control In Structures, 3rd Edition,
1999.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
 Lower temperatures do not have an adverse impact on material yield
strength; but they do have an adverse impact on material ductility.
 The fracture of carbon and low alloy steels changes from being ductile on
the upper shelf to brittle on the lower shelf as the temperature falls,
passing through a transition region where the fracture will be mixed.
 Ductile fracture absorbs a greater amount of energy than a brittle fracture

in the same material.
 Operating temperatures are essential parameters in the development of

fracture toughness requirements for a particular structure.
 The Ductility Transition Temperature is the temperature at which a

material exhibits an acceptable level of ductility.
 The Transition Temperature is the temperature at the steepest slope of

the test results curve.
 Structural steel standards will allow the use of steels that exhibit a
minimum energy absorption capability at a predetermined temperature.
 Some materials, such as structural aluminums and titaniums, do not

exhibit temperature effects.

EFFECT OF MULTIAXIAL STRESS

Plane Stress
 Material close to a free surface can deform laterally because there can be
no stresses normal to the free surface. The stress state under these
conditions tends to be biaxial.
 This condition is called plane-stress and it occurs in relatively thin plates.
 Materials fracture in a characteristic ductile manner, and the material

fracture is regarded as a ductile fracture.
 A crack, formed as a result of the ductile fracture, propagates slowly and

only when the stress is increased.
Plane Strain
 Material away from the free surfaces of a relatively thick component is not
free to deform laterally as it is constrained by the surrounding material.
The stress state under these conditions tends to be triaxial.
 This condition is called plane-strain and it occurs in thick plates.
 Materials behave essentially elastic until the fracture stress is reached and
then rapid brittle fracture occurs.
 Little or no plastic deformation is noted and the material fracture is

regarded as a brittle fracture.
 A crack, formed as a result of the brittle fracture, propagates fast and

without increase of the stress applied to the material.
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
 Partial-Joint-Penetration (PJP) groove welds should be avoided whenever

ductile response is required by design.
 The unwelded part of the base metal can act as a notch or initiation crack,
increasing the probability of weld or base metal fracture.

EFFECT OF THICKNESS
Critical Fracture Toughness
Experiments on the fracture of ductile materials exhibit the characteristics shown.
The Critical Fracture Toughness (K1c) is thickness dependent.
 For very thin specimens, the size of the plastic zone is limited to the
thickness of the material, and pure plane-stress behavior dominates.
 For very thick specimens, the size of the fracture is much less than the
material thickness and pure plane-strain behavior dominates. The stress-
intensity factor at failure (K1c) is smaller for thick plates compared with
thinner plates of the same materials.
AISC 360-16. Section A3.1c – Rolled Heavy Shapes
 Prescribes CVN requirements for heavy shapes, used as tension

members or in flexural tension, with CJP groove welded splices.

EFFECT OF DYNAMIC LOADING

Dynamic testing of large-scale specimens indicates that the increased strain rate
both increases the material yield strength and decreases the material fracture
toughness.
 Dynamic (Impact):   10 inch / inch / sec ond
 Intermediate (Bridge, Earthquake):   10 3 inch / inch / sec ond
 Slow:   10 5 inch / inch / sec ond
The increase in yield stress increases the demand on the member or connection.
The decrease in fracture toughness decreases the fracture capacity of the
member. The result is poorer cyclic behavior.
AISC 341-16, Section A3.3 – Heavy Sections
 Heavy sections in the seismic force resisting system (SFRS) must meet
more stringent requirements than those prescribed in AISC 360-16.

AISC 341-16, Section A3.4b – Demand Critical Welds
 AWS D1.8 is the seismic supplement to AWS D1.1, Structural Welding

Code - Steel.
 AISC 341 refers to AWS D1.8 which prescribes CVN requirements for
demand critical welds.
 Members used in the SFRS must be made with filler metals that have a
CVN toughness of 20 ft-lb at 0 0 F.
 In addition, demand critical welds must be made with filler metals that
have a CVN toughness of 40 ft-lb at 70 0 F.


GIVEN: Charpy V-Notch test results for a steel material.
REQUIRED:
(a) Identify on the plot the transition temperature.
(b) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for rolled heavy shapes. Is the
material acceptable for nonseismic applications?
(c) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for welds in the Seismic Load
Resisting System. Is the material acceptable for seismic applications?
(d) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for demand critical welds in the
Seismic Load Resisting System. Is the material acceptable for seismic
applications?
SOLUTION:

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
KEY TERMINOLOGY
The following terms are used throughout the AISC Specification.
REQUIRED STRENGTH is the member (or component) force or moment that

must be resisted. This usually comes from a structural analysis. The required
strength for any given load combination is calculated using the appropriate
Allowable Strength Design (ASD) or Load And Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
load combinations.
General LRFD ASD

Rr Ru Ra
NOMINAL STRENGTH is the calculated strength without reduction by safety

factors (ASD) or resistance factors (LRFD).
General LRFD ASD

Rn Rn Rn
DESIGN STRENGTH is the nominal strength multiplied by the resistance factor

(LRFD).
Design Strength = ΦRn
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH is the nominal strength divided by the safety factor

(ASD).
Allowable Strength =
AVAILABLE STRENGTH is the generalized term for calculated strength including

reductions by safety factors (ASD) or resistance factors (LRFD). Available
strength refers inclusively to both allowable strength and design strength.
General LRFD ASD

Rc ΦRn R
Ω

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

Required Strength
Required Strength is the member internal force or moment that must be

safely maintained, the result of a structural analysis, calculated using ASD load
combinations (unfactored loads).
Pa  Required axial strength, kips
M a  Required flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Nominal Strength
Nominal Strength is the strength at which the member ceases to be useful

because it has reached a “Limit state” such as Yielding, Fracture, Buckling, and
Deformation.
Pn  Nominal axial strength, kips
M n  Nominal flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Allowable Strength
Allowable Strength Ω is the Nominal Strength, reduced by safety factors.
Pn
 Allowable axial strength, kips

Mn
 Allowable flexural strength, in-K or ft-K

Acceptance Criteria
Demand ≤ Capacity
Required Strength ≤ Allowable Strength
Ω
Allowable Strength Design is covered in AISC 360.
Therefore, it is permitted by the IBC.

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

Calculated Stress
Stresses in members are calculated using methods learned in Strength of

Material and Structural Analysis courses.
Load
Stress 
Section Pr operty
P
fa   axial stress
A
Mc M
fb    bending stress
I S
Allowable Stress
Limiting allowable stresses are usually expressed in terms of the material's yield
 
stress Fy or tensile strength Fu  , divided by a factor of safety.
F failure Fy or Fu
Fallowable  
F .S . F .S .
Acceptance Relationships
Calculated Stress  Allowable Stress
f F
f a  Fa
f b  Fb
Allowable Stress Design is not covered in AISC 360.
Therefore it is not permitted by the IBC.

LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

Required Strength
Required Strength (Ru) is the member internal force or moment that must be
safely maintained, the result of a structural analysis, calculated using LRFD load
combinations (factored loads).
Pu = Required axial strength, kips
Mu = Required flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Nominal Strength
Nominal Strength (Rn) is the strength at which the member ceases to be useful
because it has reached a “Limit state” such as Yielding, Fracture, Buckling, and
Deformation.
Pn = Nominal axial strength, kips
Mn = Nominal flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Design Strength
Design Strength is the Nominal Strength, reduced by resistance factors.

ΦPn = Design axial strength, kips
ΦMn = Design flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Acceptance Criteria
Demand ≤ Capacity
Required Strength ≤ Design Strength
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Load And Resistance Factor Design is covered in AISC 360.
Therefore, it is permitted by the IBC.

PROBABILISTIC BASIS OF LOAD AND

RESISTANCE FACTORS
The LRFD procedure is intended to provide a mathematically predictable level of
reliability, i.e., a known probability that the strength of the structure will exceed
the demands imposed upon it over its lifetime. The safety factors used in ASD
have been derived from LRFD to provide a similar level of safety and reliability.
.
Ω and
Reliability is a statistical concept; the estimated percentage of time the capacity

of the structure will equal or exceed the maximum demand applied during its
estimated life. LRFD is based on a 99.7% reliability that the capacity of the
structure will equal or exceed the maximum demand applied to the structure
during its 50-year life.
 This means that for a building with 1000 structural steel members, only 3
members are expected to be overloaded during the building’s 50 year
design life.
 This does not mean that the building will collapse, just that some part of
the building will experience noticeable distress, usually yielding or
buckling.
∑ ∅
Where:
 i  Load factor, unitless
Qi = Load effect, kips or ft-kips
The frequency distribution of load effect

(Q) and resistance (R) can be shown
graphically. The mean values, Qm and
Rm, are chosen such that there is a
0.3% probability that R < Q, indicated
by the solid shading on the graph.
Load factors and resistance factors (Φ) are mathematically derived to give
the desired reliability for each load combination and building element, in such a
way that 99.7% reliability is achieved.

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS AND

LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
STRENGTH LOAD COMBINATIONS
Manual Page 16.1-11. Section B2. Loads And Load Combinations
 Load combinations are to be taken from the Applicable Building Code, the
International Building Code (IBC). In the absence of a building code,
loads shall be taken from ASCE 7.
2018 IBC, Section 1605.2. Load Combinations Using Strength Design Or

Load And Resistance Factor Design
Load factors are materially independent and are based strictly on load statistics.
Load factors are incorporated into load combinations.
 Equation 16-1 accounts for the statistically maximum Dead Load alone.
 Equation 16-2 accounts for the statistically maximum Live Load, with the
simultaneous probable value for the other service loads. The OR in this
load combination is a matter of using the highest roof gravity load (Roof
Live Load, Snow load, or Rain Load).
 Equation 16-3 accounts for the statistically maximum roof load with the
simultaneous probable value for the other service loads. The OR in the
last term means use either 0.5L or 0.5W, whichever is more critical. This
is really two separate load combinations.

RESISTANCE FACTORS
Cross-sectional properties indicated in the AISC Construction Manual are
nominal values. The steel mills have tolerances (+ or -) for thicknesses and
widths of flanges and webs, as defined in ASTM A6. Similarly, material strengths
such as Fy and Fu are nominal values, usually specified minimums. To account
for these uncertainties, resistance factors (Φ) are used.
The resistance factor is always less than equal or to 1.0 because there is always
some probability that the actual resistance is less than the nominal strength Rn  .
The primary resistance factors are:
 t  0.75 or t  0.90 for axial tension members
 c  0.90 for axial compression members
 b  0.90 for flexural members
NOMINAL STRENGTH
Nominal strengths are given in the AISC Specification for the various limit states.
Example nominal strengths Rn  are:
 Pn  nominal tensile strength, Kips
 Pn  nominal compression strength, Kips
 M n  nominal moment strength, ft-K
All nominal strength equations in the AISC Specification include
 something about MATERIAL STRENGTH Fy , Fu , E 
 something about CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES  A, I , S , r , etc.

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

FOR ASD
SERVICE LOADS
The service loads applicable to the design of steel structures are the same for
both LRFD and ASD.
LRFD LOAD COMBINATIONS

How these service loads are combined is legally prescribed in the International
Building Code (IBC).
The Strength Acceptance can be summarized as follows:

Demand  Capacity
Required Strength  Allowable Strength
Rn
For ASD: Q i 

Rn
Ra 

Ra
 1 .0
 Rn 
 
 
Where:
Qi  service load effect, kips or ft-kips
Rn  general form of nominal strength, replaced by Pn , M n ,Vn , etc.
depending on the member being designed.
Ra  general form of required strength, replaced by Pa , M a ,Va , etc.
depending on the member being designed.

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH LOAD COMBINATIONS

Manual Page 16.1-11. Section B2. Loads And Load Combinations
 Load combinations are to be taken from the Applicable Building Code, in

our case, the International Building Code (IBC). In the absence of a
building code, loads shall be taken from ASCE 7.
2018 BC, Section 1605.3.1. Basic Load Combinations.
SAFETY FACTORS
ASD safety factors are always greater than or equal to 1.0. They account for
uncertainties in material strengths and service loads. The primary safety factors
are:
  t  1.67 or  t  2.00 for axial tension members
  c  1.67 for axial compression members
  b  1.67 for flexural members

AISC SPECIFICATION
General Comments
 AISC 360-16 includes requirements for Allowable Strength Design and

Load and Resistance Factor Design.
 Design in accordance with AISC 360-16 is a requirement of the 2018

International Building Code; therefore, it is the standard by which all
structural steel buildings are designed in this country.
 AISC 360-16 is published as a standalone document, downloadable as a

PDF file from AISC.ORG
 It is also bound in the Steel Construction Manual, 15th Edition.
 Design equations are expressed in non-dimensional form; will work for

both U.S. customary units and metric units.
Manual Page 16.1-vi, Table Of Contents:
 Organized in Chapters, by topic.
 Chapter D for Design Of Members For Tension
 Chapter E for Design Of Members For Compression
 Chapter F for Design Of Members For Flexure
Manual Page 16.1-xli. Glossary
 Terms that are used in the Specification are defined in the glossary
including: Required Strength, Nominal Strength, Available Strength,
Design Strength and Allowable Strength.
Manual Page 16.1-253, Commentary:
 Discussion corresponding to Chapter.
 Commentary Chapter D for Design Of Members For Tension
 Commentary Chapter E for Design Of Members For Compression
 Commentary Chapter F for Design Of Members For Flexure
 Provides additional reading material and references to provide

background information about specification equations and their use.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION MANUAL

The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) is made up of membership
from:
 Steel producers
 Steel fabricators
 Design firms
 Universities
AISC MANUAL, 15TH EDITION

General
The design of structural steel buildings

is based on information published in
the AISC Steel Construction Manual.
Part 1 - Dimensions And Properties
The construction industry has through

the years created a catalog of
structural steel shapes that most
effectively meet the common needs of
buildings. These are summarized in
Part 1.
 Engineering properties listed in

decimal inches
 Fabrication dimensions listed to

1
nearest in
16
Part 2 – General Design Considerations
 The Readers Digest version of a textbook.
Part 3 – Design Of Flexural Members
 Design aids to assist in selecting sections for flexural members.

Part 4 – Design Of Compression Members
 Design aids to assist in selecting sections used as columns.
Part 5 – Design Of Tension Members
 Design aids to assist in selecting sections used as tension members.
Part 6 – Design Of Members Subject To Combined Forces
 Design aids to assist in selecting sections for beam-columns.
Part 7 – Design Considerations For Bolts
 Design aids to assist in design of bolted connections.
Part 8 – Design Considerations For Welds
 Design aids to assist in design of welded connections.
Part 16 - Specifications And Codes
 Several specifications and codes are bound in this section of the Manual.
Part 17 – Miscellaneous Data and Mathematical Information
 Includes metric conversions.

AISC 360-16 TENSION MEMBERS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – TENSION MEMBERS

These Structural Steel Design notes are based on AISC 360-16.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2
GROSS CROSS-SECTION AREA .................................................................. 2
NET CROSS-SECTION AREA ........................................................................ 3
TENSILE STRENGTH .......................................................................................... 5

TENSION YIELDING IN THE GROSS SECTION ........................................... 5
TENSION RUPTURE IN THE NET SECTION................................................. 6
AISC TENSILE STRENGTH............................................................................ 8
EXAMPLE PROBLEM TENSION01 .............................................................. 10
EFFECTIVE AREA ............................................................................................. 13

ELEMENTS ................................................................................................... 13
SHEAR LAG FACTORS ................................................................................ 14
BLOCK SHEAR.................................................................................................. 21

GENERAL ..................................................................................................... 21
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS .................................................................... 29

GENERAL ..................................................................................................... 29
AISC 360-16 - Tension Members.docx R. M. Drake, SE

INTRODUCTION
GROSS CROSS-SECTION AREA
Consider a tension member spanning from wall to wall, bolted to gusset plates at
each wall.
 Section a-a is taken perpendicular to the load away from the ends of the
tension member. The full gross area is available to resist tension loads.
The average stress is equal to:
P
f avg 
Agross
Manual Page 16.1-20. Section B4.3a. Gross Area.
 The gross area Ag  is the total cross-sectional area of a tensile member
taken perpendicular to the load, where no holes are provided.

NET CROSS-SECTION AREA
 Section b-b is taken perpendicular to the load at the location where bolts
transfer the load from the tension member to the gusset plate. The bolt
holes reduce the cross-sectional area and increases the stress. The
reduced net area is available to resist tension loads. The average stress
is equal to:
P P
f avg  
Anet Agross
Manual Page 16.1-121. Table J3.3. Nominal Hole Dimensions.
 For bolt diameters 7/8” and smaller, standard bolt holes are punched or
drilled 1/16” larger than the bolt diameter (d).
 For bolt diameters 1” and larger, standard bolt holes are punched or drilled
1/8” larger than the bolt diameter (d).

Manual Page 16.1-20. Section B4.3b Net Area.
 The net area  An  is the reduced cross-sectional area of a tensile member

taken perpendicular to the load, where holes are provided.
 The net area is the gross area minus something for the holes.
 It is assumed that another 1/16” of the surrounding area is damaged or

destroyed in the act of making the hole.
 For bolt diameters 7/8” and smaller, the bolt hole net area reduction is
equal to the bolt diameter (d) plus 1/16” for the standard hole plus another
1/16” for damage incurred making the hole.
 For bolt diameters 1” and larger, the bolt hole net area reduction is equal
to the bolt diameter (d) plus 1/8” for the standard hole plus another 1/16”
for damage incurred making the hole.
Where:
An  member net area, in2
2
Ag  member gross area, in
n  number of bolt holes in cross-section taken perpendicular to the load
d  bolt diameter, inch
t  material thickness, inch
Note that stresses tend to concentrate at bolt holes and are usually much higher
than predicted by the average stresses. The material doesn’t rupture because of
its material ductility.
P
f t 
An

TENSILE STRENGTH
TENSION YIELDING IN THE GROSS SECTION
A tension member can become unserviceable if it stretches so much over its

length that loads can’t transfer between the member and the rest of the structure.
We need to limit the member elongation.
 yield   yield Lmember
P
 yield   Fy
Agross

The nominal strength to limit yield at the gross section can be expressed as:
Pn  F y Agross
TENSION RUPTURE IN THE NET SECTION
A tension member can become unserviceable if it stretches so much at bolt holes

that loads can’t transfer between the member and the rest of the structure. We
need to limit the member elongation. AISC uses rupture to identify gradual
failure caused by strains corresponding to the ultimate tensile strength (Fu).

 rupture   rupture Lholes
P
 rupture   Fu
Anet
The nominal strength to limit rupture at the net section can be expressed as:
Pn  Fu Anet

AISC TENSILE STRENGTH

Manual Page 16.1-28. Chapter D. Design Of Members For Tension.
 Specification Chapter D Applies to members shown in analysis to have

axial tension loads only.
 Flexural tension will be addressed by the specification beams chapter.
 We will cover Specification Sections D1, D2, and D3 in these notes.
The Specification includes shaded User Notes that consist of helpful information.
These notes are not part of the Specification; they have no legal standing.
 See Section B3.11 for members subject to fatigue, i.e., repeated cyclic
loads.
 See Chapter H for members subject to combined axial tension and

bending.
 See Section J3 for threaded rods, which are treated as bolts.
 See Section J4.1 for connecting elements of connections.
 See Section J4.3 for block shear rupture strength at end connections.

Manual Page 16.1-28. Section D2. Tensile Strength.
 For LRFD: Pu  t Pn
Where:
Pu  required axial strength, Kips
t Pn  design axial strength, Kips
 We must consider two limit states, tension yielding in the gross section
and tension rupture in the net section. The lower value will govern.
Where:
F y  specified minimum yield stress, ksi
2
Ag  gross area of member, in
 Note that the nominal strength equation includes a material property (Fy)
and a cross-section property (Ag).
Where:
Fu  specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
Ae  effective net area, in2
 Note that the nominal strength equation includes a material property (Fu)
and a cross-section property (Ae).
 For now, consider the effective net area (Ae) to be equal to or less than
the net area (An).
 Notice that the Φ values are different for the two limit states.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM TENSION01

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine design strength ∅ of the 1/2" plate

SOLUTION:
Tensile Yielding In The Gross Section

Ag  0.5 in 5 in   2.50 in 2 {gross area}
F y  36 ksi {Manual 2-50}
 
Pn  F y Ag  36 ksi  2.50 in 2  90 .0 K {Eq. D2-1}
t  0.90 {resistance factor from Spec.}
t Pn  0.9090.0 K   81.0 K {design strength}

Tensile Rupture In The Net Section

Bolt diameter is smaller than 7/8”
1 5 1 1
2.50 2 1.75
8 8 8 2
Fu  58 ksi {Manual 2-50}
For the special case of plates with bolt holes, Ae = An.
 
Pn  Fu Ae  58 ksi  1.75 in 2  101 .5 K {Eq. D2-2}
t  0.75 {resistance factor from Spec.}
t Pn  0.75101.5 K   76.1 K {design strength}
Design Strength Summary

∅ 81.0
∅ rupture 76.1  lowest limit state
Design Strength = 76.1K


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the net area of the tension member shown.

SOLUTION:
W21x93 Dimensions
Ag  9.12 in 2 {Manual 1-40}
t w  0.370 in {Manual 1-40}
t f  0.700 in {Manual 1-40}
Net Area
Bolt diameter is 1” and larger
3 3
16 16
9.12 2 1 0.370 2 1 0.700
9.12 0.88 1.66 6.58
Net Area = 6.58 in2

EFFECTIVE AREA
ELEMENTS
A structural shape consists of rectangular elements that make up its shape.
 Elements are rectangular portions of a cross-section.
 A W-Shape (wide flange) shape consists of five elements, two elements

for each flange and one web.
 A C-shape (channel) shape consists of three elements, one element for

each flange and one web.
 An L-Shape (angle) consists of two elements, one element for each leg.
 A plate consists of one element.
When some but not all of the cross-section elements are used to transfer tension
forces between a member and a connection, not all of the net area is effective for
tensile rupture.
 The member is not being very efficient at the connection.
P
f max  f avg 
Anet
 AISC uses a shear lag factor to account for this inefficiency.
 The shear lag factor occurs in both bolted and welded connections.
 AISC refers to Effective Net Area for bolted connections.
 AISC refers to Effective Area for welded connections.

SHEAR LAG FACTORS

The concept of effective net area addresses whether or not the transfer of
tension loads from a structural shape to a fastener involves all or some of the
cross-sectional elements of that shape.
 If the distance to transfer the tension load between two members is short,
the internal shear forces cannot be efficiently distributed from the entire
cross-section (all of the elements) to the reduced cross-section (some of
the elements) at the connection.
 This shear lag is accounted for by reducing the net area to an effective net
area.
Ae  AnU
Where:
Ae  effective net area, in2
U  shear lag factor, unitless
An  net area, in2
Manual Page 16.1-29. Section D3. Effective Net Area.
 Testing indicates that shear lag is a function of both the length of the
_
connection (L) and the eccentricity  x  of the axial force between the
 
member and the connection.
 Shear lag factors are based on empirical testing and are summarized in
Specification Table D3.1.

Manual Page 16.1-30. Table D3.1. Shear Lag Factors For Connections To
Tension Members.

Case 1: All tension members where the tension load is transmitted directly
to each of the cross-sectional elements by fasteners or welds (except as in
Cases 4, 5 and 6).
U  1 .0
Case 2: All tension members, except HSS, where the tension load is
transmitted to some but not all of the cross-sectional elements by
fasteners or by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds.
Alternatively, Case 7 is permitted for W, M, S and HP shapes. (For angles,
Case 8 is permitted to be used.)
_
x
U  1
L
Where:
_  There are special design rule for
x  connection eccentricity, applying case 2 to w-shapes.
inch
L  connection length in the  For W-Shape flange, determine
direction of loading, inch _
the X from the WT-Shape cut
from the W-Shape,


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength of the W-shape tension member.

Neglect block shear.
SOLUTION:
Tension Yielding In The Gross Section

Fy  50 ksi {Manual 2-48}
Ag  13.1in 2 {Manual 1-26}
 
Pn  Fy Ag  50 ksi  13.1in 2  655 K {Eq. D2-1}
 t  0.90 {resistance factor from Spec.}
t Pn  0.90655 K   590 K {Design Strength}

Tension Rupture In The Net Section

tf = 0.575 in {Manual 1-26}
bf = 8.05 in {Manual 1-26}
Bolt diameter is ¾” and smaller.
 1 
An  Ag  n d  in t f
 8 
3 1 
 13.1in 2  4 in  in 0.575 in   11.1in 2
4 8 
_ _
The x dimension for a W-shape is defined as the y dimension of the WT-Shape
cut from it.
_ _
x W 12 x 45  y WT 6 x 22.5  1.13 in {Manual 1-69}
.
1 1 0.81 {Table D3.1, Case 2}

2 0.575 8.05
0.71
13.1
 
Ae  AnU  11.1in 2 0.81  8.99 in 2 {Eq. D3-1}
Pn  Fu Ae  65 ksi8.99 in   584 K 2

{Eq. D2-2}
 t  0.75 {resistance factor from spec.}
t Pn  0.75584 K   438 K {Design Strength}

∅ 590
∅ rupture 438  lowest limit state
Design Strength = 438 K


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength of the W-shape tension member.

Neglect block shear.
SOLUTION:
Tension Yielding In The Gross Section

9.54 {Manual 1-68}

50 9.54 477 {Eq. D2-1}
 t  0.90 {resistance factor from Spec.}
∅ 0.90 477 429 {Design Strength}

Tension Rupture In The Net Section

Fu = 65 ksi {Manual 2-48}
tf = 0.605 in {Manual 1-26}
bf = 12.0 in {Manual 1-26}
There are no bolt holes.
9.54
.
0.985 {Manual 1-69}
.
1 1 0.688 {Table D3.1, Case 4}
0.605 12.0
0.761
9.54
9.54 0.761 7.26 {Eq. D3-1}
65 7.26 472 {Eq. D2-2}
 t  0.75 {resistance factor from spec.}
∅ 0.75 472 354 {Design Strength}

∅ 429
∅ rupture 354  lowest limit state

BLOCK SHEAR
Block shear is a combined shear and tension failure where a “block” of material
can separate from a member or connecting element. One of the User Notes at
the beginning of Specification Chapter D indicates that block shear is treated is a
connection limit state covered in Specification Chapter J.
GENERAL
Example Angle Bolted To Gusset Plate
Forces On Angle

Block Shear On Angle
Forces On Gusset Plate
Block Shear On Gusset Plate

Manual Page 16.1-138. Section J4.3. Block Shear Strength.
Where:
Rn  nominal shear rupture strength, Kips
  resistance factor, unitless
Fu  specified minimal tensile strength, ksi
F y  specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Anv  member net shear area, in2, to be defined in class example
Ant  member net tension area, in2, to be defined in class example
Agv  member gross shear area, in2, to be defined in class example
U bs  block shear reduction coefficient, unitless
AISC often uses equations of the form:
 A  B  C , in which C is considered a maximum value or upper limit.
Rn  0.6 Fu Anv  U bs Fu Ant

Rnmax   0.6 Fy Agv  U bs Fu Ant
 A  B  C , in which C is considered a minimum value or lower limit.
Block shear can also occur in welded connections.
Anv  Agv
Ant  Agt


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine design strength of angle. Consider block shear.

SOLUTION:

Ag  4.00 in 2 {Manual 1-4w}
 
Pn  Fy Ag  36 ksi  4.00 in 2  144.0 K {Eq. D2-1}
∅ 0.75 {resistance factor from Spec.}

ΦtPn = (0.90)(144.0 K) = 129.6 K


t = 3/8 inch {angle leg thickness}
Bolt diameter is 1” and larger.
3 3 3
4.00 1 1 3.55
16 16 8
_
x  0.861 in {Manual 1-45}
.
1 1 0.89 governs {Table D3.1, Case 2}

3
7
8 0.65
4.00
3.55 0.89 3.16 {Eq. D3-1}
58 3.16 183.3 {Eq. D2-2}
∅ 0.75 183.3 137.5
Block Shear

3 
Agv   in 10 in   3.75 in 2
8 
 3   1 
Anv   in 10 in  2.51in  in   2.70 in 2
 8   8 
 3   1 
Ant   in 3 in  0.51in  in   0.91in 2
 8   8 
U bs  1.0
Rn  0.6 Fu Anv  U bs Fu Ant  0.6 Fy Agv  U bs Fu Ant {Eq. J4-5}
   
 0.658 ksi  2.70 in 2  1.058 ksi  0.91in 2
 0.636 ksi 3.75 in   1.058 ksi 0.91in 
2 2
 94.0 K  52.8 K  81.0 K  52.8 K

 146.8 K  133.8 K
 133.8 K
Rn  0.75133.8 K   100.3 K
Summary
∅ 129.6
∅ 137.5
Rn block shear  100.3 K  lowest limit state
Design Strength = 100.3 K


GIVEN: The gusset plate shown has a plate thickness of ½-inch. The required
strength for LRFD is 225 . The steel is ASTM A36. The bolts are 7/8-
inch diameter, with standard holes.
REQUIRED: Determine if the gusset plate is adequate for block shear. Do not
check any other limit states.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
225 {given}

Block Shear
1 
Agv   in 22.0 in   11.0 in 2
2 
 1  7 1 
Anv   in 22.0 in  7 in  in   7.50 in 2
 2  8 8 
 1  7 1 
Ant   in 6.0 in  1. in  in   2.50 in 2
 2  8 8 
U bs  1.0
Rn  0.6 Fu Anv  U bs Fu Ant  0.6 Fy Agv  U bs Fu Ant {Eq. J4-5}
   
 0.658 ksi  7.50 in 2  1.058 ksi  2.50 in 2
 0.636 ksi 11.0 in   1.058 ksi 2.50 in 
2 2
 261 K  145 K  238 K  145 K

 406 K  383 K
 383 K
Rn  0.75383 K   287 K  225K  Pu
Gusset Plate Is Acceptable For Block Shear

DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

GENERAL
Design Considerations
 Dimensions that fit into the structure with reasonable relation to the
dimensions of other members.
 Connections to as many elements of the tension member as possible, to

minimize shear lag.

Ru  Rn
Pu  t Fy Ag {Eq. D2-1}
{Eq. D2-1}
.
Where:
 t  0.90  tension resistance factor
Fy  specified minimum yield strength, ksi
Ag  member gross area, in2

Ru  Rn
Pu  t Fu Ae {Eq. D2-2}
A reasonable assumption is that Ae = 0.75Ag
{Eq. D2-2}
.
Where:
 t  0.75  tension resistance factor
Fu  specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
Block Shear Rupture
Check member at end connection for block shear rupture.

Manual Page 16.1-26. Section D1. Slenderness Limitations
 The Specification says that there is no slenderness limit (L/r) for tension
members.
L
 300
r
 The User Note is not part of the specification, and therefore, is not a legal
requirement.
 The User Note “preferably” limits the slenderness ratio, and would be hard
to enforce in a court of law.
 AISC calls the slenderness limit a suggestion.
 The preferred maximum slenderness ratio is not part of the Specification,

and need not be considered in design.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select the lightest section. Neglect block shear.

SOLUTION:
Required strength
Pu  1.4 D  1.4100 K   140K
Pu  1.2 D  1.6 L  1.2100 K   1.6150 K   360 K governs
Required Gross Area

8.00 {Eq. D2-1}
. .

9.89 {Eq. D2-2}
. .
From Manual Page 1-26:
Try W12x35
The W12x35 is a trial section. We don’t know if it is acceptable until we check
the rupture on the net section limit state.

Check W12x35 - Tensile Rupture In The Net Section

Ag = 10.3 in2 {Manual 1-26}
Bolt diameter is 7/8” and smaller.
1 3 1
10.3 4 0.520 8.48
8 4 8
_ _
The x dimension for a W-shape is defined as the y dimension of the WT-Shape
cut from it.
.
1.30 {Manual 1-71}
_
x 1.30 in
U  1  1  0.84 {Table D3.1, Case 2}
L 8 in
2 0.520 6.56
0.66
10.3

Ae  UAn  0.84 8.48 in 2  7.12 in 2  {Eq. D3-1}

Pn  Fu Ae  65 ksi  7.12 in 2  462.8 K  {Eq. D2-2}
ΦtPn = (0.75)(462.8 K) = 347 K < 360 K = Pu ng
W12x35 Is Too Small

Check W12x40 - Tensile Rupture In The Net Section

Ag = 11.7 in2 {Manual 1-26}
Bolt diameter is 7/8” and smaller.
1 3 1
11.7 4 0.515 9.905
8 4 8
1.09 {Manual 1-69}
_
x 1.09 in
U  1  1  0.86 {Table D3.1, Case 2}
L 8 in
2 0.515 8.01
0.71
11.7

Ae  UAn  0.86 9.90 in 2  8.51in 2  {Eq. D3-1}

Pn  Fu Ae  65 ksi  8.51in 2  553.2 K  {Eq. D2-2}
ΦtPn = (0.75)(553.2 K) = 415 K > 360 K = Pu ok
Use W12x40

AISC 360-16 COMPRESSION MEMBERS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – COMPRESSION MEMBERS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
COLUMN THEORY .............................................................................................. 5

CRITICAL BUCKLING LOADS ........................................................................ 5
FAILURE MODES OF COLUMNS .................................................................. 9
RESIDUAL STRESSES ................................................................................ 10
EFFECTIVE LENGTH ................................................................................... 12
AISC REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................... 14

FLEXURAL BUCKLING ................................................................................. 14
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 15
AVAILABLE CRITICAL STRESS TABLES .................................................... 18
EXAMPLE PROBLEM COLUMN01 ............................................................... 19
LOCAL STABILITY ............................................................................................ 23

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES FOR LOCAL BUCKLING ........................... 25
SLENDER ELEMENTS ................................................................................. 27
TABLES FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS ...................................................... 32

DESIGN .............................................................................................................. 36

MORE ON EFFECTIVE LENGTH ...................................................................... 39

APPROXIMATE VALUES OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH ................................... 44
ALIGNMENT CHARTS .................................................................................. 45
STIFFNESS REDUCTION FACTORS .......................................................... 47
AISC 360-16 - Compression Members.docx R. M. Drake, SE

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING ................................ 53

TORSIONAL & FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING .................................. 54
BUILT-UP MEMBERS ........................................................................................ 57


INTRODUCTION
There are several common types of compression members including
building columns, top chords of roof trusses, and bracing members.
P
fa 
A
where:
f a  average stress across cross-section, ksi
P  axial load on cross-section, Kips

2
A  area of cross-section, in
Eccentricities
Loads are transferred to a building column from the columns above and from
beams framing into it. If the center of gravity of the loads coincides with the
center of gravity of the column, the column is considered to be concentrically
loaded. In practice, columns are seldom concentrically loaded.
Ideal concentrically loaded columns do

not exist. All columns have accidental
eccentricities due to:
 material imperfections
 types of end connections
 initial crookedness of column
 eccentric loads on columns
 residual stresses, which we will talk

about shortly
Application of load P  at eccentricity e  introduces a flexural stress.
 If e is small and member is short, the lateral deflection due to flexure is small
and the flexural stress is insignificant.
 If the member is long, it is very flexible because deflection is proportional to

the length cubed; even a small e can introduce significant flexural stresses.

Contrasts With Tension Members
There are several significant differences between tension members and

compression members:
 Tension loads tend to keep a straight member straight. Compression loads

tend to buckle a straight member.
 The presence of bolt holes in a tension member reduces the cross-sectional

area available to resist loads. In compression members, the bolts are
assumed to fill the holes and the entire cross-sectional area is available to
resist loads.
 Tension members fail at the material yield stress or tension strength.
Pn tension   F y Ag
 Compression members fail well before the material yield stress.
Pn compression   Fy Ag
The tendency for compression members to fail before the material yield stress is
usually measured by the slenderness ratio.
L
Slenderness Ratio =
r
Columns With Bending Moments
Columns that are part of rigid frames will have both axial loads and bending
moments. These are called beam-columns and will be addressed in Text
Chapter 6.
Columns that are part of rigid frames will require more detailed analyses to

determine their Required Strengths Pu , M ux , M uy . 

COLUMN THEORY
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOADS
Long Columns
Long column. (Photo courtesy

Mohammed Ali Morovat and Michael
Engelhardt, University of Texas at
Austin)
Consider the perfectly straight long slender column shown.
 If the axial load (P) is gradually applied, the column will eventually buckle into
the deflected shape shown by the dotted line.
 AISC calls this limit state flexural buckling. The deflected shape is the
bending of a beam.
 The axial load (P) that forces the buckled shape is called the critical buckling
load (Pcr).

Stub (Stocky) Column
Stub column. (Photo courtesy Dr.

Mario Fontana)
Consider the perfectly straight short stocky column shown.
 It will take a larger axial load (P) to reach the critical buckling load (Pcr).

Elastic Buckling
The critical buckling load (Pcr) can be derived using differential equations.
This “perfect” column is based on the following

assumptions:
 The column is braced against lateral translation

(sidesway) but allowed to rotate at each end.
 The column is perfectly straight
 The load is applied along the column’s

centroidal axis.
 The column material behaves elastically.
When subject to an axial load, the column buckles before the axial stress level
reaches the material yield stress. The column is entirely elastic, and is a function
of its flexural stiffness (EI).
There are several buckling modes. Normally we are only interested in the
first buckling mode.

 2 EI
Pcr 
L2
Dividing both sides of the equation by the column cross-sectional area (A), yields
the Elastic Buckling Stress (Fe):
Pe  2 EI
Fe   2
A LA
For mathematical convenience, the radius of gyration (r) is defined as:
I I
r and A  2
A r
 2 EI  2E
As used by AISC : Fe  
 I  L
2
L2  2   
r  r
Comments On Elastic Buckling Formula
 Every column has an x-axis and

y-axis, each with its own I , r ,
and L . Every column will
buckle about the axis with the
highest slenderness ratio L .
r
 
 Fy and Fu have no effect on
buckling tendency. A36 and
A992 steels have the same
modulus of elasticity and will
buckle at the same load for a
given column size and support
condition.
 If the elastic buckling stress (Fe)

exceeds the material yield stress
(Fy), it is not applicable.

FAILURE MODES OF COLUMNS

Conclusions based exclusively on Elastic Flexural Buckling theory are
unconservative because they are based on the assumptions of elastic material
behavior, and perfectly straight members, neither of which are true.
In reality, Elastic Flexural Buckling is an unattainable upper bounds limit state.

This is contrary to most AISC limit states that are defined conservatively,
neglecting capacity beyond yield strains. Nevertheless, it is convenient to define
and understand compression limit states in terms of Elastic Flexural Buckling.
Test results indicate that short stocky columns tend to fail before Elastic Flexural
Buckling can be achieved.
Compression tests on short W-shapes

(called column stubs) yield similar
results to tension tests on machined
bars. However the differences are
significant.
These column stubs behave as if they

have a reduced modulus of elasticity
beyond the proportional limit Fpl  ,
called the tangent modulus Et  .

RESIDUAL STRESSES
The tangent modulus Et  is attributed to residual stresses from the rolling
process. Residual stresses are the stresses that remain in a member after it has
been formed into a finished product.
Sources of residual stresses in structural steel include:
 Uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling of structural shapes.
 The thicker flanges cool more slowly than the thinner webs.
 Flange tips have greater exposure to air and cool more quickly.
 Compression residual stresses exist in regions that cool the quickest.
 Tension residual stresses occur in the regions that cool the slowest.
 Other causes of residual stress include:
 Cold bending or cambering during fabrication
 Punching of holes during fabrication
 Cutting or welding during fabrication

Column Stubs
 Compression tests on column stubs show that all fibers on cross-section

are not stressed at the same level.
 Residual stresses cause early yielding, followed by inelastic behavior.
 As a column's compression load is increased, the parts of the column with

residual compressive stresses will reach the material yield stress and go
into the plastic range of behavior.
 The stiffness of the column will be reduced and become a function of the
part of the column cross-section that is still elastic.
 A column with residual stresses will behave as though it has a reduced

cross-section and a reduced modulus of elasticity.
 Intermediate length columns buckle during an inelastic state of stress due

to residual stresses.
 The column must have an applied load sufficient to reach the inelastic
range.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The concept of effective length is simply a mathematical method of replacing a
given column with an equivalent pinned-end column braced against sidesway. In
other words, the Elastic Flexural Buckling length is equal to KL .
Where:
K  effective length factor, unitless
L  column length between supports, inch
The compression member's effective length can be defined as either:
 the distance between two consecutive inflection points, or
 the distance between two consecutive points of zero moment
Column effective lengths for other support conditions can also be derived by
repeating the Euler critical buckling load differential equation derivation with
different boundary conditions.
The effective length factor K  is used to adjust the Flexural Buckling stress for
different end conditions:
 2E
Fe  2
 KL 
 
 r 

Manual Page 16.1-570. Table C-A-7.1. Approximate Values Of Effective

Length Factor, K.
Case (a): fixed at base, fixed at top, no sidesway, derived graphically in class
theoretical K  0.5 design K  0.65
Case (b): fixed at base, pinned at top, no sidesway, derived using differential
equations in Text
Case (c): fixed at base, sidesway but no rotation at top, like some rigid frames
Case (d): pinned at base, pinned at top, no sidesway, elastic flexural buckling,
derived using differential equations in Text, derived graphically in class
Case (e): fixed at base, free to sidesway and rotate at top, a cantilevered column
Case (f): pinned at base, sidesway but no rotation at top, like some rigid frames

AISC REQUIREMENTS
FLEXURAL BUCKLING
Test results indicate that many columns tend to fail before elastic flexural
buckling can be achieved.
Short Columns fail by crushing of material - YIELDING
 Test results agree with yield stress theory
 Failure load can be calculated from yield stress theory
Long Columns fail by buckling – ELASTIC BUCKLING
 Test results agree with Euler elastic buckling equation
 Failure load can be calculated using Euler formula
Intermediate Columns fail by a combination of crushing and buckling –

INELASTIC BUCKLING
 Test results agree with neither yield stress theory nor Euler formula
 Failure load predicted by empirical formulae
 Most practical (economical) columns end up in this range

SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-33. Chapter E. Compression members
Manual Page 16.1-33. Section E1. General Provisions.
 c  0.90 (LRFD) for all design strength equations in this chapter.
Manual Page 16.1-35. Section E2. Effective Length.
 We have already discussed the effective length factor (K) using a chart
found in the Commentary to Chapter C.
 AISC prefers an upper limit on the slenderness ratio of 200.
 The User Note is not part of the specification, and therefore, is not a legal
requirement.

Manual Page 16.1-35 & 36. Section E3. Flexural Buckling Of Members
Without Slender Elements.
 For now, accept that most common column sections are nonslender.
 I prefer to look at Equation E3-4 next.
 The skipped two equations use the results of Equation E3-4.
 When 4.71 : ∅ 0.658
 The quantity is the exponent. Put parentheses around it in your

Manual.
 When 4.71 : ∅ 0.877

Flexural Buckling Limit State
 Which of the two equations that applies is not based on the largest of the
two or the smallest of the two.
 It is not based on a coin flip.
 It is entirely based on the slenderness ratio.
Column Nominal Strengths
 Note that at high slenderness ratios, the design column strength is based
on Euler buckling, and is independent of the material yield strength.

AVAILABLE CRITICAL STRESS TABLES

An examination of Equations E3-2 and E3-3 indicates that they are a function of
only , Fy, and E.
AISC recognized that only certain shapes are efficiently used as columns, and
has tabulated values for 200 for the most common values of Fy.
Manual Page 4-228. Table 4-14. Available Critical Stress For Compression
Members
 Under each of 5 yield strengths

(Fy), AISC has tabulated:
 slenderness ratio ( )
 allowable stress , the

green numbers
 design stress ∅ , the

blue numbers
 Because we know that the

Section E3 equations are
continuous, we can use linear
interpolation between the
tabulated values.
 This 5-page table is applicable

only for Specification Section
E3, for flexural buckling for
members with nonslender
elements.
 This table doesn’t provide values for 200 because AISC prefers that
you do not use slenderness ratios larger than 200.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM COLUMN01

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the compressive design strength:

a) Using specification equations
b) Using the available critical stress for compression members tables
SOLUTION:
Boundary conditions
K x  K y  1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
L x  L y  15 ft
For W-shapes, ry  rx
For W-shapes, if K x Lx  K y L y , the y-axis will have the greater KL/r, and will
buckle first.

Specification equations
Ag  17.9 in 2 {Manual 1-24}
ry  2.45 in {Manual 1-25}
1.0 15 12
73.5
2.45

53.0 {Eq. E3-4}
.

4.71 4.71 113.4 73.5 use Eq. E3-2

0.658 0.658 . 50 33.69 {Eq. E3-2}
Pn = FcrAg = (33.69 ksi)(17.9 in2) = 603 K {Eq. E3-1}

ΦcPn = (0.90)(603 K) = 543 K
COMPRESSIVE DESIGN STRENGTH = 543 K
Available critical stress for compression members tables
1.0 15 12
73.5
2.45
For Fy = 50 ksi, by interpolation: ΦcFcr = 30.35 ksi {Manual 4-230}
2
ΦcPn = (ΦcFcr)Ag = (30.35 ksi)(17.9 in ) = 543 K
Commentary
 We get the exact same result with both methods
 Now let’s see what happens when we make the column longer.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the compressive design strength:

a) Using specification equations
b) Using the available critical stress for compression members tables
SOLUTION:
Boundary conditions
K x  K y  1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
Lx = Ly = 24 ft
For W-shapes, ry  rx
For W-shapes, if K x Lx  K y L y , the y-axis will have the greater KL/r, and will
buckle first.

Specification equations
Ag  17.9 in 2 {Manual 1-24}
ry  2.45 in {Manual 1-25}
1.0 24 12
117.6
2.45

20.7 {Eq. E3-4}
.

4.71 4.71 113.4 117.6 use Eq. E3-3

Fcr = 0.877Fe = 0.877(20.7 ksi) = 18.16 ksi {Eq. E3-3}

Pn = FcrAg = (18.16 ksi)(17.9 in2) = 325 K {Eq. E3-1}
ΦcPn = (0.90)(325 K) = 292 K
Available critical stress for compression members tables
1.0 24 12
117.6
2.45
For Fy = 50 ksi, by interpolation: ΦcFcr = 16.35 ksi {Manual 4-231}
ΦcPn = (ΦcFcr)Ag = (16.35 ksi)(17.9 in2) = 293 K
Commentary
 We get the exact same result with both methods
 Now let’s see what happens when we make the column longer.

LOCAL STABILITY
The individual elements of a column
cross-section may buckle locally at a
lower stress than the stress that would
cause the overall column to experience
flexural buckling.
Structural steel shapes are made up of

rectangular plate elements with aspect
b h
ratio   or   .
t tw
If these individual plate elements have

high λ values, they may become
unstable and experience local buckling
before flexural buckling of the overall
section can occur
The section plate elements can be separated into two types, based on their
boundary conditions:
Unstiffened Elements are supported Stiffened Elements are supported

along only one edge parallel to the along both edges parallel to the
direction of load, and would buckle like direction of load, and would buckle like
a cantilever beam. a fixed end beam.

Flange local buckling.
Stiffened elements.
Unstiffened elements.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES FOR LOCAL BUCKLING

Page 16.1-16. Section B4.1. Classification Of Sections For Local Buckling
AISC has developed a classification system to identify the compressive members

that may experience local buckling before flexural buckling.
 Nonslender section: λ < λr {for all elements}
 Slender section: λ ≥ λr {for any elements}
 λr values are tabulated in Table B4.1a for members subject to axial

compression.
Manual Pages 16.1-17. Table B4.1a. Width-Thickness Ratios:

Compression Elements, Members Subject To Axial Compression.
 Note the similarity between this

table and Table B4.1b on Manual
Page 16.1-17. That table is for
beams and will be discussed in Text
Chapter 5.
 λr values are derived from plate

buckling theory.

Organization Of Table B4.1a
 The table is sorted by stiffened elements and unstiffened elements.
 9 cases are listed, each representing a particular local buckling situation.
 Detailed element descriptions are provided for each case.
 Width-thickness ratios   are defined for each case.
 W-shape flange elements have the aspect ratio .
 W-shape web elements have the aspect ratio .
 Limiting width-thickness ratios r  are provided for each case.
 Ratios are defined for each case, in terms of Fy and E.
 They were developed from plate buckling equations for different

compression loadings and boundary conditions.
 Graphic examples are provided for each case.
Text Page 120. Figure 4.9.
b
 There is no need to calculate
t
h
and for W-shapes because they
tw
are tabulated in Manual Part 1.
 The value for the W-shape flange is

from Table B4.1a Case 1
 The value for the W-shape web is

from Table B4.1a Case 5.

SLENDER ELEMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-33. Chapter E. Compression Members
 Members in axial compression with any slender elements are directed to

Specification Section E7.
Manual Page 16.1-42. Section E7. Members With Slender Elements
 This section applies to members with any slender elements as classified in

Section B4.1 for members in in axial compression.
 Members in axial compression with slender elements are treated as if they

have a reduced area, known as effective area.
 The total cross-section effective area (Ae) is the summation of the effective
areas of each of the cross-section elements.
 The critical stress is based on Section E3 for flexural buckling of double-

symmetric cross sections such as W-shapes and HSS.

 The critical stress is based on Section E4 for torsional buckling and flexural-
torsional buckling of sections that that are not double-symmetric cross
sections such as double-angles and WT shapes.
 AISC points out a logical way to reduce the calculation effort.
Manual Page 16.1-42. Section E7.1. Slender Element Members Excluding

Round HSS
 The reduced area for each slender element should be subtracted for the
gross cross section (Ag), as suggested in the User Note.
Ae = Ag – (b – be)t of the slender elements
 If , there is no reduced area
 If , the reduced area must be calculated.
 Case (a) applies to the webs of W-shapes.
 Case (c) applies to the flanges of W-shapes.


GIVEN: W10x22, ASTM A992
REQUIRED: Classify the column for local stability.
SOLUTION:
Flanges - axial compression

bf
  7.99 {Manual 1-29}
2t f
E 29000 ksi
r  0.56  0.56  13.5 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 1}
Fy 50 ksi
  r flange is nonslender
Web - axial compression

h
  36.9 {Manual 1-29}
tw
E 29000 ksi
r  1.49  1.49  35.9 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 5}
Fy 50 ksi
  r web is slender
COLUMN IS A SLENDER ELEMENT SECTION

Note: The Text reads like slender element sections are a problem and should be
avoided. The fact that the column is slender is not a problem. It just
means that the nominal strengths are defined in Specification Section E7.
Additional Comments
Turn to Manual 1-28 and look at the W10x22 section.
 Footnote c indicates shape is slender for compression with Fy  50 ksi . This

is for columns, Chapter 4.
 These footnotes are only applicable if Fy  50 ksi .


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the nominal compressive strength.

SOLUTION:
Classify The Flanges For Axial Compression

7.97 {Manual 1-23}
E 29000 ksi
r  0.56  0.56  13.5 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 1}
Fy 50 ksi
  r flange is nonslender
Classify The Web For Axial Compression

56.8 {Manual 1-23}

1.49 1.49 35.9 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 5}

  r web is slender

Specification Section E3 – Flexural Buckling

ry = 1.12 in {Manual 1-23}
1.0 5 12
53.6
1.12

99.6 {Eq. E3-4}
.

4.71 4.71 113.4 53.6 use Eq. E3-2

0.658 0.658 . 50 40.52 {Eq. E3-2}
Specification Section E7 – Members with Slender Elements
50
35.9 39.9
40.52
56.8 , the reduced area must be calculated.
Ag = 7.68 in2 d = 15.7 in {Manual 1-22}

tw = 0.250 in k = 0.747 in {Manual 1-22}
c1 = 0.18 {Table E7.1, Case (a)}

c2 = 1.31 {Table E7.1, Case (a)}
.
1.31 50 34.28 {Eq. E7-5}
.
b = hweb = d – 2k = 15.7 in – 2(0.747 in) = 14.2 in {Manual 1-22}

. .
1 14.2 1 0.18 10.9 {Eq. E7-3}
. .
Ae = Ag – (b – be)(tw) = (7.68 in2) - (14.2 in – 10.9 in)(0.250 in) = 6.86 in2

Pn = FcrAe = (40.52 ksi)(6.86 in2) = 278 K {Eq. 7-1}
NOMINAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH = 278 K

TABLES FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS

AISC has created over 200 pages of column load tables to present the calculated
design strength for common column shapes and sizes, reasonable effective
lengths, and common material strengths.
Manual Page 4-17. Table 4-1a. Available Strength In Axial Compression,

Kips - W Shapes.
This particular column load table

includes seven W14 shapes with Fy =
50 ksi.
 Note the footnote "c" for the

W14x43.
For each shape, the tables are

presented for the most common
material yield stress only, including:
 W-Shapes, Fy = 50, 65, 70 ksi
 HP-Shape, Fy = 50 ksi
 Rectangular HSS, Fy = 50 ksi
 Round HSS, Fy = 46 ksi
 WT-Shapes, Fy = 50 ksi
 Double Angles, Fy = 36 ksi
 Single Angles, Fy = 36 ksi
You must use specification formulae for

other shapes and yield stresses.
Tables are limited to 200 because AISC prefers that you not exceed this.
Tables assume that weak-axis buckling will govern the column design and are
calculated based on Lcy in feet. If Lcy is not the same for both axes, the table may
still be used to determine the design strength, covered later in this lecture.
Table values are correct for all sections of Chapter E, including Section E3
(nonslender) and Section E7 (slender).

Manual Page 6-79. Table 6-2. Available Strength For Member Subject To
Axial, Shear, Flexural, And Combined Forces.
Some of the same column load

information is also shown in Table 6-2.
 This table only includes W-

shapes with Fy = 50 ksi.
 The available compressive

strength values are shown in the
top left part of the table.
 Values for Lcy are shown in the

top middle of the table.
 The table is limited to 200

because AISC prefers that you
not exceed this.
 Table values are correct for all

sections of Chapter E, including
Section E3 (nonslender) and
Section E7 (slender).
Additional Comments
Use the Manual Tab 4 tables for all columns because these tables include all
sections normally used for columns.
 Table 4-1a includes W-Shapes up to and including W14.
 Table 6-2 includes W-Shapes up to and including W44, for Fy = 50 ksi.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the compressive design strength using the available

strength in axial compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
Local Stability
Check need not be made when using the Column Load Tables. We are
confident that AISC developed the design strengths in accordance with
the proper sections of Specification Chapter E.
Boundary Conditions
K  1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 1.0(15 ft) = 15 ft
Using Column Load Tables

Lcy = 15 ft
Pn  543 K {Manual 4-17}


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Is the column acceptable? Use LRFD load combinations.

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu  1.2200 K   1.6200 K   560 K
Local Stability
Check need not be made when using the Column Load Tables. We are
confident that AISC developed the design strengths in accordance with
the proper sections of Specification Chapter E.
Boundary Conditions
K = 0.80 for fixed-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
KL = 0.8(30 ft) = 24 ft
Using Column Load Tables

Lc = 24 ft
ΦcPn = 432 K {Manual 4-88}
560 K = Pu > ΦcPn = 432 K ng
COLUMN IS NOT ACCEPTABLE

DESIGN
If we have 5 things we are ready to select a size for a compression member.
GIVEN:
 Required Strength Pu 
 Column material properties F y  

 Desired column shape (W, HSS, etc.)
 Column length L 
 Column boundary conditions K 
REQUIRED: Select column
SOLUTION:
If And Fy Is The Most Commonly Used For The Section Type
 Determine . For now assume that is governed by the Y-

Axis. (We will discuss the X-Axis governing later in this lecture.)
 Enter column load tables with Lcy and select a section such that Pu <
ΦcPn.
All Situations – Trial & Error

 Assume something reasonable, such as c Fcr  0.50 Fy . (Text examples
assume .)
 Calculate .
.
 Select a trial section of desired shape such that Ag  Areq .
 Use the specification equations to see if the trial section is acceptable.

 If (ΦcPn)trial > Pu, column is ok.
 If (ΦcPn)trial >> Pu, column is ok, but select smaller size.
Pu
 As a rule of thumb: 0.90   1.00 is optimum.
 c Pn


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W14 column using the available strength in axial
compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.4(600 K) = 840 K
Pu = 1.2(600 K) + 1.6(400 K) = 1360 K governs
Boundary Conditions
Kx = Ky = 1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 1.0(13 ft) = 13 ft
Column Load Tables

(Lc)y = (KL)y = 13 ft
(ΦcPn)W14x99 = 1440 K {Manual 4-29}
SELECT W14X99


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W-shape column using the available strength in axial
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.4(550 K) = 770 K governs
Pu = 1.2(550 K) + 1.6(50 K) = 740 K
Boundary Conditions
Kx = Ky = 0.65 for fixed-fixed column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 0.65(20 ft) = 13 ft
Column Load Tables

Select ΦcPn (Kips) Table
W14x82 809 Manual 6-78 OK
W8 Manual 6-97 No section works
SELECT W10X77

MORE ON EFFECTIVE LENGTH

Columns do not always have the same
effective length about both axes.
 Every column has an x-axis and y-

axis, each with its own r and L .
 Every column will buckle about

KL
the axis with the highest ratio.
r
Consider the column shown.
 The buckling lengths are different

about the major and minor axes.
The figures below show the two orthogonal elevation views of this column.
 This might represent an office building with a two-story atrium at the

entrance.
 The columns are oriented so the major axis bending is over two stories
and the weak-axis bending is over one story.
 Note that the column is treated at each beam level when the beam is
considered to be “pinned-ended”; it is free to rotate but restrained from
translation.

We want to use the Available Strength In Axial Compression Tables (Column

Load Tables), regardless of which axis has the highest slenderness ratio.
 The AISC compression member tables are calculated assuming that Lcy
governs.
 Values are presented for specific column shapes and grades of steel and
are tabulated by Lcy values.
 It is possible to convert Lcx values to equivalent Lcy values.
Lcy = Lcx
 Multiply both sides of the equation by ry.
 Every column will buckle about the axis represented by the larger of Lcy or
Lcy(equiv).
 Enter the Available Strength In Axial Compression Tables with the larger
of Lcy or Lcy(equiv) and select the precalculated value for ΦcPn.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength using the available strength in axial
SOLUTION:
Design Strength – Available Strength In Axial Compression (Column Load) Table

K = 1.0 for pinned-pinned columns {Manual 16.1-570}
rx
 1.75 {Manual 4-20}
ry
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(13.5 ft) = 13.5 ft

.
15.4 governs
.
ΦcPn {Manual 4-20}
DESIGN STRENGTH = 654K


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W-shape column using the available strength in axial
SOLUTION:
Required strength
Pu  1.4240 K   336 K governs
Pu  1.2240 K   1.620 K   320 K
Boundary conditions
K = 1.0 for pinned-pinned columns {Manual 16.1-570}
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(15.0 ft) = 15.0 ft
1.0 30 30

Select sections
Fy = 50 ksi
We will use a different approach than the Text approach, which depends on a
“magic assumption” for the ratio.
As a first trial for each column depth:
 Assume that Lcy governs
 Select Trial Design from the Column Load Tables
With the Trial Design member, we can now perform an exact solution
 Using the size from the Trial Design, compare Lcy and Lcy(equiv) to identify
which is the longer column length.
 Using the longer column length in yellow), select the Exact Design from
the Column Load Tables.
rx Lcy Lcy(equiv) ΦcPn

Select Design Table
ry (ft) (ft) (Kips)
W8x48 Trial 15 367 Manual 6-98
W8x48 Exact 1.74 15 17.24 308 Manual 6-98 ng
W8x58 Exact 1.74 15 17.24 378 Manual 6-98 ok
SELECT W8X58

APPROXIMATE VALUES OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH

Manual Page 16.1-570. Table C-A-7.1. Approximate Values Of Effective
Length Factor, K.
Table C-A-7.1 provides approximate values for the effective length factor K
based on a sidesway buckling analysis with idealized boundary conditions.
These approximate values for K are reasonable to use for preliminary design
when column and beam sizes are not known.
 Cases (a), (b), and (d) represent columns laterally supported by braced
frame or shear wall systems that do not sidesway.
K  1 .0
 Cases (c), (e), and (f) represent columns in moment frame systems that
sidesway.
K  1 .0

ALIGNMENT CHARTS
Alignment charts provide a more precise way to determine the effective length
factor than the approximate values previously used when the columns are
connected to the beams with rigid or moment-resisting connections.
 Alignment charts evaluate the flexural rigidity of the joints at each end of a
column segment.
 Column segments are defined by rigid connections with beams.
The rotational restraint provided by beams at the end of a column is a function of

the rotational stiffnesses of the members rigidly attached to a joint.
∑ ∑
∑ ∑
As indicated in the Manual Commentary:

G = 1.0 for column “rigidly attached” to a properly designed footing
G = 10.0 for column "pinned" to a supporting footing

Manual Page 16.1-571. Figure C-A- Manual Page 16.1-572. Figure C-A-
7.1. Alignment Chart – Sidesway 7.2. Alignment Chart – Sidesway
Inhibited (Braced Frame) Uninhibited (Moment Frame)
 Note that K  1.0  Note that K  1.0
Alignment Charts are based on idealized conditions:
 Behavior is purely elastic
 All members have constant cross-section
 All joints are rigid or moment-resisting
 All columns buckle simultaneously
To use the alignment charts
 K values are required for each column segment, bounded by joints “A” and
“B”
 For each column segment bound by foundation or intersecting beams,

determine GA and GB for each column segment.
 Using either Figure C-A-7.1 or C-A-7.2, whichever is correct for your

problem; place a straightedge across the values for GA and GB and read
the value for K. All scales are logarithmic.
 A separate analysis may be required if the columns in the other direction

also have rigid or moment-resisting connections, usually rare.

STIFFNESS REDUCTION FACTORS

The AISC alignment charts were developed assuming that all columns behave in
a purely elastic manner. This is not always true.
 If column behavior is inelastic, the effective length factors will be

unrealistically high.
 In the elastic range, the column stiffness is proportional to EI.
 In the inelastic range, the column stiffness is proportional to EtI, where Et

is a reduced or tangent modulus due to residual stresses.
This difference in stiffness can be accounted for by the stiffness reduction factor
(τb). For design:
Fcr inelastic 
b 
Fcr elastic 
 AISC formulates τb in terms of axial stress.

Manual Page 4-228. Table 4-13. Stiffness Reduction Factor.
AISC tabulates τb values as a function

of for Fy = 35, 36, 46, 50, 65, and 70
ksi.
 If 4.71 , inelastic
column buckling is expected,
and τb is provided.
 If 4.71 , elastic column

buckling is expected, and τb is
not needed or provided.
 Separate τb values are provided

for LRFD (blue) and ASD
(green).
Additional Comments
 Do not multiply the foundation values, G = 1.0 and G = 10.0 by the

stiffness reduction factor.


GIVEN: All steel is ASTM A992. The highlighted column (upper segment along
Grid 2) required strength (Pu) = 700K
REQUIRED: Determine the effective length factor of the upper segment of the
column on Grid 2. Consider the stiffness reduction factor.
SOLUTION:
Elastic factors
597
∑ 39.8
15
1.75
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
597 597
∑ 79.6
15 15
3.49
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
Kx = 1.7 {Manual 16.1-572}

Check for inelastic behavior
29000
4.71 4.71 113.4
50
. /
57.6 113.4 inelastic behavior
.
Stiffness reduction factor

700
33.2
21.1
τb = 0.894 by interpolation {Manual 4-228}
597
∑ 35.6 .
15
.
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
597 597
∑ 79.6 .
15 15
.
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
Kx = 1.65 {Manual 16.1-572}
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR = 1.65


GIVEN: All steel is ASTM A992. Column segment GH has a required strength
(Pu) = 1000K
REQUIRED: Determine the effective length factor of column segment GH.

Consider the stiffness reduction factor.
SOLUTION:
Elastic factors
662
∑ 2 132.4
10
2.23
2370 59.25
∑ 40
Gb = 10 for pinned base
Kx = 0.92 {Manual 16.1-571}
Check for inelastic behavior
29000
4.71 4.71 113.4
50
. /
36.2 113.4 inelastic behavior
.

Stiffness reduction factor

1000
43.1
23.2
τb = 0.416 by interpolation {Manual 4-228}
662
∑ 2 132.4 0.416
10
0.93
2370 59.25
∑ 40
Gb = 10 for pinned base
Kx = 0.91 {Manual 16.1-571}
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR = 0.91

TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL

BUCKLING
Manual Page 16.1-31. Section E1. General Provisions.
 The solid lines represent the unbuckled elevation and midheight cross-
section of the column.
 The dotted lines represent the buckled elevation and midheight cross-
section of the column.
Flexural buckling is caused by bending about the axis with the largest
slenderness ratio. It needs to be considered for all shapes.
Torsional buckling is caused by twisting about the longitudinal axis of a member.

The doubly-symmetrical compression member twists about its longitudinal axis.
Wide-flange shapes are usually not susceptible to torsional buckling.
Flexural-Torsional Buckling is caused by a combination of flexural and torsional

buckling. This type of buckling can only occur with singly-symmetrical and
unsymmetrical sections.

TORSIONAL & FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

AISC combines the limit states of torsional buckling and flexural-torsional
buckling into one specification section.
Manual Page 16.1-36. Section E4. Torsional And Flexural-Torsional

Buckling Of Single Angles And Members Without Slender Elements
 For nonslender elements, use Section E3 to determine Fcr, using Fe

calculated in Section E4, and then multiply times Ag.
 For slender elements, use Section E3 to determine Fcr, using Fe calculated

in Section E4, and then multiply times Ae determined in Section E7.
 Subsection (a) defines the critical buckling stress for double symmetric
members, such as W-shapes.
 Subsection (b) defines the critical buckling stress for singly symmetric
members, such as WT-shapes and Double-Angle shapes.
 Subsection (c) defines the critical buckling stress for unsymmetrical

members, such as single angles.

Manual Page 16.1-36. Section E4. Torsional And Flexural-Torsional

Buckling Of Single Angles And Members Without Slender Elements
Terms used in Equations E4-2, E4-3, and E4-4 are defined in Section E4.
Where:
G = shear modulus of elasticity = 11,200 ksi
Cross-Sectional Properties
The following cross-sectional properties are tabulated in Manual Part 1 for W-

shapes
Cw = warping constant, in6
ho = distance between flange centroids, inch
= polar radius of gyration about the shear center, in4
J = torsional constant, in4
Elastic Buckling Stresses About The Major (x), Minor (y), And Longitudinal (z)
Axes


GIVEN: Concentrically loaded WT12x42 compression member, ASTM A992
steel, Lcx = 28 feet, Lcy = 14 feet.
REQUIRED: Determine the design compressive strength (ΦcPn).
SOLUTION:
Manual Page 4-120. Table 4-7. Available Strength in Axial Compression –

Concentrically Loaded WT Shapes
 Footnote “c” indicates that

section is Slender for
compression.
Above The Double Horizontal Line

Lcx = 28 feet
ΦcPn = 299 K
 Column load tables uses

Section E3 for flexural buckling
of WT shapes.
Below The Double Horizontal Line

Lcy = 14 feet
ΦcPn = 285 K governs

Section E4(b) for flexural-
torsional buckling of WT shapes.
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH = 285 K
Reminder
 There are over 200 pages of “Column Load Tables” in Manual Sections 4
for every rolled shape conceivable used as a column.
 Column load tables consider all limit states in Specification Chapter E.

BUILT-UP MEMBERS
Manual Page 16.1-39. Section E6. Built-Up Members
 Section E2 applies to built-up members, interconnected to maintain the

cross-sectional shape of the built-up member.
 The slenderness ratio of the built-up member is replaced with a modified

slenderness ratio, based on the distance between connectors a  .
The most common built-up shape is the

double-angle.
 Double-angles are usually

oriented with the long legs back-
to-back (LLBB), resulting in
more equal values of rx and ry.
 The end gusset plates and the

intermediate connectors (plates
and bolts) divide the member
into equally spaced intervals (a).
 In the example shown, there are

2 intermediate connectors that
divide the member into 3
intervals (a).
Manual Page 16.1-40. Section E6.2. Dimensional Requirements
 Section E6.2 consists of two pages of dimensional requirements.
 Student will not be required to exercise the Specification equations for

Built-Up Members in this course.
 Students are required to understand the concepts.


GIVEN: Concentrically loaded 2-L5 x 3-1/2 x 1/2 (LLBB), ASTM A36 steel, with Lc
= 16 feet separated by 3/8-inch and two intermediate connectors.
REQUIRED: Determine the design compressive strength (ΦcPn).
SOLUTION:
Manual Page 4-157. Table 4-9. Available Strength in Axial Compression –

Double angles - LLBB
 No footnote “c” indicates that

section is Nonslender for
compression.
 The double-angle member

weighs 27.2 lb/ft.
Above The Double Horizontal Line

Lcx = 16 feet
ΦcPn = 119 K

Section E3 for flexural buckling
of 2L shapes.
Below The Double Horizontal Line

Lcy = 14 feet
ΦcPn = 93.7 K governs

Section E4(b) for flexural-
torsional buckling of 2L shapes.
DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH = 93.7 K
Reminder
 There are over 200 pages of “Column Load Tables” in Manual Sections 4
for every rolled shape conceivable used as a column.
 Column load tables consider all limit states in Specification chapter E.

AISC 360-16 FLEXURAL MEMBERS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – FLEXURAL MEMBERS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
TYPES OF BEAMS ......................................................................................... 3
SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS ........................................................................ 4
AISC SPECIFICATION .................................................................................... 5
BENDING STRESS AND THE PLASTIC MOMENT ............................................ 6

ELASTIC BEHAVIOR ...................................................................................... 6
ELASTIC-PLASTIC BEHAVIOR ...................................................................... 8
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR ...................................................................................... 9
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BEAMS01.................................................................. 12
STABILITY ......................................................................................................... 14

PURE COLUMN ANALOGY .......................................................................... 14
CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES ........................................................................ 16

BENDING STRENGTH OF COMPACT SHAPES .............................................. 19

YIELDING LIMIT STATE ............................................................................... 20
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING (LTB) LIMIT STATE ............................. 21
ZX TABLE ...................................................................................................... 23
MODIFICATION FACTOR FOR NON-UNIFORM MOMENT......................... 24
BENDING STRENGTH OF NONCOMPACT SHAPES ...................................... 29

SHEAR STRENGTH........................................................................................... 35

DEFLECTION ..................................................................................................... 40

GENERAL ..................................................................................................... 40
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS ....................................................................... 40
DESIGN .............................................................................................................. 42

DESIGN AIDS ............................................................................................... 42
AISC 360-16 - Flexural Members.docx R. M. Drake, SE


FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEMS ....................................................... 53

TRIBUTARY AREAS ..................................................................................... 53
HOLES IN BEAMS ............................................................................................. 60

HOLES IN BEAM WEBS ............................................................................... 60
HOLES IN BEAM COMPRESSION FLANGES ............................................. 60
HOLES IN BEAM TENSION FLANGES ........................................................ 60
BIAXIAL BENDING ............................................................................................ 63

Y-AXIS FLEXURAL LIMIT STATES .............................................................. 63
CASE I: LOADS APPLIED THROUGH THE SHEAR CENTER .................... 65
CASE II: LOADS NOT APPLIED THROUGH THE SHEAR CENTER ........... 67
DESIGN OF ROOF PURLINS ....................................................................... 69
SUMMARY - BENDING STRENGTH OF VARIOUS SHAPES .......................... 73

INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF BEAMS
A structural member is a beam if it is loaded transverse to its longitudinal axis,
causing bending.
 Girders are beams spaced at the largest interval in a floor or roof system.
 Spandrel beams are floor or roof beams at the building perimeter.
 Joists are the most closely spaced beams in a floor system.
 Purlins are the most closely spaced beams in a roof system.
 Girts are exterior wall beams in industrial buildings.
 Stringers are longitudinal bridge beams.
General
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Flexure
 Specification Chapter F
M u ≤ Φ bM n
Shear
 Specification Chapter G
Vu  vVn
Deflection
 Specification Chapter L and International Building Code (IBC)
∆ ≤ ∆allow

SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS
W-shapes are usually the most W-shapes can also be made up of

economical beam section. separate flange and web plates,
formerly called plate girders.
 Thick flanges maximize the size
of the compression and tension  Usually used for heavily loaded
elements and the internal applications such as bridges and
resisting moment. long spans.
 Deeper webs maximizes the  Usually deeper than rolled W-

moment arm of the couple force shapes.
between the compression and
tension elements.
Other Sections
C-shapes are commonly used for lightly loaded applications.
 Sloping flanges make connection difficult
Open Web Bar Joists
 Prefabricated truss sections made up of angle or bar chords and diagonal

bars.
 Usually used for lightly loaded roof applications.
W-shapes in combination with concrete floor slabs are usually used for building
floors.
 Called composite beams or composite construction.

AISC SPECIFICATION
Specification Page 16.1-44. Chapter F. Design Of Members For Flexure
 The shape classification nonslender used for columns is broken into

compact and noncompact for beams.
Specification Page 16.1-46. Section F1. General Provisions.
 Φb = 0.90 is used throughout Specification Chapter F.

BENDING STRESS AND THE PLASTIC MOMENT

ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
As long as fc = ft < Fy, the behavior is elastic.
 Stresses are proportional to distance from neutral axis (y).
 Maximum compression stress is at the top fiber; most compression force

is in the top flange.
 Maximum tension stress is at the bottom fiber; most tension force is in the
bottom flange
 Part of the cross-section is in compression, mostly one flange.
 Part of the cross-section is in tension, mostly the other flange.
 The equal and opposite tension and compression flange forces form a
couple. An internal moment is developed by the couple force times the
distance between them.

Stage (A) - Elastic Stresses
Let’s examine a beam with a small

external load.
Assuming lateral stability of the

compression flange (no buckling), the
usual elastic assumptions apply:
 A plane section before bending

remains plane.
 Stress is proportional to strain.
 Stress is proportional to the distance y from the neutral axis.
Mx = fbx(max)Sx
Stage (B) – Entirely Elastic Stresses
Let’s increase the external load until

the extreme fiber reaches the yield
stress Fy  .
The extreme fibers are at yield.
f bx max   Fy
M yx  Fy S x
Where:
Myx = yield moment = bending moment about X-axis when extreme fiber
has reached the yield stress, in-K
 The Yield Moment is the maximum internal moment that the cross-section
can sustain and remain elastic.
 Any further internal moment will result in plastic behavior and permanent
deformation.

ELASTIC-PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
After the material yield stress (Fy) is reached, the beam still acts as an ideal
truss, with the top flange in compression and the bottom flange in tension.
 After the extreme fiber has reached the yield stress, any additional
external loading will cause more strain, but no more stress.
 The additional loading will cause the adjacent fibers to increase their strain
and stress until they reach the yield stress.
 As loading increases, eventually all of the fibers can reach the yield stress,
although at different strain levels.
Stage (C) – Elastic –Plastic Stresses
Let’s increase the external load some

more so that more of the cross-section
reaches the yield stress (Fy).
Once the outer fiber begins to yield, the

stress distribution is no longer linear.
The outer fibers are in plastic range.

The inner fibers are in elastic range.
fbx(max) = Fy
Mx > Myx

PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
Stage (D) – Entirely Plastic Stresses
Let’s increase the external load until

the entire cross-section reaches the
yield stress (Fy).
The section is entirely plastic.
 Any further external load would cause the entire cross-section to progress
much further on the stress-strain curve, forming a “plastic hinge” and an
unstable structure.
 The Plastic Moment is the maximum internal moment that the cross-
section is permitted to sustain by the AISC Specification.
 Plastic theory is applicable when the entire cross-section has reached

yield.
 When half of the section has reached yield in compression and the other
half reaches yield in tension, the section can resist an external load that
causes the internal moment (Mp).
f bx max   F y
M px  Fy Z x
Where:
M px  plastic moment about the X-axis, in-K
Z x  plastic section modulus about the X-axis, tabulated in Manual Part 1,

in3
Z   Ad

Let’s look closer at this entirely plastic

behavior.
Plastic Neutral Axis
To determine the magnitude of the

plastic moment, the plastic neutral axis
(PNA) must be located.
The part of the section that reached yield in compression develops an internal
compression force:
C   Ac Fyc
The part of the section that reached yield in tension develops an internal tension
force:
T   At Fyt
For internal equilibrium:
C T
 Ac Fyc   At Fyt
If the same materials are in tension and
compression:
Fyc  Fyt
 Ac   At
 The PNA is located at the point

where there is an equal cross-
section area on each side.
 For symmetric sections of one material, the PNA is located at middepth,

the same location as the elastic neutral axis. For non-symmetric sections,
calculations must be performed to locate the PNA.

Plastic Moment
 
The plastic moment M p is equal to the couple force C  T times some moment
arm. In practice, it is easier to decompose the compression and tension areas
into shapes for which we can easily find the area and centroid.
For this general section:
M p  C1d1  C 2 d 2  T3 d 3  T4 d 4
M p  A1 Fy d1  A2 Fy d 2  A3 Fy d 3  A4 Fy d 4
M p   AdFy   Ad Fy  ZF y
Z   Ad
The same general approach can be used with dissimilar materials or

unsymmetrical sections, such as:
 Nominal moment strength of concrete beams.
 Nominal moment strength of composite steel and concrete beams.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BEAMS01

REQUIRED: Determine the yield moment
(My) and plastic moment (Mp) about
the X-axis.
SOLUTION:
Determine Section Properties

Section is symmetric, ENA is at middepth
d  10.2 in {Manual 1-28}
t w  0.420 in {Manual 1-28}
b f  10.1in {Manual 1-28}
t f  0.680 in {Manual 1-28}
Determine Additional Section Properties

h  d  2t f  10.2 in  20.680 in   8.84 in
h 8.84 in
  4.42 in
2 2
y
1
2

d tf 

1
10.2 in  0.680 in   4.76 in
2
d 10.2 in
c   5.10 in
2 2

Determine Yield Moment
I x  210.1in 0.680 in 4.76 in 2  2

10.1in 0.680 in 3
12

0.420 in 8.84 in 3  311  1  24  336 in 4
12
I x  341in 4 {Manual 1-29}
I x 336 in 4
Sx    65.9 in 3
c 5.10 in
S x  66.7 in 3 {Manual 1-29}
M yx  S x Fy 
65.9 in 50 ksi   275 ft  K
3
12 in / ft
YIELD MOMENT = 275 FT-K
Determine Plastic Moment
 We will solve for the plastic moment (Mp) in a general manner useful for all
shapes, symmetrical or not.
Section is symmetric, PNA is at middepth
 4.42 in 
Z x   Ad 210.1in 0.680 in 4.76 in   20.420 in 4.42 in  
 2 
 65.4  8.2  73.6 in 3
Z x  74.6 in 3 {Manual 1-29}
M px  Z x Fy 
73.6 in 50 ksi   307 ft  K
3
12 in / ft
PLASTIC MOMENT = 307 FT-K
Observation
 The plastic moment is about 11% greater than the yield moment.

STABILITY
A beam that is stable can reach its plastic moment capacity.
Mnx = Mpb
PURE COLUMN ANALOGY

Beam That Is Laterally Supported At Its Ends
Consider the compression flange of a laterally unsupported beam.
If the compression flange were a pure rectangular column, simply supported for
both axes, it would buckle in its weakest direction.
However, the compression flange is restrained from buckling in its weakest

direction, in the vertical plane, by the continuous support of the beam web.
Therefore, at higher flexural compression loads, the flange would tend to buckle
in its strongest direction, in the horizontal plane, twisting the beam.
It is this sudden instability in the lateral direction that is referred to as lateral

torsional buckling (LTB).
The internal moment (Mnx) that will cause the compression flange to buckle
laterally depends on the unbraced length of the compression flange (Lb).

Beam With Additional Lateral Support At Midspan
If you can add another lateral brace point at the midspan of the beam, the
unbraced length of the compression flange (Lb) is reduced and internal moment
(Mnx) that will cause the compression flange to buckle will increase.
 The lateral bracing of the compression flange has no effect on the beams
behavior in the vertical plane. The internal shears, internal moments and
vertical beam deflections are not affected.
Lateral Support
The convention is to draw an “x” on the beam at the compression flange brace
locations.
General
 For sections with compact flanges and compact webs, the nominal
moment strength (Mnx) will be the lower of the yielding (Y) and lateral
torsional buckling (LTB) limit states.
 For sections with compact webs and noncompact or slender flanges, the
nominal moment strength (Mnx) will be the lower of the flange local
buckling (FLB) and lateral torsional buckling (LTB) limit states.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES
Manual Page 16.1-16. Section B4.1. Classification Of Sections For Local
Buckling
Compact section: λ < λp
 The entire cross-section can reach the yield stress without local buckling.
Noncompact section: λp < λ < λr
 Part of the cross-section reaches the yield stress before local buckling.
Slender element section: λr < λ
 None of the cross-section reaches the yield stress before local buckling.
Width-Thickness Parameters
 Note that for columns, compact and noncompact sections were lumped
together and called non-slender.
 There was no need to define λp.

Manual Page 16.1-18. Table B4.1b. Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios For

Compression Elements.
 Note that the table begins with Case 10.
 Case 10 includes flanges of W-shapes.
Manual Pages 16.1-19. Table B4.1b. Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios For

Compression Elements. (Continued)
 Case 15 includes webs of W-shapes.


REQUIRED: Classify the beam section for local stability.
SOLUTION:
Flanges - flexure
bf
  9.92 {Manual 1-27}
2t f
E 29000 ksi
 p  0.38  0.38  9.15 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r  1.0  1.0  24.1 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
 p     r noncompact
BEAM FLANGE IS NONCOMPACT
Web - flexure
h
  24.9 {Manual 1-27}
tw
E 29000 ksi
 p  3.76  3.76  90.3 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r  5.70  5.70  137 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
Fy 50 ksi
   p compact
BEAM WEB IS COMPACT
Manual Page 1-26:
 Notice W12x65 references footnote “f”.
 Footnote “f” indicates that flange exceeds the compact section limit, for
flexure, for Fy = 50 ksi.

BENDING STRENGTH OF COMPACT SHAPES

Manual Page 16.1-47. Section F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped
Members And Channels Bent About Their Major Axis.
 Specification Section covers W-shape members with both compact

flanges and compact webs.
b E
 0.38 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
2t f Fy
And
h E
 1 .0 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
tw Fy
 Sections with compact flanges and compact webs can reach the plastic
moment (Mp) and become fully plastic, unless lateral torsional buckling
(LTB) occurs first.
 Flange Local Buckling (FLB) will not occur before Yielding (Y) because
flange is compact.
 Web Local Buckling (WLB) will not occur before Yielding (Y) because
web is compact.

Manual Page 16.1-47. Section F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped

Members And Channels Bent About Their Major Axis.
 The User Note lists all ten (10) of the W-shapes that do not have compact
flanges if Fy ≤ 50 ksi, including the W12x65 shape that we just examined.
 The User Note says that all W, S, M, C, and MC shapes have compact
webs if Fy ≤ 65 ksi.
 ASTM A6 defines steel cross-sectional dimensions and tolerances for

section in Manual Part 1.
 There are two limit states to consider for compact W-shapes bent about
their X-axis:
 Yielding (Y)
 Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB)
YIELDING LIMIT STATE

Manual Page 16.1-47. Section F2.1. Yielding
 Equation F2-1 is the equation of

a straight line, independent of
Lb.
 Like all nominal strength

equations, Equation F2-1 is
function of both the material
strength and a cross-sectional
property.

LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING (LTB) LIMIT STATE

Manual Page 16.1-47. Section F2.2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling.
Section (a) Yielding
 The Yielding (Y) limit state will

occur before the lateral torsional
buckling limit state if Lb < Lp.
 Lp is determined based on a
combination of theory and
laboratory testing.
 Lp has units of inches
Section (c) Elastic Lateral Torsional Buckling
 Elastic Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) will govern if Lb > Lr.
 Notice the terms, just like elastic flexural buckling of columns.
 Sx, ho, J, and rts are cross-section properties, tabulated in Manual Part 1.
 c and Cb will be explained shortly.

 Considering residual stresses,

the extreme fiber will reach the
material yield stress at:
1 - 0.3Fy = 0.7Fy.
 The residual moment (Mr) is the

moment when the extreme fiber
reaches the material yield
stress, is equal to:
Mr = 0.7FySx.
 Lr has units of inches
 c  1.0 for W-Shapes, which are doubly-symmetric sections.
Section (b) Inelastic Lateral Torsional Buckling
 Inelastic Lateral Torsional

Buckling (LTB) will govern if Lp <
Lb ≤ Lr.
 Inelastic LTB involves residual

stresses.
 It is defined as a straight line

between (Mp, Lp) and (Mr, Lr).

ZX TABLE
Manual Page 3-25. Table 3-2. W-Shapes Selections By Zx.
 The Zx table is for for W-shapes

with Φb = 0.90 and Fy = 50 ksi.
 The table is organized in

descending order of Zx values.
 Noting that ΦbMpx = ΦbFyZx, the

table is also organized in
descending order of ΦbMpx.
 The Zx tables span from Manual

page 3-19 to Manual page 3-27.
Yielding (Y)
If Lb < Lp, the Yielding limit state

governs, and our acceptance criteria is:
Mux = ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx
We can easily find all ΦbMpx values

more than Mux. For example, if Mux =
430 ft-K, the W14x68, and every size
above it meets:
Mux ≤ ΦbMpx
The lightest section that works is the first bold faced member that is above the
Mux value, in this case, W21x55.
Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)
If Lb > Lp, the Lateral Torsional

Buckling limit state governs, and our
acceptance criteria is:
Mux ≤ ΦbMpn ≤ ΦbMpx
The Zx Table provides values for

ΦbMpx, ΦbMrx, Lp, and Lr, key ordinates
for the LTB equations F2-2 and F2-3.

MODIFICATION FACTOR FOR NON-UNIFORM MOMENT

Lateral-torsional buckling design moment strength equations are based on the
critical buckling strength of the compression flange.
 Lateral torsional Buckling (LTB) equations assume that the compression

flange is at the same stress level for its entire beam length. However, this
is only true for a constant moment diagram. Therefore, the design
strength must be adjusted upwards for other moment gradients.
 Cb adjusts the LTB equations upwards for the beam moment gradients.
 Cb is the LTB Modification

Factor, which is greater than or
equal to one.
 Note that in Equations F2-2 and

F2-3, the nominal strength (Mn)
cannot exceed the plastic
moment (Mp), regardless of the
value for Cb.
Manual Page 16.1-46. Section F1. General Provisions
 “When both ends of the unsupported segment are braced” means that Cb
is evaluated for a beam segment bounded by adjacent lateral support
points of the beam compression flange.
 All moments in the equation are absolute values, evaluated between

points of compression flange lateral support, defined as Lb.

 A single piece of steel used as a beam can be considered to be multiple

beam segments for analysis purpose, depending on the location of
compression flange lateral supports.
 This is similar to a piece of steel used as a column which may extend for
two stories, but is treated as two column segments for analysis purposes.
 Note that for a constant moment diagram, Cb = 1.0. For all other cases
shown, the moment diagram is not constant, and Cb > 1.0.
 For convenience, both AISC tabulate certain common values for Cb. The
small “x” is the industry convention to indicate lateral support of the
compression flange.
Manual Page 3-18. Table 3-1. Values For Cb For Simply Supported Beams.
 In the example with two point loads and no uniform load, the moment
diagram between the point loads is constant.
Cb = 1.0


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check adequacy of beam. Consider flexure only.

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wux = 1.4(1.29 k/ft) = 1.81 k/ft
wux = 1.2(1.29 K/ft) + 1.6(2 K/ft) = 4.75 K/ft governs
4.75 / 40
950
8 8
Compactness Check
Section is ASTM A992 steel, Fy = 50 ksi. Therefore, footnote "f" for flexure is
applicable.
There is no footnote "f" for this section. Therefore, the section is classified as
compact for flexure.
Specification Section F2 applies. Consider Yielding and Lateral Torsional
Buckling limit states.
Design Strength - Yielding
b M nx  b M px  b Fy Z x 
0.9050 ksi 283 in 3   1061 ft  K {Eq. F2-1}
12 in / ft
ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx = 1060 ft-K {Manual 3-24}
Lb = 0 ft < Lp: conclude that Yielding (Y) limit state will govern
950 ft-K = Mux ≤ ΦbMnx = 1061 ft-K ok
W30X90 IS ACCEPTABLE


GIVEN:

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wux  1.21.068 K / ft   1.62 K / ft   4.48 K / ft
4.48 K / ft 32 ft 
2
M ux   573 ft  K
8
Compactness Check
applicable.
ΦbMpx = 600 ft-K {Manual 3-24}
Lb = 16 ft
Lp = 6.36 ft {Manual 3-24}
Lb > Lp; conclude that Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) must be considered

Design Strength – Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)

Lr  18.7 ft {Manual 3-24}
Lp < Lb < Lr consider inelastic buckling
b M rx  368 ft  K {Manual 3-24}
Cb  1.30 for each segment {Manual 3-18}
  

M nx  Cb M px  M px  0.7 Fy S x  LLb  LL p   M px {Eq. F2-2}
  r p 
Multiply each term by b
  Lb  L p 
b M nx  Cb b M px  b M px  b M rx    b M px
  Lr  L p 
 
  16 ft  6.36 ft 
 1.30 600 ft  K  600 ft  K  368 ft  K    600 ft  K
  18 . 7 ft  6 . 36 ft 
 544 ft  K  600 ft  K
 544 ft  K
M ux  573 ft  K  544 ft  K  b M nx ng
BEAM IS INADEQUATE

BENDING STRENGTH OF NONCOMPACT SHAPES

Manual Page 16.1-49. Section F3. Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members
With Compact Webs And Noncompact Or Slender Flanges Bent About
Their Major Axis.
 Specification Section covers W-shape members with noncompact or

slender flanges and compact webs.
E bf E
For noncompact flanges: 0.38   1.0 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 2t f Fy
bf E
For slender flanges:  1.0 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
2t f Fy
 Sections with noncompact or slender flanges will fail in Compression

Flange Local Buckling (FLB) before they can reach the Plastic Moment
(Mp).
h E
For compact webs:  3.76 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
tw Fy
 Sections with noncompact or slender webs will fail in Web Local Buckling
(WLB) before they can reach the Plastic Moment (Mp).
 Sections with noncompact or slender webs:
 Are covered in Specification Sections F4 and F5

 The User Note lists all ten (10) of the W-shapes that have noncompact
flanges if Fy = 50 ksi.
 ASTM A6 defines steel cross-sectional dimensions and tolerances for

section in Manual Part 1.
 There are two limit states to consider for noncompact W-shapes bent
about their X-axis:
 Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB)
 Compression Flange Local Buckling (FLB).
 The nominal moment strength (Mn) of the member is less than the plastic
moment (Mp) because Compression Flange Local Buckling will occur first.
Manual Page 16.1-49. Section F3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
 Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) is the same for both compact and
noncompact shapes.

Manual Page 16.1-49. Section F3.2. Compression Flange Local Buckling
 No W-shapes with Fy ≤ 50 ksi have slender flanges.
Manual Page 16.1-50. Section F3.2. Compression Flange Local Buckling


GIVEN:

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wux  1.21.0 K / ft   1.61.5 K / ft   3.60 K / ft
3.60 K / ft 28 ft 
2
M ux   353 ft  K
8
Design Strength – Flexure

applicable.
There is a footnote "f" for this section. Therefore, the section is classified as
noncompact or slender for flexure.
Specification Section F3 applies. Consider Lateral Torsional Buckling and
Flange Local Buckling limit states.
bf
  9.92 {Manual 1-27}
2t f
E 29000 ksi
 p  0.38  0.38  9.15 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r  1.0  1.0  24.1 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi

Design Strength – Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)

Lb  14 ft
Lp  10.7 ft {Manual 3-25}
L r  35 .1 ft {Manual 3-25}
C b  1.30 for each segment {Manual 3-18}
  

M nx  Cb  M px  M px  0.7 Fy S x  LLb  LL p   M px {Eq. F2-2}
  r p 
Multiply each term by b .
  Lb  L p 
b M nx  Cb b M px  b M px  b M rx    b M px
 Lr  L p  
  
  14 ft  10.7 ft 
 1.30363 ft  K  363 ft  K  231 ft  K    363 ft  K
  35.1 ft  10.7 ft 
 448 ft  K  363 ft  K
 363 ft  K
Design Strength –Flange Local Buckling (FLB)

Calculate the theoretical yielding limit state as part of the FLB procedure.
b M px  b Fy Z x 

0.9050 ksi  96.8 in 3 
 363 ft  K {must calculate this}
12 in / ft
 b M rx  231 ft  K {Manual 3-25}
    pf 

M nx  M px  M px  0.7 Fy S x  
 rf   pf


{Eq. F3-1}
 
Multiply each term by b .
    pf 
b M nx  b M px  b M px  b M rx  
 rf   pf 
 
 9.92  9.15 
 363  363  231   356 ft  K
 24.1  9.15 
b M px  356 ft  K {Manual 3-25}

Summary
ΦbMnx = 356 ft-K governed by compression flange local buckling
353 ft-K = Mux ≤ ΦbMnx = 356 ft-K ok
BEAM IS ACCEPTABLE
Comment
 Observe that for this noncompact shape, the tabulated value for ΦbMpx is
actually the value of ΦbMnx for Flange Local Buckling
 Similarly, the tabulated value of Lp is not taken from Specification Equation

F2-5. It is determined by setting FLB Equation F3-1 equal to LTB
Equation F2-2 and solving for L.

SHEAR STRENGTH
When considering shear, we deal with forces:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Vu ≤ ΦvVn
Flexural shear stresses are historically determined using the equation:
Where:
fv = shearing stress at point of interest, ksi
V = vertical shear force, Kips
Q = first moment about neutral axis of area outside the point of interest, in3
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis, in4
b = width of cross section, inch
Exact flexural shear stress calculations can be an effort.
 Note that the web will yield in shear long before the flange. We can define
shear strength as an average shear stress distribution across the beam
web area (dtw).
 Rearranging terms:
V = fvdtw
 From strength of materials, shear yielding occurs at approximately 0.6Fy.
Vn = 0.6Fydtw

Manual Page 16.1-70. Chapter G. Design Of Members For Shear.
 This Chapter includes the shear strength requirements for rolled W-

Shapes.
Manual Page 16.1-70. Section G1. General Provisions.
 Φv = 0.90, except for Section G2.1(a).
 Section G2.1(a) is the most common situation for rolled W-Shapes.

Manual Page 16.1-70. Section G2. I-Shaped Members And Channels.
Where:
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Aw = dtw = web area, in2
Cv1 = web shear coefficient, unitless
 Tension Field Action applies for Plate Girders.
Manual Page 16.1-71. Section G2. I-Shaped Members And Channels.

(Continued)
 This subsection applies for rolled W-Shapes when:
2.24
 For this subsection: Φv = 1.0
Cv1 = 1.0
 The User Note indicates that all rolled W-shapes, except for the 8 sections
listed, meet this web slenderness ratio when Fy = 50 ksi, the most
common situation.
 The 8 rolled W-shapes listed in the user note are identified in both Manual
Part 1 and the Zx Tables by footnote “v”.

1.10
Cv1 = 1.0
kv = 5.34 {for rolled W-Shapes}
1.10
1.10
kv = 5.34 {for rolled W-Shapes}
Manual Page 3-24. Table 3-2. W-Shapes Selections By Zx.
 Values for ΦvVnx are tabulated using Specification Section G2.1.
 Most W-shapes use Section G2.1(a) with Φv = 1.00 and Fy = 50 ksi.
 Footnote “v” indicates if a shape does not have the proper h/tw ratio for
Section G2.1(a) and Φv = 1.00.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check adequacy of beam. Consider shear only.

SOLUTION:
Required strength
wux = 1.2(1.068 K/ft) + 1.6(2.0 K/ft) = 4.48 K/ft
4.48 / 32
71.7
2 2
Design shear strength
43.6 {Manual 1-21}
29000
2.24 2.24 53.9
50
2.24 for an I-shaped rolled shape, Φv = 1.0 and Cv1 = 1.0
Vnx = 0.6FyAwCv1 = (0.6)(50 ksi)(21.1” x 0.430”)(1.0) = 272 K {Eq.G2-1}

ΦvVnx = (1.0)(272 K) = 272 K
Just to satisy ourselves with respect to the values in the Zx tables.
ΦvVnx = 272 K {Manual 3-24}
ΦvVnx = 272 K > 71.7 K = Vu ok

DEFLECTION
GENERAL
Manual Page 16.1-165. Section L2. Deflections.
 The Specification provides no guidance on either calculated deflections or

allowable deflections.
∆ ≤ ∆allow
 Deflections are a service load state, determined with unfactored loads.
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS
 Values are taken from the 2015 International Building Code (IBC).
 The IBC Table has a footnote “g” that states:
 Dead load deflections occur before any of the architectural items are
attached to the structure.
 Dead load deflections of steel beams do not increase with time like
they do for concrete and wood beams.
∆L(unfactored) ≤ ∆L(allow)
FOR STEEL DESIGN, DO NOT CONSIDER DEAD PLUS LIVE LOAD

DEFLECTIONS


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check adequacy of beam. Consider live load deflection only.

SOLUTION:
Live load deflection

We do not factor service loads for deflection calculations
wL = 2.0 K/ft
5 5 2 / 32 1728 /
∆ 1.10
384 384 29000 1480
Allowable deflection
/
∆ 1.07 1.10 ng
W21X68 IS NOT ACCEPTABLE

DESIGN
DESIGN AIDS
AISC provides Design Aids for the
analysis and design of sections
commonly used as beams.
 So far, we have been talking

about beam analysis, where
enough information is available
to determine if Mux ≤ ΦbMnx.
 With beam design, we must

select a member size such that
Mux ≤ ΦbMnx.
300
250
Design Moment Strength (ft-K)
For a given beam of a given material, 200

the value of ΦbMnx can be plotted as a
Cb = 1.0
function of Lb. 150 Cb = 1.32
For example, I have plotted ΦbMnx for a 100
W14x43 shape of ASTM 992 material,

for Cb = 1.0 and Cb = 1.32. 50
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Compression Flange Unbraced Length (ft)
AISC has made similar plots for all

common beam shapes with Fy = 50 ksi
and Cb = 1.0.
We will use this worksheet to plot the

14x43 section.

Manual Page 3-119. Table 3-10. W Shapes Available Moments Vs.

Unbraced Length.
Question: What is the value of ΦbMnx at

Lb = 0 ft ?
Answer: ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx = 261 ft-K
 Find W14x43 at ΦbMnx = 261 ft-

K and Lb = 0 ft.
 Follow the W14x43 plot as a

horizontal line until Lb = 6.68 ft.
This point is shown as a solid
circle.
Question: What is this point?
Answer: ΦbMnx = 261 ft-K and Lp =

6.68 ft.
 Draw vertical line down for Lp =

6.68 ft
 Draw the horizontal line for

ΦbMnx = 261 ft-K from Lb = 0 ft
to Lb = 6.68 ft.
 Follow W14x43 plot as a sloping

line until it leaves the page at
approximately ΦbMnx = 237 ft-K
and Lb = 10 ft.
Question: What page does the plot continue on?
Answer: Page 3-121


Unbraced Length.
 Find the W14x43 plot as a

sloping line at approximately
ΦbMnx = 237 ft-K and Lb = 10
ft.

sloping line until approximately
ft.
Question: Which part of the curve

are we on?
Answer: The straight line part that

represents Inelastic Lateral
Torsional Buckling.
Answer: Although this point appears also on the corner of pages 3-122 and
3-123, the plot continues on Page 3-124.


Unbraced Length.

sloping line at approximately
ft.

sloping line until ΦbMnx = 164
ft-K and Lb = 20 ft. This point is
shown as an open circle.
Question: What is this point?
Answer: ΦbMrx = 164 ft-K and Lr =

20.0 ft.
 Draw vertical line down for Lr =

20.0 ft.
 Draw horizontal line for ΦbMrx =

164 ft-K.
 Follow the plot to approximately

ft.
Question: Which part of the curve

are we on?
Answer: The curved part that

represents Elastic Lateral Torsional
Buckling.
Answer: Page 3-126


Unbraced Length.

curving line at approximately
ΦbMnx = 119 ft-K and Lb = 25 ft.

curving line until approximately
ΦbMnx = 81 ft-K and Lb = 34 ft.
 The plot stops here.
Use These Design Aids For Analysis Or Design
 The charts are the solutions for Eq. F2-1, F2-2 and F2-3 with Cb = 1.0.
 For Cb > 1.0, just multiply the chart values for Eq. F2-2 and F2-3.
 Remember that Eq. F2-2 and F2-3 must be less than ΦbMpx.
 Plots for all of the W-shapes with Fy = 50 ksi appear on the same chart to
facilitate design.


Unbraced Length.
For example, if you have Mux = 258 ft-K, Lb = 6 ft, and Cb = 1.0.
 Enter the design chart on page 3-119 at Mux = 258 ft-K and Lb = 6 ft and
go up the Lb = 6 ft line.
 Every beam line that is crossed represents a ΦbMnx value for Lb = 6 ft that
is larger then Mux = 258 ft-K and is an acceptable beam (W14x43, W8x67,
W12x50, W16x40, W18x40, W10x60, etc.).
 The W16x40 is the first solid line that is crossed, representing the lightest
section with Mux ≤ ΦbMnx.
You can also use the charts if Cb > 1.0. Noting that:
Mux ≤ ΦbMnx
Mux ≤ Cb(ΦbMnx)chart
Dividing both sides by Cb : ∅
You can now enter the chart with and compare it with (ΦbMnx)chart.
For example, if you have Mux = 258 ft-K, Lb = 4 ft, and Cb = 1.32.

Enter the design chart on page 3-121 at 195 and Lb = 4 ft
.
and go up the Lb = 4 ft line.
 Every line that is crossed represents a ∅ value for Lb = 4 ft that is

larger then Mux = 195 ft-K and is an acceptable beam (W16x31, W14x34,
W10x45, W12x40 etc.), provided that:
 For compact sections: Cb(ΦbMnx)chart ≤ ΦbMnx(Y) = ΦbMpx.
 For noncompact or slender sections: Cb(ΦbMnx)chart ≤ ΦbMnx(FLB)
Design Methodology
In general, assume that flexural strength will govern, unless there is reason to
believe that shear or deflection will govern.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W27-Shape. Consider flexure, shear, and deflection.

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wux = 1.2(0.5 K/ft) + 1.6(1 K/ft) = 2.20 K/ft
L = (14 M)(3.281 ft/M) = 45.9 ft {Manual 17-33}
2.20 / 45.9
579
8
2.20 / 45.9
50.5
2
Assume flexure governs  select for flexure, check for shear and deflection


applicable.
Assume there is no footnote "f" for this section. Therefore, the section is
classified as compact for flexure. Check assumption later.

3.281 / 23.0 , assume that LTB will govern
Cb = 1.30 {Manual 3-18}
579
∅ 445
1.30
Locate Lb = 23.0 ft and ΦbMnx = 445 ft-
K on charts
{MANUAL PAGE 3-118}

Go up the Lb = 23.0 ft line until you
cross a W27 section
CROSS W27X84 {MANUAL 3-116}

At Lb = 23.0 ft, ΦbMnx = 471 ft-K
Design Strength Flexure – Check W27x84

There is no footnote "f" for this section. Compact assumption is confirmed.
ΦbMpx = 915 ft-K {Manual 3-24}
ΦbMnx = Cb(ΦbMnx)chart ≤ ΦbMpx
b M nx  Cb b M nx chart  b M px
= (1.30)(471 ft-K) ≤ 915 ft-K
= 612 ft-K ≤ 915 ft-K
ΦbMnx = 612 ft-K > 579 ft-K = Mux ok

Design Strength – Shear - Check W27x84

vVnx  368 K  50.5 K  Vux ok {Manual 3-24)
Deflection - Check W27x84

I x  2850in 4 {Manual 3-24}
L 
5wL4

 
51.0 K / ft 45.9 ft 4 1728 in 3 / ft 3
 1.21in
384 EI x 
38429000 ksi  2850 in 4 
L 45.9 ft 12 in / ft 
 L allow     1.53 in  1.21in   L ok
360 360
USE: W27X84


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W-Shape. Consider flexure, shear, and deflection.

Use LRFD load combinations.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wu  1.21 K / ft   1.62 K / ft   4.40 K / ft governs
4.40 K / ft 30 ft 2
Mu   495 ft  K
8
4.40 K / ft 30 ft 
Vu   66.0 K
2
assume flexure governs  select for flexure, check for shear and deflection


applicable.
classified as compact for flexure.
Lb  0 ft  L p need not consider LTB
SELECT W24X55
b M n  b M px  503 ft  K  495 ft  K  M u {Manual 3-25}
Check W24x55 - Design Strength – Shear

vVnx  252 K  66.0 K  Vu {Manual 3-25)
Check W24x55 - Deflection

I x  1350in 4 {Manual 3-25}
L 
5wL4


52.0 K / ft 30 ft  1728 in 3 / ft 3
4

 0.93 in
384 EI x 38429000 ksi  1350 in 4  
L 30 ft 12 in / ft 
 L allow     1.00 in  0.93 in   L ok
360 360
USE: W24X55

FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEMS

TRIBUTARY AREAS
Design loads on individual framing members are approximated by the hydrology
concept of Tributary Areas. Loads “flow” to the closest supporting member.
 The Tributary Width of a beam is defined as the width of the floor or roof
beam supported by the beam and is equal to the sum of half the distance
to the beam on its right plus half the distance to the beam on its left. The
tributary width of equally spaced interior beams is equal to the beam
spacing.
 The Tributary Area of a beam is equal to its tributary width times its span
length.
Multistory Building
 Let’s look at the framing

example shown.
 This is the framing isometric for

the 4-story building.
 The red 3rd floor beam is the

beam under consideration in the
figures.
 The red arrow indicates the view

direction for the next figure.
Longitudinal Rigid Frame
 This figure is the elevation view

of the longitudinal frame that
includes 3rd floor locations A, B,
C, D and E.
 Taking the horizontal section

indicated will expose the 3rd
floor framing, highlighted in
yellow, shown in the next figure.

Plan View Of Third Floor
 This figure is the plan view of

the 3rd floor framing.
 The entire 3rd floor plan area

will be loaded by uniform
pressure (q), in units of psf.
 The red beam EF is the beam

under consideration.
 The beams supported by the columns are called Girders.
 The beams supported by the Girders are called Fill Beams. The fill
beams are spaced at distance (s) and have span length (L).
 The Fill Beams will support the one-way concrete Floor Slab. The floor
slab is designed in accordance with the concrete specification, ACI 318.
Plan View Of Typical Bay
 This figure is an enlarged plan

view of the Bay that includes
Beam EF.
 A bay is an area framed by four

columns.
 The cross-hatched area,

highlighted in yellow, is the area
of the 3rd floor that is tributary to
Beam EF.
 Taking the vertical section indicated will show the loading on the floor bay.
Cross-Section Of Typical Bay
 This figure shows the beams in

the bay loaded by the uniform
pressure (q), in units of psf.
 Beam EF is highlighted in red.
 The tributary width (s) of Beam EF is highlighted in yellow.

Load On Beam EF
 This figure shows the elevation

view of Beam EF, which spans a
distance (L) between supporting
girders.
 The uniform load (w) along Beam EF is equal to the uniform pressure (q)
times the tributary width (s).
w = qs
 Both q and w will include load factors, based on LRFD load combinations.
wu = qus
Typical Interior Girder Tributary Area
 The typical interior girder is

loaded by the reactions of the
beams that it supports.
 In practice, lazy engineers just

use w = qs for the entire girder
length.
Typical Interior Column Tributary Area
 The tributary area of a typical

interior column is equal to the
transverse column spacing
times the longitudinal column
spacing.
 The axial load (Pu) is equal to

the uniform pressure (qu) times
the tributary area, in units of
pounds.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select the lightest W21 shape for the indicated floor beam
considering flexure, shear, and deflection.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wD = (85 psf)(6.67 ft) = 567 lb/ft
wL = (150 psf)(6.67 ft) = 1000 lb/ft
wux = 1.2(0.567 K/ft) + 1.6(1.00 K/ft) = 2.28 K/ft
2.28 / 30
34.2
2 2
2.28 / 30
257
8 8


applicable.
classified as compact for flexure. Must verify assumption later.
Concrete slab provides continuous lateral support of the compression flange
Therefore Lb = 0 ft and ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx for compact sections
The lightest W21 shape with b M px  M ux is the W21x44
b M px  358 ft  K {Manual 3-26}
M ux  b M nx ok
TRY W21X44

vVnx  217 K {Manual 3-26}
Vux  vVnx ok
 L allow 
L

30 ft 12 in / ft   1.00 in
360 360
L 
5wL L4


51.0 K / ft 30 ft  1728 in 3 / ft 3
4

 0.75 in {Manual 3-208}
384 EI x 
38429000 ksi  843 in 4 
 L   L allow  ok
SELECT W21X44


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Select the lightest W24 shape for the indicated floor girder
considering flexure, shear, and deflection. Use LRFD load combinations.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Each beam support point supports a tributary area of 30 ft 6.67 ft   200 ft 2
 
PD  85 psf  200 ft 2  17000 lb
 
PL  150 psf  200 ft 2  30000 lb
Pu  1.217.0 K   1.630.0 K   68.4 K
268.4 K 
Vu   68.4 K
2
M u  68.4 K 6.67 ft   456 ft  K


applicable.
classified as compact for flexure.
Concrete slab provides continuous lateral support of the compression flange
Therefore Lb  0 ft and b M nx  b M px for compact sections
The lightest W24 shape with b M px  M u is the W24x55
b M px  503 ft  K {Manual 3-25}
M u  b M nx ok
TRY W24X55

vVnx  252 K {Manual 3-25}
Vu  vVnx ok
 L allow  
L

20 ft 12 in / ft   0.67 in
360 360
L 
PL L3

 
30.0 K 20 ft 3 1728 in 3 / ft 3  0.38 in {Manual 3-211}
28 EI x 
229000 ksi  1350 in 4 
 L   L allow  ok
SELECT W24X55

HOLES IN BEAMS
If beam connections are made with bolts, holes will be drilled or punched in the
beam web or flanges.
 Holes in webs should be made in areas of low shear, near the center of
simply-supported beams.
 Holes in flanges should be made in areas of low moment, near the ends
for simply-supported beams.
HOLES IN BEAM WEBS

 Large holes in beam webs, such as those for HVAC ductwork, are
addressed in AISC Design Guide 2, Web Openings.
HOLES IN BEAM COMPRESSION FLANGES

 Holes in compression flanges will be filled by bolts, which are able to
transmit compression forces across the hole.
HOLES IN BEAM TENSION FLANGES

Manual Page 16.1-67. Strength Reduction For Members With Holes In The
Tension Flange
 When the tension flange fracture strength is greater than the tension
flange yield strength, the tension flange holes need not be accounted for.
 When the tension flange fracture strength is less than the tension flange
yield strength, the nominal moment strength of the beam at the location of
the holes must be limited to the tension flange rupture strength.

 The gross area of the tension flange is the total cross-sectional area of the
tension flange taken perpendicular to the load, where no holes are
provided.
Afg = tfbf
 The net area of the tension flange is the reduced cross-sectional area of
the tension flange taken perpendicular to the load, where holes are
provided.
 The net area of the tension flange is the gross area minus something for
the holes.
 {for 7/8” bolts and smaller}
 {for 1” bolts and larger}
 ASTM A36 is expected to have Fy/Fu = 36/58 = 0.62, therefore, Yt = 1.0.
 ASTM A992 limits the maximum Fy/Fu ratio to 0.85, therefore, Yt = 1.1.
 If the maximum Fy/Fu ratio is not known, use Yt = 1.1.
Specification Page 16.1-46. Section F1. General Provisions.
 Φb = 0.90 is used throughout Specification Chapter F.


GIVEN: A W16x40 of A992 steel has
two holes in each flange for ¾”
diameter bolts. The beam has
continuous lateral support.
REQUIRED:
(a) Verify The Holes Must Be
Accounted For
(b) Determine The Nominal Flexural
Strength
SOLUTION:
(a) Verify The Holes Must Be Accounted For

Afg = tfbf = (0.505”)(7.00”) = 3.535 in2
1 3 1
3.535 2 0.505" 2.651
8 4 8
Yt = 1.1 for ASTM A992 steel
FuAfn = (65 ksi)(2.651 in2) = 172.3 K
YtFyAfg = (1.1)(50 ksi)(3.535 in2) = 194.4 K
FuAfn < YtFyAfg
REDUCTION FOR HOLES IS REQUIRED
(b) Determine The Nominal Flexural Strength

. .
262.8 {Eq. F13-1}
. /
NOMINAL STRENGTH = 263 FT-K

BIAXIAL BENDING
Biaxial bending occurs when a member is subject to bending about both the x-
axis and y-axis at the same time. We need to discuss the flexural limit states for
bending about the Y-Axis
Y-AXIS FLEXURAL LIMIT STATES

Manual Page 16.1-56. Section F6. I-Shaped Members And Channels Bent
About their Minor Axis.
 Lateral-Torsional Buckling (LTB) and Web Local Buckling (WLB) cannot

occur for y-axis bending and need not be considered.
Manual Page 16.1-56. Section F6.1. Yielding.
 The plastic bending moment (FyZy) is limited to 1.6 times the yield moment
(FySy) to limit excessive strain deformation.
 The upper limit (1.6FySy) never governs for rolled W-Shape beams.
Manual Page 16.1-56. Section F6.2. Flange Local Buckling.
Case (a) – Compact Flanges
 Sections with compact flanges need only consider the Yielding limit state
 The User Note lists sections with Fy = 50 ksi that do not have compact
flanges.

Case (b) – Noncompact Flanges
 Sections with noncompact flanges need only consider inelastic flange

local buckling (FLB).
Case (c) – Slender Flanges
 Sections with slender flanges need only consider elastic flange local
buckling (FLB).
Manual Page 3-31. W-shapes, Selection By Zy.
 The Zy table is for for W-shapes

with Φb = 0.90 and Fy = 50 ksi.
 The table is organized in

descending order of Zy values.
 Noting that ΦbMpy = ΦbFyZy, the

table is also organized in
descending order of ΦbMpy.
 The Zy tables span from Manual

page 3-30 to Manual page 3-32.
 If the section is compact, the

Yielding limit state governs, and
our acceptance criteria is:
Muy = ΦbMny = ΦbMpy
 Like the Zx Table, the members

in the Zy table are grouped, with
the top of the group in bold
being the lightest in the group

CASE I: LOADS APPLIED THROUGH THE SHEAR CENTER
This figure shows a single concentrated force applied perpendicular to the

longitudinal z-axis, in the x-y plane, and not parallel to either the x-axis or y-axis.
The force vector can be resolved into separate global x-direction and y-direction
forces.
 The vertical component of force (Fvert), shown in the Beam Elevation View,
cause bending about the beam’s local X-axis.
 The horizontal component of force (Fhoriz), shown in the Beam Plan View,
cause bending about the beam’s local Y-axis.

Interaction Formula
For an individual member, the strength limit state can be summarized as:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Demand  Capacity
This can be written in the following form:
Ru
 1.0
Rn
Demand
 1.0
Capacity
If more than one type of demand is involved:
 Demand   Demand 
      1.0
 Capacity 1  Capacity  2
If forces act through the beam’s shear center:
 The beam is subject to bending only.
 The beam is not subject to torsion (twisting about its longitudinal axis).
If the section has at least one axis of symmetry and is loaded through the shear
center, the acceptance criteria for simultaneous bending about both the X-axis
and Y-axis can be expressed as:
M ux M uy
  1 .0
 b M nx  b M ny

CASE II: LOADS NOT APPLIED THROUGH THE SHEAR CENTER

There will be no torsion (twisting) of the beam, as long as the concentrated force
goes through the beam shear center.
Part (a) of this figure shows the shear center for several common structural
shapes.
 Note that the shear center is always located on the shapes’ axis of
symmetry.
 For the doubly-symmetric W-Shape, the shear center is located at the

intersection of the x-axis and y-axis.
 For the C-Shape, the shear center is located “outside” the cross-section.

Part (b) of this figure shows two examples of the concentrated force not going
through the shear center.
 The beam will twist.
 The beam is subject to torsional stresses, in addition to flexural stresses

about both the x-axis and y-axis.
If transverse forces do not act through the beam’s shear center:
 The beam is subject to bending.
 The beam is also subject to torsion (twisting about it’s longitudinal axis).
Exact methods of analysis for torsional stresses involve differential equations.
 AISC Design Guide 9 is a good source for the solution to torsional loads
on W-shape members.

DESIGN OF ROOF PURLINS
The structural members supporting sloping roofs are oriented perpendicular to

the roof. The smaller roof beams that actually support the roofing material are
called purlins.
Gravity loads align with the center of

the earth and are not aligned with
either major axis of the roof purlins.
Gravity loads can be resolved into

vector components that are aligned
with each purlin principal axis.
 The component perpendicular to

the roof causes X-axis bending
in the purlin.
 The component parallel to the

roof causes Y-axis bending in
the purlin.
 The sag rod and roofing material

combine to prevent twist
(torsion) in the purlin.
 The same principals apply to roof beams of wood and concrete materials.


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Verify adequacy of beam. Consider shear, flexure, and deflection.

SOLUTION:
Required strength
wux  1.20.17 K / ft   0.20 K / ft {acting on beam’s x-axis}

Pux  1.662.5 K  cos 10 o  98.5 K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
0.20 K / ft 30 ft   98.5 K
Vux   52.2 K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
2
0.20 K / ft 30 ft  98.5 K 30 ft 
2
M ux    761 ft  K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
8 4
 
Puy  1.662.5 K  sin 10 o  17.4 K {acting on beam’s y-axis}
17.4 K 30 ft 
M uy   131 ft  K {acting on beam’s y-axis}
4

Design Strength – X-Axis Flexure

applicable.
Lr  26.4 ft  Lb  30 ft elastic LTB {Manual 3-22}
 b M px  2510 ft  K {Manual 3-22}{Manual 3-97}
C b  1.32 {Manual 3-18}

(ΦbMnx)chart = 1240 ft-K {Manual 105}
b M nx  C b b M nx chart  b M px
 1.32 1240 ft  K   2510 ft  K
 1637 ft  K  2510 ft  K
 1637 ft  K
Design Strength - Y-Axis Flexure

applicable.
Specification Section F6 applies. Consider Yielding limit state.
b M ny  b M py   b F y Z y  b 1.6 F y S y {Eq. F6-1}


0.9050 ksi  83.8 in 3

 
0.901.650 ksi  53.2 in 3 
12 in / ft 12 in / ft
 314 ft  K  319 ft  K
 314 ft  K
THE LEFT SIDE OF THE EQUATION WILL ALWAYS GOVERN FOR W-

SHAPES.
 b M ny  314 ft  K {Manual 3-31}
AISC PROVIDES ZY TABLES FOR W-SHAPES WITH FY = 50 KSI.

Check interaction
M ux M uy
  1.0
b M nx b M ny
761 ft  K 131 ft  K
   0.46  0.42  0.88  1.0 ok
1637 ft  K 314 ft  K
Design strength - shear

 vVnx  738 K  52.2 K ok {Manual 3-22}
Check Deflection
 L allow  
L

30 ft 12 in / ft   1.00 in
360 360
L 
PL L3

 
61.6 K 30 ft 3 1728 in 3 / ft 3  0.20 in  1.00 in ok
48 EI 
4829000 ksi  10500 in 4 

SUMMARY - BENDING STRENGTH OF VARIOUS

SHAPES
Specification Page 16.1-45. Table User Note F1.1. Selection Table For The
Application Of Chapter F Sections.
Section F2
 W-Shape bent about its X-axis
 Compact flange
 Compact web
 Applicable limit states are

Yielding and Lateral Torsional
Buckling
Section F3
 Noncompact or Slender flange
 Compact web

Lateral Torsional Buckling and
Flange Local Buckling
Section F4 – Plate Girders
 Compact, Noncompact, or Slender flange, 100%
 Compact or Noncompact web
 Applicable limit states are Compression Flange Yielding, Lateral Torsional

Buckling, Flange Local buckling, and Tension Flange Yielding

Section F5 – Plate Girders
 Compact, Noncompact, or
Slender flange, 100%
 Slender web

Compression Flange Yielding,
Lateral Torsional Buckling,
Flange Local buckling, and
Tension Flange Yielding
Section F6
 W-Shape bent about its Y-axis
 Classification of web is not

applicable, 100%

Yielding and Flange Local
Buckling
Section F7
 HSS bent about its X-axis
 Compact, Noncompact, or Slender flange, 100%
 Compact, Noncompact, or Slender web, 100%
 Applicable limit states are Yielding, Flange Local Buckling, Web Local
Buckling, and Lateral Torsional Buckling

Section F8
 Round HSS or Pipe HSS bent

about its centroid
 Classification of flange is not

applicable, 100%

applicable, 100%

Yielding and Local Buckling
Section F9
 Double-Angle or WT-shape bent

about its X-axis

applicable, 100%

Yielding, Lateral Torsional
Buckling, Flange Local Buckling,
and Web Local Buckling.

AISC 360-16 BEAM-COLUMNS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – BEAM-COLUMNS

DEFINITION ......................................................................................................... 2
GENERAL ....................................................................................................... 2
THE PERFECT STORM .................................................................................. 2
INTERACTION FORMULAS ................................................................................ 4

SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................... 5
AISC SUPER TABLES .................................................................................... 7
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BMCOL01 ................................................................... 8
METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR REQUIRED STRENGTH ................................ 11

FIRST-ORDER ANALYSIS METHODS ......................................................... 11
SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS METHODS .................................................... 11
APPROXIMATE SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS ............................................ 12
MEMBERS IN BRACED FRAMES..................................................................... 14

SECOND-ORDER MOMENTS ...................................................................... 14
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR ........................................................................... 16
EVALUATION OF CM COEFFICIENT ........................................................... 17
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BMCOL02 ................................................................. 19
MEMBERS IN UNBRACED FRAMES ............................................................... 25

SECOND-ORDER MOMENTS ...................................................................... 25
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR ........................................................................... 27
DESIGN OF BEAM-COLUMNS ......................................................................... 32

TRIAL SECTIONS ......................................................................................... 32
ANALYSIS & DESIGN PROCEDURES ......................................................... 33
AISC 360-16 - Beam-Columns.docx R. M. Drake, SE

DEFINITION
GENERAL
Structure members with flexural loads are treated as beams, neglecting any
small axial loads caused by frame action.
Structure members with axial compression loads are treated as columns,

neglecting any small moments caused by eccentric axial loads.
Structural members with both flexural loads and axial compression loads are
called beam-columns.
Beam-columns commonly occur in many steel structures:
 Rigid frame action of lateral wind or seismic loads
 Rigid frame action of vertical dead and live loads
 Top chords of roof trusses supporting roof vertical loads between panel
points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
 Bottom chords of roof trusses supporting interior ceilings and light fixtures
between panel points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
Moments concurrent with axial tension loads are of a lesser concern because the
axial tension tends to reduce compressive buckling tendencies.
THE PERFECT STORM

Storm 1 – Column Action
 flexural buckling (KL/r)
 torsional buckling (KL/r)
 flexural-torsional buckling (KL/r)
 effective length (KL)
 stiffness reduction

Storm 2 – Beam Action
 flexural yielding (Z)
 lateral-torsional buckling (Lb, Cb)
 flange local buckling (λ = bf/2tf)
 web local buckling (λ = h/tw)
 shear (h/tw)
 deflection Δ
Storm 3 – Beam & Column Interaction
 
moment amplification B1 , B 2 , C m , EI * 
 member displacement (δ)
 frame displacement (∆)
Analysis
All the factors which affect beams and columns separately will also influence the
behavior, strength and design of beam-columns.
Design
The design of beam columns usually involves the selection of trial sections, and
then checking that the required strength is less than the design strength.

INTERACTION FORMULAS
For an individual structural member, the strength limit state can be summarized
as:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
This can be written in the following form:
1.0
∅
If more than one type of resistance is involved:
1.0
∅ ∅ ∅
The combined resistances of axial and bending about both the x-axis and y-axis
can be expressed in LRFD terms as the interaction equation:
Pu M ux M uy
   1 .0
 c Pn b M nx b M ny
Where:
Pu and ΦcPn are determined as for tension or compression members
Mux, Muy, ΦbMnx, and ΦbMny are determined as for flexural members
This Is Our Starting Point

SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-77. Chapter H. Design Of Members For Combined
Forces And Torsion
 In these notes, we will only address Section H1.
Manual Page 16.1-77. Section H1.1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric

Members In Flexure And Compression.
 Equations H1-1a and H1-1b should be used for members subject to

combined flexure and axial loads
Where:
Pr =required axial compression strength = Pu for LRFD
Pc = available axial compression strength = ΦcPn for LRFD
Mr = required flexural strength Mu for LRFD
Mc = available flexural strength ΦbMn for LRFD

For LRFD:
Pu Pu 8  M ux M uy 
When  0 .2 :      1 .0 {Eq. H1-1a}
c Pn  c Pn 9   b M nx  b M ny 

Pu Pu  M ux M uy 
When  0 .2 :     1 .0 {Eq. H1-1b}
c Pn 2 c Pn   b M nx  b M ny 

 Required Strengths (Pu, Mux, Muy) are determined from statics and load
combinations. Later, we will modify them to account for interactions
between axial compression loads and flexural deflections.
 Design Strengths (ΦcPn, ΦbMnx, ΦbMny) are determined in accordance with

Specification Chapters E and F, with the help of the Design Aids.

AISC SUPER TABLES

 Manual Table 6-2 is applicable for tension members, compression
members, flexural members, and beam-columns.
Manual Page 6-79. Table 6-2. Available Strength For Member Subject To
Axial, Shear, Flexural, And Combined Forces.
AISC calls Manual Table 6-2 its SUPER TABLE because it combines some of
the best design strength features of the Manual beam and column design aids.
For Compression
 Enter the middle column with

effective length (Lc) in feet.
 Read the compressive design

strength (ΦcPn) from the
appropriate column to the left.
 Values for A, ry, and rx/ry can be

found at the bottom of the table.
For Flexure
 Enter the middle column with the

compression flange unbraced
length (Lb) in feet.
 Read the compressive design

strength (ΦbMn) from the
appropriate column to the right.
 Values for ΦvVn, ΦbMny, Lp, Lr, Ix

and Iy can be found at the
bottom of the table.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BMCOL01

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine whether the member satisfies the appropriate AISC

Specification interaction equation.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(35 K) + 1.6(99 K) = 200.4 K
Qu = 1.2(5 K) + 1.6(12 K) = 25.2 K
.
107.1 {Manual 3-210, Case 7}
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 17 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = (1.0)(17 ft) = 17 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = (1.0)(17 ft) = 17 ft governs
Modification Factors
Cb = 1.32 {Manual 3-18}

Design Compression Strength

Lcy = 17 ft
ΦcPn = 404 K
Design Flexural Strength

Lp = 8.97 ft
Lr = 31.6 ft
at Lb = 0 ft: ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx = 227 ft-K
at Lb = 17 ft: (ΦbMnx)table = 197 ft-K
ΦbMnx = Cb(ΦbMnx)table ≤ ΦbMpx

= (1.32)(197 ft-K) ≤ 227 ft-K
= 260 ft-K ≤ 227 ft-K
= 227 ft-K

Check Interaction
Pu 200.4 K
  0.49  0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
Pn 404 K
Pu 8  M ux M uy 
  1.00
  {Eq. H1-1a}
Pn 9   b M nx  b M ny 

200.4 K 8  107.1 ft  K 
    0   1.00
404 K 9  227 ft  K 
 0.49  0.42  0.91 ok
W10x49 Is Acceptable

METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR REQUIRED

STRENGTH
The single most complicating factor in the analysis and design of a beam-column
is the interaction between the instabilities associated with beam flexure and axial
flexural buckling.
FIRST-ORDER ANALYSIS METHODS

Applied loads cause shears (Vu), bending moments (Mu), member displacements
(δ), and frame displacements (∆).
 Common elastic methods of structural analysis assume that all

displacements and deformations are small.
 The results of the analyses are referred to as first-order effects; including

first-order forces, first-order moments, and first-order displacements.
To account for the effect of the displacements on the moments, an additional

analysis must be performed.
SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS METHODS

The applied axial load times the bending deflection causes additional bending
moment (Mu). This amplified bending moment is called a second-order effect and
must be accounted for in beam column design.
 The second-order analysis results in changes in member forces and

moments as the direct result of structural displacements.
 The second-order analysis is nonlinear, that is, changes in member forces

and moments are not proportional to changes in structural displacements.
 A complete second-order analysis would take into account the actual

displacements of the structure and the resulting forces as well as the
sequence of loading and the behavior of the structure after any of its
components had been stressed beyond its elastic limit.

APPROXIMATE SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS

Manual Page 16.1-249. Appendix 8. Approximate Second-Order Analysis.
 This procedure may be used to satisfy the second-order analysis

requirements of the Direct Analysis Method and the Effective Length
Method.
Moment Amplification
 Moment amplification involves computing first-order moments and forces,

then multiplying them by appropriate amplification factors to approximate
the total first-order and second-order moments and forces.
 Amplification factors can be derived mathematically that provide

satisfactory results when compared with more detailed finite element
analyses.
A typical moment amplification factor is derived using differential equations, for

LRFD load combinations to be approximately:
1
P
1 u
Pe
Because we are amplifying the bending moment, the Euler buckling force must
be determined in the plane of bending. This will most likely be the X-axis.
 2 EI x
Pe 
 K x L x 2

Manual Page 16.1-237. Appendix Section 8.2. Calculation Procedure.
For LRFD: Mu = B1Mnt + B2Mlt {Eq. A-8-1}
For LRFD: Pu = Pnt + B2Plt {Eq. A-8-2}
Where:
Mnt = required moment associated with no translation (no sidesway), ft-K
Mlt = required moment associated with lateral translation (sidesway), ft-K
Pnt and Plt = required axial force associated with no translation and lateral
translation respectively, Kips
B1 and B2 = magnification factors
Stability Assessment

MEMBERS IN BRACED FRAMES

SECOND-ORDER MOMENTS
In braced frames, the member ends do not translate with respect to each other,
and only member moments (P-δ) are present.
Deflected Shape Due To Lateral Loads
 Begin with an initially undeflected and unloaded simply supported column,

not free to sidesway.
 Apply a lateral load, resulting in a bending moment (Mx) and a member

deflection (δ ).

Interaction Of Vertical Loads With Deflected Shape Due To Lateral Loads
 Add a vertical load (P), resulting in additional bending moment (Mx) and
additional member deflection (y).
 A secondary moment is created that is equal to the axial load times the
flexural displacement.
 This secondary moment causes additional deflection (y) and additional

moment, which causes additional member deflection and moment, etc.,
until the solution converges.
 The maximum bending moment, including secondary effects, can be

defined as:
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(δ+y) ≈ B1Mlateral
 Note that the maximum moment and maximum deflection occur at

approximately the same location.

AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(δ+y) ≈ B1Mlateral
Manual Page 16.1-250. Appendix Section 8.2.1. Multiplier B1 for P-δ

Effects.
For LRFD: 1.0
Where:
Cm = modification factor, a function of moment curvature, unitless
 The B1 factor is based on member displacements (δ).
 The B1 factor must be ≥ 1.0 to amplify the moments.
Where:
K1 = effective length factor for braced frame in the plane of bending, = 1.0
unless analysis indicates a smaller value may be used, unitless
EI* = 0.8τbEI for the Direct Analysis Method.
EI* = EI for the Effective Length Method.

EVALUATION OF CM COEFFICIENT
The magnification factor (B1) was developed for the largest possible lateral
displacement of braced frames.
 On many occasions, the displacement is not that large and B1 over-

amplifies the maximum first-order moment.
 As a result, the amplification factor is adjusted by a modification coefficient

(Cm) to account for maximum first-order and second-order moments that
do not occur at the same location.
There are two categories of braced frames that must be considered:
 Case (a) applies when there are  Case (b) applies when there are
no transverse loads between transverse loads between
supports. Moments are supports, causing moments in
introduced at one or both ends the member.
of the member.

Manual Page 16.1-250. Appendix Section 8.2.1. Multiplier B1 for P-δ

Effects.
 Cm is only applicable for braced frames
Specification Case (a)
 Moment gets into the beam column as applied end loads.
 M1 = smaller of the end moments, ft-K
 M2 = larger of the end moments, ft-K
 M1/M2 is positive or negative depending upon the curvature, as shown by

the moment diagram.
Specification Case (b)
 Moment gets into the beam-column from transverse loads.
 Cm may be conservatively taken as 1.0.


GIVEN: Required Strengths shown were determined from a First-Order Analysis
with unreduced flexural rigidity. Both directions braced against sidesway.
REQUIRED: Verify adequacy of beam-column

SOLUTION:
Because the Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis
with unreduced flexural rigidity, use the Effective Length Method.
Required Strength
Punt = 159 K Pult = 0 K
Muxnt = 650 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K

Boundary Conditions
Lb = 14 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft y-axis governs
Cb = 1.0 for constant moment diagram
Beam-column has no transverse loads.

Specification Section A-8.2.1(a)
applies.
Beam-column is bent in single

curvature.
M1/M2 is negative.

0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 1.00 {Eq. A-8-4}

Note: Both Cb and Cm will always be equal to 1.00 for constant moment
diagrams.
Cmy is not needed, because there is no Muynt.
Design Strength - Compression

Lcy = (KL)y = 14 ft
ΦcPn = 1510 ft-K {Manual 6-76}
Design Strength – Flexure - X-Axis

Lp = 13.3 ft {Manual 6-76}
Lr = 55.8 ft {Manual 6-76}
Lb = 14 ft
for Cb = 1.0: ΦbMnx = 872 ft-K {Manual 6-76}

Design Strength – Flexure - Y-Axis

ΦbMny is not needed, because there are no Y-axis moments
Second Order Effects

B2x is not needed because there is no Muxlt.
B1y is not needed because there is no Muynt.
B2y is not needed because there is no Muylt.
Member flexural rigidity is not reduced for the Effective Length Method.
EI* = EIx
Ix = 1530 in4 {Manual 6-76}

15516 {Eq. A-8-5}

1.0 {Eq. A-8-3}
.
1.0

= 1.01 ≥ 1.00
= 1.01
Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.01(650 ft-K) + B2x(0 ft-K) = 657 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 159 K + B2x(0 K) = 159 K {Eq. A-8-2}
Check Interaction

0.11 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1b
∅
{Eq. H1-1b}
∅ ∅ ∅

0 0.05 0.75 0 0.80 1.0 ok



GIVEN: The loads shown are the results of a second-order analysis, with
reduced flexural rigidity.
REQUIRED: Is the beam-column shown acceptable?

SOLUTION:
Because the Required Strengths were determined from a Second-Order Analysis
with reduced flexural rigidity, use the Direct Analysis Method.
Required Strength
Muxnt = 82.4 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 16 ft
Lc = (KL)x = 1.0(16 ft) = 16 ft
Lc = (KL)x = 1.0(16 ft) = 16 ft y-axis governs

.
{Eq. F1-1}
.
. .
1.060
. . . . .
Cmx is not needed because the loads have already been amplified.
Cmy is not needed because the loads have already been amplified.

Lcy = (KL)y = 16 ft
ΦcPn = 640 ft-K {Manual 6-87}
Design Strength – Flexure - X-Axis

Lp = 11.9 ft {Manual 6-87}
Lr = 35.1 ft {Manual 6-87}
Lb = 16 ft
At Lb = 0 ft: ΦbMpx = 356 ft-K {Manual 6-87}
At Lb = 16 ft: (ΦbMnx)table = 334 ft-K {Manual 6-87}
ΦbMnx = Cb(ΦbMnx)table ≤ ΦbMpx
= (1.060)(334 ft-K) ≤ 356 ft-K
= 354 ft-K ≤ 356 ft-K
= 354 ft-K
Design Strength – Flexure - Y-Axis



Second-order effects have already been considered in the given Required
Strengths.
Check Interaction

0.66 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
∅
{Eq. H1-1a}
∅ ∅ ∅
.
0 0.66 0.21 0 0.87 1.0 ok


MEMBERS IN UNBRACED FRAMES

SECOND-ORDER MOMENTS
In unbraced frames, the member ends translate with respect to each other, and
frame moments (P-∆) are dominant.
Deflected Shape Due to Lateral Loads
 Begin with an initially undeflected and unloaded cantilever column, free to

sidesway.
 Apply a lateral load, resulting in a bending moment (Mx) and a frame

deflection (∆).

Interaction Of Vertical Loads With Deflected Shape Due To Lateral Loads
 Add a vertical load (P), resulting in additional bending moment (Mx) and
additional member deflection (y).
 A secondary moment is created that is equal to the axial load times the
flexural displacement.
Msecondary = P(∆+y)
 This secondary moment causes additional deflection and additional

moment, which causes additional frame deflection and moment, etc., until
the solution converges.
 The maximum bending moment, including secondary effects, can be

defined as:
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(∆+y) ≈ B2Mlateral
 Note that the maximum moment and maximum deflection do not occur at
the same location. This is different than what we saw for braced frames.

AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(∆+y) ≈ B2Mlateral
The B2 factor considers that the typical beam-column will be part of some larger
structure.
 All of the columns in a frame will deflection laterally by the same frame
deflection (∆).
 To capture the second-order behavior, the vertical loads (Pu) of all of the
columns in the frame must be considered.
Manual Page 16.1-251. Appendix Section 8.2.2. Multiplier B2 For P-∆

Effects.
For LRFD: 1 {Eq. A-8-6}

 The B2 factor does not appear to over magnify the maximum moment,
which normally occurs at the ends of the unbraced frame beam-column.
As a result there is no need for the Cm factor.
 The B2 factor is based on frame deflections (∆), because no single column

can buckle in a sidesway mode unless all of the columns in a story must
buckle simultaneously.
 The total vertical load is needed for the frame deflections (∆).

Manual Page 16.1-251. Appendix Section 8.2.2. Multiplier B2 For P-∆

Effects. (Continued)
 The story shear (H) and story height (L) must be determined in the
direction of horizontal translation being considered.
 For braced frames, Rm = 1.00 because Pmf = 0.
 For unbraced frames, 0.85 because
 Both the interstory drift (∆H) must be determined in the direction of

horizontal translation being considered.
 Equation A-8-7 can be modified for using the building code or any
∆
specified maximum drift ratio .
 Alternatively, Pe story can be calculated by summing the Euler buckling

loads of all of the columns in the story.


GIVEN: Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with
unreduced flexural rigidity.
Both directions part of unbraced frame: Kx = Ky = 1.2

H = 200 K Pstory = 1200K Pe story = 6800 K
REQUIRED: Verify adequacy of beam-column

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with unreduced
flexural rigidity. Use the Effective Length Method (Appendix 7).
Punt = 350K Pult = 40 K

Boundary Conditions
Lb = 12 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.2(12 ft) = 14.4 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.2(12 ft) = 14.4 ft Y-axis governs
.
{Eq. F1-1}
.
.
2.27
.
Note: Cb = 2.27 for reverse curvature with equal and opposite end moments.
Cmx is not needed because there is no Muxnt.
Cmy is not needed because there is no Muynt.

Lcy = 14.4 ft
ΦcPn = 1008 K by interpolation {Manual 6-86}
Design Strength - Flexure - X-Axis

Lp = 10.9 ft {Manual 6-86}
Lr = 46.7 ft {Manual 6-86}
Lb = 12 ft
For Lb = 0 ft: ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx = 551 ft-K {Manual 6-86}
For Lb = 12 ft: ΦbMnx(table) = 545 ft-K {Manual 6-86}
ΦbMnx = CbΦbMnx(table) ≤ ΦbMpx
= 2.27(545 ft-K) ≤ 551 ft-K
= 1237 ft-K ≤ 551 ft-K
= 551 ft-K
Design Strength - Flexure - Y-Axis

ΦbMny is not needed because there are no Y-axis moments.


B1x is not needed because there is no Muxnt.
Information is given to determine the Euler buckling load from story drift
information.
1 {Eq. A-8-6}

1.21

Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.00(0 ft-K) + 1.21(200 ft-K) = 242 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 350 K + 1.21(40 K) = 398 {Eq. A-8-2}
Check Interaction

0.40 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
∅
{Eq. H1-1b}
∅ ∅ ∅

0 0.40 0.39 0 0.79 1.0 ok


DESIGN OF BEAM-COLUMNS
TRIAL SECTIONS
The design of a beam-column is accomplished by analysis of a trial section.
 A trial section is selected by some method and is checked against the

appropriate interaction equation.
 If the results of the interaction equation indicate that the trial section is too
small or too big, select another trial section and repeat the process.
Yura Method
If the beam column is judged to have a high axial load and small moment, it is
convenient to convert the moments to approximate equivalent axial loads.
.
For LRFD:
Use Consistent Units
Select a trial section using the Specification equations for columns; then analyze
the section in accordance with the Specification equations and design aids for
beam-columns.
Salmon & Johnson Method
If the beam column is judged to have a high moment and small axial load, it is
convenient to convert the axial load to approximate equivalent x-axis moment
loads.
For LRFD: 0.7
Use Consistent Units
Select a trial section using the Specification equations for beams; then analyze
the section in accordance with the Specification equations and design aids for
beam-columns.

ANALYSIS & DESIGN PROCEDURES

Analysis Design
Summarize the required strength: Summarize the required strength:
 Pu, Mux, and Muy (without second  Pu, Mux, and Muy (without second
order effects) order effects)
Summarize the boundary conditions: Summarize the boundary conditions:
 Lb, Lcx, and Lcy  Lb, Lcx, and Lcy
Determine the modification factors: Determine the modification factors:
 Cb, Cmx and Cmy  Cb, Cmx and Cmy
Determine the design strengths: Select a trial section and determine

the design strengths:
 ΦcPn, ΦbMnx and ΦbMny
 ΦcPn, ΦbMnx and ΦbMny
Determine the required strengths Determine the required strengths

(including second-order effects): (including second-order effects):
 Pu, Mux and Muy  Pu, Mux and Muy
Check beam-column interaction Check beam-column interaction

equation: equation:
 Compute and determine  Compute and determine

∅ ∅
appropriate interaction equation appropriate interaction equation
 Check appropriate interaction  Check appropriate interaction

equation. equation.
 If interaction equation is  If interaction equation is

satisfied, the section is satisfied, the section is
acceptable. acceptable.
 If interaction equation is not  If interaction equation is not

satisfied, the section is not satisfied, select new trial
acceptable. section and repeat the
process.


GIVEN: Both directions are braced against sidesway.
REQUIRED: Select a trial section.

(a) assuming high axial load
(b) assuming high moment
Required Strength
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 15 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 0.8(15 ft) = 12 ft

(a) Select Trial Section Assuming High Axial Load

2 7.5
800 400 12 / 0 800 686 0 1486

For Lcy = 12 ft
Try: W14x132 ΦcPn = 1570 K {Manual 6-76}
(b) Select Trial Section Assuming High Moment
8 4
0.7
9
.
400 0 356 0 653 1009
/
For Lb = 15 ft
Try: W14x159 ΦbMnx = 1070 ft-K {Manual 6-75}
Try: W14x145 ΦbMnx = 968 ft-K {Manual 6-76}


GIVEN: Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with
unreduced flexural rigidity. Both directions braced against sidesway.
REQUIRED: Design Beam Column

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with unreduced
flexural rigidity. Use the Effective Length Method (Appendix 7).
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 14 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft

Cb = 1.0 for constant moment diagram
Beam-column has no transverse loads. Specification Section A-8.2.1(a) applies.
Beam-column is bent in single curvature.

0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 1.00 {Eq. A-8-4}

Cmy is not needed, because there is no Muynt.
Select Trial Section Assuming High Axial Load

2 7.5
800 200 12 / 0 800 343 0 1143

For Lcy = 14 ft
We now will analyze the trial section.
W14x109 - Design Strength - Compression

Lcy = 14 ft
ΦcPn = 1240 K {Manual 6-77}
W14x109 - Design Strength – Flexure - X-Axis

Lp = 13.2 ft {Manual 6-77}
Lr = 48.5 ft {Manual 6-77}
Lb = 14 ft
for Cb = 1.0: ΦbMnx = 714 ft-K {Manual 6-77}
W14x109 - Design Strength – Flexure - Y-Axis


W14x109 - Second Order Effects

B2x is not needed because there is no Muxlt.
Member flexural rigidity is not reduced for the Effective Length Method.
EI* = EIx
Ix = 1240 in4 {Manual 6-77}

12574 {Eq. A-8-5}

1.0 {Eq. A-8-3}
.
1.0

= 1.07 ≥ 1.00
= 1.07
Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.07(200 ft-K) + B2x(0 ft-K) = 214 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 800 K + B2x(0 K) = 800 K {Eq. A-8-2}
W14x109 - Check Interaction

0.645 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
∅
{Eq. H1-1a}
∅ ∅ ∅

0 0.645 0.266 0 0.91 1.0 ok

Select W14x109

AISC 360-16 BOLTED CONNECTIONS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – BOLTED CONNECTIONS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
BOLTED SHEAR CONNECTIONS: FAILURE MODES .................................. 5
BEARING STRENGTH , SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS. 6

MATERIAL BEARING STRENGTH ................................................................. 6
MATERIAL TEAROUT STRENGTH ................................................................ 7
BEARING AND TEAROUT STRENGTH AT BOLT HOLES ............................ 8
SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS .................................... 9
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART A ............................................... 11
SHEAR STRENGTH........................................................................................... 13

SHEAR LIMIT STATE ................................................................................... 14
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART B ............................................... 16
INSTALLATION OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS ................................................ 18

ACCEPTABLE PRETENSIONING PROCEDURES ...................................... 20
SLIP-CRITICAL AND BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS .................................. 22

BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS ................................................................ 22
SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS .................................................................. 23
SLIP RESISTANCE ....................................................................................... 24
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART C ............................................... 26
TABLES FOR BOLT STRENGTH ................................................................. 28
EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED02 ................................................................ 31
HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS IN TENSION ............................................................ 33

TENSION LIMIT STATE ................................................................................ 33
COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION IN FASTENERS ...................................... 34

BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS ................................................................ 35
SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS .................................................................. 37
ECCENTRIC BOLTED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR ONLY .................................. 40

ELASTIC ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 41
ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS .............................................................. 43
AISC 360-16 - Bolted Connections.docx R. M. Drake, SE

ECCENTRIC BOLTED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR PLUS TENSION .................. 52

EXAMPLES OF ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS ............................................ 52
BEAM TO ANGLE CONNECTION ................................................................ 53
ANGLE TO COLUMN CONNECTION ........................................................... 54

INTRODUCTION
Bolted Connections
 Require holes in members.
 Two relatively unskilled workers can install structural bolts. Monkeys can
be trained to install structural bolts.
 Easy to do “quality job” in the field.
Manual Page 16.1-113. Chapter J. Design Of Connections.
Connections consist of:
 connecting elements such as gusset plates, web splice plates, and angles
 connectors such as bolts and welds
 affected elements of connected members such as brace flanges and webs

Manual Page 16.1-113. Section J1.1. Design Basis
 Connection components shall be proportioned so that the required

strength equals or exceed the design strength.
 For total connection: Ru ≤ ΦRn
 For individual bolt or weld: ru ≤ Φrn
 Notice that for connections, the resistance factor (Φ) does not have a
subscript and the nominal strength (Rn) is not converted to P, M, V, etc.
 If the longitudinal axes of all of the members framing into a connection do

not meet at a point, the eccentricity must be accounted for.
Manual Page 16.1-115. Section J1.7. Placement Of Welds And Bolts
 If the centers of gravity of the connection loads do not coincide with the
center of gravity of the connection reactions, the eccentricity must be
accounted for.

BOLTED SHEAR CONNECTIONS: FAILURE MODES

There are two broad modes of failure to consider with fasteners:
 Failure of the fastener
 Failure of the parts being joined
Consider the lap joints shown.
We learned in our earlier drawing classes that there is more than one possible
side view of this connection.
An analysis of the free-body diagram shows that the first condition creates a
single shear plane in each bolt – single shear connection. Although the loading
is not perfectly concentric, the small eccentricity can be ignored.
Vbolt  f v Av
An analysis of the free-body diagram shows that the second condition creates
two shear planes in each bolt – double shear connection.
Vbolt  2 f v Av

BEARING STRENGTH , SPACING AND EDGE

DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS
Manual Page 16.2i. Specification For Structural Joints Using High-Strength
Bolts.
This Specification is prepared by the Research Council On Structural

Connections (RCSC) and is commonly referred to as the High Strength Bolt
Specification or the RCSC Specification.
 Source of much of the bolted connection content in the Steel Specification.
MATERIAL BEARING STRENGTH

To prevent excessive hole elongation, the diameter of the bolt shank is treated as
if it is bearing on the softer connected materials.
Defining the limit state: Rn = AbearingFbearing
Defining the area and force: Rn = (dt)(CFu)
Rearranging terms: Rn = CdtFu
Where:
C  a constant that depends on the amount of acceptable connected
material deformation, determined by testing
C  2.4 for standard holes to limit bolt hole deformation to approximately
¼ inch.
Rn = 2.4dtFu

MATERIAL TEAROUT STRENGTH

The diameter of the bolt hole (h) is defined differently than what was previously
used for tension members.
 For standard holes: when considering material tearout strength

of connection materials
 For standard holes: when considering tension or shear strength

of a member.
Lc is defined as the clear distance in

the direction of force from the edge of
the bolt hole under consideration to the
edge of either the next hole or the
material.
For edge bolts:
For other bolts: Lc = s - h
For both edge bolts and other bolts:
Rn = 2AshearFshear
Rn = 2(Lct)(CFu)
Rn = 2CLctFu
Where:
C = a constant that depends on the amount of acceptable connected
material deformation, determined by testing
C = 0.6 for standard holes to limit bolt hole deformation to approximately
Rn = 1.2LctFu

BEARING AND TEAROUT STRENGTH AT BOLT HOLES

Manual Page 16.1-135. Section J3.10. Bearing Strength At Bolt Holes.
 These notes only consider standard bolt holes.
Manual Page 16.1-136. Section J3.10. Bearing Strength At Bolt Holes.
 These notes only consider when deformation is a design consideration.
 The connection bearing strength is equal to the total bearing strength of

the individual bolts. Edge bolts and other bolts will have different values.
Rn   rn edge    rn other 
 Both Fu and t are for the connected material, not the bolts
 The bearing strength limit state is applicable for both bearing-type

connections and slip-critical connections (to be explained in the next
lecture).

SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS

Manual Page 16.1-130. Table J3.3. Nominal Hole Dimensions.
 Reminder: Only “Standard” holes are used in these notes.
Manual Page 16.1-130. Section J3.3. Minimum Spacing.
 Spacing is the distance from the center of a bolt hole to the center of the
adjacent bolt hole, in any direction.
 Minimum center-to-center distance between holes is 2 to allow room for

tools used to tighten the bolts.
 Minimum clear distance between holes is 1d to ensure that there is a

minimum amout of solid material between holes.
 AISC prefers a center-to-center distance of 3d.
 Based on fabricator tooling considerations, the industry standard bolt

spacing is 3 inches.

Manual Page 16.1-131. Section J3.4. Minimum Edge Distance.
 Edge distance is the distance from the center of a bolt hole to the adjacent
edge of a member, in any direction.
 Table J3.4 defines the minimum edge distance for standard holes.
 The Bearing and Tearout limit states of Section J3.10 also apply.
Manual Page 16.1-132. Table J3.4. Minimum Edge Distances.
 The table indicates minimum edge distance from center of standard holes
to edge of connecting part.
 Edge distances may be reduced if bearing strength limit states are

reduced.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART A

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check connection for bolt spacing, edge distance, and bearing, and
tearout.
SOLUTION:
Bolt Spacing
2 2 2.33 {Manual 16.1-130}
s = 3 in ≥ 2.33 in ok
Edge Distance
1 {Manual Table J3.4}
Le = 1.5 in ≥ 1.125 in ok
Bearing Limit State

Assume that bolt hole deformation at service load is a design condition.
rn = 2.4dtFu = 2.4(0.875”)(0.625”)(65 ksi) = 85.3 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6a}
Φrn = (0.75)(85.3 K/bolt) = 64.0 K/bolt

Tearout Limit State

Edge Bolts
1.5 1.03
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(1.03”)(0.625”)(65 ksi) = 50.2 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(50.2 K/bolt) = 37.7 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 2.06
Φrn = (0.75)(100.4 K/bolt) = 75.3 K/bolt
Total
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(bearing) = 64.0 64.0 K/bolt
Φrn(tearout) = 37.7 75.3 K/bolt
Φrn = 37.7 64.0 K/bolt
ΦRn = ∑Φrn = 2 bolts(37.7 K/bolt) + 2 bolts(64.0 K/bolt) = 203.4 K

SHEAR STRENGTH
ASTM A307 Bolts
ASTM A307 bolts, known as common bolts, are also known by a variety of other
names:
 Unfinished bolts
 Rough bolts
 Ordinary bolts
 Machine bolts
They are seldom used today, usually for lightly loaded applications such as stairs
and handrails.
Manual Page 16.1-126. Section J3. Bolts And threaded Parts
 ASTM A307 bolts cannot be tightened to a predictable tension in the bolt..
Manual Page 16.1-126. Section J3.1. High-Strength Bolts.
 High-strength bolts are discussed in the RCSC Specification.
 Group A includes ASTM A325, the most commonly specified bolts.
 Group B includes ASTM A490, commonly specified when ASTM A325

bolts are not strong enough.
 Group C will not be discussed in these notes.

SHEAR LIMIT STATE

Manual Page 16.1-131. Section J3.6. Tension And Shear Strength Of
Bolted And Threaded Parts.
 The area of the bolt is based on the gross area of the shank.
4
Bolted And Threaded Parts. (Continued)
 The User note reminds us that the strength of an individual bolt is the
lesser of the shear limit state and the bearing limit state.
 The nominal strength of the bolt group (Rn) is equal to the sum of the
nominal strengths (rn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Bolt Shank Shear Planes
Threads Excluded From Shear Plane Threads Not Excluded From The
Shear Plane

Manual Page 16.1-129. Table J3.2. Nominal Stress Of Fasteners And

Threaded Parts
ASTM A307 Bolts
Fnv is based on threads not excluded

from the shear plane
Fnv = 27 ksi
Group A Bolts (e.g. ASTM A325 Bolts)
Fnv depends on the thread location.
 Threads not excluded (N):
Fnv = 54 ksi
 Threads excluded (X):
Fnv = 68 ksi
Group B Bolts (e.g. ASTM A490 bolts)
Fnv depends on the thread location.
 Threads not excluded (N):
Fnv = 68 ksi
 Threads excluded (X):
Fnv = 84 ksi
AISC reduces the nominal shear strength (Fnv) when the threads are included,
allowing the bolt area to be always based on the shank diameter.
In the real world, the Fabricator buys the bolts.
 We don’t know where the threads will be relative to the shear plane.
 We cannot inspect a tightened bolt and know where the shear plane is.
 We must assume that the bolt threads are not excluded from the shear
plane.
In the academic world, we need to pay attention to where the shear plane is.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART B

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check the connection for the additional limit state of bolt shear.
SOLUTION:
Bolt Shear
0.875
0.6013
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Fnv = 54 ksi {Table J3.2}
rn = FnvAb = (54 ksi)(0.6013 in2) = 32.47 K/bolt {Eq. J3-1}
Φrn = (0.75)(32.47 K/bolt) = 24.35 K/bolt

Total
The design strength of the bolt group (ΦRn) is equal to the sum of the design
nominal strengths (Φrn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(shear) = 24.35 24.35 K/bolt
Φrn = 24.35 24.35 K/bolt
Monkey wrench.

INSTALLATION OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS

It is often advantageous to install high strength bolts as pretensioned.
Where:
Pb = Pretensioned force on bolt, Kips
N = Normal force between plates, Kips
When an external load (Pb) is applied, a frictional resistance (F) to the external
force is developed.
P ≤ F = μN
Where:
P = external force, Kips
F = frictional resistance between the connected parts, Kips
μ coefficient of static friction between the connected parts, unitless

Manual Page 16.1-127. Table J3.1. Minimum Bolt Pretension, Kips
 ASTM A307 bolts cannot be pretensioned.
 We are not considering Group C bolts in these notes.
 AISC defines the minimum bolt pretensioned as approximately 0.7FuAg.
Manual Page 16.1-126. Section J3.1. High-Strength Bolts
 The AISC Specification prescribes certain joints that must be installed as

pretensioned.
 The Engineer-Of-Record always has the option to add to this list.
 For example, the AISC Seismic Provisions (AISC 341) requires that all
bolted connections that are part of the Seismic Force Resisting System
(SFRS) must be installed as pretensioned high-strength bolts.

ACCEPTABLE PRETENSIONING PROCEDURES

Several methods are prescribed by in the RCSC Specification for tightening of
high strength bolts in pretensioned joints.
Turn Of Nut Pretensioning
Calibrated Wrench Pretensioning

Twist-Off-Type Tension-Control Bolt
Direct-Tension-Indicator Pretensioning

SLIP-CRITICAL AND BEARING-TYPE

CONNECTIONS
BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS
Manual Page 16.1-126. Section J3.1. High Strength Bolts.
 High strength bolts may be installed to the snug-tight condition and used
in Bearing-Type connections.
 ASTM A307 bolts must also be installed to the snug-tight condition and
used in Bearing-Type connections.
Manual Page 16.1-127. Section J3.1. High Strength Bolts.
Manual Page 16.2-51. Section 8.1. Snug-Tightened Joints.
 Snug tight means tightened until the two plies are pulled together.
Design
 The shear limit state must be considered.
 The bearing limit state must be considered.

SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS
 In a slip-critical connection, the nut of the bolt is tightened so much that

the resulting tension force on the bolt produces a sufficient clamping force
to prevent slippage within the connection.
 The bolt shank does not need to come in contact with the connection
plates; hence, no bearing stresses between the shank and the bearing
plates are produced.
 Bolts must be high strength bolts.
 Common bolts are not permitted.
 Bolts in slip-critical connections must be installed as pretensioned to the

values in Specification Table J3.1.
Design
 The slip-resistance limit state must be considered.
 The shear limit state must be considered.
 The bearing limit state must be considered.

SLIP RESISTANCE
Manual Page 16.1-134. Section J3.8. High-Strength Bolts In Slip Critical
Connections.
 Slip-Critical connections must be checked for slip-resistance limit state.
 They must also be checked for shear and bearing limit states.
 We will consider each term separately.
 In these notes, we will only use standard holes:
Φ = 1.00
 Approval of other values requires a statistical evaluation of test data,

usually beyond the areas of expertise for Structural engineers.
 In practice, we have no statistical data to use a different multiplier ratio.
Du = 1.13
 See Table J3.1 on Manual Page 16.1-127.

Manual Page 16.1-135. Section J3.8. High-Strength Bolts In Slip Critical

Connections. (Continued)
 Research has shown that the presence of filler plates (shim plates) can
reduce the slip resistance of a connection.
hf = 1.0
 This is the number of planes where the normal force can generate slip
resistance.
 It is analogous to single-shear and double-shear bolted connections.
 In order to guarantee adequate friction, the surfaces between the plies of

a slip-critical connection are specially prepared, which significantly
increases the fabrication cost.
 Class A surfaces require relatively little prep and therefore have much
more variability than Class B surfaces.
μ = 0.30
 Class B surfaces must be blast cleaned or blast cleaned and coated with
an SC-qualified paint. This provides a more predictable surface with a
higher slip resistance, but at an additional cost.
μ = 0.50

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED01 – PART C

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the slip-critical design strength of the connection.

SOLUTION:
Slip-Resistance Limit State

Φ = 1.00 for standard size holes {Sec. J3.8}
μ = 0.30 for Class A surface {Sec. J3.8}
Du = 1.13 {Sec. J3.8}
hf = 1.00 for no fillers (shims) {Sec. J3.8}
Tb = 39 K {Table J3.1}
rn = μDuhfTbns = (0.30)(1.13)(1.00)(39 K/bolt)(1) = 13.22 K/bolt {Eq. J3-4}
Φrn = 1.00(13.22 K/bolt) = 13.22 K/bolt

Total
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(slip critical) = 13.22 13.22 K/bolt
Φrn = 24.35 24.35 K/bolt

TABLES FOR BOLT STRENGTH

Manual Page 7-22. Table 7-1. Available Shear Strength Of Bolts.
In our previous example we calculated the design shear strength of a

Group A bolt with threads not excluded.
Φrn = 24.35 K/bolt
7
Using Table 7-1: Group A, threads not excluded, single shear, inch
8
Φrn = 24.3 K/bolt

Manual Page 7-24. Table 7-3. Slip-Critical Connections, Available Slip

Resistance, Group A Bolts.
In our previous example we calculated the design slip-critical resistance of a

7
inch Group A bolt with Class A “Faying” Surface.
8
Φrn = 13.22 K/bolt
7
Using Table 7-3: Group A, standard hole, single shear, inch .
8
Φrn = 13.2 K/bolt


Resistance, Group B Bolts.
 This is a similar table for Slip Resistance for Group B bolts.

Resistance, Group C Bolts.
 This is a similar table for Slip Resistance for Group C bolts.
Manual Pages 7-27. Table 7-4. Available Bearing And Tearout Strength At
Bolt Holes Based On Bolt Spacing.
 It is always OK to use the design aids, IF you use them correctly.
 This table is very challenging and very easy to misuse.
 It is recommended that we not use this Bearing Strength And Tearout

table and use the Specification equations instead.
Manual Pages 7-29. Table 7-5. Available Bearing And Tearout Strength At
Bolt Holes Based On Edge Distance.
 As with the previous table, it is recommended that we not use this

Bearing Strength And Tearout table and use the Specification equations
instead.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM BOLTED02

GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Is the connection adequate? Check the design strength of the

connection. Do not consider edge distance and spacing. Do not consider
tension yielding, tension rupture, or block shear limit states.
SOLUTION:
Bolt Shear
Assume that threads are not excluded from the shear plane.
1.00
0.785
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Φrn = (0.75)(42.39 K/bolt) = 31.8 K/bolt
Bearing Limit State

rn = 2.4dtFu = 2.4(1.0”)(1.0”)(65 ksi) = 156 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6a}
Φrn = (0.75)(156 K/bolt) = 117.0 K/bolt

Tearout Limit State

Edge Bolts
1.5 0.97
Φrn = (0.75)(75.66 K/bolt) = 56.7 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 1 1.94
Φrn = (0.75)(151.3 K/bolt) = 113.5 K/bolt
Slip-Resistance Limit State

Φ = 1.00 for standard size holes {Sec. J3.8}
Du = 1.13 {Sec. J3.8}
hf = 1.00 for no fillers (shims) {Sec. J3.8}
rn = μDuhfTbns = (0.30)(1.13)(1.00)(51 K/bolt)(1) = 17.29 K/bolt {Eq. J3-4}
Φrn = 1.00(17.29 K/bolt) = 17.3 K/bolt
Total
Edge Other
n= 2 4
Φrn(slip critical) = 17.3 17.3 K/bolt
Φrn = 17.3 17.3 K/bolt
ΦRn = ∑Φrn = 2 bolts(17.3 K/bolt) + 4 bolts(17.3 K/bolt) = 104 K

HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS IN TENSION

TENSION LIMIT STATE
Bolted And Threaded Parts.
 The area of the bolt is based on the gross area of the shank.
4
Manual Page 16.1-129. Table J3.2. Nominal Stress Of Fasteners And
Threaded Parts
ASTM A307 Bolts
Fnt = 45 ksi
Group A Bolts (e.g. ASTM A325 Bolts)
Fnt does not depend on the thread

location.
Fnt = 90 ksi
Group B Bolts (e.g. ASTM A490 bolts)
Fnt does not depends on the thread

location.
Fnt = 113 ksi

COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION IN FASTENERS

 Loadings through the center-of-gravity of a connection can put bolts into a
condition of simultaneous shear and tension.
 The external 60K tension force goes through the centroid of the bolt
pattern, and is therefore a simple connection, without eccentricity.
 All bolts will resist the external force equally.
 The 60K tension force is a vector that can be broken into the components
that put the bolts in pure shear and pure tension.
3
60 36
5
36
9 /
4
4
60 48
5
48
12 /
4
 The concept behind stress interaction relationships is that if some bolt

capacity is used for tension, it is not available for shear.

BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS
Manual Page 16.1-133. Section J3.7. Combined Tension And Shear In
Bearing-Type Connections.
Interaction of bolt shear and tension in bearing-type connections.

 F’nt = the nominal tensile stress (Fnt) reduced to include the effect of shear
stresses (fnv).
 Fnt and Fnv are taken from Table J3.2.
fnv ≤ Fnv
 The User Note acknowledges that if one of the stresses is less than 30%
of the nominal shear stress, there is no bolt.
Limit States To Consider – Bearing-Type Connection
Shear: Vu ≤ ΦFnvAb
Bearing: Vu ≤ Φ1.2LctFu
Tearout: Vu ≤ Φ2.4dtFu
Combined Tension And Shear: Tu ≤ ΦF’ntAb

SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS
The effect of combined shear and tension on a slip-critical connection is that the
external tension force (Tu) reduces the pretension force (Tb). This in turn reduces
the frictional resistance (Rn) to external shear forces (Vu).
Manual Page 16.1-135. Section J3.9. Combined Tension And Shear In Slip-
Critical Connections.
 It’s important that required force (Tu) and the pretension force (Tb) both be
forces per bolt.
For LRFD: Vu ≤ ΦRnksc
∅ 1
Limit States To Consider – Slip-Critical Connection
Shear: Vu ≤ ΦFnvAb
Bearing: Vu ≤ Φ1.2LctFu
Tearout: Vu ≤ Φ2.4dtFu
Tension: Tu ≤ ΦFntAb
Combined Tension And Shear:
∅ 1


GIVEN:
Bearing-Type Connection Slip-Critical Connection
REQUIRED: Check adequacy of bolts. Assume connected parts of W and WT

members are adequate.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength – Both Connections

Pu = 1.2(7.5 K) + 1.6(67.5 K) = 117 K
3 117
11.7 /
5 6
4 117
15.6 /
5 6
Shear Limit State – Both Connections
7
8 0.601
4 4
Φ=0.75
2
rn = FnvAb = (68 ksi)(0.601 in ) = 40.9 K/bolt {Eq. J3-1}
Φrn = (0.75)(40.9 k/bolt) = 30.7 K/bolt > 11.7 K/bolt = Vu(bolt) ok
Bearing Limit State – Both Connections

The bolts will bear on both the flange of the W12x40 column and the flange of the
WT6x20 bracket.
There is not enough information is given in this problem to check this limit state.

Combined Tension And Shear Limit State – Bearing-Type Connection

Fnt = 90 ksi {Table J3.2}
11.7
19.5
0.601
′ 1.3 {Eq. J3-3a}
∅

1.3 90 19.5 90
.
= 82.6 ksi ≤ 90 ksi

= 82.6 ksi
rn = F’ntAb = (82.6 ksi)(0.601 in2) = 49.6 K/bolt {Eq. J3-2}
Φrn = (0.75)(49.6 K/bolt) = 37.2 K/bolt > 11.7 K/bolt = Vu(bolt) ok
Bearing-Type Connection Is Acceptable
Combined Tension And Shear Limit State – Slip-Critical Connection

Φ = 1.00 for standard holes {Sec. J3.8}
du = 1.13 {Sec. J3.8}
hf = for no fillers (shims) {Sec. J3.8}
rn = μDuhfTbns {Eq. J3-4}
= (0.30)(1.13)(1.00)(39 K/bolt)(1) = 13.2 K/bolt
1 {Eq. J3-5a}
.
1 0.65
.

Φkscrn = (1.0)(0.65)(13.2 K/bolt) = 8.58 K/bolt < 11.7 K/bolt = Vu ng
Slip-Critical Connection Is Unacceptable

ECCENTRIC BOLTED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR

ONLY
When a load (P) passes through a line of action that does not pass through the
center of the bolt group, the connection must be designed for the direct shear
load (P) as well as the torsion moment (M). This situation is also called eccentric
shear or combined shear and torsion.
M=Pe
 For symmetrical bolt groups, the center of bolt pattern can be located by
observation.

ELASTIC ANALYSIS
The elastic analysis and design method is based on the following assumptions
for the distribution of shear stress in connections subject to shear and torsion:
 All plates and connectors are perfectly rigid.
 All bolts are perfectly elastic.
 Shear forces in the bolts are proportional to and normal to the radius from
the center-of-the-bolt-pattern.
 The stresses in individual bolts are assumed to be uniform.
Although these assumptions are not really true, due to the nonlinear behavior of
the materials and installation tolerances, they allow the use of a simple rational
analysis. Test results have confirmed that this method is conservative.
 Convert the load (Px) at eccentricity (ey) to a force through the center-of-
the-bolt-pattern and a torsional moment (Mx) around the center-of-the-bolt-
pattern.
 Similarly, convert the load (Py) at eccentricity (ex) to a force through the
center-of-the-bolt-pattern and a torsional moment (My) around the center-
of-the-bolt-pattern.
M = ∑Pe
The complete problem could include both Px and Py. For simplicity, this
discussion only includes Py.
 By inspection, the heaviest loaded bolts are at the upper right corner and
lower right corner.
Terms
Pcy = bolt shear force along y-axis due to shear loading, Kips
Pcx = bolt shear force along x-axis due to shear loading, Kips
Pmy = bolt shear force parallel to y-axis due to torsional moment, Kips
Pmx = bolt shear force parallel to x-axis due to torsional moment, Kips
A = bolt cross-section area, in2
x = bolt distance along x-axis from center-of-bolt-group, inch
y = bolt distance along y-axis from center-of-bolt-group, inch
J = bolt group polar moment of inertia, in4
Force Through The Center-Of-Bolt Pattern (Simple Connection)
Y-Direction:
X-Direction: {not present in this discussion}
Moment Around The Center-Of-Bolt Pattern (Eccentric Connection)
For each bolt, shear stresses and forces can be calculated from:
General:
General:
Y-Direction:
X-Direction:
J = ∑Ad2 = ∑Ax2 + ∑Ay2 = A∑(x2 + y2)
Vector Analysis Of Shear Forces
We will calculate the shear reaction (V) for the most heavily loaded bolt, in the
upper right corner.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS

The strength analysis and design method recognizes that the nonlinear behavior
of the highest stressed bolt allows redistribution of loads to the other bolts.
Test results indicate that the external loads and resisting bolts do not rotate
about the center-of-the-bolt-pattern as assumed with the Elastic Analysis.
 The plate and bolts are subject to inelastic strains due to both reaction
shear and moment.
 The resultant of these strains is a rotation of the bolt group about some
point, defined as the instantaneous center.
 The exact Ultimate Strength Analysis is iterative and requires the use of a
spreadsheet
 Fortunately, AISC provides design aids using the Ultimate Strength

Analysis.

Manual Page 7-37. Table 7-7. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Bolt
Groups.
AISC has precalculated coefficients (C)

for a number of bolt group geometries.
Variables considered are:
 number and spacing of bolt

group rows
 number and spacing of bolt

group columns
 load eccentricity from bolt group

center
 angle of load relative to vertical
 The maximum force can be

analytically or empirically
obtained for common bolt group
patterns.
Rn = Crn
Where:
Rn = bolt group nominal
strength, Kips
C = tabulated coefficient, unitless

rn = individual bolt nominal strength, Kips
∅
For LRFD:
∅ ∅
Φ = 0.75
Where:
Pu = bolt group required strength when applied at eccentricity (e), Kips
Φrn = individual bolt design strength, Kips
ΦRn = bolt group design strength, Kips


GIVEN:
REQUIRED:
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Elastic Analysis.
(b) Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis)

(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Elastic Analysis.
SOLUTION:
Note: It can be seen that the upper right and lower right bolts are the most
heavily loaded. It can also be observed that the center of the bolt pattern is at
the center of the middle row of bolts.
Determine direct shear forces on bolts

Pu 24 K
Pcy    4.00 K
n 6
Determine polar moment of inertia

A  bolt cross-sectional area, in2
J   Ax2   Ay2
 3 A 2.75in  3 A 2.75in  2 A 3 in  2 A0 in  2 A 3 in
2 2 2 2 2
 22.7 A  22.7 A  18 A  0  18 A  81.4 A in 4
Determine torsional shear forces on right corner bolts

M u  Pu e  24 K 5 in  120in  K
AM u x A120 in  K 2.75 in 
Pmy    4.05 K
J 81.4 A in 4
AM u y A120 in  K 3 in 
Pmx    4.42 K
J 81.4 A in 4
Note that the A’s cancel out
Determine vector shear forces on right corner bolts
Vu  P cy  Pmy   Pcx  Pmx 

2 2
 4.00 K  4.05 K 2  0 K  4.42 K 2  9.18 K
Required Bolt Shear Strength = 9.18 K

(b) Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design
Aids (Ultimate Strength Analysis)
SOLUTION:
Coefficient
s  3 in
ex  5in
n  3 rows
distance between vertical rows  5.5 in
C  2.96 {Manual 7-43}
Bolt design strength - required

Pu 24 K
rn    8.10 K
C 2.96


GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design
Aids (Ultimate Strength Analysis)

SOLUTION:
Coefficient
s  3 in
ex  16in
n  4 rows
Distance between vertical rows  4 in
C  4.49 {Manual 7-73}
Bolt Required Strength

Pu 94.0 K
rn    20.9 K
C 4.49
Required Bolt Shear Design Strength = 20.9 K


GIVEN:
REQUIRED:
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis). Use LRFD load combinations.
(b) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A bearing type
bolts with threads not excluded.
(c) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A slip-critical
bolts with Class A Faying Surface.

SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(30 K) + 1.6(40 K) = 100 K
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis). Use LRFD load combinations.
s = 3 in
3
4 5.5
2
n = 4 rows
Distance between vertical rows = 3 in
C = 3.95 by interpolation for ex {Manual 7-37}
100
∅ 25.3
3.95
(b) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A
bearing type bolts with threads not excluded
Φrn for one-inch diameter bolt = 31.8 K {Manual 7-22}
Use One-Inch Diameter Group A Bearing Bolts
(c) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A slip-
critical bolts with Class A Faying Surface.
Φrn for 1-1/4 in diameter bolt = 27.5 K {Manual 7-24}
Use 1-1/4 Inch Diameter Group A Slip-Critical Bolts

ECCENTRIC BOLTED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR

PLUS TENSION
EXAMPLES OF ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS
An eccentric connection is one in which the resultant of the applied load does not
pass through the center of gravity of the resisting bolts or welds.
 In basic structural analysis, beams are analyzed by assuming that the

shear transfer occurs at the reaction location.
 In the real world, there are connecting elements and connectors to

transfer loads from the beam to the supporting column or girder.
 This connection is really two separate connections.

BEAM TO ANGLE CONNECTION

The transfer of the beam reaction (V) to the connecting element goes through the
center of the three connecting bolts, a simple connection.
 There is no eccentricity in this

connection between the beam
end shear (V) and the column
angle flange reaction (R).
 All the bolts are equally loaded

in shear.
There are several limit states to check with this connection:
 Shear in the beam web
 Bearing on the beam web
 Bolt shear
 Shear in the angle legs
 Bearing on the angle legs
A similar approach can be applied to the same connection if it was welded.

ANGLE TO COLUMN CONNECTION

The transfer of the beam reaction (V) by the connecting element from the beam
web to the column flange involves an eccentricity (e), an eccentric connection.
 The eccentricity between the

load on the angle (V) and the
column flange reaction (R) must
be balanced by horizontal
reactions (H) at the column
flange.
 Bolts above the center of the

bolt group are in combined
tension and shear.
 Bolts below the center of the bolt

group are in shear only, with the
compression force taken by
bearing between the column and
angle legs.
There are several new limit states to check with this second part of the
connection:
 Flexure in the angle
 Combined shear and tension on the upper bolts
 Bearing on the angle legs
 Bearing on the column flange
A similar approach can be applied to the same connection if it was welded.

A typical eccentric connection is shown as a WT section bolted to a column

flange to serve as the end reaction (P) for a beam.
The applied load (P) at the eccentricity (e) is equivalent to the applied load (P) at
no eccentricity (e) plus an applied moment equal to Pe.
Simple Load
 The applied load (P) at no eccentricity loads all of the bolts equally in
shear.
Plastic Design Approach For Eccentric Moment
 The applied moment (Pe) loads

the bolts in either tension or
compression.
 The bolt compression is

fictitious, as the compression
reaction is taken in bearing
between the bracket and column
flange.


GIVEN & REQUIRED: A beam-to-column connection is made with a structural
tee as shown in the figure below.. Eight ¾-inch diameter, Group A, fully
tightened bearing-type bolts are used to attach the flange of the tee to the
column flange. Investigate the adequacy of this connection (the tee-to-column
connection) if it is subjected to a service dead load of 20 kips and a service
live load of 40 kips at an eccentricity of 2.75 inches. Assume that the bolt
threads are in the plane of shear. All structural steel is A992.
SOLUTION:
This is a bearing-type connection with bolts subject to combined shear and
tension. Consider Shear, Bearing, and Combined Tension And Shear.
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(20 K) + 1.6(40 K) = 88 K
88
11.0 /
8
Define rt as the strength level tension force on the
bolts
there are 4 rows of 2 bolts at the distances 4.5”, 1.5”,
1.5”, and 4.5” from the neutral axis
summing moments about the neutral axis
Mu(resisting) = (2rt)(4.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 4.5) = 24rt in-K
Mu(applied) = (88 K)(2.75 in) = 242 in-K
242
10.1 /
24

Bolt Shear
0.75
0.442
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Φrn = (0.75)(23.87 K/bolt) = 17.9 K/bolt
Bearing Limit State – W10x49 Flange

tf = 0.560 in
rn = 2.4dtFu = 2.4(0.75”)(0.560”)(65 ksi) = 65.5 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6a}
Φrn = (0.75)(65.5 K/bolt) = 49.1 K/bolt
Tearout Limit State – W10x49 Flange

Edge Bolts
1.5 1.094
Φrn = (0.75)(47.8 K/bolt) = 35.9 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 2.188
Φrn = (0.75)(95.6 K/bolt) = 71.7 K/bolt
Summary
Φrn(shear) = 17.9 K/bolt governs
Φrn(bearing) = 49.1 K/bolt
Φrn(tearout) = 35.9 K/bolt
Φrn = 17.9 K/bolt > 11.0 K/bolt ok
Connection Is OK For Shear and Bearing Limit States

Combined Tension And Shear Limit State – Bearing-Type Connection

Fnt = 90 ksi {Table J3.2}
11.0
24.9
0.442
′ 1.3 {Eq. J3-3a}
∅

1.3 90 24.9 90
.
= 61.7 ksi ≤ 90 ksi

= 61.7 ksi
rn = F’ntAb = (61.7 ksi)(0.442 in2) = 27.3 K/bolt {Eq. J3-2}
Φrn = (0.75)(27.3 K/bolt) = 20.4 K/bolt > 10.1 K/bolt = Tu(bolt) ok
Connections Is OK For Combined Shear & Tension Limit State
Check the 4 bolts to the WT10.5x31 web.

This is a Simple Connection with no eccentricity.
Shear limit state for 4 bolts to beam web.
The previously calculated value for a bolt in single shear is applicable to these
bolts.
Φrn = (0.75)(27.3 K/bolt)(4 bolts) = 71.6 K < 88 K = Pu ng
Connections Is No Good For Shear Limit State

Bearing and Tearout limit states for 4 bolts to beam web
The WT web has tw = 0.400 in and bearing would be a concern.
Scale the bearing limit state results for the thinner bearing thickness.
.
∅ 1 39.5 3 40.1 133 88 ok
.
Connections Is OK For Bearing & Tearout Limit States

AISC 360-16 WELDED CONNECTIONS Sheet 1
AISC 360-16 – WELDED CONNECTIONS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2
WELDED CONNECTIONS .............................................................................. 2
STRUCTURAL ARC WELDING ...................................................................... 4
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) ................................................. 6
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) ......................................................... 6
GROOVE WELDS ................................................................................................ 7

GROOVE WELD PREPARATION ................................................................... 8
GROOVE WELD TERMINOLOGY .................................................................. 9
DESIGN STRENGTH .................................................................................... 10
FILLET WELDS .................................................................................................. 11

FILLET WELD TERMINOLOGY .................................................................... 12
EFFECTIVE AREA ........................................................................................ 13
DESIGN STRENGTH – SIMPLE METHOD .................................................. 14
DESIGN STRENGTH – BASE METAL .......................................................... 15
FILLET WELD LIMITATIONS ........................................................................ 17
EXAMPLE PROBLEM WELDED01 ............................................................... 18
DESIGN STRENGTH ALTERNATIVES ........................................................ 20
WELD SYMBOLS .......................................................................................... 23
ECCENTRIC WELDED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR ONLY ................................. 31

ELASTIC ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 32
ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS .............................................................. 33
AISC 360-16 - Welded Connections.docx R. M. Drake, SE

INTRODUCTION
WELDED CONNECTIONS
 Require no holes in members.
 Require skilled workers to install. Monkeys can’t be trained to perform

quality structural welds.
 Difficult to do “quality job” in the field.
Manual Page 16.1-113. Chapter J. Design Of Connections.
Connections consist of:
 connecting elements such as gusset plates, web splice plates, and angles
 connectors such as bolts and welds
 affected elements of connected members such as brace flanges and webs

Manual Page 16.1-113. Section J1.1. Design Basis
 Connection components shall be proportioned so that the required

strength equals or exceed the design strength.
 For total connection: Ru ≤ ΦRn
 For individual bolt or weld: ru ≤ Φrn
 Notice that for connections, the resistance factor (Φ) does not have a
subscript and the nominal strength (Rn) is not converted to P, M, V, etc.
 If the longitudinal axes of all of the members framing into a connection do

not meet at a point, the eccentricity must be accounted for.
Manual Page 16.1-115. Section J1.7. Placement Of Welds And Bolts
 If the centers of gravity of the connection loads do not coincide with the
center of gravity of the connection reactions, the eccentricity must be
accounted for.

STRUCTURAL ARC WELDING

Welding is the localized joining of metals by heating the base materials to
above their melting points, with or without the addition of filler metals.
Almost all structural welding is arc welding.
 The electrical power source is connected by a ground cable to the work

piece, and by a "hot" cable to an electrode.
 When the circuit is energized and the electrode tip touches the work piece,
the circuit is completed.
 When the electrode tip is then withdrawn from, but held close to the work
piece, an arc is created across the gap.
The arc produces a temperature of about 6500OF, which melts the base metal,
and any filler metal.
 After the melted metals cool and solidify, a solid piece of bonded metal is
left, the completed weld.
 The pool of molten metal can hold atmospheric gases in solution.
 If the pool is not shielded from the surrounding atmosphere, it will

chemically combine with the free oxygen and nitrogen and a relatively
brittle, nonductile weld would result.
 As a result, arc welds are typically shielded by using either a specially

coated electrode, or a granular flux. The shielding, when heated by the
arc, releases inert gasses that protect the molten metal.

Arc Welding Equipment
Arc Welding In The Shop

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is commonly called stick welding or manual
welding.
 Welds can be made in all positions and in many difficult-to-reach areas.
The coated electrode is consumed as it is transferred to the base metal during

the welding process.
 The electrode coating produces a gaseous shield to exclude air and

stabilize the arc.
 The electrode coating introduces materials to refine the grain structure of

the metal.
The electrode coating produces a blanket of slag over the molten metal and
solidified weld.
 The slag protects the weld from nitrogen and oxygen that would otherwise
react with the hot metals.
 The slag also serves to slow down the cooling process of the weld,
reducing potential brittleness.
The work area must be kept dry to preclude the introduction of hydrogen and
oxygen into the molten material.
 Wind speeds must be fairly low to preclude dissipation of the protective

shielding gasses.
Constant replacement of new electrodes for the consumed electrodes decreases

the time actually spent welding and adds to the labor cost.
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is similar to SMAW except that the electrode is
a continuous tubular wire fed from a coil through the electrode holder.
 The shielding is provided by a gas fed through the tubular wire.
 Additional shielding may be provided by externally supplied CO2 gas.
 FCAW is replacing SMAW as the field welding process of choice because

it is

GROOVE WELDS
Groove Welds fill a gap (or groove) between two pieces of steel, and are often
used to connect work pieces aligned in the same plane.
 About 20% of structural joints are made with groove welds.
 Note that some of the work pieces have beveled or machined edges to
facilitate making the weld.
 Each variation of groove weld is also classified according to its shape or

groove preparation, such as flare, bevel, or vee.
If the groove weld has the same strength as the work pieces being joined, it is
called a complete joint penetration (CJP) groove weld.
Examples of complete joint penetration (CJP) groove welds.
If the weld does not extend all the way through a joint, it is called a partial joint
penetration (PJP) groove weld.
Example of partial joint penetration (PJP) groove welds.

GROOVE WELD PREPARATION

 Groove welds are classified according to their shape.
 Bevel shapes are chosen based on weld access from one or both sides.
 Grooves that are not symmetrical will cause distortion due to unbalanced
shrinkage.
Types of groove welds
Typical flange bevel.

GROOVE WELD TERMINOLOGY
Base Metal is the work pieces being joined by the weld.
Weld Nugget is the melted filler metal and base metal joining the work pieces.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the base metal whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding and subsequent cooling.
 Stronger, but more brittle than other base metal
 Susceptible to absorption of hydrogen
 Preheat of base metal will slow down HAZ cooling rate, reduces cooling
rate and allows absorbed hydrogen to escape
Weld Throat is the weld metal area used in strength calculations.
Face is the exposed weld surface on the side from which the welding was done.
Toe is the junction of the weld face and base metal.
Root Opening is the separation of the base metal at the root.
Groove Face is the base metal included in the groove.
Root Face is the base metal included in the root.
Edge Preparation is the preparation of the base metal by cutting, cleaning,

plating, or other means.

DESIGN STRENGTH
Manual Page 16.1-123. Table J2.5. Available Strength Of Welded Joints
Load Type And Direction Relative To

Weld Axis:
 Tension, Compression, Shear
Pertinent Metal:
 Base Metal, Weld Metal
Greek Letters
 For LRFD, Φ
Nominal Stress:
 For Base Metal, FnBM
 For Weld Metal, Fnw
Effective Area:
 For Base Metal, ABM
 For Weld Metal, Awe
Required Filler Metal Strength Level:
 Will be met by the welder
 For CJP groove welds, joint strength is controlled by the base metal alone;
no calculations of weld metal strength are required.

FILLET WELDS
Fillet Welds are principally used to connect structural members (work pieces) not
aligned in the same plane. The welds are made on the “outside” of the pieces.
 Fillet welds are usually chosen for overall economy, ease of fabrication,
and fit-up.
 About 80% of structural welds are made with fillet welds.
Example of a lap joint to transfer tension load between two plates
Example of tee joints used to make a W-shape out of three plates

FILLET WELD TERMINOLOGY
Base Metal is the work pieces being joined by the weld.
Weld Nugget is the melted filler metal and base metal joining the work pieces.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the base metal whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding and subsequent cooling.
 Stronger, but more brittle than other base metal
 Preheat of base metal will slow down HAZ cooling rate, reduces cooling
rate and allows absorbed hydrogen to escape
Weld Throat is the weld metal area used in strength calculations.
Convexity is weld metal area not used in strength calculations.
 Good fillet weld has a convex surface, shrinks into compression
Penetration is weld metal not used in strength calculations.
Leg Size is the dimension specified on design drawings.
Face is the exposed weld surface on the side from which the welding was done.
Toe is the junction of the weld face and base metal.

EFFECTIVE AREA
Manual Page 16.1-119. Section J2.2. Fillet Welds.
 This section addresses fillet welds.
Manual Page 16.1-119. Section J2.2a. Effective Area.
Awe = Lete
Where:
Awe = weld effective area, in2
te = weld effective throat, inch
Le = weld effective length, inch
 A properly prepared fillet weld

will have a convex shape.
When the weld cools and
shrinks, the convex shape will
place the weld surface in
compression.
 Conversely, a concave weld will

put the weld surface in tension
when it cools, often resulting in
unacceptable weld cracking.
 Fillet weld sizes (w) are given in

increments of in.
 For most fillet weld, the effective

Where:
length (Le) is equal to its actual
w = weld size length.
te = 0.707w

DESIGN STRENGTH – SIMPLE METHOD

Manual Page 16.1-122. Section J2.4. Strength.
 For LRFD, the design strength is the lower of:
ΦRn = ΦFnBMABM and ΦRn = ΦFnwAwe
 ABM is usually considered a slight distance away from the weld toe.
 Design values for Φ, FnBM and Fnw are defined in Table J2.5.
Manual Page 16.1-124. Table J2.5 (Continued)
 Base Metal: Φ and FnBM from

Section J.4
 Weld Metal: Φ = 0.75 and Fnw =

0.60FEXX

DESIGN STRENGTH – BASE METAL

Manual Page 16.1-137. Section J4.1. Strength Of Elements In Tension.
Very similar to limit states for tension members:
 For LRFD: ΦRn = 0.90FyAg
ΦRn = 0.90FuAe
Manual Page 16.1-137. Section J4.2. Strength Of Elements In Shear.
Very similar to limit states for tension members with 0.6 factor from Mohr’s Circle
and different resistance factors:
 For LRFD: ΦRn = 1.00(0.60Fy)Agv
ΦRn = 0.75(0.60Fu)Anv

Manual Page 16.1-138. Section J4.3. Block Shear Strength.
 This combination of tension and shear stresses on different parts of the

same element was first considered when we talked about tension
members.
Manual Page 16.1-138. Section J4.4. Strength Of Elements In

Compression.
 Determining the slenderness ratio requires some engineering

judgment.
 For smaller slenderness ratios, compression elements need only consider

yielding.
 For larger slenderness ratios, treats compression elements in accordance

with chapter E.
Manual Page 16.1-138. Section J4.5. Strength Of Elements In Flexure.
 Essentially treats flexural elements in accordance with Specification

chapter F.

FILLET WELD LIMITATIONS

Manual Page 16.1-119. Section J2.2.b. Limitations.
 The minimum size of fillet welds is determined based on weld strength:
∑Ru ≤ ΦRn
 The minimum size of fillet welds is also prescribed in Table J2.4.
Manual Page 16.1-119. Table J2.4. Minimum Size Of Fillet Welds
 The table defines the minimum size of fillet welds as a function of material
thickness of the thinner part joined.
 Minimum weld sizes are defined to ensure sufficient fusion of weld, and to
minimize distortion.
 (a) along edges of material less than ¼” thick:
wmax = tmaterial
 (b) along edges of material ¼” or more in thickness:
wmax = tmaterial – 1/16”

EXAMPLE PROBLEM WELDED01

GIVEN: The tension member is welded to a gusset plate.
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength of the weld metal and base metal.
SOLUTION:
Fillet Weld Limitations

tthinnest member =
provided, OK {Table J2.4}
provided, OK {Spec. J2.2b}
¼” Fillet Weld Is Within Limitations
Weld Metal Strength

Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
Fnw = 0.60FEXX = 0.60(70 ksi) = 42.0 ksi {Table J2.5}
1
0.707 2 13 4.60
4
Rn = FnwAwe = (42 ksi)(4.60 in2) = 193 K {Eq. J2-3}
∅ 0.75 193 145

Base Metal Strength

Both ASTM A36 plates are in shear. Check the thinner gusset plate.
Shear Yielding
Φ = 1.00 {Spec. J4.2(a)}
Fy = 36 ksi {Manual 2-49}
2 13 9.75
Rn = 0.60FyAgv = 0.60(36 ksi)(9.75 in2) = 211 K {Eq. J4-3}
ΦRn = (1.00)(211 K) = 211 K
Shear Rupture
Φ = 0.75 {Spec. J4.2(b)}
2 13 9.75
Rn = 0.60FuAnv = 0.60(58 ksi)(9.75 in2) = 339 K {Eq. J4-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(339 K) = 254 K
Summary Of Limit States

ΦRn(weld) = 145 K governs
ΦRn(shear yielding) = 211K
ΦRn(shear rupture) = 254 K
Design Strength Equals 145 K
Verifying the weld size.

DESIGN STRENGTH ALTERNATIVES

Directionality Of Welds
Fillet welds loaded at an angle from the longitudinal axis have 50% more strength
than welds loaded along their longitudinal axis.
Manual Page 16.1-122. Section J2.4. Strength
 1.0 + 0.50sin1.5Φ is based on test data.
 The directionality strength increase applies to both the weld metal and the
base metal.
 Φ = 0o for shear loading along the weld longitudinal axis
Sin 0o = 0.00
 Φ = 90o for tension loading perpendicular to the weld axis
Sin 90o = 1.00

Linear Weld Groups
Linear weld groups are a single line of weld, or parallel lines of welds, loaded
through its center of gravity at angle Φ, relative to the weld longitudinal axis.
Manual Page 16.1-122. Section J2.4. Strength (Continued)
 Φ = 0o: Fnw(shear) = 0.60FEXX(1.0)
 Φ = 90o: Fnw(tension) = 0.60FEXX(1.5)
 Fnw for tension is 50% greater than Fnw for shear.

Concentrically Loaded Weld Groups
Concentrically loaded weld groups combine welds in tension and shear, with the
applied load and the resisting welds in the same plane.
Manual Page 16.1-123. Section J2.4. Strength (Continued)
Rnwl = (0.60FEXX)(0.707w)(Llongitudnal)
Rnwt = (0.60FEXX)(0.707w)(Ltransverse)
Eq. J2-10a indicates for concentrically loaded weld groups, it is acceptable to

treat all welds as if they were in shear.
 This equation is conservative because it underestimates the strength of

weld with a tension component.
Eq. J2-10b indicates that for concentrically loaded weld groups, it is acceptable
to increase the tension weld strength by 50% as long as we also reduce the
shear weld strength by 15%.
 This equation is based on test data and shows some strength reduction
for weld groups when compared to linear welds.

WELD SYMBOLS
Weld symbols on plans and drawings shall be per AWS symbols.
Manual Page 8-35 Table 8-2 Prequalified Welded Joints (Continued)
 Welding symbols are a

shorthand system to transmit
design information from the
engineer to the welder.
 The standardized symbols are

used on design drawings by the
engineer, fabrication drawings
by the steel fabricator, and
erection drawings by the steel
erector.
 This table is reproduced from

AWS D1.1. The entire AWS
library of weld symbols takes up
an 80-page document, AWS
A2.4. This table indicates the
most commonly used symbols,
and all the symbols you would
need for this course.
 Tail is used to indicate additional

information, such as “typ” or
“see Note 1”
Examples
In practice, welds are fully defined by the AWS symbology alone. In these
examples, AWS symbology is interpreted by:
 Solid lines in the plan views
 Solid triangles in the elevation views

Weld Symbol Examples



GIVEN: The linear fillet welds shown are concentrically loaded at an angle
relative to the weld longitudinal axis.
REQUIRED: Design fillet welds shown. Do not consider base metal. Use LRFD
load combinations.
SOLUTION:
Required strength
Pu = 1.2(10 K) + 1.0(120 K) = 132 K

tf(W12x65) = 0.605”
tplate = 0.500” thinnest member
provided, OK {Table J2.4}
no weld along edge of either plate, therefore wmax is not applicable
5/16” Fillet Weld Is Within Limitations

Weld Metal Strength

Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
Fnw = 0.60FEXX(1.0 + 0.50sin1.5Φ) {Eq. J2-5}
= 0.60(70 ksi)( 1.0 + 0.50(4/5)1.5) = 57.0 ksi
Awe = teLe = (0.707w)(2x8”) = 11.31w in2
Rn = FnwAwe = (57.0 ksi)(11.31w in2) = 644.7w K {Eq. J2-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(644.7w K) = 483.5w K
Weld Size
ΦRn = 483.5w K = 132 K = Pu
w = 132 / 483.5 = 0.273” say 5/16” > 3/16” minimum
Use: w = 5/16"
Typical Fillet Weld Cross-Section.


GIVEN: The fillet weld group shown is concentrically loaded and consists of
welds that are oriented both longitudinal and transverse to the direction of the
applied load.
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength of the fillet welds.

SOLUTION:

tplates = 1.00”
provided, ok {Table J2.4}
wmax = 1” – 1/16” > 7/8” = w ok
7/8” Fillet Weld Is Within Limitations
Longitudinal
Weld Metal Strength
Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
0.707 2 4 4.94
Rn = FnwAwe = (42.0 ksi)(4.94 in2) = 207.5 K {Eq. J2-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(207.5 K) = 155.6 K

Shear Yielding
Φ = 1.00 {Spec. J4.2(a)}
2
Agv = 1”(2x4”) = 8.00 in
Rn = 0.60FyAgv = 0.60(36 ksi)(8.00 in2) = 172.8 K {Eq. J4-3}
ΦRn = (1.00)(172.8 K) = 172.8 K
Shear Rupture
Φ = 0.75 {Spec. J4.2(b)}
Anv = (1”)(2x4”) = 8.00 in2
Rn = 0.60FuAnv = 0.60(58 ksi)(8.00 in2) = 278.4 K {Eq. J4-4}
ΦRn = (0.75)(278.4 K) = 208.8 K
Summary
ΦRn(weld) = 155.6 K governs
ΦRn(shear yielding) = 172.8 K
ΦRn(shear rupture) = 208.8 K
Transverse
Weld Metal Strength
Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
0.707 6 3.71
Rn = FnwAwe = (42.0 ksi)(3.71 in2) = 155.8 K {Eq. J2-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(155.8 K) = 116.9 K
Tension Yielding
Φ = 0.90 {Spec. J4.1(a)}
Ag = (1”)(6”) = 6.00 in2
Rn = FyAg = (36 ksi)(6.00 in2) = 216.0 K {Eq. J4-1}
ΦRn = (0.90)(216.0 K) = 194.4 K

Tension Rupture
Φ = 0.75 {Spec. J4.1(b)}
2
Ae = (1”)(6”) = 6.00 in
Rn = FuAe = (58 ksi)(6.00 in2) = 348.0 K {Eq. J4-2}
ΦRn = (0.75)(348.0 K) = 261.0 K
Summary
ΦRn(weld) = 116.9 K governs
ΦRn(tension yielding) = 194.4 K
ΦRn(tension rupture) = 261.0 K
Fillet Weld Group Strength

ΦRnwl = 155.6K
ΦRnwt = 119.9K
ΦRn = ΦRnwl + ΦRnwt = 155.6 K + 116.9 K = 272.5 K {Eq. J2-6a}
ΦRn = 0.85ΦRnwl + 1.5ΦRnwt {Eq. J2-6b}
= 0.85(155.6 K) + 1.5(116.9 K) = 307.6 K governs
Arc Welding In The Field.

ECCENTRIC WELDED CONNECTIONS: SHEAR

ONLY
When a load (P) passes through a line of action that does not pass through the
center of the weld group, the connection must be designed for the direct shear
load (P) as well as the torsion moment (M). This situation is also called eccentric
shear or combined shear and torsion.
M=Pe
 For symmetrical weld groups, the center of weld pattern can be located by
observation.

ELASTIC ANALYSIS
The elastic analysis and design method is based on the following assumptions
for the distribution of shear stress in connections subject to shear and torsion:
 All plates and connectors are perfectly rigid.
 All welds are perfectly elastic.
 All welds have the same strength regardless of the direction of loading.
 The rotation of the plates and connectors under loading produce shear
forces in the welds which are proportional to and normal to the radius from
the center-of-the-weld-pattern.
 The stresses in welds are assumed to be uniform.
Although these assumptions are not really true, due to the nonlinear behavior of
the materials and installation tolerances, they allow the use of a simple rational
analysis. Test results have confirmed that this method is conservative.
 First, convert the applied load (P) to vector forces acting through the
center-of-the-weld pattern.
 Second, convert the load (P) times the eccentricity (e) to a torsional
moment (M) around the center-of-the-weld-pattern.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS

Test results indicate that the external loads and weld stresses do not rotate about
the center-of-the-weld-group as assumed with the Elastic Analysis. The
combined effect of the rotation and translation is equivalent to a rotation about a
point defined as the instantaneous center of rotation (IC).
 The location of the IC is a function

of the geometry of the weld group,
the load direction, and load
application point.
 The methodology is an iterative

approach and is best suited to the
use of spreadsheets.
The methodology considers the load angle on each weld segment.

Fnw = 0.60FEXX(1.0 + 0.50sin1.5Φ) {Eq. J2-5}
Manual Page 8-68. Table 8-4. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Weld
Groups.
AISC has precalculated "C" values for a number of bolt group geometries; 2
lines, rectangles, C-shapes, and L-shapes.
Variables considered are:

L = length of longest weld in weld group
kL = spacing of welds
e = load eccentricity from weld group center
θ = angle of load relative to vertical
Pu = Φrn = CC1DL
Where:
Φrn = weld group design strength, Kips
C = precalculated coefficient, unitless
C1 = electrode strength coefficient, unitless
D = fillet weld size, sixteenths of an inch
L = reference weld length, inch


GIVEN:
REQUIRED:
(a) Select fillet weld size using Elastic Analysis
(b) Select fillet weld size using Ultimate Strength Analysis.
SOLUTION:

tf(W10x49) = 0.560 in thinner plate
tplate = 0.750 in
{Table J2.4}
3 1 11

4 16 16

(a) Select fillet weld size using Elastic Analysis

The upper right and lower right hand corner of the welds are the farthest from the
weld group center-of-gravity, and therefore will be the most highly stressed.
Determine Direct Shear Stresses On Welds

30 2.12
2 6 1 8 0.707
Determine Torsional Shear Stresses On Right Hand Corner Welds

2 6 3 1 8 0
̅ 1.80
2 6 1 8
0.707 6 0.707 8
2 2 0.707 6 4
12 12
= 0.4w + 30.2w + 135.7w = 166.3w
0.707 6" 0.707 8"
2 2 0.707 6" 1.2" 0.707 8" 1.8"
12 12
= 25.4w + 0.2w + 12.2w + 18.3w = 56.1w
Ip = ∑Ix + ∑Iy = 166.3w + 56.1w = 222.4w
30 ∗ 12.2 4 6.58
222.4
30 ∗ 12.2 4.2 6.91
222.4
Determine Vector Shear Stresses On Right Hand Corner Welds
. . . .
0
Select fillet weld size

Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
Fnw = 0.60FEXX {Table J2.5}
f ≤ ΦFnw
11.11
0.75 0.60 70 31.5
.
0.352 say within limitations, ok
.
Select 3/8" Fillet Welds

(b) Select fillet weld size using Ultimate Strength Analysis.
Weld Group Coefficients

C1 = 1.00 for E70XX electrode {Manual 8-67}
L = 8 in longest weld {Manual 8-92}

0.75 {Manual 8-92}

x = 0.225 by interpolation {Manual 8-92}

̅ 0.225 8 1.80 {Manual 8-92}
.
1.52 {Manual 8-92}

C ≈1.20 by interpolation {Manual 8-92}

3.13 say within limitations, ok
. .
Select: 1/4" Fillet Welds
Field welding (Courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company).


GIVEN: Pu = 90 K
REQUIRED: Determine if the fillet weld size is acceptable using Ultimate

Strength Analysis.
SOLUTION:

tf(W14x61) = 0.645 in
tplate = 0.375 in thinner plate
{Table J2.4}
3 1 5

8 16 16
within limitations, ok

Weld Group Coefficients

C1 = 1.00 for E70XX electrode {Manual 8-67}
L = 12 in longest weld {Manual 8-95}

0.50 {Manual 8-95}

x = 0.125 {Manual 8-95}

̅ 0.125 12 1.50 {Manual 8-95}
.
1.04 {Manual 8-95}

C ≈ 2.01 by interpolation {Manual 8-95}

3.73 say
. .
5/16" Fillet Welds Are Acceptable
Underwater welding.

AISC 360-16 Introduction to Structural Steel Design

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

AISC 360-16 Introduction to Structural Steel Design

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

AISC 360-16 INTRODUCTION Sheet 1

AISC 360-16 – INTRODUCTION

STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES ...................................................... 3

STRUCTURAL STEELS .................................................................................... 12

MATERIAL TOUGHNESS .................................................................................. 17

BRITTLE FRACTURE ........................................................................................ 20

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES .................................................................................. 27

PROBABILISTIC BASIS OF LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ................ 31

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD.......................... 34

AISC SPECIFICATION ....................................................................................... 36

STEEL CONSTRUCTION MANUAL .................................................................. 37

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES

 W-Shapes are the most commonly used structural shapes

 Used mostly for columns and beams

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 Part 1 of the AISC Manual includes information regarding the cross-sectional

 Numbers are used in engineering calculations.

 Fractions are used when preparing drawings.

 Let’s look in detail at one of the shapes.

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 W12: nominally 12 inches deep

 x26: nominally weighs 26 pounds per foot

 d  actual depth  12.2 in for calculations,  12 1 in for drawings

 t w  web thickness 0.230 in for calculations,  1 in for drawings

 b f  flange width  6.49 in for calculations,  6 1 in for drawings

 t f  flange thickness  0.380 in for calculations,  3 in for drawings

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO01

REQUIRED: Determine A, I x , S x , rx and compare with Manual table values

 4.93  2.64  7.57 in 2 {7.65 in2 in table}

I x  4.93 in  2 12.2 in  0.380 in  2  26.49 in 0.380 in 3  0.230 in 12.2 in  20.380 in 3

A = 7.57 in2, Ix = 202 in4, Sx = 33.1 in3, rx = 5.17 in

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 C-shapes are commonly used for lightly loaded beams

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 C8: exactly 8 inches deep

 x11.5: nominally weighs 11.5 pounds per foot

 d  actual depth  8.00 in for calculations,  8 in for drawings

 t w  web thickness  0.220 in for calculations,  1 in for drawings

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

EXAMPLE PROBLEM INTRO02

REQUIRED: Calculate A, I x , S x , rx and compare with Manual table values

 1.76  1.59  3.35 in 2 {3.37 in2 in table}

 25.5  0.02  6.9  32.4 in 4 {32.5 in4 in table}

A = 3.35 in2, Ix = 32.4 in4, Sx = 8.10 in3, rx = 3.11 in

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 WT-Shapes are cut from W-Shapes and are readily available

 Used as bracing members and in connections

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

 For example a WT6x13 is cut from the W12x26 shape.

 WT6: nominally 6 inches deep

 X13: nominally weighs 13 pounds per foot

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

Material strength properties are obtained in testing laboratories by performing

Machined material sample.

 During the tension test, an increase in force results in an increase in

Typical stress-strain curve.

AISC 360-16 - Introduction.docx R. M. Drake, SE

Test specimen starts at zero stress. The stress-strain relationship is constant to