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THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Eleonora KORMYSHEVA
RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ABU ERTEILA
EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS
Moscow
2019
63.3(0)31
902
.E., . ., . ., . .
. / . .
. . ; . .: , 2019. 394 ., .
( . .).
The book contains the publication of the excavations and finds of the joint
international project (ItalyRussia) in Abu Erteila (Republic of the Sudan), where the
Natakamani Temple dated in the 1st century AD was found. The material on the
architecture of the temple, the original designs of individual rooms, and the reconstruction
of the temple is presented here. The book contains the description of the altar, sacral stand
for the bark or statues, columns with reliefs, the system of the ancient water drainage
system, including prototypes of medieval gargoyles, pedestals of statues, and fragments of
cult and household pottery. The publication may be of interest to archaeologists, historians,
university professors and all interested in ancient civilizations of the Nile Valley and the
desert areas of the upper Nile.
ISBN 978-5-89282-915-1
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7
5
CONTENTS
III.5. Comparison of the inscription on the sacred barques from Abu Erteila 123
and Wad Ben Naga
III.6. Decoration of the stands 126
III.7. Sacred stands from Egypt and Meroe 127
III.8. Rites performed in the temple 129
III.9. Altar (AE15/II-R26/st2) 131
III.10. Gods in the Natakamani temple 134
BIBLIOGRAPHY 231
ABBREVIATIONS 247
INDEX 248
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EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
559 The study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR, project No. 17-06-00726 Scientific
methods in the study of physical conditions of life, economic activities, and cult practices of the population of the Nile Valley
in antiquity and early medieval times).
207
EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
208
EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
564 Tibiae, fibulae, and feet were disturbed by an animal tunnel and Italian colleagues who dug the trench to the west.
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EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
Burial: undisturbed burial of teenage girl, dorsally extended, body oriented precisely along east-west
axis, head slightly inclined towards south, face upwards, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: none were preserved.
Comments: grave shaft damaged northern face of wall 71W.
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EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
VII.3. DISCUSSION
The main Meroitic structures of Abu Erteila were damaged in the course of dismantling, and
activities of sebakheen, as well as due to natural weathering and bioerosion. However, the most crucial
factor that affected preservation of early strata on Kom II was the development of the necropolis. In
this respect, Abu Erteila is far from being unique among other Meroitic sites of the region. Multi-period
cemeteries seem to be quite common for the mouth of Wadi el-Hawad565 and Meroe Island in general.
As in other similar cases, including Hamadab 566 and Awlib 567 in the area of the mouth of Wadi
el-Hawad, the Meroitic ruins of Abu Erteila created elevated mounds which dominated the surrounding
landscape, providing a convenient place for a burial ground.
The necropolis on the three main mounds of Abu Erteila contained at least one hundred burials
of different periods, most of which remained undisturbed. Since the excavation of the necropolis is still
ongoing (fig. 64), the discussion here will concentrate only on interments recorded by the Russian team
in the territory of the eight rooms published in this volume, i. e. the 11 burials described above.
Although this selection is imposed by chance, it does retain some logic as we will discuss a series of
burials excavated in the most elevated part of Kom II.
Superstructures. No traces of superstructures have been recorded in association with any of
the burials published in this volume. Absence of superstructures is common for many ancient burial
sites excavated in the Sudan. 568 However, since burial traditions of both post-Meroitic and medieval
times usually implied some markers over burials, 569 one may assume that despite the lack of preserved
formal superstructures, most of the graves had been defined on the surface with at least mounds of sand
and brick rubble, which than disappeared or changed their appearance to the point where it was
impossible for excavators to recognize them.
Grave structures. There have been three main types of grave shafts attested so far at
Abu Erteila: 1) slot graves; 2) side-niche graves; 3) and bottom-niche graves. As in many other
contemporary cemeteries, 570 slot graves with no structural elaboration are the most common grave style
at Abu Erteila. All the shafts excavated on the territory of the temple rooms published in this volume
belong to this type.
Body orientation. Variants of orientation of burials towards east or west are equally common at
Abu Erteila. However, in the most elevated part of Kom II all burials were oriented roughly eastwards.
One may discern three main groups of burials:
1) Burials oriented towards true east or with some inclination to north or south (not more than
1115) (burials 22, 24, 31, 33, 34, 36, 39). Unlike other burials in this group inclined to north, burials 36
and 39 were oriented with a slight inclination to south from true east which was probably because the
ones who dug these grave shafts simply followed the masonry of existing Meroitic walls oriented in
accordance with the Nile north.
2) Burials oriented towards north-east (burials 30, 32);
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EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
3) Presumably early Muslim burials oriented to south-east with face to north-east (Mecca)
(burials 23 and 37).
Medieval graves with dorsal or lateral burials oriented eastwards are sometimes found in the
region of the Fourth cataract, 571 and are common in cemeteries of the Shendi Reach. The position of
these tombs within burial grounds, shrouding and grave structures suggest that they have to fall within
what is called the Christian Period. However, the interpretation of their orientation is disputable.
Edwards, for example, suggests avoiding any Christian associations and classifies graves oriented
towards east as simply medieval. 572 Medieval graves oriented towards east with and without
superstructures were found among tumuli and cairns at el-Hobagi 573 and Jebel Makbor a few kilometres
away from Abu Erteila. 574
It is noteworthy that all the burials with the head toward what was locally regarded as west and,
thus, associated with the common Christian tradition, were made to the south of the ruins of the main
Meroitic temple that formed the most elevated part of Kom II. On the contrary, burials oriented
roughly towards east were situated, as a rule, in the territory of the Meroitic temple. In this regard, three
assumptions may be proposed: 1) burials with western orientation were made when the ruins of the
main temple were still too pronounced for using them as a burial ground; the ruins of the main temple
became reasonably flat probably by late medieval or early modern times when the mouth of Wadi el-
Hawad witnessed ethnic and religious changes; 2) and the Christian population of the area preferred
not to use the territory of the pagan temple for interring their dead; 3) the most elevated part of the
mound over the ruins of the temple was reserved for a certain (more prestigious?) ethnic group which
oriented burials towards east.
Body position. Dorsally extended burials are traditional for Nubian medieval cemeteries. 575
Most of skeletons excavated at Abu Erteila were found lying on their backs as well. Dorsal burials at
Abu Erteila do not correlate with any particular position of the head of interred people.
Burials on the right side are twice as common as burials on the left side at Abu Erteila. As in
many other contemporary cemeteries, choice of a lateral or a dorsal position does not correlate reliably
with particular body orientation or type of shaft. As was previously noted, 576 position of the body, as
well as type of grave shaft, was probably very much a matter of individual preference.
Position of limbs. Most of burials excavated at Abu Erteila demonstrate the usual Nubian
practice of placing both palms on the pubis or pelvis; legs are usually extended. Despite the common
tradition, as in other contemporary cemeteries, 577 there has been some variety attested at the site. In the
territory of the published temple rooms, there was one such example: in burial 37, the right hand was
extended along the body, and the left hand and right leg were flexed.
Body coverings, shrouding. In some grave shafts excavated at Abu Erteila we recorded
separate bricks left near the skull or over the skeleton. In the territory of the published temple rooms,
there was one such case: in burial 32, one brick fragment was found under the left shoulder, another
brick fragment was lying over the right shoulder, and a complete brick was lying on the right arm.
Remains of matting were found in three burials published in this volume (burials 24, 31, and 32).
As a rule, matting was found at Abu Erteila over, and sometimes under, the upper part of the body. In
burials 31 and 32, however, decayed traces of matting were found all over the skeletons. It is possible
that matting was used instead of brick coverings to protect, above all, faces of the interred persons.
In two cases, there were also remains of animal skin found over the upper part of the body (burials 22
and 24). In burials outside the territory of the published temple rooms, animal skins were found only in
one case (burial 17). 578
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EXCAVATION OF BURIALS
In six burials published in this volume, it was possible to trace remains of shrouds which give
evidence for the well-known custom attested in many medieval cemeteries of the Sudan. The bodies
were wrapped in textile from head to feet and then tightly bound around. No traces of textiles were
found in five other burials which were situated either close to the surface in shallow graves or,
conversely, in deep shafts surrounded by brick masonry that complicated drainage of rainwater.
There is no positive correlation at Abu Erteila between variants of body covering, position of
body, and grave construction.
Position of graves within Meroitic ruins. All burials excavated by the Russian team in the
territory of the eight temple rooms published in this volume damaged the Meroitic walls to some extent.
In some cases, cutting of walls may have happened by chance (burials 23, 32, 34). In all other cases,
shafts were probably excavated through Meroitic walls on purpose: in contrast to loose, sandy fill, brick
masonry provided stable walls for grave shafts.
Shaft fill. In all but one case shaft fill was homogeneous and consisted of mixed material from
different strata disturbed in the course of digging the shaft. However, the lower and upper parts of the
shaft of burial 30 were filled with plant macro remains which covered the body for some unknown
ritual, magical or technical reason. So far there has only been one direct analogy in the territory of the
necropolis of Abu Erteila recorded (unexcavated burial 9).
Chronology. Burials at Abu Erteila demonstrate significant variability in grave constructions,
body position and orientation which might be evidence of the heterogeneous nature of the local
population(s) that buried people in the Meroitic ruins. However, this variability remains within the
common mixed nature of medieval burial tradition. For how long did the people who lived or visited the
mouth of Wadi el-Hawad inter their dead on Kom II at Abu Erteila? To all appearances, the necropolis
under discussion was a multi-period cemetery.
The earliest excavated interment is probably contracted burial 16, which may be dated to the
Post-Meroitic or early medieval times. The burial was made outside the main Meroitic ruins and may
give evidence for the existence of an earlier burial ground to the west or around Kom II. Some of the
burials oriented towards the east may be tentatively dated to the early Christian Period, 579 although a
later date is also quite possible since a small cemetery with burials oriented eastwards, excavated at el-
Geili, may be ascribed to late medieval times, as suggested by radiocarbon dates from a number of
graves. 580
Due to the poor preservation of collagen in bones, only three C14 dates have been obtained from
the necropolis of Abu Erteila. The first date comes from one of the burials on Kom I, it falls within
12th13th century AD. 581 The second date comes from a poorly preserved organic covering of burial 40:
6501250 AD (95.4 % probability). The third date comes from plant macro remains in the shaft of
burial 37: 14561660 AD (95.4 % probability). Radiocarbon dates for similar burials at Jebel Makbor
with heads towards west fall within 11th13th century AD. 582 Burials in supine position with no specific
orientation and without grave goods were excavated at the nearby Awlib. Preliminary results of
radiocarbon analysis carried out on human bone samples from Awlib dated this necropolis to the
Medieval Period. 583 A similar necropolis was found in the ruins of Meroitic Muweis. As at Abu Erteila,
bodies interred at Muweis were oriented either towards west or east. Two bodies have been dated by the
radiocarbon method to the 13th14th century AD. 584
If the necropolis of Abu Erteila continued to develop in the Late Medieval and Early Post-
Medieval Period, which is quite possible considering the orientation of bodies and available C14 dates,
this cemetery would be a relatively rare example of a late burial ground excavated near Meroe. 585
213