1.

CHAPTER ONE
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

1.1 Introduction

The aim of the course open channel hydraulics is to present a review of the main
principles of hydraulics and to apply them in Irrigation Engineering. After the course
the student should understand and should be able to apply the principles of hydraulics
in engineering problems and (s)he should be capable to make uniform and non-
uniform flow computations.

After the classification of open channel flow types and a short description of
dimensionless numbers in chapter 1, Chapter 2 starts with review of the basic
hydraulic principles, like continuity, energy and momentum principles. These basic
hydraulic principles and equations are applied to uniform flow computations, flow
over spills and contractions in chapter 3. The momentum principle is also applied to
control sections and outflows problems in the same chapter. The following two
chapters (Chapter 4 and 5) deals with GVF and RVF. These two chapters deal with
GVF computation, flow profiles and applications. Particular cases of RVF problems
are treated in Chapter 5. Basic principles of unsteady flow in open channels and
particular applications are covered in the last chapter (chapter 6).

1.2 Classification of Open Channel flows

Open channel flows versus pipe flow

Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary,
exposed to the atmosphere.

The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open
channel is a conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the
atmosphere. The two kinds of lows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in
many ways but differ in one important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free
surface, whereas pipe flow has none, since the water must fill the whole conduit. A
free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow being confined in closed
conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure. In the case of
the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity effects and
the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic1.

1
If the flow were curvilinear or if the slope of channel were large hydrostatic
law of pressure distribution will not hold true, read pp 30- 33 Ven Te Chow.
Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -1Comparison between pipe
flow and open channel flow.

Questions:
 Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
 What is the influence of the change in cross–section of the pipe?
 Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?

The two kinds of flows are compared in Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS
CLASSIFICATIONS -1 shown on the lift side is pipe flow. Two piezometer tubes are
installed on the pipe at section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained
by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the so–called hydraulic grade
line. The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is indicated in the
corresponding tube by the height (y) of the water column above the centerline of the
pipe. The total energy in the flow of the section with reference to a datum line is the
sum of the elevation z of the pipe center line, the peizometric height of and the
V2
velocity head 2g , where v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented in
the figure by what is called the energy grade line or a simply energy line. The loss of
energy that result when water flow from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf. A
similar diagram for open channel flow is shown on the right side of Figure OPEN
CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -1. For simplicity, it is assumed
that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of
the channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the
depth of the water corresponds to the peizometric height.

Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve
problems of flow in open channels than in pressure pipes.

Reasons:
  In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change
with respect to time and space,
 Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the
free surface are independent,
 Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of
pipes,
 Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be
ridged,
 Selection of fiction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the
position of the free surface,

Examples of Open channel Flow:

Mention some examples of open channel flows

- storm sewer (partially field sewers),
- flow in rivers,
- flow in irrigation cannels,
- gutters along residential streets and roof open channel.

Types of flows
Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways.
The following classification is made according to the change in flow depth with
 dy dy 
 , 
respect to time and space  dt dx  .

Steady flow and unsteady flow: Time as the criterian

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if
it can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a
fixed point. In steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path
etc) do not vary with time at the spatial point in the flow. In steady flow streamline is
also the path followed by an individual water particle. The flow is unsteady if the
depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is necessary to study flow
behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with
respect to time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods
and surges, for instance, which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the stage of
flow changes instantaneously as the wave pass by, and the time element becomes
vitally important in design of control structures. In unsteady flow the flow variables
(velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the spatial points in he
flow.

Examples of unsteady flow:

 Oscillatory sea waves,
 Dam break flood waves,
 Surges due to gate operation,
 Floods.

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by

 Q = VA Equation OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -1

Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the
direction of the flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by
the cross-sectional area.

In most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the
channel under consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using
equation 1-1.
Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - Equation OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -2

Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. This is the continuity
equation for a continuous steady flow.

Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -2 steady and unsteady flow

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-
uniform along the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the
flow. This type of flow is called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially
constant flow occurs when the density and average velocity are the same in all points
in a flow field. If these quantities change along or across the flow lines the flow is
spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside gutters, the flow in
uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main
drainage channels and feeding channels in irrigation systems).

The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the time effect.
Hence, the continuity equation for continuous unsteady flow should include time
element as a variable (section 2-3).

Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every
section of the channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on
whether or not the depth changes with time.
Steady uniform flow: is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel
hydraulics. The depth of flow does not change during the time interval under
consideration. The establishment of unsteady uniform flow would require that the
water surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining parallel to the channel
bottom.

Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term “uniform flow” is

therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.

Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied
flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term
“unsteady flow” is used hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.

Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow
is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance;
otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local
phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the
classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

Uniform flow

Flow Steady Flow

Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied
Unsteady Flow unsteady Flow

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow

Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -3 Classification of

open channel flows

Various types of open channel flows are sketched in Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -4.
Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -4 various types of open
channel flows

Real or ideal flow

Real flow implies viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical,
ideal flow assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no
frictional effects between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary
walls; there is no energy dissipation due to friction.

Incompressible or compressible flow

Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Also liquids are
slightly compressible, it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows
consider liquids, that undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute
pressure and/or temperature.

1.3 Dimensionless Numbers and state of flow.

Forces that may act on a fluid element include those due to gravity P g, pressure Pp,
viscosity Pv, and elasticity PE. if an element is at a liquid gas interface, there are forces
due to surface tension PT, If the summation of all forces on a fluid element does not
add up to zero, the element will accelerate according to Newton’s law. Such an
unbalanced force system can be transformed into a balanced system by adding an
inertial forced P1(=m.a), which is equal and opposite to the resultant of the acting
forces.

Thus, generally,

PG + Pp + PE + PT = Resultant = - PI

F = m *a = Pi
Thus: PG + Pp + Pv + PE + PT + PI = 0

These forces may be expressed in simplest terms as:

Gravity: PG  mg  gL3
Pressure: Pp   p  A   p  L2
Viscosity:  du  V  2
Pv     A    L  L   VL
 dy 
   
Elasticity: PE  Ev A  Ev L2
Surface tension: PT  L
Inertia: L
PI  ma  L3 2
 L4 T  2
T
In many flow problems some of these forces are either not present or insignificant.
The state or behavior of open channel flow is governed basically by the effects of
viscosity and gravity relative to the inertia forces of the flow. The surface tension,
forces due to pressure and elasticity of water may affect the behavior of flow under
certain circumstances, but it does not play a significant role in most open channel
problems encountered in hydraulic engineering.

Effect of viscosity: Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow
may be laminar, turbulent, or transitional. The basis for this classification is a
dimensionless parameter known as the Reynold number (Re), which is given by the
ratio of these two forces:

Inertia P V 2 L2 VL VL
 I   
R = Vis cos ity PV VL  
e

Therefore,
VL
Re
 Equation OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -3
Where v = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity of low,
L = characteristic length. In open channel thus, the characteristic length
commonly used is the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of the flow
A
(R  )
area (A) to the wetted perimeter (P), P .
This dimensionless number Re is more interesting in pipe flow because in pipe flow
the significant forces are inertia and fluid friction due to viscosity. In a flow through a
completely filled pipe, gravity does not change the flow pattern.

The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are so strong relative to the inertial forces
that viscosity plays a significant part in determining flow behavior. In laminar flow,
the water particles appear to move in definite smooth paths, or streamlines, and
infinitesimally thin layers of fluid seem to slide over adjacent layers.
The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces are weak relative to the inertial forces. In
turbulent flow the water particles move in irregular paths, which are neither smooth
nor fixed but which in the aggregate still represent the forward motion of the entire
stream.

Between the laminar and turbulent status there is a mixed, or transitional state.

An open channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds number R e is small and turbulent if
Re is large.

Numerous experiments have shown that the flow in pipe changes from laminar to
turbulent in the range of Re between the critical value 2,000 and a value as high as
50,000. In this experiment the diameter of the pipe was taken as the characteristic
length in defining the Reynolds number. When the hydraulic radius is taken as the
characteristic length, the corresponding range is from 500 to 12,500 since the
diameter of a pipe is four times its hydraulic radius.
A  ( D / 2) 2 D
R   
P D 4

For pipe flow

Flow R taken as characteristic length D taken as characteristic length

Laminar R  500 R 2000
Transitional 500  R  12, 500 2000  R  50,000
Turbulent 12,500  R 50,000  R

The laminar, turbulent, and transitional states of open channel flow can be expressed
by a diagram that shows a relation between Reynolds number and the friction factor
of the Darcy. Weisbach formula. Such a diagram, generally known as the Stanton
diagram, has been developed for flow in pipes. The Darcy weisbach formula also
developed primarily for flow in pipes. (further reading Ven Te chow, open channel
hydraulics).
For practical purposes, the transitional range of Re for open channel flow may be
assumed to be 500 to 2,000.

For open channel flow

Flow R taken as characteristic length

Laminar R  500
Transitional 500  R  2000
Turbulent 2000  R
Effect of gravity: the effect of gravity upon the state of flow is represented by a
ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces.

PI L2V 2 V 2
Fr 2   
PV gL3 gL

This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:

V
Fr 
gL Equation OPEN
CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -4
Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in m/s, g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2
and L is a characteristic length in m. In open channel flow the characteristic length is
made equal to the hydraulic depth (D), which is defined as the cross-sectional area of
the water normal to the direction of flow in the channel divided by the width of the
free surface. For rectangular channels this is equal to the depth of the flow section.

In some handbooks this number is written as Fr2 = V2/gL.

When Fr2 is equal to unity equation 1-4 gives :

V  gD

and the flow is said to be critical state. If Fr2 is less than unity, or V  gD , the flow
is sub critical. In this state the role played by gravity force is more pronounced; so the
flow has low velocity and is often described as tranquil and streaming. If F r2 is greater
than unity, or V  gD , the flow is supercritical. In this state the inertia forces
become dominant; so the flow has high velocity and is usually described as rapid,
shooting, and torrential.

Systems involving gravity and inertia forces include the wave action by a ship, the
flow in open channels, the forces of a stream on a bridge pier, the flow over a spillway
or a jet from an orifice and other cases where gravity is the dominant force.

1.4 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the
velocities in open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum
velocity in ordinary channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a
distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the

velocity head of an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed
according to the expression V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually
average velocity across the flow is taken and correction coefficients are applied. A
correction coefficient called Coriolis coefficient (energy coefficient)  is used in
computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity head will be expressed
as V2/2g. Experimental data indicate that the value of  varies from 1.03 to 1.36 for
fairly straight prismatic channels. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects
computation of momentum (mv = QgV), where  is momentum coefficient or
Boussinesq coefficient generally 1.01 <<1.12 for straight prismatic channels. For
channels of regular cross section and fairly straight alignment the effect of non-
uniform velocity on velocity head and momentum is small especially in comparison
with the uncertainty involved in the computation. Therefore,  and  are assumed to
be unity.
a) Parallel flow- hydrostatic pressure distribution b) Concave flow- centrifugal force
pointing downward to reinforce gravity c) Convex flow- centrifugal force acts against
gravity (upward) as a result resulting pressure is less than the otherwise hydrostatic
pressure of a parallel flow.
Figure OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS -5 Velocity and Pressure
distribution in open channel flows

2. CHAPTERTWO:-_
ENERGY PRINCIPL ESINOPEN CHANNEL FLOWS

2.1 Geometry of Open Channels

Open channels can be natural (rivers, streams, estuaries) or artificial (canals, flumes,
chutes, culverts, drops, open-flow tunnels). The channel geometry can be prismatic
(constant So and constant A) or non-prismatic. The geometry is defined by its cross-
section and water depth (y).

Some conventions for naming of canal geometric parameters is given underneath:

Bs
Water depth (y) : Vertical distance bottom to surface (measured on a vertical plane)
Section depth (d) : Normal distance from bottom to surface, depth perpendicular to
the bottom (measured on a plane perpendicular to the canal
1
bottom)Y
Area (A) : m area normal to flow direction
Wetted perimeter (P) : length of line of wetted intersection
Hydraulic radius (R) : R = A/P B
Hydraulic depth (D) : D = A/BS = Area A/top width BS
Total energy (E) : E= z + y + αv2/2g (for small slopes θ with y = d)
Specific energy (ES) : ES energy in relation to lowest point in a section ES = y + αv2/2g
Velocity (V) : v = Q/A
Velocity head : αv2/2g = αQ2/2gA2
Froude number : Fr2 = αQ2BS/gA3
Friction Slope : Sf = Q2n2/A2R4/3 (Manning)
Friction Slope : Sf = Q2/C2A2R ( Chezy)
Figure energy PRINCIPL ESinopen channel flows-6Geometry of an open channel
Figure energy PRINCIPL ESinopen channel flows-7 Presents geometric elements of the most
common channel sections

2.2 Main Principles

To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:

1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

1-b Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)

2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

2-b momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)

2.3 Continuity Principle

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
 
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2

A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

 
V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2

If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A =
Q/V) remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means
for uniform flow a constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from
an exact balance between the force of gravity and the frictional resistance.

Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more

difficult. In unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain
distance X  X 2  X 1 . and during a certain time t .

During t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage

Q t  y x BS

As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.

x : Q  Q2  Q1   Q / x  x.

The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.

If y is the water depth and Bs the width at the water surface, then the increase of
volume between the sections 1 and 2 during time
t : Q t  Vo 1   y Bs x.

The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:
Q y
 BS 0
x t
This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.
2.4 Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the
continuity equation in analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from
Newton’s second law of motion. In this section, the force components on a fluid
particle in the direction of its motion are equated to the product of mass of the particle
and acceleration along the streamline. The equation is obtained in differential form
and requires the assumption of a frictionless fluid and steady flow. The equation may
then be integrated for particular assumptions regarding the relation between density
and pressure to obtain the energy equation.

Figure energy PRINCIPL ESinopen channel flows-8 Force components on a fluid particle in the
direction of streamline.

In figure 2-3 let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a
fluid particle in the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-
sectional area A and length s – a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate
all shear in the fluid (i.e. ideal flow is assumed instead of real flow). On the upstream
end the element the force is PA, in which P is the pressure intensity at the center of
the face. The force on the downstream end of the element is :-

 dP 
P  s  A
 ds 
and acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the element are
normal too the streamline do not enter the equation. The only other force acting is due
to gravity and is AS, acting vertically down ward. The component in the S-
 FS  mas
direction is: -AS Cos . By substituting in to .

 dP  
PA   P   S  A  A  S cos  A S as
 ds  g

After dividing through by the weight of the element  AS and simplifying.
 1 dP a
 cos   S  0
 ds g

Z is the increase in elevation for a displacement S along the stream line and from
Figure 2-3.
Z d
 cos   Z
S dS
dv
.
The acceleration as is dt To keep this expression simple, the assumption of steady
flow is introduced, so that V is a function of S only along a streamline. Writing,

dV ds dV
aS  . V
ds dt ds
ds
as the velocity along the streamline is dt . The equation becomes.
1 dP dz V dV
  0
 ds ds g ds
By multiplying the above equation trough by g and with the additional assumption
that the fluid is incompressible (i.e. assuming a constant density in time and space)
and integrating with respect to S.
p V2
 gz  
 2 constant. Equation energy PRINCIPL
ESinopen channel flows-5
This is Energy equation (Bernoulli’s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,
incompressible fluid along a streamline. It states that energy per unit mass of a
L2
2
flowing fluid is constant, the dimensions for this equation are T , i.e. energy per unit
mass.

Potential energy = mgZ  gZ is potential energy per unit mass.

2
1 V
( mV 2 ) 
Kinetic Energy 2 2 is kinetic energy per unit mass.
Work/Energy = F.S = ( P  A)  S
We can represent he unit mass as: unit mass =   A  S
PA s P

Therefore, Pressure Energy per unit mass = A s  

By dividing equation 2-1 through by g we get on expression for energy per unit
weight, or more simply, meters. This expression is particularly convenient form to
apply to situations with free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows.
p V2
Z    C
 2g
For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there
is no centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds
p
true, the pressure head  lies in the water surface.
 p
  d cos 
 - For channel with large slope
and

p
 y
 - For channel with small slope
Substituting for channel of large slope the total energy may be written as

V2
Z  d cos   C
2g
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different
velocity head, owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in
an ideal parallel flow of uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly
identical for all points on the cross-section. In the case of gradually varied flow,
however, it may be assumed, for practical purposes, that the velocity heads for all
points on the channel section are equal, and energy coefficient (Coriolis Coefficient )
may be used to correct for the over all effect of the non-uniform velocity distribution.
Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section takes the form
v2
Z y   C
2g
According to this equation (the principle of conservation of energy), the total energy
head at upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream
section 2 plus the loss of energy hf between the two section ; or
2 2
v v
Z1  y1   1  Z 2  y2   2  h f
2g 2g
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic
channel. The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy
line. The slope of the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of
the water surface is denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by So = tan .
In uniform flow, Sf = Sw = So = tan .
Figure energy PRINCIPL ESinopen channel flows-9 Energy in gradually varied open channel
flow

2.5 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to
p
 Z  y
the channel bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is  (with
Z = 0) which is the water depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-
depth (y) and the velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.

V2
ES  y  
2g
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of
Q
V 
water-depth only, since A.
Q2
 Es  y 
2 g y 2 BS2
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel
section and discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained (figure2-3).

Figure energy PRINCIPL ESinopen channel flows-10 Specific Energy Curve

This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically towards the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends
upward and to the right. Line OD is a line that passes through the origin and has an
angle of inclination equal to 45o. At any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents
the depth, and the abscissa represents the specific energy. Which is equal to the sum of
2
the pressure head y and the velocity head V 2 g.

The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes are possible, viz.
slow and deep flow or a fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy, there
are two possible depths, for instance, the low stage y. and the high stage y 2. The low
stage is called the alternate depth of the high stage, and vice versa. At pint C, the
specific energy is minimum. It can be proved that this condition of minimum specific
energy corresponds to the critical state of flow. Thus, at the critical state the two
alternate depths apparently become one, which is known as the critical depth (YC).
When the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, the velocity of flow is less
than the critical velocity for the given discharge, and, hence, the flow is sub critical.
When the depth of flow is less than critical depth the flow is supercritical. Hence, Y1,
is the depth of a supercritical flow, and Y2 is the depth of a sub critical flow.

If the discharge changes, the specific energy will be changed accordingly. The two
curves A’B’ and A”B” (Figure 2-3) represent positions of the specific energy curve
when the discharge is less and greater, respectively than the discharge used for the
construction of the curve AB.

The critical state of Flow

The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is
a minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number
(Fr2) is equal to unity.
V2
ES  y 
2g
V
Q 
For A
Q2
ES  y 
2g A2
Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant.

d ES Q 2 dA
 1
dy g A 3 dy

The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 2-5) is equal to BS dy
dA A
 BS D 
Now dy . and the hydraulic depth BS . So the above equation becomes.
 dE S Q 2 Bs Q2
 1  1 
dy gA 3 gA 2 D
Q
V 
But A . Substituting
dE S V 2 A2 V2
 1  1   ES min imum
dy gA 2 D gD
dE
0
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or dy . The above
equation, therefore, gives.

v2 D

2g 2
This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the
velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be
V
 1,
gD
written which means Fr = 1; this is the definition of critical flow given
previously.
2.6 Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newton second low of motion by

summing up the resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and
by developing the other side of the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of
rates of in flow and outflow of momentum.

According to Newton's second law of motion the change of momentum (dmv) per unit
time, is equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on a body (body of water
flow in a channel in our case).
d (mv)
F 
dt

The momentum passing a section A per unit time (t = 1sec):

mv = * (A. V) V

dt

v
A

Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time.

mv = QV

Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)

mv =  *  * Q * v
Q2
mv =  *  * A

Within the control volume defined in the figure there is an unknown energy loss
and/or force acting on the flow between section 1 and 2; the result is a change in the
linear momentum of the flow. In many cases, this change in momentum is
accompanied by a change in depth of flow. The application of Newton's second law, in
a one dimensional for to the control volume, i.e. equating the sum of all external
forces (F) to the rate of change of momentum ( Q V) for any two cross-sections 1
and 2 gives:

F  Q (V2  V )1

Or including the momentum coefficient

F  Q   2V2   1V 
Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.

F wsin

Ff F

W 

Thus, F =  (2v2 – 1v2) implies

F = F1 –F2 + w sin  - Ff =  (2 v2 - 1v1)

F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and w is the
weight of the water between the two sections. F f is the total friction force acting along
the surface of the body. The slope is mild assume sin   So = 0
 W sin  = 0

and for a flow with parallel flow lines the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic.

The force F1 is gAy+, where A is the cross- sectional area and of y + the depth of the
center of gravity of the area A (the depth of centroid of the cross sectional area
measured below the surface of flow) . For rectangular section of small slope

F = g by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)

(Remark for canals with large slope F = g bdcos  ½ dcos  = ½ g bd 2 cos2)

Therefore, substituting

W sin  = o
F1 = g A1y1+
F2 = gA2y2+
F1 – F2 + w sin - Ff =  (2v2 - 1v1)

 g A1y1+ - g A2 y2+ - Ff = Q (2v2 - 1 v1)

  2 1 
  
2  A2 A1 
 - Ff = g A2y2 - g A1y1 Q
+ +

 Q 2    Q2 
 A2 y 2      A1 y1  1 
A2 g   gA1 
 - Ff = g 
Ff    Q2    Q2 
  A1 y1  1    A2 y 2   2 
pq  gA1   gA2 


The term between brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general:
 Q2

M = A y+ + qA
Ff

 sq = M1 – M2

For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient  the function, M depends
only on the water depth y. Plotting M against ay gives a similar figure as for the
specific energy Es against depth y. This curve is called specific force curve. In the
figure two regions can be determined, namely sub and supercritical flow. For every M
> Mmin two water –depths exist, which are called the initial and sequent depth.
Together they are the conjugate depths.
b
1
h
2
B

h  2b  B 
1   
3  bB 

h  2B  b 
2   
2  bB 

1
A   b  Bh
2
In applying the momentum principle to a short horizontal reach of a prismatic canal,
the external forces of friction and the weight effect of water can be ignored. Thus,
with  = 0 and Ff = 0 the equation becomes:

M1  M 2

Q2 Q2
 
A1 y1+ + gA1 = A y + + gA2
2 2
 2
The momentum function M = y+A + gA consists of two terms. The second term
  2 
 
 gA  is the momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit
time per unit weight of water, and the first term (Ay +) is the force per unit weight of
water. Since both terms are essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum may
be called the specific force. Accordingly, it may be expressed as F1 = F2.

Thus, in analogy with the concept of specific energy) for a given value M, the M- y
curve predicts two possible depths of flow – conjugate depths of a hydraulic jump.
For a rectangular cross section y1 = ½ y. Assuming,  = 1 results in m = ½ Ay +
2
qA

The function per unit width (b = 1) reads

q2
M = ½ y + gy 2

The function has on extreme for :

dM q2
 y  0 q  is disch arg e per unit width
dy gy 2

 q2
Y3 = g

1
 q2 3 q2

 g 

3

Y = yc =   = g

d 2m q2
 1 2
dy 2 gy 3

d 2m 2q 2 2g
 1 1 3
dy 2  q2  g
g  
for y = yc   g 
The minimum value of the specific momentum function can be found under the
assumptions of parallel flow and uniform velocity distribution by taking the first
derivative of M with respect to y and setting the resulting expression equal to zero or

dm 2 dA d  y  A
   0
dy gA2 dy dy

 2 dA
 A 0
gA2 dy

Bs (dy ) 2
] y A 
Where d (y+A) = [A (y++dy) + 2 Ady and where it is assumed
 A
, and D 
that (dy)2 = 0 – Then substituting dA/dy = Bs, v = A T

V2 D

We get 2g 2 which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of
specific force (momentum) occurs at minimum specific energy or critical depth.
The given number 3 is positive, so for momentum value for y =y c . It has to be noted
that the given relation for yc is only applicable for open rectangular (prismatic)
channels.

For other cross sections the impulse momentum equation should be used

P    2   2  2 
  A1 y1  12    A2 y2  
sg  A g   A2 g 

P
 M1  M 2
qg

With these equation it is possible to compute one unknown among the four variables
(F, Q, A1 ,A2) for a given channel shape and 1 =2 = 1; (y+ is also a function of
channel shape and water level).

The impulse momentum principle also follows from Newton’s second law. The flow
may be compressible or incompressible, real (with friction) or ideal (frictionless),
steady or unsteady moreover, the equation is not only valid along a streamline. The
advantage of the impulse momentum principle is that only the conditions at the end
sections of the control volume govern the analysis. It has a special advantage for
application to problems involving high internal energy changes, such as the problem
of the hydraulic jump. If the energy equation is applied to such problems, the
unknown internal energy loss represented by hf is indeterminate, and the omission of
this term would result in a considerable errors. If instead the momentum equation is
applied to these problems, since it deals only with external forces, the effects of the
internal forces, the effects of the internal forces will be entirely out of consideration
and need not be evaluated. The term for frictional losses due to external forces, on the
other hand, is unimportant in such problems and can safely be omitted, because the
phenomenon takes place in a short reach of the channel and the effect due to external
forces is negligible compared with the internal losses.
 3.
CHAPTER THREE:- FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

3.1 Critical flow

As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized

by several important conditions.

Recapitulating:

1) The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,

dEs dEs Q 2 .Bs

0 1 0
dy dy qA 3

dEs v 2 Bs v 2
1 1  0
dy g. A g .D

Q 2 Bs v2
 1
g.A 3 gD

This dim ensionless number is the froude number Fr 2

v2 Q 2 Bs
Fr 2   x
gD gA 3

2) The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,

3) The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,

1 Q2
d( Ay   )
dm 2 gA
  0
dy dy

4) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,
v2 

2g 2
5) The Froude number is equal to unity,

Q 2 Bs v2
 1
g . A3 qD

6) The velocity of low in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local
disturbance.
 Ac
gD  g
Vc = Bc

Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a

channel, known as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout
the entire length of the channel or over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel
is critical flow. The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and
critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel less than the
critical slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, as
will be shown later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope. A slope greater
than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state, and is called a
steep or supercritical slope.

A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in
specific energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This
fact can also be recognized in the specific energy curve. It can be observed also that,
which the flow is near the critical state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy.
Such phenomena are generally caused by the minor changes in energy due to
variations in channel roughness, cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris.
In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or near the critical depth for a greater
length of the channel, the shape or slope of the channel should be altered, if
practicable, is order to secure greater stability.

The criterion for a critical state of flow

v2 D

2g 2

is the basis for the computation of critical flow. Two major applications of critical,
flow theory are flow control and flow measurement.

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow

v2 D

2g 2

Substituting v = Q/A gives

Q2 D
2

2 gA 2 Equation chapter three:- FLOW COMPUTATION
FORMULAS -6

Q2 Q
  A2 D   A D
g g
 A
But Z = D is defined in section 2.1 as the section factor for critical flow
computation

Q
Q g
 Z 
g (When  is not assumed to be unity Z =  )

The above equation stages that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical
state of flow is equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the
section factor Z is a function of the depth, the equation indicates that there is only one
possible critical depth for maintaining the given discharge in a channel and similarly
that, when the depth is fixed, there can be only one discharge that maintains a critical
flow and makes the depth critical in the given channel section.

Equation 3.1is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in
an open channel. When the discharge is given, the equation gives the critical section
factor Zc and, hence the critical depth yc. On the other hand when the depth and, hence
the section factor are given, the critical discharge can be computed by the following
form.

Z g
Q =

g
Q = 

Computation of critical flow

Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity
(yc & vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods
illustrated by examples are given below. On the other hand, if critical depth and
channel section are known, the critical discharge can be determined from the relation
g
Q  Z g or Q  .
Q = 

Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be
determined by an algebraic computation using the basic equations.

Example 5

For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate
the critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.

Solution

The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow
viz.
 v2 D A
 , where D 
2g 2 Bs

The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in
terms of the depth y as

A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y

B2 = B + 2my = 6 + 4y

A (3  y ) y
 D 
Bs 3  2y

Q 17 17
and V   
A (6  2 y ) y 2(3  y ) y

v2 D

Substituting the above relations in 2g 2 gives

17 / (6  2 y ) y  2 
(3  y )
g 3  2y
Simplifying,
7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y]3
By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,
yc = 0.84 m

and the corresponding critical velocity is

17
 2.6 m / s
Vc = [6  2(0.84)]0.84
Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be
used with great expediency. In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to
define the section factor for critical flow computation as discussed before.
Q v2 D

Substituting V = A is the criterion for critical state of low 2 g 2 yields after
simplification

Q A3
Z 
g / Bs

The left hand side of the above equation is by definition the section factor for critical
flow Z, and the right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel shape
and the depth of flow. A design chart for the purpose of solving the critical depth
problem is given is figure . . . . .

Example 6
A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71 m3/s; estimate the
critical depth of flow.

Solution
For   1

Q 0.71
Z    0.227
g 9.81

Z 0.227
and 2.5
  0.287
d0 0.912.5

From figure (the design chart )

yc
 0.54
d0
yc  0.54 * 0.91  0.49 m

For complex designed sections which can not be treated by either the analytical
method or the design chart method, a graphical method may be used. This method is
also applicable to natural channels. In this procedure, a curve of yc versus Z is
Q
g
constructed such that for a specific value of Z = the value of yc may be
estimated.

Example 7

A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 conveys a flow 17 m 3/s ; estimate
the critical depth of flow.

Solution

The first step in solving this problem is to construct a y versus Z curve (figure). The
value of the section factor is then computed from given data

Q A3
Z   5.4277 m 2..5
q Bs

Then from the figure yc = 0.85 m.

Yc
 A3
Z= Bs
Control section (flow control)

The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of

explicit relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the
discharge of flow. When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a
channel or structure, this section is called the control section. Holding a fixed stage –
discharge relationship, the control section is always suitable for gauging station since
it is always suitable site for developing the discharge rating curve, a curve
representing the depth – discharge relationship.

At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship can be established and
Q
represented by t he equation Z = q
. This equation theoretically independent of the
channel roughness and other uncontrolled circumstances. Therefore, the critical flow
section is a control section.

Control sections occur at entrances and exists to channels and at changes in channels
slopes, under certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the
upstream and downstream reaches. When a flow changes from sub- critical to super –
critical conditions or vice versa, the water depth must pass through the critical depth.
The change from sub critical to supercritical occurs in a control section. The change
from super –critical to sub –critical is only possible by means of a hydraulic jump.

A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and

cannot change the upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than
critical (yupstream = < yc). In this case downstream conditions do not control the flow.

All super – critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and
computations of surface profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub
–critical (or tranquil) flows will be affected by small changes in downstream
conditions and therefore the latter controls these flows. Sub critical or tranquil flow
computations start at the downstream end of a reach and are carried out in an
upstream direction.

If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be
computed there fore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given
(measured) water depth. In case of steep channel the computation proceed in the
downstream direction.

A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical
stage at the beak in slope. Computation advance both upstream and downstream from
the control section at the break.

Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created by a dam and
the water flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow
conditions might occur in the channel downstream of the spillway.
If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical
throughout the channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the
reservoir is sub critical and the reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the
downstream end of the reservoir, near the spillway a so called drawdown curve will
develop, extending in an upstream direction, starting at a section near the spillway
crest. The drawdown curve will be asymptotic to the upstream reservoir level.

If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is
initially subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a
long distance (upstream from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level
is required to build up enough energy head, necessary to convey water over the
spillway crest. This effect of raising the water level upstream of s spillway is known
as a backwater curve.

When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub –
critical to super –critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the
upstream flow is sub critical and yn > yc. At the break the depth passes through critical
depth. This point called the control section since the depth at the break controls the
upstream depth.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which t he
uniform depth is smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes
through critical depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the
control section. By measuring the depth at the control section, a reasonably accurate
value of Q can be computed.

Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope

Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a free outfall with sub –critical
flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in
the direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any
point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a
minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value
for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight
and parallel flow lines. However at the free outfall gravity forces create curved
streamlines. So that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72 *yc. Critical depth occurs
somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3 y c and 10 yc). For super –critical flow
conditions; upstream of the outfall, on drop down curve develops.

Flow measurement

It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the
relationship between the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel
roughness and other uncontrollable circumstances such an explicit relationship
between stage –discharge relationship offers a theoretical basis for the measurement
of discharge in open channels
Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measurement have
been developed. In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the
construction of a low hump on the channel bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in
the cross- section, such as a critical flow flume. (venturi flume) (Example, par shall
flume). The use of a weir i. a simple method, but it causes relatively high head loss. If
water contains suspended particles, some will be deposited in the upstream pool
formed by the weir, resulting in a gradual change in discharge coefficient. These
difficulties, however, can be overcome at least partially by the use of critical -flow
flume.
Example 8
Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel section in
terms of the channel width and the total heads.

Solution

- For the rectangular section

A
Z  A D  A  by y  by1.5
B

- At critical state of flow the depth

H 3
y  or H  yc
1.5 2

Q
Z  Q Z g
- rg

 Q  byc  3/ 2
 g

But yc = 2/3 H

Replacing
3/ 2
2
Q  g *  * BH 3 / 2
3

3/2
2
 9.81 *   * BH 3/2

3

Q = 1.7 B.H 3/2 - Broad –crested – weir

Figure chapter three:- FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS -11 Curve for Determining
Critical Depth
3.2 Uniform flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics

a. the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel
are constant;
b. the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their
slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So

Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is

practically nonexistent. In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers
and streams in natural states scarcely ever experience a strict uniform flow condition.
Despite this deviation from the truth, the uniform flow condition is frequently
assumed in the computation of flow in natural streams. The results obtained from this
assumption are understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a relatively
simple and satisfactory solution to many practical problems.

Establishment of uniform flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows
downstream.

This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces acting

on the body of the water in the direction of motion. A uniform flow will be developed
if the resistance is balanced by the gravity forces, i.e., the head loss due to turbulent
flow is exactly balanced by the reduction in potential energy due to the uniform
decrease in the elevation of the channel. The magnitude of the resistance, when other
physical factors of the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the velocity of flow.

If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small
and the resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating
flow in the upstream reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase
until a balance between resistance and gravity force is reached. At this moment and
afterwards the flow become uniform. The upstream reach that is required for the
establishment of uniform flow is known as the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is
accelerating and varied. If the channel is shorter than the transitory length required by
the given conditions, uniform flow couldn't be attained. Towards the end of the
channel the resistance may again be exceeded by the gravity forces and the flow may
become varied. In general, uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight,
prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of flow can be achieved.

Figure chapter three:- FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS -12 Establishment of uniform flow
in longitudinal channel

For purposes of explanation, a long channel is shown with three different slopes
(figures given during your lecture or refer Ven Te Chow) : sub critical, critical and
supercritical. At the sub critical slope the water surface in the transitory zone appears
adulatory. The flow is uniform in the middle reach of the channel but varied at the two
ends. At the critical slope (middle sketch) the water surface of the critical flow is
unstable. Possible undulations may occur in the middle reach, but on the average the
depth is constant and the flow may be considered uniform. At the supercritical slope
the transitory water surface passes from the sub critical stage to the supercritical stage
through a gradual hydraulic drop. Beyond the transitory zone the flow is approaching
uniformity. The depth of uniform flow is called the normal depth. In the figures the
long dashed lines represents the normal- depth line, abbreviated as N. D. L, and the
short dashed or dotted lines represents the critical –depth line, or C. D .L.

3.3 Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed
approximately by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations. All of
these equations have the form

V = CRx Sy

Where
V = average velocity
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel longitudinal slope
C = resistance coefficient
X and y coefficients

The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the
Manning equation, developed in 1889.

The chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an
assumption regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the
figure below, the definition of uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow
exactly equal the forces causing motion. The force causing motion is

Figure chapter three:- FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS -13 Forces on a column of flowing
water

F = W sin =  A L sin 

Where: W = weight of third within control volume

R = third specific weight (98)
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.

If  is small, which is usually the case, then sin   S0. Thus

 F = AL So = gAL S0

For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is

Ff =  * P * L

Equating F = Ff
 * P * L = g AL So

A
   g S o  g R S 0
P

gRS 0
 is shear stress along the perimeter, if we let shear velocity V * = the above
equation implies.


=  V*2

V* is known as shear velocity.

From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter
resisting motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or

Ff  V2

Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance
can also be written as

Ff = KLPV2

Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the
force resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.
gALS o  KLPV 2

  ALS o  KLPV 2

  1/ 2 A
 V    S0
K P

1/ 2
 
V    RS o
k

  1/ 2
V   RS
k

Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped. For convenience define.
 1/ 2
 
 
C = k

1/ 2
 
 
The resistance coefficient, c, defined as  k  is commonly known as the Chezy C
and in practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of
resistance defined by the above equation is not dimensionless but has dimensions of
acceleration; i.e. length /time2 or LT-2.

Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula

V = C RS

Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of
energy line (m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.

The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely
empirical in nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the
system of units being used be identified and that the appropriate coefficient be used.
In the SI system of units, the Manning equation is

V = 1/n R2/3 S
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. As was the case with the chezy resistance
coefficient, n is not dimensionless but has dimensions of TL -1/3 or in the specific case
of the equation above S/m1/3.

From the viewpoint of modern fluid mechanics, the dimensions of the resistance
coefficients C and  and to take these dimensions into account where appropriate.

Since the chezy and Manning equations describe the same phenomena, the
coefficients C and n must be related setting equation (*) is equal to equation (**), i.e
Vchezy = VManning yields.

C = 1/n R1/6

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

From the previous section:


The Manning equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
The Chezy equation gives V = C RS  CR S
1/ 2 1/ 2


and by law of conservation of mass this equations, when multiplied by the flow area,
yields an equation for uniform flow rate or

Manning Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2

Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the
parameters CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of
the carrying capacity of a channel section; since it is directly proportional to Q.

Q
1/ 2
 Manning K = 1/n AR = S 2/3

Q
1/ 2
 Chezy K = CAR = S
1/2

The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of
the water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since
Manning formula is used extensively, most of the following discussions and
computations will be based on Manning’s equation.

Conveyance of a channel section increases with in increase in hydraulic Radius R or

with decrease in the wetted perimeter.

K  R  1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2

Q = 1/n K S1/2
From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted
perimeter for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as
the best hydraulic section.

In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform
flow computation; it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow.
From Manning’s equation

nQ
AR2/3 = 5

The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side
depends only on the geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given
condition of n, Q, and S, there is only one possible depth for maintaining uniform
flow, provided that the value of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth, which
is true in most cases. This depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a
channel section, from the equation there can be only one discharge for maintaining a
uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with increase
of depth. This discharge is the normal discharge.

When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section
factor AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yn. On the other land, when n, s and yn, hence
the section factor are given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from

Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2

This essentially the product of the water area and the velocity defined by the Manning
formula.
In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the
shape of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and y n must be estimated. In such
cases, an explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by

 Trial and error (Algebric method)

 Numerical method (using computer)
 Design chart (using graph)

In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation

between depth and section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular,
trapezoidal, and circular channel sections. This self explanatory curves will help to
determine the depth for a given section factor AR2/3, and the vice versa.

In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR 2/3 will
first increase with depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is
approached, because a maximum value of AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a
depth slightly less than the full depth. Consequently, it is possible to have two depths
for the same AR2/3.

Example 9

Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal
slope of 0.0016 and estimated on of 0.13, find the normal depth of flow for a
discharge of 7.1m3/5.

Solution:
nQ 0.13 * 7.1
AR 2 / 3    23.075
S 0.0016

With
A   b  my  y   3  1.5 y  y
P  b  2y 1  m2  3  2 y 3.25  3  3.6 y

R 
 3  1.5 y  y
3  3.6 y

Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of y and computing

corresponding values of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem
statement, the corrected value of yn has been determined

Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3

2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16

2.55 17.4 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.6 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.0 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08

Resistance Coefficient Estimation

The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy equation in practice is
accurately estimating an appropriate value of the resistance coefficient. In general, it
is expected that n and c should depend on the Reynolds number, of the flow
(Reynolds number reflect the effect of viscosity in relation to inertia), the boundary
roughness, and the shape of the channel cross-section.
 4. CHAPTER FOUR :-GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)

In uniform flow the cross section through which water flows remains constant. Also
the velocity remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow the cross
section changes in the flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the
channel. Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is
rare, the term "unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied
flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied.

The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short
distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as
local phenomenon examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.

Gradually varied flow is a steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the
channel. This means that 3 conditions are met.

 The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;

 The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure prevails,
 Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning,
chezy). Also, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy slope
of GVF at a given channel section.

Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal
distance, the flow is termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both
upstream and downstream of control sections. In this chapter the theory and analysis
of gradually varied flow are considered.

4.1 General Equation for Gradually varied flow

The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force
due to change in depth and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and
potential energy, while the forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic
energy of turbulence and eventually into heat due to action of viscosity. The total
energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:

V2

E = Z + Y + 2g

Where:

Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum

V2

2 g is the kinetic energy head (v = mean velocity in the section).

Each term of the equation represents energy. The gradually varied flow equation is
derived by assuming that for gradually varied flow the change in energy with distance
is equal to the friction loss. For the general equation other losses than friction, like
eddy, bend and/or bridge losses are not included.
Therefore, at any section, the total energy is

V2
E = Z + Y + 2g

Where y = dept of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and
assuming  = 1 and cos = 1 (slope channel is small sin So). Differentiating this
equation with respect to the longitudinal distance x yields:

 V2   v2 
d  Z  Y   d  
dE  2g   2 g  dy dz
   
dx dx dx dx dx

dE
The term dx is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.

Define,
dE
  Sf
dx
It should be noted that the friction loss dE is always a negative quantity in the
direction of flow (unless outside energy is added)

dZ
The term dx is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to
distance or the bottom slope.

Define,

dZ
  So
dX

It should be noted that the slope is defined as the sine of the slope angle and that it is
assumed positive if it descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But
the change in the bottom elevation dZ is a negative quantity where the slope descends.
dZ
Thus, the slope of the channel bottom So = sin  = - dx
 v2 
d  
 2g 
For a given flow rate Q, the term dx becomes

 v2 
d  
 2 g    Q 2 dA dy   Q T dy
2

3
dx qA dy dx qA 3 dx
dy
Fr 2
= dx
  v2 
d  
dE  2 g  dy dz
   yields
Substituting, in dx dx dx dx

dy 2 dy
Sf   Fr   So
dx dx
 So  Sf 
dy
dx
1  Fr
2
 
dy So  Sf
  2
dx 1  Fr

This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as
dynamic equation of GVF). It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel
of arbitrary shape as a function of So, S f and Fr2. Sf represents the slope of the energy
 dE 
 .
line  dx  For uniform flow the bed slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf) are
parallel. The friction slope (Sf) for non-uniform, gradually varied flow is not parallel
to the bottom slope, but is evaluated using Manning’s the Chezy’s (Colebrook–white)
equation. There is no general explicit solution (although particular solutions are
available for prismatic channels). Numerical methods are normally used.

Note that

dE
  Sf
dx
dZ
  So
dx
dEs
 So  Sf
dx
The later is derived as:
v2
E = Z + Y + 2g
 v 2 
d  Z  Y  
dE  2g 
  S f
dx dx

 v 2 
d  Y  
dEs 2g    dZ  S
  f
But dx dx dx

dEs  dZ 
  So  Sf    So 
dx  dx 
 dy
o
The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope S o of dx , Sw < So if
dy dy
dx is positive, and greater than So if dx is negative. In other words, the water
dy dy
o
surface is parallel to the channel bottom when dx , rising when dx is positive,
dy
and lowering when dx is negative.

The term, Sf in the general GVF equation represents the energy slope. According to
our initial assumption, this slope at a channel section of GVF is equal to the energy
slope of the uniform flow that has the velocity and hydraulic radius of the section.
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 
V  R S 
When Manning’s formula is used  n .

n 2v 2 q 2n 2
4/3

Sf = R y10 / 3

When the Chezy formula is used V  C RS 

V2
2
Sf = C R

For uniform flow (So = Sf)

V 2n2 q 2n2
So   10 / 3
R4 / 3 yn

10 / 3
Sf  yn 

 y 
So  
Yn – normal or equilibrium depth

This general equation for GVF can also be driven as:

 v2   Q2   Q2   Q2 
d   d  2
 d  2
 d  2 
 2 g    2 gA    2 gA   A 
dx dx dx dx 2 g

1 1
 dQ 2  Q 2 d
A2 A2

1 2
 2
2Q dQ  Q 2 dA
A A3
2Q Q2
 2 dQ  2 3 dA
A A
  Q2 
d  2 
A 2
  2Q dQ  2 Q dA
 
dx A 2 dx A 3 dx

dA dA dy dy
  Bs
but dx dy dx dx

Substituting ,

 Q2 
d   2
 A   2Q dQ  2Q Bs dy
dx A2 dx A3 dx

dQ
0
But dx Assuming there is no inflow and outflow across the reach ,
Q 
2
d  2  2
  A   2Q Bs dy
dx A3 dx

Putting back 2g (i. e dividing by 2g)

 Q2 
d  2 
 A    2Q Bs dy   Fr 2 dy
2

2 g dx 2 g A 3 dx dx

 So  S f  1  Fr 2 
2dy dy dy
  Sf   Fr  So 
dx dx dx

4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles

Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are
dy So  Sr

analyzed by using the expression: dx 1  Fr 2

The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel
bottom. If dy/dx is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x). When
the channel bottom is going down in the direction of flow, So is positive. Similarly Sf
in downstream direction is always positive; the energy is decreasing in downstream
direction. For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water surface
parallel to the bottom.
For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.

n 2Q 2 P 4 / 3
Sr 
A10 / 3

Q 2 Bs
Fr 2 
gA3

Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; S f = So when y =

yo (uniform flow).

Hence:
Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc
Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually
varied flow the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found
for each region.
The profiles of the water surface depend on:

a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N
b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc

Letter Type of bottom Characteristics

slope
S Steep So > Sc
C Critical So = Sc
M Mild 0 < So <Sc
H Horizontal So = 0
A Adverse So < 0

The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.

Classification of varied flow profiles

S1 C1 M1 - -
S2 - M2 H2 A2
S3 C3 M3 H3 A3
The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the
normal water depth (if existing) and the critical water depth.

Some frequent encountered curves are:

M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is
given and y > yn and y > yc. Also is given a mild slope (M), which means y n > yc.
The flow is sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the
downstream direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.

M2: The draw–down curve, for example above a transition from a mild slope to a less
mild.

M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or

to M1 gives a hydraulic jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild
(yn > yc) and yn > yc > y. The flow is super–critical and dy/dx is positive, the
water depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth
decreases in an upstream direction.
C3 : If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains
critical throughout the channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the
flow in upstream of the dam or gate is sub–critical and the water surface will
approach the horizontal.

Another example of a flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs
and with sub–critical flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant
decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy
is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which the specific
energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall.
However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is
flowing in straight and parallel flow lines. However, at the free outfall gravity forces
create curved streamlines, so that the depth at the brink (outfall) y b is 0.72* yc. Critical
depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3yc and 10yc).

For super–critical flow conditions, upstream of the outfall, no drop–down curve

develops.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the
uniform depth is smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes
through critical depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the
control section.

There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches yc, the
denominator approaches zero. Thus dy/dx becomes infinite and the curves will cross
the critical depth line perpendicular to it. Hence, surface profiles in the vicinity of y =
yc are only approximate. Similarly, when y approaches to y n, the numerator
approaches to zero. Thus the curves approach the normal depth, yn asymptotically.

Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel bed
perpendicularly, which is impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.
 Summary of Flow Profiles

dy dy dy
0 0 0
dx dx dx
Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve

y > yn Sf < So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow
y < yn Sf > So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied
y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2 > 0 Sub –critical
y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Critical
y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 0 Supercritical

y > yn y < yn
Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc
So – Sf + n.a. + -
1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -
yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +
type M1 n.a. M2 M3
So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -
yn = yc 1- Fr 2
+ n.a. n.a. -
dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +
type C1 n.a. n.a. C3
So – Sf + + n.a. -
yn < yc 1 – Fr 2
+ - n.a. -
dy/dx + - n.a. +
type S1 S2 n.a. S3
Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. Doesn’t exist

Bottom slope Flow type Depth range of y,yc and yn Type of Flow type
1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 curve
Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical
So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical
Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical
Critical C C1 Y > y c = yn Backwater Sub- critical
So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical
yn = yc C3 Y < y c = yn Backwater Supercritical
Mild M M1 Y > y n > yc Backwater Sub- critical
0 < So < Sc M2 Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
yn > yc M3 Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical
Horizontal H n.a.
So = 0 H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn =  H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Adverse A n.a.
So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Depth range
Region 1 Y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 Y n < y < yc
Region 3 Y < yn and y < yc

4.3 GVF Computations

The direct step method (distance from depth)

The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels.

Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are
calculated. The equation may be used to determine directly (with means explicit)

the distance between given differences of depth  y  . The equation may be

rewritten in finite difference form as:
1  Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sr

The equation can also be written as:

E s 2  E s1
Δx 
So  Sr

Es is the specific energy. In the computation S f is calculated for the depths y1 and
y2 and the average is taken, which is denoted by Sfm.

Fig

The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the (prismatic)
channel. An approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a
number of successive, short reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the
beginning can be estimated.

Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the
reach to the other end. The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average
conditions in each reach to provide an estimate of S fm and So, with the depth and
velocity at one end of the reach given, the length can be computed.
Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are
calculated.
 For the computations are needed:
 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis
For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.

Fig
Graphical Integration
This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical
procedure.

dy S  Sf
 o
dx 1  Fr 2
dx 1  Fr 2

dy So  Sf
x y2
1 Fr 2
 dx 
o

y1
So  Sf
dy

y2 y2
1  Fr 2 dx
L  x 2  x1  
y1 So  Sf
dy  dy dy
y1

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths
of flow y1 and y2. The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y)
is plotted, then the area under the curve is equivalent to X. The value of the
function f(y) may be found by substitution of A, P, S o and Sf for various values of
y and for a given Q. Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y 1 and y2)
may be calculated (numerical integration) or measured (graphical integration).this
numerical/graphical method gives the distance from depth.

Fig
By this method the larges errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature.
This is the region near the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by
varying the steps x as a function of the curvature. This method has broad
application. It applies to flow in prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of
any shape and slope. The procedure is straightforward and easy to follow. It may
become very laborious when applied to actual field problems.
Standard step method
The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The
distance between the stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth
of flow at he stations. As mentioned in chapter 5.6 the computation procedure is
usually carried out by trial and error.

For the computation are needed:

1. Discharge Q
2. length of the reach  ?
3. Area A as function of y
4. Hydraulic radius R as function of y
5. Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
6. Corilois coefficient 

The total heads at the two end sections are:

1. Prismatic Cannels
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z 2  E 2  2  E1  Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔE s   So  Sf  * Δx
2. Natural Channels
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z 2  E 2  2  E1  Δx
2g 2g
v2
ΔE s  h f  hc   S f * x  
2g

Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m

Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g.
0.01m),
Re-estimate Z2 and repeat until agreement is reached.

The computation of the flow profile by the standard step method is arranged in
tabular form .
Each column of the table is explained as follows:
1. The location of the stations is fixed.
2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this
column; this will be verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations
made in the remaining columns of the table.
For the first step, this elevations must be given or assumed. In most cases
the first entry is known. After this value in the second step has been
verified, it becomes the basis for the verification the trial value in the next
step, and so on
3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For
instance, the depth of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface
elevation minus bottom elevation (distance form the first site times bed
slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in
col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity
head in col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8
10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each
step, approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just
computed in col. 9 and that of the previous step.

11. Length of the reach  x  between the sections.

12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10
and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of h f
(and hc if calculated in a previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the
lower end of the reach, which is found in col. 13 of the previous reach.

If the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in col. 7, a
new trial value of the water-surface elevation is assumed, and so on, until
agreement is obtained. The value that leads to agreement is the correct
water-surface elevation. The computation may then proceed to the next
step.

In the next examples the eddy losses in the reaches are equal to zero and
neglected in the calculations. If the eddy losses are not neglected an extra
column should be inserted between column 12 and 13
 5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

5.1 Characteristics of RVF

 Pronounced curvature of streamlines.

Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)
 Example: Hydraulic Jump

5.2 RVF vs GVF

In view of contrast with UF & GVF the following characteristics should be noted.
 Pronounced curvature  hydrostatic pressure distribution can not be assumed
 Raid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance
Effect of boundary friction is comparatively small, which would play a
primary role in a GVF
 In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than
unity and can not be accurately determined.
 Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries.
(Because profiles could be broken).

Approach to the problem

6. The theory that assumes:

Parallel flow,

Hydrostatic distribution of pressure- Does not apply in RVF computation.

7. For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation can be

established,

8. Approach to the solution of such equation

8.1 Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)

8.2 Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)

9. No satisfactory general solution has yet been obtained

Practical approach

10. No general solution yet been found

11. Various RVF phenomena are treated as isolate cases

11.1 Each with own semi-empirical/empirical treatment

- Experimental results are used empirically
- Flow interpreted qualitatively using energy principle, momentum
principle, geometry plus sometimes dimensional analysis

 Three isolated cases

- Flow over spillway
- Hydraulic jump
- Flow under gate

11.2 Flow over spillways

Definition:

Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow
channel; opening built into a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess
floodwater.
Fincha Sugar Estate Main Canal

SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW) VS BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW)

  BCW
 Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation
from a hydrostatic pressure distribution because of centripetal
acceleration may be neglected.
 stream-lines are parallel and straight

 Criteria 0.5  H1/L0.07

- If 0.07 H1/L the energy loss above the crest can not be neglected
- 0.5  H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed
L = length of the weir rest in the direction of flow, H 1 total energy head over the weir
crest
 SCW
- Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)
- The crest length in the direction of the flow is short enough not to
influence the H-Q relationship of a weir
- In practice, 0.002m L so that even at a minimum head of 0.03m the
nappe is completely free from the weir body after passing the weir 
no adhered nappe can occur
- An air pocket beneath the nappe form from which a quantity of air is
removed continuously by the over falling jet.
- Therefore, Precaution is required not to ensure that the pressure in the
air pocket is not reduced. Otherwise resulting undesirable effects:
  Owing to the increase of the under pressure the curvature of the
over falling jet will increase, causing increase of the discharge
coefficient
 Irregular supply of air to the pocket will cause vibration of the
jet resulting an unsteady flow
- SCW is the simplest form of overflow spillway
- Motto:
 Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest possible
head.
 Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid danger
of cavitation on the crest or vibration of the structure.
 Theoretically, there should be atmospheric pressure on the crest

Round-Crested overflow spillway

 Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the
flow nappe over a sharp-crested weir
 shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the
projectile
Derivation of Nappe Profile over Sharp Crested Weir by the Principle of Projectile.
Flow Over Spillways

 Sharp-Crested weir vs Broad-crested weir

 Sharp crested weir - Simplest form of over flow spillway
 Round-Crested overflow Spillway
 designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the flow
nappe over a sharp crested weir.
 Shape of flow nappe is interpreted by the principle of the projectile.
- Let Vo = the velocity at pt-x = 0,  is angle of inclination of the
velocity Vo with the horizontal
- Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos  - constant and the only force acting on
the nappe is gravity.

 Horizontal distance traveled is time t

s
 S  vt
X = Vo t Cos V= t (1)
 In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance y (taking y is positive
downward)
1 2
y   Vo t Sin   gt
2 (2)
 Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.

1
y   Vo ts in  gt 2  C '
 2
 x 
t   
 Vo Cos  
 Eliminating t from 1 & 2, from 1
2
 x  1  x 
y   Vo   Sin   g    C'
V
 0 Cos   2 V
 o Cos  
 Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest

Y X gH C'
  tan    HX  2 
H H 2Vo Cos 2
2
H

gH C'
C 
Let A = 2V Cos  , B= - tan, &
2 2
 0 H

2
Y X  X
 A   B C
H H  H = General equation for the lower surface of the nappe
in dimension less term

 Since the horizontal velocity component is constant, the vertical thickness of

the nappe T may be assumed constant and
T
D
 Adding a term H to the above equation the general equation for the
upper surface of the nappe is
 2
Y X  X
 A   B C  D
H  H  H
 These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are theoretically
parabolic.
 Several experimental studies on the nappe over a sharp-crested weir have been
made.
- Reputed works has been done by US Bureau of Reclamation, they
developed the following equations for the constants in the general
nappe equations.
hv
A = - 0.425 + 0.25 H
2
hv  hv  hv
1.568   0.892  0.127
B = 0.411 - 1.603 H - H  H
hv
C = 0.150 – 0.45 H
D = 0.57 – 0.02 (10m)2 exp (10m)
Where:
hv = the velocity head of the approach flow
hv
m= H - 0.208
 For high weirs, the velocity of approach is relatively small and can be ignored
(hv  0)
A = 0.425
B = 0.055
C = 0.150
D = 0.559
 Experimental data have indicated that these equations are not valid When,
X
H < 0.5 and that
hv
H > 0.2
i.e., Additional data for verification are required

X
For H < 0.5, The pressure with in the nappe in the Vicinity of the weir crest is >
Patm because of the convergence of the streamlines. Consequently, forces other than
gravity are acting on the nappe, which makes the principle of the projectile invalid.

N.B: The above theory and equations apply only if the approach flow is sub critical.
For Supercritical flow, or Fr < 1, the nappe profile becomes essentially a function of
the Froude number rather than a function of the boundary geometry as described
above.

Aeration of the Nappe

 In the preceding discussion the over falling nappe is considered a crated; i.e., The
upper and lower nappe surfaces are subject to full atmospheric pressure.
 In practice,

- Usually insufficient aeration below the nappe occurs due to removal of air by
over falling set.
 Effects of reduction of pressure
- Increase in pressure difference on the spillway itself
- Change in the shape of the nappe for which the spillway crest is
designed
- Increase in discharge, sometimes accompanied by fluctuation or
pulsation of the nappe, which may be very objectionable if the weir or
spillway is used for measuring purposes.
- Unstable performance of the hydraulic model
Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways

 Earliest shapes were based on a simple parabola designed to fit the trajectory of
the falling nappe (the equation for the lower surface of the nappe).
 Bazin’s made comprehensive laboratory investigation for nappe shapes. the used
of Bazin’s data in design will produce a crest shape that conincides with lower
surface of as aerated nappe over a sharp-crested weir.
 Such a profile is known as Bazin profile Advantage
- Should couse no negative pressure on the crest (the presence of
negative pressure will lead to danger of cavitation damage).
- In selecting a suitable profile avoidance of negative pressure should be
considered an objective, along with such other factors as maximum
hydraulic efficiency, practicability, stability & economy.

 Extensive experiments on the shape of the nappe over-sharp crested weir were
conducted by U. S Bureau of Reclamation; including Bazin’s, The Bureau has
developed coordinates of the nappe surface for various slope faced weirs
 On the basis of the Bureau data, The U.S Army. Corps of Engineers has developed
several standard shapes at its Waterways Experimental Station. Such shapes
designed as the WES standard spillway shapes, can be expressed by the following
equation:-

n 1
X n  K Hd Y
Where

- X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the
highest point of the crest.
 - Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow
- K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face.
values of k & N are given as flows

Slope of upstream face k n

Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776

 For intermediate slopes: approximate value of k and n may be obtained by plotting

the above values against the corresponding slopes and interpolating from the plot
the required values for any given slope within the plotted range.
 The upstream face of the spillway crest may some times be designed to set back,
as shown by the dashed lines
Discharge of WES Spillway

 The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of

SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the approach
canal.
 The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of the spillway
is greater than 1.33Hd (h > 1.33 Hd), where the design head exclude the approach
velocity head.
 Under this condition, i.e. h/Hd > 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the approach
velocity head is negligible) and the coefficient of discharge C has been found to be
C = 2.21 (if is in ft C He = 4.03)

Discharge of Sharp Crested weir

 Discharge formula over sharp-crested weir can be expressed in the general

form as:
Q C L H 1.5

Where C = discharge Coefficient.

L = effective length of the weir crest
H = is the measured head above the crest; excluding velocity head
 Effective length may be computed as
L = L' - 0.1NH

Where L1 = is the measured length of the crest

N = number of contractions (Eg. piers for gates)
N = 2 for two end contractions
N = 1 for one end contraction
N = 0 for no contraction
 According to a well-known Rehbock formula

X
C = 3.27 + 0.40 h
Where h – is the height of weir.
H H
N.B - This equation holds up to h = 5 but can be extended to h = 10 with fair
approximation.
H
- For h > 15 the weir becomes a sill, and a critical section immediately
upstream from the sill controls the discharge. The critical depth of the
section is approximately equal to H+h. By the critical depth – discharge
relationship, it can be shown that the coefficient C is: -
1.5
 H 
1  
C = 5.68  h 
 H
 The transition between weir and sill (between h = 10 & 15), however, has
not yet been clearly defined.
 Experiments have shown that the coefficient C remains approximately
constant for sharp-crested weir under varying heads if the nappe is aerated.

Weir: Low river dam used to raise the upstream water level, built across a
stream to control raise or diver) the flow of water. Measuring weirs are
across a stream for the purpose of measuring the flow.
Sill: horizontal overflow section of an irrigation check or measuring
structure also used for under water of structure across a river or canal.
11.3 Hydraulic Jump

The theory of jump developed is for horizontal or slightly inclined channels in which
the weight of water in the jump has little effect upon the jump behavior and hence is
ignored in the analyses. The results thus obtained however can be applied to most
channels encountered in engineering problems.

For channels of large slope, the weight effect of water in the jump may become so
pronounced that it must be included in the analysis.

Practical Applications

- To dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir and other hydraulic
structure and thus prevent scouring d/s from the structure.
- To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a measuring flume
and thus maintains high water level in the channel for water distribution
purposes.
- To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the water
depth on the apron.
- To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail water, thus
preventing drawn jump.
- To mix chemical used for water purification.
- To aerate water for city water supplies

Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel

For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is

dissipated through frictional resistance along the channel, resulting in a decrease in
velocity and an increase in depth in the direction of flow.

A hydraulic jump will form in the channel if the Frond Number F r1 of the flow, the
flow depth y1, and a drown stream depth y2 satisfy the following equation:

y2 1
  1  8F1  1
2

y1 2 
This has been verified with experiments

Types of Jump

Hydraulic Jumps on horizontal floor are of several distinct types. They can be
conveniently classified according to Froud Number F r1 of the incoming flow as
follows.
 Fr1 =1 critical flow no jump can form
 1< Fr1 < 1.7 the water surface shows undulation (undular jump)
  1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5 a series of small rollers develop on the surface of the
jump, but the d/s water surface remains smooth. The
velocity throughout is fairly uniform, and the energy
loss low. The jump is called weak jump.

 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5 there is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to
surface and back again with no periodicity. Each
oscillation produces a large wave of irregular period
which, very common in canals, can travel for miles
doing unlimited damage to earth banks and ripraps. This
jump is called Oscillating Jump.
 4.5 < Fr1 < 9.0 steady Jump:- The down stream extremity of the
surface roller and the point at which the high-velocity
jet tends to leave the flow occur at practically the same
vertical section. The action and position of this jump are
least sensitive to variation in tail-water depth. The jump
is well balanced and the performance is at its best. The
energy dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%.
 Fr > 9.0 Strong jump:- The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent
slugs of water rolling down the front face of the jump,
generating waves down-stream and a rough surface can
prevail. The jump action is rough but effective since the
energy dissipation may reach 85%.

N.B. It should be noted that the ranges of the Froude Number given above for the
various types of jump are not clear-cut but overlap to a certain extent depending on
local conditions.

Basic characteristics of the Jump

Energy Loss: the loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific
energy before and after the jump.
 y 2  y1  3
E  E1  E 2 
4 y1 y 2
E
Re lative loss : the ratio
E1
Efficiency: the ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is
defined as the efficiency of the jump.

E2

 2
 3
8F1  1 2  4 F1  1
2

E1 2
8F1 2  F1
2
 
This equation indicates that the efficiency of a jump is a dimension less function,
depending only o the Froude Number of the approach flow. The relative loss is equal
E
1 2
to E1 , this also is a dimensionless function. of Fr .
1
Height of Jump:- the difference between the depths after and before the jump.
Hj = y2 – y1

Expressing each term as a ratio with respect to initial specific energy.

h1 y2 y
  1
E1 E1 E1
hj y1 y2
Where E1 is the relative height, E1 is the relative initial depth, and E1 is the
relative sequence depth. All these ratios can be shown to be dimensionless function of
F1. For example
2
hj 1  8F1  3
 2
E1 F1  2

Length of Jump:

The length of a jump (also length of stilling basin) is empirically given as


L  k y  y1
2

Where, k – is a coefficient derived from laboratory and filed experiment. 4.5 < k < 5.5
where the lower k = 4.5 applies of Fr2 > 10 and the highs for Fr2 < 3.

11.4 Flow under Gates

Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators. Sometimes, gates are used
as discharge regulator (measuring device). They are under-shot or underflow
structures. Example slice gate, radial gate roller gate

The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-H). The

objective is to minimize head loss; this means that the gate has to be lifted out off the
water for design discharge. The other concern of the design is the pressure distribution
over the gate as a function of opening and gate form.

The H-Q relationship for gate depends on the shape and dimension of the control
section and the resulting curvature of the streamlines.

For gated structures the control section is defined by the vena contract, being the
smallest cross section just down steam of the gate. In the vena contract, streamlines
are straight and parallel.

In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.

 h1 
  2
Free flow: the opening is relatively small  a  and the contraction of the steam-
lines in vertical direction is strong. The down stream water level (h 2) wont affect the
flow underneath the gate and a hydraulics jump will occur down stream of the vena
contra. The discharge depends up on the gate opening the upstream water level and
the contraction coefficient.

Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath the gate. The
hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the gate is submerged. The
discharge depends upon the upstream and downstream water level and the gate
opening.

The boundary between free and submerged flow is a sharp one, which can be cleanly
found from the gate opening and the two water levels.

Weir flow: on off gate

The equation for a tree flow underneath a sharp edged gate is:

Q  C d Ba 2gh1
Cd = discharge coefficient
B = Width of gate opening
a = height of gate opening
h1 = upstream water depth

The discharge coefficient Cd

Cc
Cd 
a
1  Cc
h1
Where,

CC = Contraction coefficient of the jet depending on the shape of the gate

h1
and on a
d = diameter of the rounded bottom edge

2
d d 
 4.7 23.04    4.69 
For a : CC = 0.51 + 0.1* a 

d
 4.7  Cc  0.99  Rounded edged gates 
For a

Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge. For sharp edged gates d is small
and CC = 0.61.

The limit between tree flow and submerged flows follows from.
h2 Cc   H  
  116  1  1  1
a 2   aCc  
h2 = downstream water level
H1 = upstream energy level
CC is 0.611 for sharp edged gates (d=0) and CC is 0.99 for rounded of edged gates with
d
 4.7
a

For submerged flow, some equations include the difference between the upstream and
downstream depths and others use the upstream water level only. The general
equation is offer given as.

Q  C 2 Ba 2gh1
Where,
a = vertical opening of the gate( a< 0.67h1)
h1 = Upstream water depth
B = Effective width of the opening
C2 = discharge coefficient.
The equation is the same as for free flow but the discharge coefficient C 2 is a function
h1 h2
, andCc ,
of a a
where h2 is the downstream water depth, C2 values range between 0 and 1.
Others roughly classify the flows as,
h1
 2  free flow
a
h
1.5  1  2  submerged
a
h1
 1.5  weir flow
a

h1 h
a  0.67 * h1 or 1  0.67  1  1.5
For values of a a the discharge follows from
the equation for a broad-crested weil.
3
Q  1.7 * B * H 2
.
 12.UNSTEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Unsteady flow changes with time (dy/dt 0): steady flow does not. The difference is
not an absolute one, but may be dependent on the observer. Suppose for example that
a land slide falls into a river and partially blocks it, sending a surge wave upstream. A
surge wave, often simply called a surge, is a moving wave front which brings about an
abrupt change in depth; another example of this phenomenon is tidal "bore" by which
the tide invades certain rivers.

Now an observer on the bank would see this as an unsteady-flow phenomenon, since
the flow changes its velocity and depth as the sure passes him. However, an observer
who is moving along with the surge sees the situation as one of steady flow, at least in
the first stages of the movement before the surge begins to decay. He is level with a
stationary wave front, and there is flow of unchanging velocity and depth upstream of
him (assuming the river has a uniform slope and cross section) and downstream of
him.

The distinction being made here is not an academic one, for the equations of motion
are very much easier to write down and manipulate for steady flow than they are for
unsteady flow. It is one of the most interesting features of fluid mechanics that one
may greatly simplify the analysis of a problem by changing one's viewpoint from, say,
that of a stationary to that of a moving observer, and so changing the flow situation
from an unsteady to a steady one.

There are, of course, many cases in practice where there is no such dependence on the
viewpoint of the observer and the flow would be classified as steady (or unsteady as
the case may be) by any observer. Such a case is the progress of a flood wave down a
river: a man standing on the bank would clearly see the phenomenon as unsteady and
so would another man moving downstream and keeping pace with the peak of the
flood, since the magnitude of the peak discharge itself tends to reduce as the flood
moves downstream. In a problem such as this one cannot take the easy way out by
transposing to a steady -flow case, and the problem must be treaded as on of unsteady
flow.

Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at a fixed point.

PROBLEMS: Oscillatory Sea Waves,

Predicting Waver Levels in Rivers in Flood,
Dam Break Flood Waves,
Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.

WAVES -Definitions
" a wave is a temporal variation in the water surface
which is propagated through a fluid medium" .

The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation of the disturbance relative to the
fluid.
Waves -Classification
CAPILLARY due to surface tension
ELASTIC due to fluid compression
GRAVITY WAVES

a. Oscillatory Wave [e.g. sea waves)

Zero net mass transport
b. Translatory Waves [e.g. Flood Waves]
net transport of fluid in direction of wave

Solitary Wave Wave Train

Rising limb, Created by
Single peak Sequence of
Followed & preceded Several Waves
by steady flow

Further definitions.................................

Downstream Wave - moves down channel slope

Upstream Wave - moves up channel slope

Increase in level from steady flow - positive wave

Decrease in level from steady flow - negative wave

Monoclonal - single faced

Two faced - symmetrical or asymmetrical
 Oscillatory

Solitary Translatory (a) Gradually Varying (b) Rapidly varying

Deep water waves ~ only surface layers disturbed

Depth y
  0.5
Wavelength L

Shallow waver waves ~ Entire depth disturbed (bottom effect)

y
 0.05
L

WAVE CELERITY, c

This material will not include rigorous proofs of equations, for these proofs are based
on the methods of theoretical hydrodynamics, which are beyond the scope of this
course. Complete treatment of the proofs is given in a number of advanced texts, for
example Open Channel flow by Henderson.

In order to distort a liquid surface it is necessary to work against both gravity (by
lifting liquid from below mean water level to above the level) and surface tension (by
elongating free surface).

Surface tension has very little effect unless the wavelength is quite small and the
effect of viscosity is small, it is distinctly second order effect. Airy theory neglects
viscosity (viscous damping of oscillatory waves) and surface tension. For small
amplitude 2-D flows:

gL 2y
c2  tanh
2 L L
Where:
L = the wave length y
C = celerity (wave velocity)

The behavior of the tanh function shows that

when:
y
 0.5 (l arg e)
L
 2y 
than   1
 L 
 c 2  gL 2 ~ deep water wave equation
 2y  2y
 
y/L < 0.05 (small), tanh  L  L
gL 2y
c2  .  gy
2 L
ie c  gy
~ Shallow water

This is known as the LAGRANGE equation

12.2 Development of St. Venant Equations
 Basic equations for unsteady flow in open channels.
 Pair of quasi-linear, partial differential hyperbolic equations ~ same class as
for unsteady flow in pipes.

(i) CONTINUITY (ignore compressibility)

A.V   A.V 
A.V .  . x
x

x

(flow out - Flow in) t  Rate of change of storage


 A.V    b y , b , surface width
s s
x t
A v y
v  A  bS  0
x x t
 Rate of 
 
[ wedge Storage] + [prism] +  rise  = 0 .................. CONTINUITY
A
Examine x

A    bs . y  y bs
  bs  .y
x x x x
where  is the Carioles coefficient which accounts for deviation of velocity from the
mean value.
0.5    1.0 depends on geometry of section
e.g.  = 0.5 - triangular
 = 1.0 - rectangular

bs
.y
x accounts for non primordial channels

bs
x = rate of increase of breadth
 y v y
 v.bs   . y.v.  bs  0
x x t
 by A

b y  . y. v bs v b y
v. S .  .   s  0
A x A x x A t

Let A/bs =  ( = mean depth based on surface width)

v y v 1 y  . y.v bs
. .   0
 x x  t A x

Rearrange and recall

c  g

c2
 
Replacing g

vg y v g y  . y.v bs
.   2  0
C x
2
x c t A x

c2

Multiplying everything by g
y c 2 v y  . y.v bs
v.  *   * *  0
x g x t A x

y c 2 v y  . y. v b
v* . *   * *  0
x g x t A x CONTINUITY

Fa

 

F1 F2    . A. z 
.A. W 
  . x
. A. Z 
x

Ff S0
x

 

  A z 
  x
Force on element due to pressure forces on each end - x

z = depth of cenroid below surface 
 = specific weight ( = g)

Assume negligible vertical acceleration, ie. no streamline curvature...................

Therefore, can apply hydrostatic pressure

 A 
 A  12 x  x. s0
Weight component acting down slope  x 
If  is small,   sin  tna  S0

Neglect small secondary quantities: .A.x. S0 and force due to air resistance Fa

Force due to friction


Ft    . p . x

 - friction stress

p = wetted perimeter

Summation of these forces cause rate of change of momentum, by Newton's 2nd law,

dv
 p. A.x.
dt y
.x
Examine the term, x

 
 A
  A z 
     A  A x   z  z x 
.x 
x

 x
 
  x


x z
Taking moments about surface at downstream end

   y   y  y  A
 A  z  z    bs x  1 2 x
  x   x  x 

bs
.x
assume x is small
2
 A   z   y  b  y 
 A x   z  x   A z  x   s  x 
 x  x   x  2  x 

Ignoring 2nd order quantities,


z  A y
A x  z x  A x
x x x
 
A

 z x   A y x
   z z x   A
x z x

Thus

y  dv
 A x   Ax S0   p x   A x
- x dt

But

dv v v dt v v
  v 
dt x t dt x t

Therefore, the Dynamic equation becomes...

y 
 v t 
A x   A z S0   p x   A x  v  
- x  x t 
Dividing by . A.x

y  P 1  v v 
 S0   v  
x  A g  x t 


 p 
  Sf
But............  A R = energy loss per unit weight of fluid
 v 2
 2  Sf
 R C R

Thus :

y v v 1 v
  S f  S0  0
x g x g t ~ Dynamic Equation

Examine dynamic equation in form:-

y v v 1 v
S f  S0   
x g x g t

If Sf = S0 ~ Steady uniform flow

y v v

If Sf = S0 - x g t ~ Steady non-uniform flow (GVF)

dE
 S0  S f
Proof, dx

But E = y + v2/2g
 dE dy 2v dv
  
dx dx 2g dx
The continuity and dynamic equations in this form,

A v y
v  A b  0
x x s t

y v v
  S  S 0
x g t f 0

Are known as the St Venant equations (sometimes written de Saimt Venant)

Solutions of the St. Venant equations

- a complicated matter, even for rectangular channels.

- general solutions are only possible by numerical methods
- some remarks
 3 principal numerical methods
 finite differences method (FDM)
 characteristic methods (MOC)
 finite elements method (FEM)

- It is not possible to solve it analytically.

12.3 The Methods of Characteristics
Our problem now, stated in general terms, is to solve the two independent equations
Continuity and Dynamic Equations. For the two unknowns v and y (for a given cross
section A is known function of y). As already noted the equations are not explicitly
soluble except in certain simple cases, but these cases, simple as they are, can be of
deep practical interest.

The approach dealt with in this section leads to the so-called Method of
Characteristics, a semi-graphical method by which explicit solutions, if they exist, are
readily obtained, and by which numerical solutions can be worked out I the more
general cases where no explicit solutions are possible.

In introduce the method; we deal first with the simplest possible type of channel: The
one having a rectangular section of constant width, and a constant bed slope. The
first step is to remove y by the substitution c 2 = gy, where C is the speed of shallow
wave in water depth y; accordingly c becomes our measure of depth.

Dynamic Equation

y v v 1 v v2
Sf  So     2
x g x g t c R
Dynamic Equation multiplied by g and rearranged
y v v
g  v   g  So  S f 
x x t
We know c2 = gy and d(gy) = D (c2) = 2cdc thus replacing
d  gy  y c
 g  2c
x x x substituting this in the above equations
c v v
2c V   g  So  s f 
x x t eqn*

Recalling continuity equation for unsteady flow

q y
  0
x t
Replacing g = vy we expand the continuity equation to:
y v y
v  y   0
x x t
Whence, multiplying throughout by g, and substituting c2 = gy as before, we obtain.

c v c
2vc  c2  2c  0
x x t
Or, dividing throughout by c:
c v c
2v  c  2 0
x x t eqn **
By writing the sum of equation * and ** we obtain
 c v v c v c
2C  v  2v  c  2  g  So  Sf 
x x t x x t
v v c c
  v  c  2  2 v  c   g  So  Sf 
t x t x
Eqn***
By writing the difference of again equation * and ** we obtain:
v v c c
  v  c 2  2  v  c  g  S0  Sf 
t x t x
Eqn ****
Recall the basic equations of partial differentiation, namely
y y
dy  dx  dt
x t
dy y dx y
 
dt x dt t
In these equations y is a variable dependent on the two independent variables x and t,
and the equations give the rate of change of y if x and t are simultaneously varied in
some prescribed manner, given, given by dx/dt. If y, x and t have their usual meaning
in open channel flow, we may think of the situation in this way: to an observer
walking along the river bank with a speed dx/dt (which he may choose himself) y will
appear to vary with time at the rate given by the equation
dy y dx y
 
dt x dt t

A similar result would of course be true for any other parameter such as v, q or c.

Factoring out (v + 2c) and (v + c) in equation *** & ****

From equation *** factoring out (v + 2c)

 v c
v  2c    v  c  2  v  c  g  So  Sf 
t x x
From this equation factoring out (v + c)
  
 v  2c    v  c   v  2c    g (S o  S f )
t  x 
Similarly, from equation ****
v v c c
  v  c 2  2  v  c  g  So  S f 
t x t x
Factoring out like terms
 
v  c   v  2c    (v  2c]  q (S o  S f )
 x  t
There fore
 v  c   v  2c    v  2c 
  g  S0  Sf 
x t
  v  2c    v  2c 
v  c   g  So  Sf 
x t
If we let y = v + 2c and y = v-2c in this two equations, respectively and if we
compare it with the above recalled basic equation of partial differentiation we see.
   v  2c    v  2c  D1  v  2c 
 v  c    g  So  Sf 
x t D1 t
  v  2c    v  2c  D2  v  2c
 v  c    g  So  Sf 
x t D2 t
y dx y dy
  (compared to the basice PD quation) where y in the basic
x dt t t
equation of partial diffrentia tion represent either v  2c or v  2c in the above two equations
D1 D2
and
Where the total-derivative operators D1t D2t represent rate of change from
the viewpoint of observers moving with velocities (v + c) and (v – c) respectively.
Note also if we assume the difference So – Sf  0  E = constant then g(So-Sf) = 0
1 1
&
 y = v + 2c ory = v-2c is constant along the lines with slope v  c vc
respectively.

The significance of this result is that the paths of these two imaginary observers can
be traced on the x - t plane and a complete solution obtained for any prescribed
unsteady-flow situation.