ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Firstly I am deeply thankful to merciful Allah who gives me

everything I have and by grace of whom the work was realized.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr.

MOSTAFA ABUL-FADL MOHAMED Prof. of Food Science
and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, AL-Azhar University,
for his kind supervision, advices, continuous valuable, fruitful criticism
and encouragement throughout this work.
I wish to extend my deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to
Prof. Dr. SAYED MEKAWEY IBRAHIM Professor of Fish
processing and Technology, Diector Inland water and Aquaculture
Branch at El-Qanater El Khiria, National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries, for his fatherly attitude, wise
guidance, supervision and valuable suggestion during
the whole period of this work and for his kind help and
weary effort to bring this work into the light.

It is my duty to dedicate this work to the soul of the late

prof. Dr. GAMAL ROWAYSHED, H. ISMAIEL. Professor of Food
Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo, Al-
Azhar University, with the deepest thanks and gratitude for all
his efforts in preparing this work. (I ask almighty Allah to give him
Ferdose of Al-Janah).

I would like to express my deep thanks to my family, my

mother and brothers for their patience, understanding and
moral support to give me the chances to complete this work.
 Content
LIST OF TABLES I
LIST OF ABBRIVIATION II
LIST OF FIGURES
III
1- INTRODUCTION………………….………………………….. 1
2-REVIEW OF LITERATURE………….……..……………… 8
Carp fish …………….…………………………………………….. 8
Gross chemical composition………..…………………………….. 8
Quality criteria of row carp fish ………………….……………… 12
Chemical Composition of Fish Protein…………………………… 14
Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC)………………………………….. 14
Fish Protein Isolate (FPI) ………………………………………… 17
Quality Criteria of Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate………. 19
Functional Properties of Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate…. 20

Nutritional Value of Fish Protein ……………………………….. 22

Amino Acids of Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate…………. 22
Major Elements of Fish Protein Concentrate FPC and Isolate
25
FPI………………………………………………………………….
Effect OF Using Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate On food
27
nutrition values…………………………………………………..
Effect of fish protein concentrate FPC and isolate FPI
34
supplementation levels on crackers properties…………………
Chemical composition of crackers………………………………… 34

Rheological Proprieties of Dough.................................................. 35

Sensory characteristics………………………………………….. 38

Sensory characteristics of fish protein concentrate and isolate 38

I
Sensory characteristics of Crackers Supplemented with fish protein
concentrate and isolate…………………………………………… 39

2.5. Economic Evaluation of FPC and FPI Production…………. 40

3- MATERIALS AND METHODS 41

3.1.MATERIALS 41

Fish samples……………………………………………………… 41

Crackers ingredients……………………………………………… 41

3.2. METHODS…………………………………………………… 42

3.2.1 Technological processes…………………………………. 42

3.2.1.1.Preparation of fish samples for fish protein concentrate

(FPC) and fish protein isolate (FPI) extraction……………….. 42

Extractions………………………………………………………. 42

Fish protein concentrate (FPC)…………………………………… 42

Fish proteins isolate (FPI)………………………………………….. 43

3.2.1.2. Preparation of crackers………………………………. 44
Crackers processing……………………………………………...... 44
Mixing procedures……………………………………………….. 45
Sheeting procedure………………………………………………. 45
Baking procedure ………………………………………………… 46
3.2.2. ANALYTICAL METHODS……………………… 46
Gross Chemical Composition………………………………… 46
Determination of physico- chemical quality criteria ……….... 47
PH values…………………………………………………………. 47
Total volatile basic-nitrogen (TVB-N)…………………………… 47

II
Trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N) ……………………………… 48
Thiobarbaturic acid (TBA) value…………………………………. 48
Functional properties………………………………………….. 48
Foaming properties ………………………………………….. 48
Water holding capacity ……………………………………….. 49
Estimation of amino acids ……………………………………. 49
Major elements ………………………………………………… 50
Rheological properties ……………………………………….. 50
Sensory evaluation……………………………………………. 54
Statistical analysis …………………………………………….. 54
4-RESULTS AND DISSCUSION 55
4.1 Identification Carp Fish……………………………………… 55
4.1.1Gross Chemical Composition of Raw Common Carp……. 55
4.1.2. Quality indices of Carp Fish Flesh and its by-products…… 56

4.2. Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) and Isolate (FPI)………….. 57

4.2.1. Chemical Composition of Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC)

and Fish Protein Isolate (FPI)…………………………………… 57

Chemical Composition of Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC)…..... 57

Chemical compositions of fish protein isolate (FPI)……………… 59

4.2.2. Quality Indices of Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) and Fish

60
Protein Isolate (FPI)………………………………………………
4.2.3. Functional Properties of Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) and
61
Fish Protein Isolate (FPI)…………………………………………
4.2.4. Nutritional Value Of Fish Protein Concentrate And Fish
62
Protein Isolate………………………………………………………
4.2.4.1. Amino Acids Content (AAs) Of Fish Protein Concentrate 62

III
And Fish Protein Isolate…………………………………………
Nutritional Evaluation For Protein Quality Of Fish Protein
68
Concentrate And Isolate…………………………………………..
4.2.4.2. Minerals Content (Major Elements) of Fish Protein
73
Concentrate and Isolate………………………………………….
4.3. Supplementation of Crackers with Fish Protein Concentrate
76
(FPC) and Fish Protein Isolate (FPI)………………………
4.3.1. Sensory Evaluation of Supplemented Crackers with (FPC)
76
and (FPI)………………………………………………………….
4.3.2. Chemical Composition of Supplemented Crackers with FPC
79
and FPI……………………………………………………………
4.3.3. Nutritional Values of Supplemented Crackers with FPC and
82
FPI…………………………………………………………………
Amino Acids Content of Supplemented Crackers……………. 82
Nutritional Evaluation For Protein Quality of Supplemented 86
Crackers with FPC and FPI………………………………………
Minerals Content of Supplemented Crackers With FPC and 96
FPI…………………………………………………………………..
4.4. Effect OF Using Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate On 99
Rheological Properties of Crackers ……………………………
4.4.1. Rheological Properties of Crackers Dough Supplemented 99
with flesh fish protein concentrate (FPC) and waste fish protein
concentrate (FWPC) …………………………………………….
4.4.2. Rheological Properties of Crackers Dough Supplemented 110
with fish protein isolate (FPI) …………………………………
4.5. Effect of Storage Period for 6 months at ambient temperature 114
on ………………………………………………………………..
4.5.1. Chemical Composition and Quality Indices of supplemented 114

IV
crackers ………………………………………………………….
4.5.2. Sensory Characteristics of Supplemented Crackers……… 117

4.6. Economic Evaluation of FPC and FPI Production………… 125

5 – SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ………………………… 127

6 – REFRENCES ………………………………………………… 140

7 -ARABIC SUMMARY.............................................................

V
 List of Tables
The ingredients and its quantities used in
Table (1) 44
crackers………………………………………………
Table (2) Conditions of Mixolab used in this study…………. 51
Chemical composition (on wet weight basis) of raw
Table (3) common carp flesh and its by-products 56
(wastes)………………………………………………
The quality indices of raw common carp flesh and
Table (4) 57
its by-products……………………………………..
Chemical composition (on wet weight basis) of fish
Table (5) protein concentrate (FPC) obtained from common 58
carp flesh and wastes (FWPC)…………………….
Chemical composition (on wet and dry weight
Table (6) basis) of fish protein isolate (FPI) obtained from 59
common carp wastes………………………………..
Quality Indices of fish protein concentrate (FPC)
Table (7) obtained from carp flesh and waste and fish 60
protein isolate (FPI)…………………………………
Functional proprieties of fish protein concentrate
Table (8) 61
(FPC) and isolate (FPI)…………………………….
Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
Table (9) concentrate (FPC) obtained from common carp 63
flesh and its wastes………………………………..
Non-Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
Table(10) 65
concentrate (FPC) obtained from common carp

VI
 flesh and its wastes………………………………..
Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
Table(11) 66
isolate (FPI)………………………………………..
Non-Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
Table(12) 67
isolate (FPI)……………………………………….
Amino acids score (AS) of fish protein concentrate
Table(13) 69
(FPC) from common carp flesh and wastes……….
Amino acids score (AS) of fish protein isolate
Table(14) 70
(FPI) from carp wastes…………………………….
Gram daily requirements (GDR) of FPC obtained
Table(15) 71
from carp fish flesh and wastes……………………
Gram daily requirements (GDR) of FPI from
Table(16) 72
common carp wastes……………………………….
Major elements (mg/100g) of FPC obtained from
Table(17) 74
common carp fish…………………………………
Major elements (mg/100g, ww) FPI from common
Table(18) 75
carp fish.……………………………………………
Mean of sensory tests of crackers supplemented
Table(19) 77
with FPC and FPI…………………………………..
Mean of sensory tests of the best treatments of
Table(20) crackers supplemented with different levels of 78
(FPC) and (FPI)…………………………………….
Chemical composition of crackers supplemented
Table(21) 80
with FPC and (FWPC) at different levels………..
Table(22) Chemical composition of crackers supplemented 81

VII
 with WFPI at level 5%...........................................
Essential amino acids of supplemented crackers
Table(23) 82
with different levels of FPC and FWPC…………..
Non-essential amino acids of supplemented
Table(24) 84
crackers with different levels of FPC and WFPC...

Essential amino acids of supplemented crackers

Table(25) 85
with level 5% of FPI……………………………..
Non-essential amino acids of supplemented
Table(26) 86
crackers with level 5% of FPI…………………...

Amino acids score of crackers supplemented with

Table(27) 87
different levels of (FPC)…………………………..

Amino acids score of crackers supplemented with

Table(28) 88
different levels of FWPC………………………….
Amino acids score of crackers supplemented with
Table(29) 89
different levels of (FPI)………………………….
Nutritional evaluation (Gram daily requirements
Table(30) (GDR) of crackers supplemented with different 90
levels of (FPC) flesh at different levels…………….
Nutritional evolution (Gram daily requirements
Table(31) (GDR) of crackers supplemented with 5% level of 91
(FWPC)………………………………………………
Nutritional evolution (Gram daily requirements
Table(32) 92
GDR) of crackers supplemented with 5% WFPI.
Table(33) Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of 94

VIII
 EAAs of supplemented crackers with different
levels of FPC………………………………………..
Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of
Table(34) EAAs of supplemented crackers with level 5% 95
FWPC………………………………………………..
Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of
Table(35) EAAs of supplemented crackers with level 5% 95
FPI……………………………………………………
Major elements (g/100g) of crackers supplemented
Table(36) 96
with FPC at different levels………………………..
Major elements content (mg/100g) of crackers
Table(37) 97
supplemented with 5% WFPI ……………………..
Effect of FPC and FWPC supplementation levels
Table(38) on rheological properties (mixing properties) of 102
crackers dough………………………………………
Effect of FPC and WFPC supplementation levels
Table(39) on rheological properties (pasting behavior) of 104
crackers dough………………………………………
Table(40) Effect of FPI supplementation level on rheological
111
properties (mixing properties) of crackers dough..
Table(41) Effect of storage period at 6 months on chemical
composition and quality indices of supplemented 114
crackers with FPC and FWPC…………………..
Table(42) Effect of storage period at 6 months on chemical
116
composition and quality indices of supplemented

IX
 crackers with FPI…………………………………..
Table(43) Effect of storage period at 6 months on surface
117
appearance of supplemented crackers…………….
Table(44) Effect of storage period at 6 months on interior
120
appearance of supplemented crackers…………….
Table(45) Effect of storage period at 6 months on eating
122
characteristic of supplemented crackers…………..
Table(46) Economic assessment for production of FPC,
125
FWPC and FPI……………………………………..

X
 LIST OF FIGUERS

Page
Fig (1): Description of a typical curve 53
obtained in the Mixolab……………
Figs(2):(A&B): Mixolab curves of control sample 106
dough………………………………….
Figs(3):(A&B): Mixolab curves of supplemented 107
duogh with 5% FPC………………...
Figs(4):(A&B): Mixolab curves of supplemented 108
dough with 10% FPC………………..
Figs(5):(A&B): Mixolab curves of dough 109
supplemented with 5% FWPC………
Figs(6):(A&B): mixolab curves of dough 113
supplemented with 5% FPI……….....
Fig(7): Effect of Storage Period on Surface 118
appearance (color)…………………...
Fig(8): Effect of Storage Period on Surface 118
appearance (shape)…………………..
Fig(9): Effect of Storage Period on interior 121
appearance (shape)…………………..
Fig(10): Effect of Storage Period on interior 121
appearance (color)…………………....
Fig(11): Effect of Storage Period on Eating 124
characteristic (texture)………………
Fig(12): Effect of Storage Period on Eating 124
characteristic (mouth feel)…………..
Fig(13): Effect of Storage Period on Eating 124
characteristic (flavor) …………….....

XI
 List of Abbreviations

AAS Amino acids score

Ca Calcium
DW Dry weight basis
EAs Essential amino acids
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
Fe Iron
FPC Fish protein concentrate
FPI Fish protein isolate
GDR Gram Daily Requirements
K Potassium
Na Sodium
P Phosphorus
PS Percentage satisfaction of the daily requirements for adult
RDA Recommended Daily Allowance
TBA Thiobarbaturic acid
TMA-N Trimethylamine-nitrogen
TVB-N Total volatile basic-nitrogen
USRDA United State Recommended Dietary Allowances
WHO World health organization
FWPC Fish Waste protein concentrate
WW Wet weight basis
Introduction
 1-Introduction

In many countries, where controlling the environmental

pollution resulting from some fish wastes on one hand and
insufficient protein supply from the other hand which considered
among the health and nutritional problems. A great interest has been
focused to produce economic and edible protein concentrate and
isolate from fish wastes to serve as a basic protein in food.
Therefore, on of such approaches to solve the mentioned problems is
utilization of food industry wastes or by-products as sources in
manufacturing high protein foods (CASM, 2003).

The world fish stocks are exploited to a level where no

increase in the catch can be expected in any near future. At the same
time, a growing population experience food shortages and there is
thus a need for high quality protein products. Many of the most
abundant fish species of the world are small and rich in dark muscle,
bones and fat. Due to these characteristics are largely used for
production of fish meal and oil, and not as much for direct human
consumption (FAO, 2010).

Proteins are nitrogen-containing compounds made of up

amino acids unit. They are the major structural component of
muscles and other tissues in the body. They are also component of

Page 1
hormones, enzymes and haemoglobin (Jay and Michael., 2004).
Proteins composed of twenty different amino acids linked together
by a peptide bond and the resulting chain is called polypeptide. They
have similar basic structure but differ in their side chains. This
difference in side chains gives the proteins their specificity and
functionality. These amino acids are classified as essential (those
that cannot be synthesis by body but rather taken as supplement
from diet), and nonessential (that can be synthesis by the body) as
reviewed by Clark, (2003).
Demand for the relatively cheap sources of protein that can
be incorporated to value added food products is increasing
worldwide, and numerous researches are still going on various
sources of plant proteins that may help in improving the nutritional
value of food products at low cost (Gurpreet et al., 2006).
Concerning protein source, proteins are available in
different varieties of dietary sources including animals, plants origin,
and from highly marketed spot supplement industry. Typically, all
dietary animal proteins (e.g. eggs, milk, meat, fish and poultry) are
considered complete protein because they contain all essential amino
acids. On the other side, proteins from vegetable sources (such as
legumes, nuts and soy) are incomplete proteins since they are
lacking one or two essential amino acids. Assessing the quality of

Page 2
protein is important when considering the nutritional benefit that it
can provide. Protein quality of food is the ability of the food to meet
the nutritional requirement of an individual species. It is indicated
by how well the protein is digested, absorbed, and utilized for the
growth and sustenance of the body (Wardlaw and Insel., 1996).

Since variety of fishes as an animal protein source has a

high nutritive value, consumption of them not only meets many
nutritive requirements of body, but also is useful to improve human
health so, many countries have tried to increase per capita
consumption of this nutritive source (Dvorak, 2002). The fish
industry is a major economic source for a number of countries
worldwide. The fish processing industry produces more than 60%
by-products as waste, which includes head, skin, trimmings, fins,
frames, viscera and roes, only 40% fish products are used for human
consumption (Dekkers et al., 2011).

Commercial filleting of fish such as cod, salmon, tilapia,

sea bream, and pollack typically yields approximately 60 - 70% of
by-products and 30% to 40% fillets of the whole fish weight
(Torres et al., 2007). Fish industry by-products can account for up
to 75% of the catch depending on post-harvest or industrial

Page 3
preparation processes, solid wastes generated from seafood factories
ranged from 30-85% of the weight of the landed fish (Rustad et
al.,2011). Fish by-product wastes contain good amount of protein
rich material that are usually processed into low market-value
products, such as animal feed, fish meal and fertilizer. New
industrial processing techniques facilitate to obtain valuable
proteins, antioxidants and oils from salmon and rapeseed waste.
These extracts can be used in health foods, nutritional supplements
and skin care products (SINTEF, 2015).
Fish is man’s single most important source of high-quality
protein (FAO, 2005). In addition to proteins; fish contain important
fatty acids, vitamins and minerals (FAO, 2011). Fish has long been
recognized as a valuable source of high-quality protein in the human
diet (Weber et al., 2008). The high protein levels, with good
digestibility and also low fat content are advantages of seafood
(Pigott and Tucker, 1990). Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix) is one of the main fresh water fish species. This species of
fish is the lowest-cost fresh water fish produced commercially. After
they are harvested, their distribution sphere and storage period are
very limited. Subsequently, although there is high production, the
commercial value of their fresh fish flesh is low. The potential of
silver carp flesh, as a source of a low-fat and high- protein processed

Page 4
food has not yet been fully realized (Lanier et al., 1982; Montejano
et al., 1984)
Cereals are the base of the human diet in most countries of
the world. In fact, they provide most of the caloric energy and an
important part of the proteins needed by human beings.
Furthermore, there is evidence showing that healthy diets for
humans should provide most of the calories as complex
carbohydrates such as cereal starch (Dendy and Dobraszczyk,
2001). The development and consumption of such functional foods
not only improves the nutritional status of the general population but
also helps those suffering from degenerative diseases associated
with today’s changing life styles and environment (Jideani and
Onwubali, 2009).

Baked products such as breads, cakes, pastries, cookies,

and crackers are food containing significant quantities of cereal
flours blended with other ingredients which are subsequently formed
into distinctive shapes and underwent a heat-processing step in
baking oven (Cauvain and Young, 2006). Biscuits and crackers are
the most popularly consumed bakery items in all over the world.
Some of the reasons for such wide popularity are their ready to eat

Page 5
nature, affordable cost, good nutritional quality, availability in
different tastes and longer shelf life (Gandhi et al., 2001).

Fish protein concentrate and isolate are an excellent source

of highly digestible amino acids, but production costs normally limit
its use (Venugopal et al., 1996). The fish peotein powder (FPP) can
be used in the food industry as a binder, dispersing agent and
emulsifier in preparing herring roes, fillet blocks and re-structured
products from beef, pork and chicken due to its strong interactions
with other proteins and its high gelation ability (Ramirez et al.,
1999; Chung et al., 2000; Carvajal et al., 2005; Pires et al,. 2012).

The main objectives of this study could be summarized as the

following orders:
1- Utilization of common carp and its waste as low price fish to
produce of fish protein concentrate (FPC) and isolate (FPI).
2- Determination of some quality indices and functional
properties of FPC and FPI produced.
3- Supplementation of crackers with FPC and FPI at different
levels of 5% and 10% to overcome the deficiency in particular
of lysine and methionine.

Page 6
4- Determination of chemical composition of control and
supplemented crackers.
5- Determination of amino acids of control and supplemented
crackers.
6- Determination of major elements of control and supplemented
crackers.
7- Study the effect of storage period under ambient temperature
on nutritive value and sensory evaluation of samples
investigated.
8- Economic evaluation of FPC and FPI production

Page 7
Review of Literature
 2-Review of Literature

2.1. Carp Fish

2.1.1. Chemical composition of carp fish

Carp fish species are the most widely cultured species in

Egypt. Three carp species; common, silver and grass carp are
extensively cultured in Egypt. Total production of carp fish in
Egypt was 217120 tons (12.72% of total catch; 1706273
tons) during 2016 as set by GAFRD, (2016).

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is one of the most

cultured fish in the world, however it has low consumer
preference and hence limited market, due to the presence of
intramuscular bones. Therefore, there is a need to develop some
convenience products from the meat of carps to enhance their
consumer acceptability (Gopakumar, 1997; FAO, 2011; Sehgal
et al., 2011 and Vanitha et al., 2013).

Živković et al., (2004) studied the chemical composition of

silver carp meat on wet weight for water, fat, protein and ash
content and reprted that 75.79, 4.59, 18.30 and 1.33%,
respectively. Buyukcapar and Kamalak, (2007) reported that
the range of lipid in common carp, was between 9.5-13.3%. Bud
et al., (2008) showed that chemical composition (ww) of common

-8-
carp (Cyprinus carpio) was 73.22% moisture, 16.6% crude
protein, 8.97% lipid, 1.20% ash and 0.01% carbohydrate content.

Hadjinikolova, (2008) found that the chemical composition

(ww) of common carp (C. carpio) and bighead carp (Aristichthys
nobilis) was 74.55% and 74.2% moisture, 16.21% and 14.56%
crude protein, 8.3% and 10.26% lipid and 0.94% and 0.98%
ash content, respectively.

Marcu et al., (2010) concluded that the total lipids are

increasing proportionally with body weight and this influences
positively the caloric value of the meat. The water content of the
C. carpio meat is indirect correlation with the body weight and in-
direct correlation with the lipid content. In addition to Izci (2010)
showed that the chemical composition (ww) of prussian carp
(Carassius gibelio) was 76.24% moisture, 17.99% crude protein,
4.62% lipid, 0.93% ash and 0.22% carbohydrate content.
Hakimeh et al., (2010) investigated that physicochemical
and sensory properties of silver carp (H. molitrix) fillets as
affected by cooking methods and found that, the chemical
compositions on wet weight basis of raw fillet were 78.71%
moisture, 18.28% protein, 0.99%, fat and 1.04% for ash content.
Afkhami et al., (2011) studied the chemical composition
of two carp spiecies and found that moisture, protein, lipid, ash
and carbohydrate contents (ww) of both common carp (C. carpio)

-9-
and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were 75.48% and
73.1%, 15.2% and 17.21%, 3.53% and 2.35% , 1.5% and 1.8%
and 4.29% and 5.54%, respectively.

Ashraf et al., (2011) studied the proximate composition

of farmed and wild silver carp (H.molitrix) flesh, they reported
that significantly higher in moisture contents (78.79 - 77.89%,
respectively), as well as protein contents (15.5 -16.11%,
respectively) and lipids were significantly low (2.19 - 2.23%)
p<0.05 in silver carp.

Khidhir, (2011) investigated the chemical composition

(ww) of three carp speies; grass, common and silver carp,they
found that 74.69%, 69.19% and 71.20% moisture, 20.77%,
16.82% and 17.43% crude protein, 2.88%, 11.73% and 9.28%
lipid, 1.20% , 1.95% and 1.61% ash and 0.46%, 0.31% and
0.48% nitrogen free extract (NFE) content, respectively.

Cirkovic et al., (2012) revealed that the chemical

composition (ww) of two fishes; common and grass carp were
75.02% moisture, 15.59% crude protein, 6.85% lipid, 0.89%
ash and 1.65% carbohydrate for common carp whereas grass
carp contained 76.22% moisture, 14.68% protein, 6.39% fat,
1.87% ash and 0.84% nitrogen free extract (NFE) content.

Abdelaal et al., (2014) found that the chemical

composition (ww) of common carp was 75.50% moisture,

01 -
-
20.50% crude protein, 2.90% lipid, 0.99% ash, and 0.11%
nitrogen free extracts (NFE) contents.

Shaviklo and Fahim, (2014) found that the chemical

composition (ww) of silver carp was 78.81% moisture, 17.26%
crude protein, 2.82% lipid, 1.11%, ash content. Talab, (2014)
showed that the chemical composition (ww) of common carp was
73.24% moisture, 17.68% crude protein, 6.14% lipid, 1.60% ash
and 1.34% nitrogen free extract (NFE) content.

Sayyed-Alangi and Kohestani, (2015) found that

moisture, crude protein, lipid, ash and carbohydrate contents
(ww) of Iranian silver carp (H. molitrix) were 68.51%, 20.75%,
4.35% , 1.85% and 4%, respectively.
Elsayed, (2016) showed that the chemical composition
(ww) of raw fish flesh of common carp (C. carpio) was 73.4%
moisture, 16.26% crude protein, 7.98% lipid, 0.71% ash and
1.65% nitrogen free extract (NFE) contents.
Mahmoud, (2016) showed that chemical composition
(ww) of common carp (C. carpio) was 70.47 % moisture, 15.6 %
crude protein, 12.24 % lipid, 0.68 % ash and 1.01 % nitrogen free
extract (NFE) content.
Mahmoud et al., (2016) found that chemical composition
(ww) of grass carp fish; moisture, protein, lipid and ash were
72.99%, 19.14 %, 4.76%, and 2.11%, respectively and nitrogen

00 -
-
free extract (NFE) content was 1.07%. Nowadays, Ismail, (2017)
reported that the chemical composition of raw common carp flesh
was 80.39%, 16.07%, 2.68%, 0.60% and 0.27%, for the moisture,
crude protein, lipid, ash and nitrogen free extract (NFE) content,
respectively on wet weight basis.

2.1.2.Quality Criteria of Raw Carp Flesh

The quality of fish meat is the reflection of
microbiological, physical and chemical characteristics before and
during storage (El-Shamery, 2010). Fish quality is a complex
concept involving a whole range of factors, which for the
consumer include for example: safety, nutritional quality,
availability, convenience and integrity, freshness, eating quality
and the obvious physical attributes of the species, size and
product type (Dodd et al., 2004). The quality of fish can be
estimated by sensory tests, microbial methods or by chemical
methods such as measuring volatile compounds, lipid oxidation,
and determination of adinosine triphosphate (ATP) breakdown
products and the formation of biogenic amines (Ozogul and
Ozogul, 2006).
Ibrahim, (2004a) reported that total volatile basic
nitrogen (TVB-N), trimethylamine (TMA-N), thiobarbituic acid
(TBA) and pH values of raw carp were 15.4, 0.89 mg/100g, 0.28
mg malonaldehyde (MDA)/kg and 6.16, respectively. Also,

01 -
-
 Ibrahim, (2004b) found that TVB-N, TMA-N, TBA and
pH values of raw carp flesh were 14.00, 0.83 mg/100g, 0.06
mg MDA/kg and 6.05, respectively.

Fan et al., (2009) found that the values of TVB-N, TBA

and pH values of silver carp (Hypophthalmicthys. molitrix) were
7.3 mg/100 g, 0.37 mg MDA/kg and 6.2, respectively.
Khidhir, (2011) found that TVB-N, TMA-N, TBA and
pH values of three fish groups (grass, common and silver carp)
were 12.98, 16.50 and 15.38 mg/100 g, 3.48, 5.62 and 4.56
mg/100 g, 1.32, 5.29 and 3.89 mg MDA/kg and 6.73, 6.50
and 6.59, respectively.
Zakipour Rahimabadi and Divband, (2012) reported
that TVB-N, TBA and pH values of silver carp were 7.75
mg/100 g, 0.19 mg MDA/kg and 6.67, respectively.
Elsayed, (2016) studied the quality criteria of carp fish
and decided that the value of TVB-N was 23.80 mg/100g, TBA
was 0.29mg MA/kg, TMA-N was 1.17mg/100g and pH value was
5.98.
Mahmoud et al., (2016) showed that TVB-N values of
common carp samples was 13.98 mg N/100g, and TMA-N values
was 2.06 mg N/100g. Such variations in TVB-N and TMA-N
contents of different fish samples might be related to differences
in the non-protein nitrogen content of the fish used. Fish non-
protein nitrogen content is highly dependent on the type of fish

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feed, season of catching, size, sex as well as other environmental
factors.
Beside, the quality parameters of grass carp fish were
10.87 mg\100g TVB-N, 4.36 mg\100g TMA-N, 0.85 meq O2/kg
fat PV and 0.41 mg MDA/kg sample, as found by Mahmoud,
(2016).

2.2. Chemical Composition of Fish Protein

2.2.1. Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC):
FPC has been defined as a product resulting by removing
of water and oil from fish, thus increasing the concentration of the
protein and other nutrient materials. Also, it is healthy,
sustainable and high nutritive product it is any stable fish
prepration, intended for human consumption, in which the protein
is more concentrate than the original fish (Stillings and knobi,
1971; FAO, 2006 and khoshkhoo et al., 2010). On the other
side, Amarowicz and Pegg, (2008) reported that Legumes
contain some anti-nutritional factors such as lectins, saponin,
haemagglutinin, protease inhibitor, oxalate, goitrogen, phytates,
trypsin inhibitor and tannin. These compounds reduce protein
digestibility and availability. Some anti-nutritional factors in
legumes have been reported to have health benefits.
El–Zayat et al., (1990) determined the comoposition of
FPC that obtained from bolti vescera. They reported that the

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chemical compositions were 9.58%, 85.62%, 0.50% and 10.24%
for moisture, protein, fat and ash content, respectevily. Hussein,
(1997) reported that the chemical composition of fish protein
concentrate (FPC) which obtained from bolti fish waste was
8.561% moisture, 62.09% protein, 1.00% fat and 33.90% ash.
El-Sherif, (2005) studied the effect of storage on the
quality of (FPC) prepared from Fayom fisheries waste. He
reported that the chemical composition of FPC was 7.12%,
73.15%, 0.45% and 25.62% for moisture, protein, fat and ash
content, respectively.
Azhdary, (2006) reported that values of protein and fat
content of fish protein concentrate from silver carp (H. molitrix)
were 81% and 0.37%, respectively. In addition to FAO, (2006)
reported that there are three types of FPC. Type (A) avirtually
odorless and tasteless powder having maximum total fat content
0.75%, type (B) a powder having no spicefic limits as to odor or
flavor, but defintily having a fishy flavor or maximum fat content
3%. Type (C) is a normal fish meal produced under staisfactrorily
hygienic conditions.

Murueta et al., (2007) studied the composition of fish

protein concentrate (FPC) from 9 species from Mexico. They
reported that protein content was ranged from 57.46% to 77.88%,

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moisture 69.97% to 82.57%, lipid from 0.62% to 16.54% and ash
ranged from 8.15% to 20.27%.

Ibrahim, (2009) found that the fish protein concentrate

(FPC) of tilapia- by products composition was 4.1% moisture,
68.83% protein, 0.75% fat and 25.39% for ash. Also, Sathivel, et
al., (2009) reported that moisture, protein, ash, and fat contents of
spray dried soluble protein powder obtained from catfish were 4.5
%, 67.1 %, 10 %, and 18.3 %, respectively.

Khoshkhoo et al., (2012) found that the chemical

composition of (FPC) produced from Caspian Sea kilkas was
91.2% protein, 0.5% lipid, 3.6% ash and 2.3% moisture. Also,
they reported that the TVB-N was 10 mg/100g. Narsing Ra et al.,
(2012) reported that Channa and Lates roes yielded 20.7 % and
22.5 % of protein concentrates possessing 90.2 % and 82.5 %
protein, respectively. Chalamaiah et al., (2013) reported that
total ash content of dehydrated and defatted protein concentrate
was 5.95 % and 1.95 %, respectively.

Lee et al. (2016) stadied the FPC prepared from

yellowfin tuna Roes by many ways and reported that the yield of
Roese protein concentrate (RPCs) ranged from 22.2 to 25.3 g/100
g of roe. Also, RPCs contained protein (72.3–77.3 %), moisture
(4.3–5.6 %), lipid (10.6–11.3 %) and ash (4.3–5.7 %) as the major
constituents.

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2.2.2.Fish Protein Isolate (FPI)
FPI is a kind of protein ingredient which is prepared
from different kinds of raw material, without retaining the
original shape of the muscle. It is generally not consumed directly
and is used as raw material for production of value added
products (Shaviklo, 2008). Protein isolates are the most refined
form of protein products containing the greatest concentration of
protein (Lone et al., 2015).
With regard to the yield of FPI, Helal (1996) found that
the yield of protein isolate obtained from silver carp flesh was
13.76% and its composition was 7.58% moisture, 91.21%protein,
0.76% fat and 0.39% ash content. Hussein (1997) studied the
composition of fish protein isolate (FPI) from bolti fish waste and
reported that FPI composition was 4.72%, 86.62%, 1.42% and
11.96% for moisture, protein, fat and ash content, respectively.
El-Sherif, (2005) reported that the fish protein isolate
(FPI) from Fayom fisheries waste was high of protein content and
his results showed that the chemical composition of FPI was
5.67, 90.80, 0.61 and 7.94% for moisture, protein, fat and ash
respectevily. Also, Hultin et al., (2005) reported that fish by
products and underutilized fish species that usually are not used
directly for human food can be utilized in pH shift process. On
the other hand, whole fish with skin bones and fatty fish can be
used in this process technology because proteins are selectively

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-
separated and isolated from undesirable materials (Krisitinsson et
al., 2006).
Shaviklo, (2006) decided that to solve the problem of
utilisation of unconventional raw material (dark muscle fish, fatty
fish) and also fish by-products (fish trims, fish frames etc.) a
process was developed to economically develop a functional
protein isolates from these kinds of raw materials.
Foh et al., (2011) reported that the chemical composition
of freshly minced meat concentrate (FMMC) of Tilapia fish was
moisture 3.7%, protein content 82.39% and lipid content was
1.81%. Tongnuanchan et al., (2011) reported that the lipid
content of FPI from red tilapia mince muscle was 0.12%. Garba
and Kaur, (2014) reported that protein isolates are refined form
of protein containing the greater amount of protein with greater
digestibility. Nowadays, it’s the major source of cheap proteins
especially for athletes, body builders, vegetarians, and has gained
wide application in various beverages and dairy industries, and
infant foods due to its different functional properties.
Lone et al., (2015) studied the chemical composition of
(FPI) obtained from the rainbow trout (RTFPI) and found that its
composition was 3.5% moisture, 75.6% protein, 2.4% fat and
4.0% ash content. Hayam, (2015) investigated the chemical
composition of FPI produced from whole small Nile bolti fish and
reported that the chemical composition was 83.90% protein,

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2.30% fat and 13.82% ash content. Nowadays, Tian et al., (2016)
reported that the chemical composition of FPI prepared from
silver carp was 83.20%, 8.88% and 2.026% for protein, ash and
fat, respectively.
2.2.3. Quality Criteria of Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate
EL-Zyat et al. (1990) reported that the quality criteria of
FPC made from bolti vicera were 17.34mg/100g, 0.95mg/100g
and 0.08 mg malonaldhyde/kg for total volatile basic-nitrogen
(TVB-N), trimethylamine (TMA) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA),
respectively.
El-Sherif, (2005) studied the physic-chemical properties
of FPC and FPI obtained from Fayom fisheries waste and
reported that qulity criteria of FPC were 16.25mg/100g,
0.86mg/100g and 0.11 mg malonaldhyde/kg for TVB-N, TMA
and TBA respectively, while FPI proprites were 12.87mg/100g
for TVB-N, 0.62mg/100g for TMA and 0.09mg Malonaldhyde/kg
for TBA.
Lipid oxidation is a critical issue when drying of fish
proteins. Therefore, rancid flavour is the main problem of (fish
protein powder) FPP and makes it unacceptable for further use
(Thorkelsson et al., 2009 and Shaviklo et al., 2010).
Ibrahim, (2009) reported that quality parametrs for FPC
made from tilapia by-prodducts were 7.18mg/100g TVB-N,
0.48mg/100g TMA and 0.05mg malonaldhyde/kg as TBA.

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 Shaviklo et al., (2010) found that the TBA levels of
freeze dried saithe surimi without additives were significantly
higher (28.7 μmol/kg) than that reported for additive-added
samples, indicated the positive effects of additives on preventing
lipid oxidation.
Khoshkhoo et al., (2012) found that the TVB-N of FPC
produced from Caspian Sea kilkas was 10mg /100g. Shaviklo et
al., (2012) found that there was an increased TBA level during
drying of FPP according to the ways of extraction.
2.2.4 Functional Properties of Fish Protein Concentrate and
Isolate
The funcitional proprerties of protein are affected by the
chemical and physical properties of protein itself, and they can
affect proteins utilization in food prepration, processing, storage
and consumption (Damodaran, 1997). The foaming properties
are used as an index of the whipping characteristics of the protein
isolate (Mwasaru, 1999).
Huda et al., (2000) reported that the protein solubility
refers to the protein content that’s soluble in 3% NaCl solution.
And, it actually can be measured both in water and in 3% NaCl
solution due to its better extraction of proteins. Also, Huda et al.,
(2001) studied the protein solubility of different fish species and
reported that protein solubility from Lizadfish was lower than that
of the Redfin bream or purple- spotted bigeye.

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 Horax et al., (2004) reported that protein solubility is a
useful indicator for the performance of protein isolates
incorporated in the food system and also the extent of protein
denaturation because of heat and chemical treatment at different
pH. Makri et al., (2005) studied the emulsifying activity and
stability of protein isolate and reported that proteins are surface
active agents that can form and stabilize the emulsion by creating
electrostatic repulsion on oil droplet surface.
Butt and Batool (2010) studied the protein properties
and reported that proteins have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
properties therefore, can interact with water and oil in foods. And
also decideded the high oil absorption is essential in the
formulation of food systems like sausages, cakes batters, and
mayonnaise and salad dressing. Foh et al., (2011) reported that
the foaming capacity (FC) of tilapia fish mince concentrate was
90.3% and foaming stability (FS) was ranged from 90.17 to
52.63%. Shaviklo et al., (2010) decided that the freeze dried
saithe protein isolate containing lyoprotectant had superior
functional properties and stability than spray dried saithe protein
isolate with the same amount of lyoprotectant.
The WHC of of tilapia fish mince concentrate was 2.47
mL g/ as reported by Foh et al. (2011). Lone et al., (2015)

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reported that the water holding capacity (WHC) of tilapia fish
protein isolate (TFPI) was 2.2 mL/g.

2.3. Nutritional Value of Fish Protein

2.3.1. Amino Acids of Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate
Despite the fact that the nutritional value of fish is well
known, it nevertheless plays only a limited role in the diet of
many countries. Therefore, it would seem appropriate to find new
processing methods for this valuable raw material so as to
increase consumer interest. Compared to mammalian meat, fish
meat has more water and less connective tissue, which contains
very little elastin (Kołakowska and Kołakowski, 2001).
Sathivel et al., (2004) reported that All fish protein
powder (FPP) samples from whole herring, herring body, herring
gonad and arrowtooth flounder fillets indicated that the FPC
samples had excellent nutritional properties and contained 63–
81.4 % protein which had desirable essential amino acid profiles.
El-Sherif, (2005) studied the amino acids content of FPC
and FPI from Fayoum fisheries waste and he reported that the
content of TAA and TEAA were higher in FPC and FPI than
which recorded in the raw fish waste.
Sen, (2005) decided that the in vivo digestibility of raw
fish flesh proteins was in the range of 90–98 %. Protein efficiency
ratio (PER) of fish proteins, an index of protein quality, was

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slightly above that of casein, the major milk protein. The net
protein utilization (NPU) of fish flesh was 83, as compared with
values of 80 and 100 for red meat and egg, respectively.

Venugopal, (2006) reported that the nutritive value of

fish proteins is comparatively high due to the essential amino acid
favourable pattern. Fish proteins are rich in all the essential amino
acids (particularly methionine and lysine), in contrast with most
proteins from plant sources, which lack adequate amounts of one
or more essential amino acids and there are no significant
differences in the amino acid composition of fish flesh and FPC.
Murueta et al., (2007) studied the amino acids content
of protein concentrate from nine fish species. They reported that
the amino acids in protein concentrate of all fish species were
higher than international recommendations by FAO and WHO.
Ibrahim, (2009) studied the amino acids content of FPC
from tilapia by products. He reported that the essential amino
acids content were 0.08, 0.06, 2.66, 1.46, 0.87, 2.34, 1.64, 1.55,
0.95 and 1.16 g/100g for lysine, therionine, valine, methionine,
isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, histidine, tyrosine and
cysteine, respectively.
Vignesh and Srinivasn, (2010) studied the amino acids
content in flour made from tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)
head and bones and they found that major amino acids in head

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tilapia flour were glutamic 0.9967%, aspartic 1.837%, lysine
1.048% and leucine 0.807% and in tilapia bone flour were
0.7865% , 0.9686, 1.342 and 0.7756 for glutamic, aspartic, lysine
and leucine, respectively.

Khoshokho et al., (2012) studied amino acids content of

fish protein concentrate produced from Caspian Sea killas and
they found that the essential amino acids were tyrosine 30.60,
valine 52.50, methionine 32.30, isolusine 45.20, lucine 75.30,
lysine 80.60, phenylalanine 69.80, therionine 43.40 and histidine
29.40 mg/g.

Narsing Rao et al., (2012) reported that the amino acids

namely glutamic acid (13.14 g), aspartic acid (8.08 g) and leucine
(7.57 g) were reported per 100g Roe protein of Channa roe
protein concentrate and the lysine content was 6.94 % for Channa
and 6.86 % for Lates.

Pires et al., (2012) investigated that the amino acid and

mineral analysis of freeze dried Cape hake protein isolated from
by-products from alkaline solubilisation revealed that the amino
acid content of raw Cape hake and the Cape hake protein powder
were similar. However, raw Cape hake was richer in glutamic
acid and glycine than Cape hake protein powder but Cape hake
protein powder had a higher level of lysine. The essential amino

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acid (EAA) content of Cape hake protein powder exceeded the
requirements for adult humans. Lysine and threonine content of
Cape hake protein powder exceeded the EAA requirements for
infants.

Chalamaiah et al., (2013) reported that the

Hydrophobicity plays an important positive role in determining
emulsifying properties also FitzGerald and O’Cuinn, (2006)
reported that bitterness of protein hydrolysate is associated with
the release of peptides containing hydrophobic amino acid
residues.

Lee et al., (2016) reported that the prominent amino

acids of Roe protein concentrates RPCs were aspartic acid 8.7–
9.2, glutamic acid 13.1–13.2, and leucine 8.5–8.6 g/100 g of
protein.

2.3.2.Major Elements of Fish Protein Consentrate (FPC) and

Isolate (FPI)

The mineral elements which the body required are

frequently classified as either macro-or micro-nutrients,
depending on the amount of each that is need in diet. Calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium and magnesium

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are considered macronutrient elements. Iron, iodine, fluorine,
zinc, copper, chromium, selenium, cobalt, manganese,
molybdenum, vanadium, tin, silicon and nickel are often
classified as micro-nutrient or trace element (Ibrahim, 1986).
Fish muscle contains minerals, vitamins and other nutritional
compounds which are necessary in a diet (Larsen et al., 2007).
The mineral content of fish flesh is lower than those of proteins
powders prepared from by-products (Sathivel et al., 2004,
Sathivel S. and Bechtel, 2006 and Pires et al., 2012).

Sathivel et al., (2004) reported that an evaluation of the

nutritional properties of freeze dried protein powders from whole
herring, herring body, herring, herring gonad and arrowtooth
flounder fillets indicated that the FPC samples had excellent
nutritional properties and contained 63–81.4 % protein. All FPP
samples had desirable essential amino acid profiles and mineral
content.
Thanonkaew et al., (2006) reported that metal ions (Fe,
Cu, Mn and Mg) might serve as catalysts for lipid oxidation, and
have been shown to exhibit pro-oxidant activity. However, Fe and
P contents of FPC prepared by different mehods were lower than
those of catla, carp and rohu roes as showed by Balaswamy et al.,
(2009).

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 Bekhit et al., (2009) reported that FPC from salmon roe
had sulphur (S) content of 1647–2443 mg/kg. Also Catfish roe
protein powder had S content of approximately 0.56 mg/kg as
reported by Sathivel et al., (2009).

Hayam, (2015) reported that the memirals content of

FPI obtained from whole small Nile bolti fish was1583.99,
648.23, 709.47, 244.91, 21.30, 9.31and 15.98 mg/100g for Ca, P,
Na, Mg, Fe, Mn and Zn, respectively.

Lee et al., (2016) determined the minerals content of

FPC obtained of Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) roe and
reported that (K, S, Na, P, Fe, Mg, Zn, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr
and Ni) were found at higher levels than those in fresh flesh.

2.4. Effect OF Using Fish Protein Concentrate and

Isolate On nutritional value:
The fish industry is a major economic source for a
number of countries worldwide. Fish protein is an essential source
of nutrients for many people, especially in developing countries.
It is estimated that worldwide, one billion people depend on
producing, processing and trading fish for their livelihood
(Oosterveer, 2008).

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 The large quantities of fish by-product waste from
fisheries would create serious pollution and disposal problems in
both developed and developing countries. These by-product
wastes contain good amount of protein rich material that are
normally processed into low market-value products, such as
animal feed, fish meal and fertilizer (Hsu, 2010).
The fish processing industry produces more than 60%
byproducts as waste, which includes head, skin, trimmings, fins,
frames, viscera and roes, and only 40% fish products for human
consumption (Dekkers et al., 2011).
Concerning the application of fish protein in food
technology, the FPP is a valuable protein supplement to improve
the protein quality and quantity of indigenous diets, particularly
the diets of pre-school children and other vulnerable groups. It is
used to help increase the weight and height of children (Frokjaer,
1994; Owusu-Amoako, 2001 and Sen, 2005). Demands for fish
protein ingredients including dried fish protein to develop
functional food or ready-to-eat products are gradually growing in
the world (Thorkelsson et al., 2009).

Protein isolates are the acceptable ingredients for dairy

application due to their fine particle size and dispersibility,
emulsification, emulsion stability, colour and flavour are critical
in dairy application. Isolates (especially soy proteins) are being

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used to fortify all type of pasta products such as macaroni,
spaghetti, to improve the nutritional value (Sipos, 2013).
However, it could be found that the problem of poor flavour,
mouth feel, texture, dryness and flavour associated with the use of
soy flour and soy concentrate above 10% has been resolved by
using soy isolate in meat loaves, sausage-type products for their
emulsion-stabilizing effect, gelation, and moisture retention and
improved effects on texture (Kinsella, 1976).

The fish protein powder (FPP) can be used in the food

industry as a binder, dispersing agent and emulsifier in preparing
herring roes, fillet blocks and re-structured products from beef,
pork and chicken due to its strong interactions with other proteins
and its high gelation ability (Ramirez et al., 1999; Chung et al.,
2000; Carvajal et al., 2005 and Pires et al., 2012). Dried fish
protein can also be used for producing formulated seafood and
enrichment of food products (Shaviklo et al., 2010; 2011a and
b).
The remarkable beneficial effect of adding FPP to the
diet was found. Its use is particularly beneficial to growing
children and pregnant or nursing mothers as reported as
(Frokjaer, 1994 and Sen, 2005). Huda et al. (2001) reported that
the crackers fortified with 10 % FPP were accepted by Malaysian
consumers.

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 Windsor (2001) decided that 12g of fish protein powder
(FPP) a day would supply the needed protein to a child; a small
FPP plant processing 50 ton of raw fish a day could provide
enough FPP for three quarters of a million children. Owusu-
Amoako, (2001) studied the intake of FPP on 144 preschool
children revealed that after 7 weeks of once-daily supplementary
feeding, and he found that there were significant increases in the
weight and height of children.

Cordero-de-los-Santos et al., (2005) mentioned that

protein concentrates were widely used as ingredients in food
industry because of their high nutritional quality, functional
properties, high protein level and low content of antinutritional
factors.
It was reported that the white flesh and low fat content
fish are considered the most suitable species for developing fish
protein ingredients which accordance with Hultin et al., (2005);
Park and Lin, (2005).
Arason et al., (2009) decided that there are other fish
protein sources that can be used for producing protein ingredients
“i.e.” dark muscles/underutilized/low value fish species and fish
by-products for human consumption.

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-
 Sathivel et al., (2005) reported that the fish protein
powder (FPP) at the level of 5 % can be applied as a potential
emulsifier in mayonnaises. Venugopal, (2006) found that the
nutritive value of cereal proteins could be increased when
combined with a FPP. Thus, the addition of 3 % of FPP to wheat
flour (protein content, 10.4 %) increased its protein content to
12.4 % with an increase of NPU from 50 to 67.

Hussain et al., (2007) found that when a traditional

Pakistani weaning food (Khitchri) was incorporated with different
levels of FPP and were estimated the protein efficiency ratio
(PER), net protein utilization (NPU), true digestibility (TD) and
biological value (BV) for each level. Values such as NPU, BV,
PER and TD show remarkable improvement in weaning food
incorporated with 10 % FPP indicating that the addition of 10 %
FPP to the prototypes can result in superior nutritional quality.
The authors concluded that the FPP could be an ideal source of
protein for enriching the weaning food.
Ibrahim, (2009) found that 5 % FPC from tilapia by-
products was the best level of fortification of biscuits. Arason et
al., (2009) demonstrated that using fish proteins as ingredients in
processing lines for whitefish fillets generally improved the final
products. Thus, extension of fish utilization is usually associated

10 -
-
with the increase of unemployed stocks such as small fish bycatch
and waste of processing which could be utilized economically.

Adeleke and Odedeji, (2010) studied an acceptability of

bread fortified with 5, 10, 15 and 20 % FPP. The results of the
sensory evaluation indicated no significant differences among the
samples. The prototypes were accepted by the Nigerian
consumers.
Shaviklo et al., (2010) showed that the quality and
characteristics of fish protein ingredients were highly dependent
on the source of the raw materials and the processing methods.
And, the FPC was a dried and stable fish product, intended for
human consumption, in which the protein was more concentrated
than in the original fish flesh.

Shaviklo et al. (2011a) stadied quality changes and

storage stabilityof an extruded corn-fish snack containing 3 %
FPP during 6-month storage at 27±2 °C and they found that the
product was stable during the study period. It was concluded that
extrusion of corn grits with FPP can be utilised to produce high-
protein products that would be an option to provide nutrient
snacks for consumers.
Vakily et al. (2012) found that the FPP has been also
proven to be very valuable in treating severe malnutrition of

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children under five, ‘i.e.’, Kwashiorkor. Kudre et al., (2013)
reported that protein isolates are important sources of protein with
high lysine content. Isolates from different legumes varied
slightly in physiochemical and thermal properties. They are used
as proteinaceous ingredients in many food products such as salad
dressing, meat products and dessert. Whey proteins are mainly
used in beverage applications, due to their health benefits.

Shaviklo, (2015) reported that the increasing awareness

that dried fish protein can be applied for food fortification and
production of value added/functional foods had encouraged the
food industry to examine different methods for developing fish
protein ingredient from different raw materials. Fish protein
powder (FPP) was a dried and stable fish product, intended for
human consumption, in which the protein was more concentrated
than in the original fish flesh.Quality and acceptability of FPP
depend on several factors. The fat content of the FPP was a
critical issue because when it was oxidized a strong and often
rancid flavour is produced. Protein content of FPP depends on the
raw materials; amount of additives and moisture content, but it
contains at least 65 % proteins. FPP was used in the food industry
for developing re-structured and ready-to-eat food products. The
FPP maintains its properties for 6 months at 5°C but loses them
rapidly at 30 °C. Deterioration of the FPP during storage was

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prevented by lowering the moisture content of the product and
eliminating of oxygen from the package. The FPP can be applied
as a functional ingredient for developing formulated ready-to-eat
products.

Lone et al., (2015) reported that fish protein isolate

contains myofibrillar proteins extracted from the fish muscle, can
be used as an ingredient for production of value added and ready-
to-eat products based on functionality.

2.4.1. Effect of fish protein concentrate FPC and isolate

FPI suplmentation levels on Crackers properties
2.4.1.1.Chemical comoposition of crackers
Crackers are an important product line within the large-
scale baking industry, and are a natural fit as portable and
convenient foods. Crackers can be divided into three broad
categories: saltine cracker (soda cracker), chemically leavened
cracker, and enzyme cracker (Moore and Strouts, 2008).

Also Manley, (2011) reported that a cracker is a baked

food typically made from flour. Flavorings or seasonings, such
as salt, herbs, seeds, and/or cheese, may be added to the dough or
sprinkled on top before baking. Crackers are often branded as a
nutritious and convenient way to consume a staple food or cereal
grain.

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 With regard to the effect of different processing
methods, Rossell, (2001) found that the crust formation during
frying prevents water from escaping due to its low diffusivity.
Thus, some amount of water remains inside the fried product at
the end of frying the rice crackers. Skipnes et al., (2008) reported
that fish powder is high in protein content, which reduces the
water holding capacity of protein-starch mixture during heating in
crackers preparing.

Ibrahim, (2009) studied the effect of adding FPC to salt

biscuit and he found that 5% supplementation level of FPC led to
increasing the nuitritinal values of biscuit. Also, Maneerote et
al., (2009) reported that moisture content of deep fried rice
crackers mixed with fish powder (5, 10 and 15 g/100 g) and
without fish powder (control sample) were not significantly
different (P <0.05) at frying times in the range of 40–140s.

2.5. Rhelogical Proprites of Dough

Understanding the rheological properties and
machinability of dough system is essential for guiding the
production of wheat products. However, whole wheat flour has a
major impact on the rheological properties of dough and quality
attributes of end products. The water absorption of wheat flour,
especially the whole wheat flour can significantly affect the

11 -
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rheological properties of cracker dough and end product quality.
The formation of gluten in dough system was restrained by whole
wheat flour of high level water absorption capacity, which was
undesirable in the functionality of cracker flour (Slade et al.,
1994). The quality of wheat products was determined by the
rheological behaviours of dough. The pasting properties of starch
gave useful prediction to the quality of soft wheat products such
as cookies, crackers and cakes as reviewed by Serpil et al.,
(2008).
Among dough rheology methods, the farinograph and
mixograph are typically used to obtain information on flour’s
water-absorption behaviour and gluten strength of flours (Shuey,
1984).
Shogren, (1990) reported that Farinograph and
mixograph are used most often for evaluating the hard wheat for
their suitability for bread making.
Slade, et al., (1994) showed that Cookie dough made
from hard wheat flour exhibits controlled elastic expansion
(spreading), which expands to a maximum during baking and then
contracts through a controlled elastic shrinkage.
The relationship between flour quality and dough
rheology measured using Farinograph, Mixograph, Extensograph,
and Alveograph in baked product (bread, cookies, and cakes) are
widely used for the identification of varieties suitable for a

11 -
-
particular product. The specific balance between gliadin and
glutenin defines the quality of the flour and affects the viscosity
and elasticity or strength of the dough (Khatkar et al., 1995).
Sliwinski et al., (2004) observed that the volumes of
bread and puff pastry were correlated with rheological properties
of the dough. Levine and Slade, (2004) decided that Alveograph
is more appropriate for predicting the protein functionality of soft
wheat flours, while farinograph and mixograph are commonly
used to evaluate hard wheat bread flours. Ren et al., (2008)
reported that the rheological properties of the dough are greatly
influenced by water absorption, damaged starch, gluten elasticity
and salt.
Rosell et al., (2010) showed that the arabinoxylans
which are the main non-starch polysaccharides in wheat bran
compete for water with the dough main polymers, gluten and
starch in whole wheat dough system, and interrupt the protein
aggregation behaviour during heating. Kweon et al., (2011) found
that flours suitable for cookie making generally requires low
water absorption, minimal gluten strength, and low damaged
starch and arabinoxylans. Also they reported that the solvent
retention capacity (SRC) test is used to predict the functional
contribution of damaged starch, flour gluten and pentosans
towards the quality of the finished-product.

11 -
-
 Singh and Singh, (2013) mentioned that empirical
rheological measurements are commonly used for evaluating the
gluten quality and baking functionality of flours. Also they
added that Dynamic oscillatory measurements involving small
deformation is a fundamental approach and is being preferred for
evaluating the wheat flour quality. The dynamic modulli
measured by dynamic rheometer were correlated to the
rheological properties measured by empirical methods such as the
Farinograph.

2.6. Sensory characteristiecs

2.6.1. Sensory characteristiecs of fish protein concentrate and
isolate
Windsor, (2001) reported that the importance of the
colour of solvent extracted fish protein becomes more acute when
it comes in contact with water and/or oil because it darkens,
which obviously is not desirable. The colour of solvent extracted
fish protein has two origins: (1) the melanin present in scales,
which are insoluble in alcohol; and (2) the red pigment of the
blood (haemoglobin) in combination with protein which is mostly
alcohol soluble. During the manufacture of solvent extracted fish
protein, blood pigments principally removed by centrifugation;
however, the melanin from the scales remains in the final product.

18 -
-
 Marmon and Undeland, (2010) decided that the color
improvement of fish protein isolate (FPI) is probably due to the
removal of pigments during the pH-shift process. Shaviklo,
(2015) proved that colour is an important quality attribute of fish
protein ingredient. The colour of FPP varies from light gray to
creamy, or pinkish depending on the type of fish used, method of
extraction and also the particle size.
Also, Tian et al., (2016) reported that the color of
protein isolates affects its application in food processing; the
chroma becomes a very important parameter.
2.6.2. Sensory characteristiecs of Crackers Supplemented
with fish protein concentrate and isolate:
Huyghebaert, (1984) noticed that formation of brown
polymers/ melanoidins is a result of browning reactions due to
protein incorporation in cookies. Cocup and Sanderson, (1987)
also reported that lactose in dairy powders contributes to Maillard
and caramelisation reactions.

Ibrahim, (2009) reported that the addition of FPC

obtained from fish by-products at level 5% to salt biscuit had a
good effect on sensory characteristiecs of biscuit. Shaviklo et al.
(2011a) studied the effects of enriching foods with fish
ingredients on sensory quality and reported negative effects both
on flavour and odour if they are used at inappropriate levels.

19 -
-
Therefore, the level of enrichment should not affect acceptance
and sensory properties of the product.
Fishery-derived ingredients may have a negative impact
on sensory characteristics despite improving nutritional and
functional quality of the products (Shaviklo et al., 2013).

2.7. Economic Evaluation of FPC and FPI Production

It is well known that total costs of production of FPC and
FPI are depending mainly on several issues such as fish species,
marketability, its problem, extraction method, good and safety of
fish powder obtained…etc.
Fish protein concentrate and isolate are an excellent
source of highly digestible amino acids, but production costs
normally limit its use (Venugopal et al. 1996).

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Materials and Methods
 3-Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
Fish samples
Common carp fish (Cyprinus carpio) samples were
purchased from Banha fish market, EL-Qalubia Governorate
during May, 2014. Raw fish samples were transported
immediately using ice box to Fish Processing and Technology
Laboratory at El-Knater El-Khiria city, National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries, Ministry of Scientific Research,
A.R.E.
After that, fish samples were carefully washed with tap
water, manually filleted, washed again to get rid of blood traces,
drained and then packed in polyethylene bags till processing.
Besides, all fish by products; head, scales, skin, fins, viscera and
bones were carefully washed, drained and then packed in
polyethylene bags till proceeding too.
Crackers ingredients
Wheat flour extraction (72%), fine granulated sucrose,
Sodium bicarbonate, bakery yeast (baking soda), Sodium
chloride, shortening and water were obtained from local market.

14 -
-
3.2. Methods:
3.2.1.Technological Processes
3.2.1.1.Preparation of fish samples for fish protein
concentrate (FPC) and Fish protein isolate (FPI)
extraction
Both carp flesh and wastes were used to extract of fish
protein concentrate (FPC) and fish protein isolate (FPI).
Extraction
Fish protein concentrate (FPC)
Fish protein concentrate was carried out as described by
Reffat (1982). Water was added to minced raw fish flesh and
wastes as the ratio 2:1 v/w. Then it was cooked at 80°C for one
hour. After that they soaked in 1% acetic acid solution at 30°C for
45 min. The samples were dried at 75°C under vacuum for about 4
hours until moisture content reached to less 40%. Azeotropic
mixture contained ethanol (21%) and hexane (79%) was added to
flesh or wastes samples at ratio of 2:1v/w for 1 hour at 79°C. The
extraction procedure was repeated twice or three times using the
same solvent mixture. Flesh and wastes samples were rapidly
washed with the solvent in ratio of 1:1.5. The extracted samples
were then desolventized at 65°C for 4-6 hours to less than 10%
moisture. Dried sample was milled and sieved. FPC was
packaged in polyethylene.

14 -
-
 A B

Fig. (1). Fish protein concentrate (FPC) from flesh (A) and
(B) from wastes.

Fish proteins isolate (FPI)

Fish protein isolate (FPI) was extracted from fish wastes as
described by Smith and Cirele (1980). Samples were minced and
defatted by soaking in hexane with periodical agitation for 24
hours at room temperature. Defatting process was repeated 4
times by using fresh solvent each time. Defatted samples were
dried in air to remove any traces of solvent, then autoclaved at
atmospheric pressure for 30 min. After that, samples were dried at
80°C for 30 min and soaked in 1.6% NaOH solution as ratio 1:5
w/v at pH 9-11at 40°C to extract protein. The alkaline treatment
was continued overnight followed by filtration and repeated two
times. The filtrates were collected, mixed and adjusted at pH 4.5
by adding HCL solution of a concentration of 1% to precipitate
protein. The precipitate as drained in nylon cloth, washed by
water to remove the trace of acid, recovered and dried at 50°C.
The final FPI was milled and packed in polyethylene bags.

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-
 Fig. (2). Fish protein isolate (FPI) from fish waste.

3.2.1.2. Preparation of crackers

Crackers processing
Crackers were prepared according to the procedure of
AACC, (2010). The crackers formula is illustrated in Table (1).
Table (1): The ingredients and its quantities used in crackers.
Ingredient Quantity (g)
Wheat flour 100.0 (14% moisture)
Fine granulated sucrose 1.03
Salt 1.00
Sodium bicarbonate 0.8
Baking soda 0.2
Shortening 11.0
Water 40 ml

11 -
-
Crackers processing could be described into three categories:
(1) Mixing procedures
Stage (A)
Dissolve fine granulated sucrose in water to prepare a pre-
dissolved sugar solution. 38g of pre-dissolved sugar solution was
put into a 100g pin mixer and mixing bowl at room temperature
was done. Shortening was added and mix for 1 min at room
temperature.
Stage (B)
Pre-weighed flour, salt, sodium bicarbonate, and baking
soda were added mixed for 10 min continuously. Different levels
of FPC obtained from flesh (5, 10%) and wastes (5%) were added
and well mixed. Dough balls were formed by hand.
(2) Sheeting procedure
Dough balls were flatted and sheeted at dial setting “5”
(5.59mm) of the Univex Sheeter. The sheeting direction knob to
the opposite direction and sheet the dough at dial setting “3”
(3.78mm) was changed. The step 3 three times was repeated with
dial settings “2” (2.71mm), “1” (1.77mm) and 2nd smallest
(0.54mm) sequentially. The sheeted dough was rested for 1 min
on the sheeter belt, and dough pieces were cut by hand cutter (4
pieces of cracker dough) twice to prepare 8 pieces of cracker
dough. The 8 pieces of cracker dough were transferred to a cookie

14 -
-
baking sheet, and total dough weight was measured before
transferring the dough pieces to pre-heated baking mesh.
(3) Baking procedure:
Oven temperature was set 500°F (260°C). Baking time was
about 5-6 min (Target moisture: 2.75% (2.0-3.5%). A cracker
baking mesh was placed on the top of a baking (cooling) rack,
and pre-heated in an oven for 5 min before sheeting dough.
Cracker dough pieces were placed on pre-heated baking mesh,
and placed in an oven for baking. Baked crackers were removed
from the oven, and transferred to the cookie baking sheet to
measure the cracker weight. Moisture loss during baking was
calculated. Length, width and height were measured for 8
crackers, and the average length, width and height were reported.
3.2.2. Analytical methods
Gross Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of fish protein concentrate and
crackers including moisture, crude protein, crude fat, and ash
were determined according to the procedures of the AOAC,
(2000). Total carbohydrates content was calculated by difference
as described by Maclean et al., (2003). Energetic value (cal.
/100gm) of the cooked samples was calculated using the
following equation:
Energetic value = [(% of carbohydrate x 4) + (% of protein x 4) +
(% of fat x 9).

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-
Determination of physico- chemical quality criteria :
The pH value:
The pH values of tested fresh fish flesh and waste were estimated
as the method described by Zaika et al (1976) using Beckman pH
meter
Total volatile basic –nitrogen (TVB-N):
TVB-N content estimated in tested fish flesh, fish waste,
fish protein concentrate and fish protein isolate according to the
procedure of Person, (1976) using 10g sample of sample was
mixed with about 50ml of distilled water using a mortar. The
mixture was transferred with 250 ml distilled water in to 500ml
round bottom flask, and distilled after the addition of 2g of MgO
and antifoaming agent. A 250 ml flask containing methyl red as
an indicator to receive the distilled ammonia was done and
Ammonia was titrated with Sulforic acid (0.1 N). TVB-N in
mg/100g fish sample was calculated according to the following
equation:
TVB-N mg/100g sample = (V×N×14/sample wt) ×100
Where:
V: volume taken of Sulforic acid. N: normality of Sulforic acid
(0.1 N).
Trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N) content
TMA-N content in tested fish flesh fish waste, fish protein
concentrate and fish protein isolate was determined

14 -
-
colourimetrically using the spectrophotometer (model Digital
readout and UV/visible wavelength range, Cat NO.332279)
according to the procedures of the AOAC (2000).
Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value
TBA value in tested fish flesh, fish waste, fish protein
concentrate and fish protein isolate was determined by the method
described by Pearson (1976) as follows: 10g of fish sample were
distillated with 97.5ml of distilled water and 2.5ml of 4N HCL
acid, then 50ml of distilled were obtained. 5ml of distillate was
added to 5ml of TBA reagent (0.2883g TBA/100 ml 90% glacial
acetic acid) in to stoppard tube and heated in boiling water bath
for 35 min. after cooling by tap water the absorbance measured at
538nm. Then the TBA value was calculated as mg Malonaldhyde
per kg fish sample on wet weight according to the following
equation:
TBA value = 7.8×Optical density538nm.
Functional properties
(A) Foaming properties
Foaming properties can be determined following Miller and
Groninger (1976). In this method; 2 g of FPC and FPI are added
to 100 mL of distilled water and blended at high speed for 1 min.
The volume of the mixture is measured. The foaming capacity is
calculated as the volume of the mixture after blending compared
to the original volume according to the following equation:

14 -
-
(Foaming after blended – original sample ÷ original sample) ×
100
Foaming stability is calculated according to the following
equation: Foaming after 30 min × 100 ÷ initial foaming.

(B) Water holding capacity (WHC)

WHC of FPC and FPI were carried out according to the
method of Miller and Groninger (1976). Briefly, 1 g of FPC and
FPI was added to 40 mL 3% NaCl solution in a 50 mL centrifuge
tube. Samples were homogenized for 5 min using a Vortex mixer
and then centrifuged for 5 min at 7500 rpm. The volume of
supernatant is subtracted from the original 40 mL and counted as
mL of H2O held by 1 g of protein.

Estimation of amino acids

Automatic Amino Acid Analyzer (AAA 400) INGOS Ltd. Acid
hydrolysis was carried out according to the method of Block et al.
(1958). The dried grinded sample (100mg) was hydrolyzed with
6N HCl (10ml) in a sealed tube at 110 ºC in an oven for 24 hours.
The excess of HCl was then free from 1 ml. hydrolyzed under
vacuum of 80ºC with occasionally addition of distilled water, and
then evaporated to dryness. The HCl free residue was dissolved in
exact (2ml) of loading buffer (6.2M, pH 2.2).

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-
Calculation of amino acids score (A.S)
Amino acids score (A.S) was calculated for IAAs in samples in
relation to the reference protein pattern of FAO/ WHO/ UNU,
(1985) for human adult according to Bhanu et al., (1991) as the
following equation:
A.S = IAA content (g/16 g N) in protein of samples / IAA content
(g/16 g N) in FAO/ WHO/UNU reference pattern
Calculation of the GDR and PS/100 g (%) values:
As illustrated by amino acids composition (g/100g) the quantity
(g) of FPC, FWPC, FPI and supplemented crackers should be
consumed to cover the daily requirements for adults (GDR) and
the percentage satisfaction of daily requirements for adults when
100g were consumed (PS/100 % value) were calculated using the
recommended daily dietary allowances for human adult reported
by Food and Nutrition Board, (1989). As the following
equations:
GDR = (Food and Nutrition Board reference / g 100g) ×100
PS/100 % = (100 g sample / GDR value) × 100
determination of minerals
All glassware was washed overnight in a solution of 10%
HCl in deionized distilled water (v/v) prior to use. Ashed samples
were dissolved in 2 mL of 70% nitric acid. The acidified samples
were neutralized in 5 mL of H2O and filtered through Whatman
No.1 paper. Samples were diluted to volume with H2O in a 50-

45 -
-
mL volumetric flask (Chen et al., 2007). Minerals content were
determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry (model P400; Perkin Elmer, Shelton, Conn.,
U.S.A.).
Rheological properties tests
Dough rheological properties; water absorption, stability,
viscosity, dough development, protein breakdown, starch
gelatinization, amylase activity and starch gelling were performed
by Mixolab (Chopin, Tripette et Renaud, Paris, France) according
to AACC (2010).
Dough rheological investigations (Table 2) were performed
by Mixolab (Chopin, Tripette et Renaud, Paris, France) according
to AACC (2010).
Table (2): Conditions of Mixolab used in this study.
Setting Values
Mixing speed 80 rpm
Dough weight 75 g
Tank temperature 30 °C
Temperature 1ed step 30 °C
Duration 1ed step 8 min
1ed temperature gradient 15 min – 4 °C /min
Temperature 2ed step 90 °C
Duration 2ed step 7 min
2ed temperature gradient 10 min – 4 °C /min
Temperature 3ed step 50 °C
Duration 3ed step 5 min
Total analysis time 45 min

44 -
-
The typical Mixolab curve shows the following parameters:
1- Water absorption (%) – WA or the percentage of water
required for the dough to produce a torque of 1.1;
2- Dough development time (min) – DDT or the time to
reach the maximum torque at 30°C;
3- Stability (min) or time until the loss of consistency is
lower than 11% of the maximum consistency reached
during the mixing,
4- Initial maximum consistency (Nm) - C1, used to
determine the water absorption; torque at the end of the
holding time at 30°C (Nm)
5- Mechanical weakening (Nm); the torque difference
between C1 and C1.2;
6- Minimum consistency (Nm) - C2, the minimum value of
torque produced by dough passage while being subjected
to mechanical and thermal constraints;
7- Thermal weakening (Nm) - the difference between the
C1.2 and C2 torques;
8- Pasting temperature (°C) – the temperature at the onset
of this rise in viscosity;
9- Peak torque (Nm) - C3, the maximum torque produced
during the heating stage;

44 -
-
 10- Peak temperature (°C) – the temperature at the peak
viscosity; minimum torque (Nm) – C4,
11- Minimum torque reached during cooling to 50°C;
12- breakdown torque (Nm) – calculated as the difference
1054 between C3 and C4;
13- Final torque (Nm) – C5, the torque after cooling at 50°C;
14- Setback torque (Nm) – the difference between C5 and C4
torque, is illustrated in Fig. (3).

Fig. (1). Description of a typical curve obtained in the Mixolab. The numbers indicate the
different areas detected in the curve according to the wheat bread dough changes: (1) Dough
development; (2) Protein reduction during heating; (3) Starch gelatinization; (4) Amylase
activity; and (5) Starch gelling is due to cooling (Kahraman et al., 2008).

Sensory evaluation
The samples were coded with random numbers and served
to be evaluated in terms of color, shape , texture, flavor and
mouth feel by 10 untrained panelists using 0-10 point hedonic
scale descriptive analysis. Sensory characteristic were evaluated

44 -
-
as described method by AACC (2000) with change 10 score
instead of 7 score.
Statistical analysis
All the obtained data are expressed as mean± standard deviation.
The statistics was performed by using a one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan's test according to the
procedure of Helwing, (1983). Using SPSS version 16 computer
program.

41 -
-
Results and Discussion
 4-Results and Discussion
4.1. Identification of Carp Fish:
Carps, as freshwater fish species, has been one of the most
widely cultured species all over the world due to its fast growth
rate, easy cultivation and high feed efficiency ratio. However, a
carp having intramuscular bones and its feeding behavior has a
bad smell that cause to sell with a lower price has low consumer
preference (Yongkong et al., 2002; Tokur et al., 2006 and
Shabanpour et al., 2007).

4.1.1 Gross Chemical Composition of Raw Common Carp

Table (3) shows the proximate chemical analysis of
common carp flesh and its by-products (wastes). The chemical
composition (on wet weight basis) of carp flesh was 74.6%,
17.22%, 6.39% and 1.79 % for moisture, protein, fat and ash
content, respectively. It was observed that carp fish has a high
content of protein and lipid. Concerning its wastes composition,
the moisture content was 75.25%, protein 12.93%, fat 9.61% and
ash 2.21%. It is well known that the chemical composition of fish
is affected by several factors such as season, feeding, location,
sex, age, species…etc. Our results are in accordance with those
findings by Elsayed, (2016); Mahmud, (2016); Ismail, (2017).

55
Table (3): Chemical composition (on wet weight basis) of raw
common carp flesh and its by-products (wastes).

Constituent Common carp;

(%) Flesh By-products (wastes)
Moisture 74.6±0.12 75.25±0.14
Protein 17.22±0.13 12.93±0.11
Fat 6.39±0.2 9.61±0.01
Ash 1.79±0.02 2.21±0.03
These results are expressed as mean ± SD.

4.1.2. Quality indices of Carp Fish Flesh and its by-products:

Data in Table (4) describe the quality indices of raw
common carp flesh and its by-products (wastes). Results
exhibited that the values of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N)
content were 17.49 mg/100g and 14.60mg/100g and
trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N) were 1.65 and 0.32mg/100g
mg/100g for fish flesh and by-products, respectively. Besides, the
thiobarbituric acid (TBA) recorded 0.89 and 0.16 mg
malonaldehyde (MDA)/kg for flesh and wastes, respectively.
Concerning the pH, its values were 6.16 and 6.63, respectively.
Results indicated that common carp samples were fresh
according to the permissible levels of physico-chemical quality
criteria as set by the international standards. Also, they are in

55
agreement with those reported by Elsayed (2016); Mahmud,
(2016) and Ismail, (2017).

Table (4): The quality indices of raw common carp flesh and
its by-products.

Common carp;
Quality indices Flesh By-
products
Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) 17.49±0.08 14.60±0.7
(mg\100 gm)
Trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N) (mg\100 1.65±0.04 0.32±0.01
gm)
Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) (mg MA\kg) 0.89±0.17 0.16±0.023
pH value 6.16± 0.56 6.63±0.45
These results are expressed as mean ± SD.

4.2. Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) and Isolate (FPI):

4.2.1. Chemical Composition of Fish Protein Concentrate
(FPC) and Fish Protein Isolate (FPI):
4.2.1.1. Chemical Composition of Fish Protein Concentrate
(FPC)
FPC has been defined as a product by removing water and
oil from fish, thus increasing the concentration of the protein and
the other nutrient materials (Stilling and Knobi, 1971). Data in
Table (5) show the chemical composition of flesh protein

55
concentrate (FPC) and waste protein concentrate (WPC). The
chemical composition of (FPC) was 7.7 % moisture, 80.76%
protein, 3.3% fat, and 8.24% ash content (wet basis).

Table (5): Chemical composition (on wet weight basis) of fish

protein concentrate (FPC) obtained from common
carp flesh and wastes (FWPC).

Constituent FPC FWPC

% Ww Dw Ww Dw

moisture 7.7 ±0.09 --- 10.28 ±0.61 -----

Protein 80.76 ±0.001 87.5 72.62±2.19 80.94

Fat 3.3±0.34 3.6 3.12±2.27 3.48
Ash 8.24±043 8.9 13.98±0.18 15.58
These results are expressed as mean ± SD. Ww: on wet weight basis. Dw: on dry weight basis.

Concerning the WPC, it contained 10.28%, 72.62%, 3.12%

and 13.98% for moisture, protein, lipid and ash content,
respectively. Several studies by (Hussien, 1997; EL-Sherif,
2005; Murueta, et al., 2007; Ibrahim, 2009 and khoshkhoo, et
al., 2012) showed that the chemical composition of fish protein
concentrate ranged between 2.3 to 9.5% moisture, 62.09 to 91.02
% protein, 0.45 to 16.54% fat and 8.56 to 25.62 % ash content.
Our results are localized among these ranges.

55
4.2.1.2 Chemical composition of fish protein isolate (FPI)
Fish protein isolate is a kind of protein which is prepared
from different raw materials (Gholam, 2006). Results in Table
(6) describe the chemical composition of (FPI) obtained from
common carp wastes.
Table (6): Chemical composition (on wet and dry weight
basis) of fish protein isolate (FPI) obtained from
common carp wastes.

Constituent FPI obtained from waste

(%) Ww Dw
Moisture 3.17 ± 0.02 ------
Protein 88.96 ± 0.59 91.86
Fat 3.26 ± 0.64 3.38
Ash 4.61 ± 0.03 4.76
These results are expressed as mean ± SD. Ww: on wet weight basis. Dw: on dry weight basis.

It contains 3.17%, 88.96%, 3.26% and 4.61% for moisture,

protein, fat and ash content, respectively. From the results, it is
observed that the FPI is a very rich source of protein which can be
used in human diets.
These results are in agreement with those reported by
Hussien, (1997); Foh et al. (2011); Tongunanchan, (2011);
Hayam, (2015) Lone et al., (2015) and Tian et al., (2016).

55
4.2.2. Quality Indices of Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) and
Fish Protein Isolate (FPI):
Table (7) describes the quality indices of FPC and WPC.
The results showed that FPC contained 10.1 mg TVB-N/100g,
0.84 mg TMA-N/100g and 0.14 mg malonaldehyde (MDA)/kg
sample. While the FWPC contained 14.61 mg/100g for TVB-N,
0.85 mg/100g for TMA and 0.82 mg malonaldehyde (MDA)/kg
for TBA value.

Table (7): Quality Indices of fish protein concentrate (FPC)

obtained from carp flesh and waste and fish protein
isolate (FPI):

FPC
Indices Flesh Waste FPI

Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) 10.1 14.61 12.77

(mg\100 gm)
Trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N) (mg\100 0.84 0.85 0.61
gm)
Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) (mg MA\kg) 0.14 0.82 0.105

With regard to the FPI quality indices, it contained 12.77

mg/100g, 0.61 mg/100g and 0.105 mg MDA/kg sample for TVB-
N, TMA and TBA values respectively. Results reported that the
quality criteria of FPC, FWPC and FPI were in the permissible

56
levels, as set by FAO, (2005). Our results are in agreement with
those reported by Ibrahim, (2009) and Hayam, (2015).

4.2.3. Functional Properties of Fish Protein Concentrate

(FPC) and Fish Protein Isolate (FPI):
The functional properties of protein are affected by the
chemical and physical properties of protein itself, and they can
affect proteins utilization in food preparation, processing, storage
and consumption (Damodaran, 1997). Data in Table (8) show
the functional properties of FPC and FPI products.
Table (8): Functional properties of fish protein concentrate
(FPC) and isolate.
FPC;
Property Flesh Wastes FPI

Foaming capacity 9.09% 8.91% 12.75%

Foaming stability 95.8% 97.27% 97.39%
WHC 3.85 mL/g 3.8 mL/g 3.84 mL/g

The results showed that the foaming capacity of (FPC) was

9.09% and foaming stability was 95.8%, while (FWPC) recorded
8.91% and 97.27% for foaming capacity and foaming stability,
respectively. On the other side, the foaming capacity was
12.745% and foaming stability was 97.39% for FPI. These results
are in accordance with Foh et al., (2011); Lon et al., (2015) and
Tian et al., (2016).

56
 Also data represented the water binding capacity WBC of
FPC, FWPC and FPI which recorded 3.85, 3.8 and 3.84 mL/g for
FPC, FWPC and FPI respectively. Our results are in accordance
with those obtained by Foh et al. (2011) who reported that the
WBC of FPC from tilapia fish was 2.47 ml/g and foaming
stability was ranged from 52.63% to 90.17% and Lone et al.,
(2015); they found that the foaming stability and capacity of FPI
obtained from rainbow trout were 90% and 13.2% respectively
while the WHC was 2.2 ml/g.
4.2.4. Nutritional Value of Fish Protein Concentrate
And Fish Protein Isolate:
4.2.4.1. Amino Acids Content (AAs) Of Fish Protein
Concentrate And Fish Protein Isolate:
Despite the fact that the nutritional value of fish is well
known, it nevertheless plays only a limited role in the diet of
many countries. Therefore, it would seem appropriate to find new
processing methods for this valuable raw material so as to
increase consumer interest. Compared to mammalian meat, fish
meat has more water and less connective tissue, which contains
very little elastin (Kołakowska and Kołakowski, 2001).
Data in Table (9) show the essential amino acids (EAAs) of
FPC obtained from common carp flesh and its wastes. The results
of AAs of (FPC) were 2.40, 3.08, 2.67, 2.05, 8.28, 3.67, 7.91,
6.06 and 24.36 g/16g N for threonine, valine, methionine,

56
isoleucine, Leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, histidine and lysine,
respectively. Also, the results described the WPC contained
1.494, 2.299, 0.567, 1.05, 4.175, 2.58, 4.99, 1.89 and 74.32 g/16g
N for threonine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, Leucine, tyrosine,
phenylalanine, histidine and lysine, respectively.
Table (9): Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
concentrate (FPC) obtained from common carp flesh
and its wastes.
FAO/WHO FPC;
Essential Pattern (1985) Flesh Waste
Amino g/16g N g/16g N g/100 g/16g N g/100
Acids
Threonine 0.9 2.40a 1.94 1.494b 1.085
Valine 1.3 3.08 a 2.49 2.299 b 1.67
Methionine 1.7 2.67 a 2.16 0.567b 0.416
Isoleucine 1.3 2.05 a 1.65 1.05b 0.763
Leucine 1.9 8.28 a 6.68 4.175b 3.032
Tyrosine 3.67 a 2.96 2.58b 1.875
Phenylalanine 1.9 7.91 a 6.39 4.99b 3.624
Histidine 1.6 6.06 a 4.89 1.89b 1.373
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND
Lysine 1.6 24.36 a 19.67 74.32b 53.95
TEAs 60.48 48.83 93.37 75.58
TEAs: total essential amino acids. EAAI: Essential amino acids index. ‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined
Different letters (a, b,) within a row indicate significant differences (P<0.05)..

56
 Also data showed the values of total essential amino acids
(TEAs) were 60.48 and 93.37 g/16g N for FPC and WPC
respectively. As illustrated in the results of Table (9) both of FPC
and WPC had a much higher content of all essential amino acids
especially in lysine amino acid (g/16g N) than those on the
reference protein pattern recommended by FAO/ WHO/UNU,
(1985).

Based on the statistical analysis, it was found there were

significant differences (P<0.05) between the amino acids content
of FPC and WPC. This variation is mainly due to original raw
materials used. Our results are in accordance with those obtained
by Ibrahim, (2009) and Khoshokhoo et al., (2012) who studied
the amino acid content of FPC from fish muscle and waste.
Also, Pires et al., (2012) reported that cape hake protein
powder had a higher level of lysine. The essential amino acid
(EAA) content of cape hake protein powder exceeded the
requirements for adult humans. Lysine and threonine content of
Cape hake protein powder exceeded the EAA requirements for
infants. Also Lee et al., (2016) reported that lysine was the
highest amino acids in FPC obtained from Yellow fin tuna
Thunnus albacares roe which in accordance with our results.

56
 Concerning to the non-essential amino acids data in Table
(10) show the results of non-essential amino acids content of FPC
obtained from carp flesh and its wastes (on wet weight basis).
Table (10): Non-Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
concentrate (FPC) obtained from common carp
flesh and its wastes.
FPC
Non-essential Amino Acids Flesh Waste
g/16Gn g/100 g/16gN g/100
Aspartic 11.63 9.39 6.857 4.98
Serine 3.94 3.18 2.199 1.597
Glutamic 16.90 13.65 7.226 5.248
Proline 0.114 0.092 0.049 0.036
Glycine 9.82 7.93 6.155 4.74
Alanine 11.19 9.036 6.49 4.72
Arginine 0.320 0.258 0.740 0.538
Total ------- 43.54 ------- 21.86

The results recorded that the glutamic was the highest amino
acids value recorded 16.90 and 7.226 g/16g N for FPC and
FWPC, respectively. Comparing with other amino acids, it could
be that the ascending orders of amino acids were aspartic, alanine,
glycine, serine, arginine and proline for both FPC and FWPC.
Statistically view, there were significant differences between FPC
and FWPC in all amino acids values as shown in table (9). In this

55
respect, Pires et al., (2012) reported that raw Cape hake was
richer in glutamic acid and glycine than cape hake protein
powder. Also the major non-essential amino acids of FPC from
Yellow fin tuna Thunnus albacares roe were glutamic acid (13.1–
13.2 g/ 100 g of protein), aspartic acid (8.7–9.2 %) and arginine
(6.5–6.6 %) Lee et al., (2016).
On the other hand, the essential amino acids content of fish
protein isolate (FPI) was described in Table (11).

Table (11): Essential Amino acids content of fish protein

isolate (FPI).
Essential Amino FAO/WHO/Pattern FPI
Acids g/16gN (1985) g/16gN g/100

Threonine 0.9 0.978 0.842

Valine 1.3 1.596 1.42
Methionine 1.7 0.021 0.019
Isoleucine 1.3 0.934 0.813
Leucien 1.9 2.798 2.489
Tyrosine + 1.629 1.54
1.9
Phenylalanine 3.698 3.29
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND
Histidine 1.6 1.697 1.51
Lysine 1.6 56.22 50.02

TEAs 69.57 61.94

TEAs: total essential amino acids. EAAI: Essential amino acids index . ‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined.

55
 The results revealed that the highest amino acids value was
lysine and the second was the phenylalanine value.
From the data, it was observed that FPI had a higher content
(g/16g N) of the most essential amino acids than those the
reference of protein recommended by FAO/WHO/UNU, (1985).
The results are in agreement with Tian et al., (2017); they
reported that the FPI obtained from common carp by different
ways had a higher content of essential amino acids compare with
the carp fresh muscle.
Also, non-essential amino acids content of fish protein
isolate (FPI) were described in Table (12).
Table (12): Non-Essential Amino acids content of fish protein
isolate (FPI).
Non-essential amino FPI
acids g/16Gn g/100g

Aspartic 5.568 4.957

Serine 2.00 1.78
Glutamic 6.362 5.66
Proline 0.108 0.096
Glycine 17.32 15.41
Alanine 7.45 6.36
Arginine 0.478 0.426

Total 39.29 34.69

55
Data from the table showed that the ascending orders of non-
essential amino acids were glycine, alanine, glutamic, asparagine,
serine, arginine and proline.
The results are accordance with those reported by Murueta
et al., (2007) and Khoshkhoo et al., (2012). Also Tian et al.,
(2017) reported that the content of glutamic acid, arginine, proline
and glycine are higher in FPI obtained from common carp than
the fresh muscles.
4.2.4.1.1. Nutritional Evaluation For Protein Quality
Of Fish Protein Concentrate And Isolate,

The nutritional protein quality of (FPC) and (FWPC) was

evaluated according to their contents of essential amino acids

comparing with the reference protein pattern recommended by

FAO/WHO/UNU (1985), as illustrated in Table (13) It could be

noticed that FPC and FWPC had higher content (g/16g N) of all

EAAs than the reference protein pattern. Thereby, the amino acids

score (A.S) for all EAAs was higher than (100) in FPC and all

EAAs content of WPC except the sulphur containing amino acid

(methionine) and isoleucine. Nevertheless, the A.S of EAAs was

55
higher than (100), this is confirmed that these products are good

nutritional quality.

Table (13): Amino acids score (AS) of fish protein concentrate

(FPC) from common carp flesh and wastes.

Essential FAO/WHO/ FPC

Amino Acids Pattern Flesh Waste
g/16gN(1985) g/16 g N AS g/16 g N AS

Threonine 0.9 2.40 266 1.494 166

Valine 1.3 3.08 237.3 2.299 176.84
Methionine 1.7 2.67 157.29 0.567 33.53
Isoleucine 1.3 2.05 157.38 1.05 80.77
Leucine 1.9 8.28 435.78 4.175 219.73
Tyrosine + 1.9 3.67 491.9 2.58 445.29
Phenylalanine +7.91 +4.99
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 6.06 378 1.89 118.13
Lysine 1.6 24.36 1522 74.32 4645
‫٭‬
Tryptophan was not determined

Concerning the FPI nutritional quality refers to most of

EAAs were higher than the reference protein pattern, so the A.S
for most of EAAs were higher than (100) except isoleucine and
methionine ass described by data in Table (14).

55
Table (14): Amino acids score (AS) of fish protein isolate
(FPI) from carp wastes.
Essential FAO/WHO/ FPI
Amino Acids Pattern g/16g N As
g/16gN(1985)

Threonine 0.9 0.978 108.66

Valine 1.3 1.596 122.77
Methionine 1.7 0.021 1.235
Isoleucine 1.3 0.934 71.84
Leucien 1.9 2.798 147.26
Tyrosine + 1.9 1.629 280.37
Phenyl-alanine +3.698
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND
Histidine 1.6 1.697 106.06
Lysine 1.6 56.22 3513.75
‫٭‬
Tryptophan was not determined

The nutritional protein quality of FPC and WPC according

to their content of EAAs in comparison to USRDA (g)
recommended by Food and Nutritional Board, (1989) were
presented in Table (15). From the table, it could be observed that
each FPC and FWPC had much a higher content of EAAs for 100
gram sample than that recommended by USRDA (1989). Also,
the data showed the quantity (g) of each FPC and FWPC should
be consumed to satisfy the recommended daily requirements
(G.D.R.) for adults of each EAAs.

56
 The obtained results of (GDR) revealed that the variation
between (GDR) values of FPC and FWPC as the results of
variation in their protein content and different of EEAs

Table (15): Gram daily requirements (GDR) of FPC obtained

from carp fish flesh and wastes.
Essential Amino USRDA (g) FPC
Acids (1989) Flesh Waste

g/100g GDR GDR g/100g

Threonine 0.567 1.94 29.23 1.085 52.258

Valine 0.819 2.49 32.89 1.67 49.04
Methionine 1.071 2.16 49.606 0.416 257.45
Isoleucine 0.819 1.65 49.57 0.763 107.34
Leucine 1.1197 6.68 16.75 3.032 36.93
Tyrosine + 1.197 2.96 12.81 1.875 21.77
Phenylalanine +6.39 +3.624
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.315 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.008 4.89 20.61 1.373 73.416
Lysine 1.008 19.67 5.12 53.97 1.867
USRDA: United State Recommended Dietary allowances. ‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined

The results reported that the highest GDR values were in

methionine 49.606 and 257.45 for FPC and WPC, respectively.
While the lowest GDR values were lysine which recorded 5.12
and 1.876 for FPC and FWPC, respectively.

56
 The nutritional quality of FPI is shown in Table (16). The
results showed that the FPI had a higher content of essential
amino acids EAAs per 100 gram than USRDA recommended by
Food and Nutritional Board, (1989). Concerning to the GDR
value, the highest values were methionine and the lowest was the
lysine.

Table (16): Gram daily requirements (GDR) of FPI from

common carp wastes.
Essential Amino USRDA (g) FPI
Acids (1989) g/100g GDR

Threonine 0.567 0.842 67.34

Valine 0.819 1.42 57.676
Methionine 1.071 0.019 536.68
Isoleucine 0.819 0.813 100.7
Leucine 1.1197 2.489 44.99
Tyrosine + 1.197 1.54 25.25
Phenyl-alanine +3.29
‫٭‬Tryptophan 0.315 ND ND
Histidine 1.008 1.51 66.75
Lysine 1.008 50.02 2.15
USRDA: United State Recommended Dietary Allowances (1989). ‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined

The contents of all essential amino acids in FPI obtained

from common carp, meet the amino acid requirements for adults

56
and infants according to FAO/ WHO/UNU recommendations as
reported by Tian et al., (2017).
Generally, we can conclude that Fish proteins are rich in all
the essential amino acids (particularly methionine and lysine), in
contrast with most proteins from plant sources, which lack
adequate amounts of one or more essential amino acids as
reported by (Venugopal, 2006).
4.2.4.2. Minerals Content (Major Elements) of Fish
Protein Concentrate and Isolate.
The mineral elements which the body required are
frequently classified as either macro-or micro-nutrients,
depending on the amount of each that is need in diet. Calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium and magnesium
are considered macronutrient elements. Iron, iodine, fluorine,
zinc, copper, chromium, selenium, cobalt, manganese,
molybdenum, vanadium, tin, silicon and nickel are often
classified as Micro-nutrient or trace element (Ibrahim, 1986).

Data in Table (17) represent the major elements content of

FPC and WPC. From the results, it could be noticed that the
element content (ww) of FPC were 2203.7, 147.66, 903.4, 2079.3,
542.3 and 5.363 mg/100g for P, Ca, Mg, Na, K and Fe,
respectively.

56
Table (17): Major elements (mg/100g) of FPC obtained from
common carp fish.

FAO/WHO/UNU FPC(mg/100g)
Element (1989) Flesh Waste

Phosphorus (P) 800-1000 2203.70 2127.466

Calcium (Ca) 800-1000 147.66 100.524
Magnesium (Mg) 350 903.43 1736.9
Sodium (Na) 2400 2079.33 3136.35
Potassium (K) 3500 542.30 1272.42
Iron (Fe) 10-15 5.363 4.55

Also, results showed the element content of WPC, the

variation of element values especially in Ca value which recorded
100.524 mg/100g compared with value of FPC. The second
increasing was found in potassium (K) which reached to 1272.4
mg/100g in WPC. The results are in agreement with EL-Shreif,
(2005) who reported the increment in values of Ca, Na and K
values of FPC obtained from the waste of fish was appeared.
Also, Lee et al., (2016) reported that FPCs could serve as safety
and mineral source.
Concerning the FPI minerals content it represent in Table (18)The
results showed that the minerals content of FPI were 1211.224,
102.851, 183.28, 1617.23, 706.2 and 13.58 mg/100g for P, Ca,
Mg, Na, K and Fe, respectively.

56
From the results in Tables (17&18), it could be noticed that the
minerals content of FPC were higher than FWPC and FPI in P,
Na, and Fe, this might be due to the FPC was obtained from flesh.
Generally, the minerals content increased in FPC, FWPC and FPI.

Table (18): Major elements (mg/100g, ww) FPI from common

carp fish.

Element FAO/WHO/UNU FPI from waste

(1989) (mg/100g)

Phosphorus (P) 800-1000 1211.2242

Calcium (Ca) 800-1000 102.851
Magnesium (Mg) 350 183.28
Sodium (Na) 2400 1617.23
Potassium (K) 3500 706.2
Iron (Fe) 10-15 13.58

And this might be ascribed mainly to the drying effect and

removal of oil and water soluble nitrogen compounds and
increasing in ash. And some mineral content of fish flesh was
lower than those of proteins powders prepared from by-products
as reported by EL-Sherife, (2005); Sathivel et al., (2004),
Sathivel, and Bechtel, (2006); Pires et al., (2012) and Hayam,
(2015). The variation in the mineral composition of marine foods
is closely related to seasonal and biological differences, area of

55
catch, processing methods, food source and environmental
conditions (salinity, temperature and contaminant) as reported by
Alasalvar et al., (2002).
4.3. Supplementation of Crackers with Fish Protein
Concentrate (FPC) and Fish Protein Isolate (FPI)
4.3.1. Sensory Evaluation of Supplemented Crackers with
(FPC) and (FPI):
Data in Table (19) show the sensory evaluation tests of
crackers supplemented with different levels of FPC and FPI. The
levels of fortification were 5% and 10% for each FPC, FWPC and
FPI. Sensory tests; surface appearance, interior appearance and
eating characteristic were evaluated.
Concerning surface appearance, higher scores of shape
property were given by panelists for control (8.8), 10% FPC (8.5)
and 5% FPC than other treatments. While the scores of color
property for 10% FPC, control and 5% FPC treatments were 8.7,
8.5 and 8.4, respectively.
In addition, the shape scores of interior appearance were
taken the following order; 10% FPC (8.4) <5% FPC (8.3) <
control (8.1) products and this trend was found in case of color
property. In case of the eating characteristic, a high score of
texture (8.8) was given for 10% FPC followed by control (8.6)
and 5% FPC (8.3) compared with others.

55
Table (19): Mean of sensory tests of crackers supplemented
with FPC and FPI.

Crackers supplemented with;

Characteristic Control FPC FPC WPC WPC FPI FPI
5% 10% 5% 10% 5% 10%

Surface appearance

Shape 8.8a 8.1ab 8.5a 7.8ab 7.2b 7.2b 5.1c

Color 8.5a 8.4a 8.7a 8.1ab 7.1bc 6.9c 4.7d

Interior appearance
Shape 8.1ab 8.3ab 8.4ab 7.7ab 7.7ab 6.8b 5.2c
Color 8.2ab 8.4ab 9.1a 8.2ab 7.4bc 6.5c 4.4d

Eating characteristic
Texture 8.6a 8.3a 8.8a 7.8ab 7.6ab 7.7ab 6.3b
Mouth feel 8.3a 7.3ab 7.7ab 7.9ab 6.7bc 5.3cd 4.5d
Flavor 8.3a 8.3a 8a 7.5a 6.8ab 4.9c 4.4d
Different letters (a, b,) within a row indicate significant differences (P<0.05).

Also, the high score of mouth feel was given for control.
The score of flavor was similar in case both control and 5% FPC
products. Therefore, 10% FPC was the best shape and color
(surface appearance) and texture (eating characteristic) than those
others. The shape (surface appearance), mouth feels and flavor
were in case of control and interior appearance and flavor were in
case of 5% FPC. From these data, it could be observed that there

55
were significant differences between control sample and levels
10% FWPC, 5% and 10% FPI in all characteristic which
investigated while there are no significant differences between
control sample and 5% and 10% FPC, 5% FWPC fortification
levels in all characteristic.
Table (20): Mean of sensory tests of the best treatments of
crackers supplemented with different levels of (FPC) and
(FPI).

Crackers supplemented with;

Characteristic Control FPC FPC FWPC FPI
5% 10% 5% 5%

Surface appearance
Shape 9.3a 8.4b 9.0a 8.6ab 8.3b
Color 9.0a 9.1a 8.4b 8.9a 8.0b

Interior appearance
Shape 8.7a 8.6a 8.8a 8.3a 8.3a
Color 8.9a 9.0a 9.1a 8.6a 8.5a

Eating characteristic
Texture 8.9a 8.7a 7.9a 8.4ab 7.4b
Mouth feel 8.8a 7.9b 9.1a 8.9a 7.9b
Flavor 9.0a 9.1a 7.4b 9.3a 8.3b
Different letters (a, b,) within a row indicate significant differences (P<0.05).

55
Based mainly on the sensory tested presented in table (19) so, the
best treatments were 5% and 10% FPC, 5% FWPC as described
in Table (20). Although 5% FPI treatment had been given low
score of sensory tests but it was included the study aims as shows
in Table (20).

4.3.1 Chemical Composition of Supplemented Crackers with

FPC and FPI
Results in Table (21) describe the chemical composition of
crackers supplemented with different levels of fish protein
concentrate (FPC) and waste protein concentrate (FWPC)
compared with control sample. Data show that the control sample
contained 4.8% moisture, 21.95% protein, 25.97% fat and 3.58%
ash content (on wet weight basis). Then the moisture content was
slightly increased up to 5.44%, 5.81% and 5.58% in
supplemented crackers with 5%, 10% FPC and 5%FWPC,
respectively. Also, the protein levels in supplemented samples
were increased markedly up to 32.09%, 33.83%, and 32.02% for
5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC, respectively. In addition to the
lipid content, there is an increase in supplemented samples to
record 29.64% for 5%FPC, 29.20% for 10% FPC and 28.51% for
FWPC. Moreover, ash content recorded 3.31%, 4.36% for FPC
(5%, 10%) and 3.70% for 5% FWPC, respectively. Values of
carbohydrates were markedly decreased to 29.56%, 28.8% and
30.0% for 5%, 10% FPC and 5%FWPC, respectively compared

55
with control sample (41.68%). From the results obtained, it could
be noticed that the chemical composition of supplemented
samples were changed comparing the control sample.
Table (21): Chemical composition of crackers supplemented
with FPC obtained from common carp flesh and its
wastes at different levels.

FPC from flesh at levels FWPC at level

Constituent Control
5% 10% 5%
(%)
Ww Dw Ww Dw Ww Dw Ww Dw

4.82b 5.4a 5.81a 5.58a

Moisture ----- --- ---- -----
±0.22 ±0.17 ±0.39 ±0.51
21.95c 32.09a 33.83a 32.02a
Protein 20.89 33.92 35.92 33.91
±2.00 ±2.00 ±3.9 ±2.00
25.97bc 29.64ab 29.20c 28.51ab
Fat 27.29 31.14 20.38 30.20
±3.4 ±0.12 ±1.97 ±0.39
3.58a 3.31c 4.36ab 3.70bc
Ash 5.55 3.25 4.63 3.92
±0.45 ±0.67 ±0.55 ±0.85

*NFE 43.68 29.56 26.8 30.19

Energy(kcal) 496.25 513.36 505.32 505.43

* NFE nitrogen free extract was calculated by differences. Data are given as mean values ± SD (n = 3)
Different letters (a, b, c or d) within a row indicate significant differences (P< 0.05).

On the other hand, Table (22) shows the chemical

composition of supplemented crackers with 5% FPI was 5.38%,
26.43%, 34.92% and 4.42% for moisture, protein, fat, and ash
content, respectively. Also, NFE recorded 28.85%. The total

56
energy was 496.25 Kcal for control sample and it increased to
535.4 Kcal in supplemented FPI crackers.
Table (22): Chemical composition of crackers supplemented
with FPI obtained from common carp wastes at
level 5%.

Control FPI from waste (5%)

Constituent
Ww Dw Ww Dw

Moisture (%) 4.815b±0.22 ----- 5.38a±0.13 -----

Protein (%) 20.89b±2.00 21.95 26.43a±3.2 27.93
Fat (%) 25.97b±3.48 27.29 34.92a±1.10 36.9
Ash (%) 3.58b±0.45 5.55 4.42a±0.60 4.42

* NFE (%) 43.68 28.85

Energy 496.25 535.4
* NFE nitrogen free extract was calculated by differences. Data are given as mean values ± SD (n = 3)
Different letters (a, b, c or d) within a row indicate significant differences (P<0.05)

The results are in agreement with those obtained by

Shalaby and Yonis, (2002) and Ibrahim, (2009) who reported
the increasing in chemical composition of crackers by adding the
protein source. Nutritive value of cereal proteins could be
increased when combined with a fish protein FPC and FPI. Thus,
the addition of 3 % of FPC to wheat flour (protein content, 10.4
%) increased its protein content to 12.4 % with an increase of the
net protein utilization (NPU) from 50 to 67(Venugopal, 2006).

56
4.3.2 Nutritional Values of Supplemented Crackers
with FPC and FPI.
4.3.2.1 Amino Acids Content of Supplemented Crackers:
The essential amino acids (EAAs) composition was
determined in crackers supplemented with different levels of
(FPC) as shown in Table (23).
Table (23): Essential amino acids of supplemented crackers
with different levels of FPC from carp flesh and
wastes.

‫٭‬
EAAs FAO/ Control Flesh fish protein Waste
WHO 5% 10% 5%
(1985) g/16gN g/100 g/16gN g/100 g/16gN g/100 g/16gN g/100
g/16gN

Threonine 0.9 2.245 0.469 2.623 0.84 2.394 0.810 2.270 0.73

Valine 1.3 4.495 0.939 4.215 1.35 3.367 1.139 3.715 1.19
Methionine 1.7 0.718 0.15 1.473 0.47 0.972 0.329 0.825 0.26

Isoleucine 1.3 0.871 0.182 2.153 0.96 1.559 0.527 2.329 0.74

Leucine 1.9 8.472 1.77 10.73 3.44 9.021 3.051 9.141 2.92

Tyrosine 1.283 0.268 2.329 0.75 2.282 0.772 2.595 0.83

Phenyl- 1.9 9.628 1.936 9.935 3.19 11.19 3.768 8.935 2.86

alanine
‫٭‬Tryptophan ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 0.780 0.163 2.240 0.72 4.428 1.498 2.565 0.82

Lysine 1.6 338.25 70.66 167.1 53.6 166.5 56.33 185.7 59.5

TEAs ----- 76.54 ------ 65.32 ----- 68.19 ----- 69.85

FAO/WHO pattern (g/16g N) (1985). TEAs: total essential amino acids. EAAI: Essential amino acids
index. Tryptophan was not determined

56
 As illustrated in the results, all supplemented samples had a
much higher content (g/16g N) of all (EAAs) in there proteins
than those of the reference protein pattern recommended by
FAO/WHO/UNU (1985).
Data also show that the EAAs content of supplemented
sample was higher than control sample. The highest value was
lysine in all samples and the second value was phenylalanine
9.628g /16gN and Lucien 8.427g/ 16g N. Also, it was found that
the adding of FPC levels led to increase in all amino acids levels.
The results are in agreement with Ibrahim, (2009) who found
that the addition of 5% FPC to salt biscuit led to increasing in all
amino acids content.

Concerning to the non-essential amino acids content data in

(Table, 24) shows that all amino acids are higher except in
glutamic which ranged from 11.8 to 15.3 g/100g, arginine (0.71 to
1.09g/100g) and proline (0.113 to 0.17g/100g ) in all
supplemented samples than control sample.

Also, it could be noticed that the highest value was

glutamic (12.08g\100g) and the lowest one was proline (0.172
g/100g) in control sample.

56
Table (24):Non-essential amino acids of supplemented
crackers with different levels of FPC and FWPC.

Control FPC FWPC

AAs 5% 10% 5%

g/16gN g/100g g/16Gn g/100g g/16gN g/100g g/16gN g/100g

Asparagine 6.745 1.409 11.25 3.61 13.50 4.568 9.436 3.02

Serine 5.873 1.227 6.949 2.23 4.677 1.582 6.574 2.12
Glutamine 57.83 12.08 47.96 15.3 36.03 12.19 36.89 11.8
Proline 0.823 0.172 0.442 0.14 0.334 0.113 0.531 0.17
Glycine 10.51 2.159 13.35 4.29 11.44 3.873 12.92 4.14
Alanine 5.691 1.189 9.875 3.17 8.017 2.712 7.105 2.27
Arginine 5.78 1.208 2.211 0.71 2.646 0.895 3.391 1.09
FPC: Flesh Protein Concentrate. F WPC: waste Protein Concentrate. .

On the other side, the essential amino acids EAAs content of

supplemented crackers with 5% FPI from waste was described in
Table (25). As the same trend, most of EAAs of supplemented
sample were higher than those of reference of protein pattern
recommended by FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) with the exception in
methionine which recorded 0.32g/16g N and histidine 1.43g/16g
N . The highest level was in lysine levels and the second level
was the phenylalanine while the lowest was methionine and
histidine.

It is well be known that crackers are suffering in essential

amino acids especially lysine and methionine, so supplementation
levels could be covered this deficiency.

56
Table (25): Essential amino acids of supplemented crackers
with level 5% of FPI.

EAAs FAO/WHO Control FPI (5%)

(1985)
g/16gN g/100 g/16 g N g/100
g/16g N

Threonine 0.9 2.245 0.469 1.11 0.293

Valine 1.3 4.495 0.939 4.08 1.08
Methionine 1.7 0.718 0.15 0.32 0.085
Isoleucine 1.3 0.871 0.182 1.32 0.35
Leucine 1.9 8.472 1.77 7.66 2.02
Tyrosine + 1.283 0.268 1.86 0.492
Phenylalanine 1.9 9.628 1.936 9.31 2.46
‫٭‬Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 0.780 0.163 1.43 0.38
Lysine 1.6 338.2 70.66 258 68.34

TEAs ----- 73.54 ------ 73.5

FAO/WHO pattern (g/16g N) (1985) . TEAs: total essential amino acids. Tryptophan is not determined.

In addition, data in Table (26) show the content of non-

essential amino acids of 5% FPI supplemented crackers. Results
reported that as the same in supplemented crackers with FPC and
WPC the highest levels of non-essential was glutamic level 10.64
g/100g and the second was glycine 3.08g/100g while the lowest
was proline 0.132 g/100g. Also all amino acids except glutamic,
proline and arginine had a higher level than the control sample.

55
Table (26): Non-essential amino acids of supplemented
crackers with level 5% of FPI

Amino acid Control FPI (5%)

g/16g N g/100 g/16g N g/100

Aspartic 6.75 1.41 6.55 1.73

Serine 5.87 1.23 6.30 1.66
Glutamic 57.83 12.08 40.2 10.64
Proline 0.82 0.17 0.50 0.132
Glycine 10.51 2.16 11.6 3.08
Alanine 5.69 1.19 5.01 1.32
Arginine 5.78 1.21 2.57 0.681

4.3.2.2. Nutritional Evaluation For Protein Quality of

Supplemented Crackers with FPC and FPI:
The nutritional protein quality of FPC supplemented
crackers was evaluated according to their content of EAAs in
comparison to the reference protein pattern recommended by
FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) are shown in Table (27). From the
recorded results in Table (27), it could be revealed that the
supplemented crackers with FPC at levels 5% and 10% had a
good protein quality characterized by a moderate content and
better balance of EAAs especially at level 5% FPC. Also, it could
be observed that both 5% and 10% FPC supplemented crackers

55
had a higher content (g/16g N) comparing with the control sample
in the most EAAs. So, the amino acids score (AS) for most
individual EAAs was higher than (100) in supplemented samples.
Table (27): Amino acids score (AS) of crackers supplemented
with different levels of fish protein concentrate
(FPC).

FAO/WHO FPC levels

EAAs Pattern Control 5% 10%
(1985)
g/16gN AS g/16gN AS g/16gN AS
g/16gN

Threonine 0.9 2.245 249 2.623 291 2.394 252.2

Valine 1.3 4.495 345 4.215 324.23 3.367 259
Methionine 1.7 0.718 42.23 1.473 86.6 0.972 57.17
Isoleucine 1.3 0.871 67 2.153 165.62 1.559 119.9
Leucine 1.9 8.472 445 10.73 564.7 9.021 474.8
Tyrosine + 1.283 555 2.329 648 2.282 709.15
Phenylalanine 1.9 +9.268 +9.935 +11.192
‫٭‬Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 0.780 48.75 2.240 140 4.428 44.28
Lysine 1.6 338.2 21140 167.59 10441 166.5 10406
‫٭‬
Tryptophan is not determined

On the other hand the first restricting amino acids (has the
lowest AS) for control sample was methionine, isoleucine and
histidine which was 42.23,67 and 48.75 respectively. And it was
increased by addition of FPC to record 86.6, 165.26 and 140 for
methionine, isoleucine and histidine respectively.

55
 Concerning to the protein quality of FWPC supplemented
crackers as shown in Table (28).
Table (28): Amino acids score of crackers supplemented with
5% of waste protein concentrate FWPC.

FAO/WHO Control FWPC

EAAs Pattern(1985) g/16gN A.S g/16gN A.S
g/16g N

Threonine 0.9 2.245 249 2.270 252.2

Valine 1.3 4.495 345 3.715 285.8
Methionine 1.7 0.718 42.23 0.825 48.53
Isoleucine 1.3 0.871 67 2.329 179.15
Leucine 1.9 8.472 445 9.141 481.10
Tyrosine+ 1.9 1.283 555 2.595 471.62
Phenylalanine +9.628 +8.935
‫٭‬Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 0.780 48.75 2.565 160
Lysine 1.6 338.2 21140 185.7 11605
‫٭‬
Tryptophan was not determined

The data showed that the supplemented crackers with

5%WPC had a higher protein quality in most EAAs comparing
with control sample and compare with the reference protein
pattern recommended by FAO/ WHO/ UNU (1985). Also, all
individual EAAs had amino acids score (AS) higher than (100)
with an exception in the sulfur containing amino acid

55
(methionine) which was 42.23 in for control sample and reached
to 48.53 by addition of 5% FWPC.

Table (29): Amino acids score of crackers supplemented with

5% of fish protein isolate (FPI).

EAAs FAO/WHO Control FPI

Pattern(1985) g/16gN AS g/16gN AS
g/16g N

Threonine 0.9 2.245 249 1.11 123

Valine 1.3 4.495 345 4.08 314
Methionine 1.7 0.718 42.23 0.32 18.94
Isoleucine 1.3 0.871 67 1.32 101.5
Leucine 1.9 8.472 445 7.66 403
Tyrosine 1.9 1.283 555 1.86 587.8
Phenylalanine +9.628 +9.31
Tryptophan 0.5 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.6 0.780 48.75 1.43 89.37
Lysine 1.6 338.2 21140 258.8 161125
‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined

Besides, data in Table (29) show the protein quality of

crackers supplemented with FPI at level 5%. Individual EAAs
content in supplemented crackers compared with
FAO/WHO/UNU(1985) recommendation for protein pattern
showed that the supplemented crackers had much higher content
(g/16g N) of all EAAs and had amino acid score (AS) higher than

55
(100) in all EAAs except methionine and histidine which had low
content in control sample.
From data in Tables (27, 28 &29), it could be noticed that
the supplemented crackers had higher protein quality in most
EAAs than the control sample.
Data in Tables (30&31) show the gram daily requirement
(GDR) of supplemented crackers with 5% and 10% FPC and 5%
FWPC compared with daily requirements (USRDA)
recommended by Food And Nutrition Board (1989).
Table (30): Nutritional evaluation (GDR) of crackers
supplemented with different levels of (FPC) flesh at
different levels:

EAAs USRDA Control FPC

(g) 5% 10%
(1989)
g/100 GDR g/100 GDR g/100 GDR
Threonine 0.567 0.469 121.41 0.84 67.34 0.810 70
Valine 0.819 0.939 87.22 1.35 60.58 1.139 71.9
Methionine 1.071 0.15 714 0.47 226.9 0.329 325
Isoleucine 0.819 0.182 431 0.96 118.5 0.527 155
Lucien 1.1197 1.77 63.26 3.44 32.55 3.051 36.7
Tyrosine 1.197 0.268 54.31 0.75 30.42 0.772 26.26
Phenylalanine +1.936 +3.19 +3.768
Tryptophan 0.315 ND ND ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.008 0.163 592.9 0.72 140.78 1.498 67.29
Lysine 1.008 70.66 1.43 53.6 1.88 56.33 1.79
USRDA: United State Recommended Dietary Allowances (1989). Tryptophan was not determined

56
 Data revealed that 100 grams of all samples for each EAAs
were higher than the recommended by (USRDA 1989). With the
exception of methionine, (tyrosine & phenylalanine) and lysine
which showed a less content in all samples than those in the
recommended. Also the results showed that the highest G.D.R
values was methionine (226-405g) and the lowest was lysine
(0.71-1.7).
Table (31): Nutritional evolution (GDR) of crackers
supplemented with 5% level of (FWPC):

EAAs USRDA Control FWPC

(1989) g/100 GDR g/100 GDR

Threonine 0.567 0.469 121.41 0.73 77.99

Valine 0.819 0.939 87.22 1.19 68.88
Methionine 1.071 0.15 714 0.26 405.6
Isoleucine 0.819 0.182 431 0.74 109.8
Lucien 1.1197 1.77 63.26 2.92 38.25
Tyrosine 1.197 0.268 54.31 0.83 32.42
Phenylalanine +1.936 +2.86
‫٭‬
Tryptophan 0.315 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.008 0.163 592.9 0.82 122.8
Lysine 1.008 70.66 1.43 59.5 1.69
USRDA: United State Recommended Dietary allowances. ‫٭‬Tryptophan was not determined

56
 It could be noticed that a variation between GDR values in
all samples. This variation may be due to results of variation in
protein content of investigated samples and the alteration in
EAAs as affected by processing treatment as reported by (Abd-el
ghafour, 2004).
Concerning the crackers supplemented with FPI, data in
Table (32) describe the GDR values. It could be observed that
most of EAAs of FPI supplemented crackers had a high content
comparing with control sample.
Table (32):Nutritional evolution GDR of crackers
supplemented with 5% FPI.

EAAs USRDA Control FPI

(1989) g/100 GDR g/100 GDR
Threonine 0.567 0.469 121.41 0.293 193.5
Valine 0.819 0.939 87.22 1.08 75.83
Methionine 1.071 0.15 714 0.085 1260
Isoleucine 0.819 0.182 431 0.35 234
Lucien 1.1197 1.77 63.26 2.02 55.43
Tyrosine 1.197 0.268 54.31 0.492 40.55
Phenylalanine +1.936 +2.46
Tryptophan 0.315 ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.008 0.136 592.9 0.38 265.3
Lysine 1.008 70.66 1.43 68.34 1.59
USRDA: United State Recommended Dietary allowances. Tryptophan was not determined

56
 Also, it was decided that 100 grams of WPI supplemented
crackers contained a higher level of each EAAs than that
recommended by Food and Nutrition Board (1989).
From the results in Tables (30, 31 &32), it could be
concluded that all supplemented samples 5% & 10% FPC, 5%
WPC and 5%FPI had a higher content of EAAs compared with
the control sample and the reference protein pattern recommended
by FAO/ WHO/ UNU (1985) and Food and Nutrition Board
(1989). From the results it could be observed that the fish protein
concentrate FPC is a valuable protein supplement to improve the
protein quality and quantity of indigenous diets, particularly the
diets of pre-school children and other vulnerable groups. It is used
to help increase the weight and height of children as reported by
(Frokjaer, 1994 and Sen, 2005).
Also, Owusu-Amoako, (2001) found that a study of the
intake of FPC on 144 preschool children revealed that after 7
weeks of once-daily supplementary feeding, there were
significant increases in the weight and height of children. The
fish protein concentrate FPC has been also proven to be very
valuable in treating severe malnutrition of children under five,
‘i.e.’, Kwashiorkor It could help to increase the protein content of
the diet of the low income classes and also as a valuable source of
protein for infants and children under five as reported by (Vakily
et al., 2012).

56
 Bitterness of protein hydrolysate is associated with the
release of peptides containing hydrophobic amino acid residues.
Thus, FPCs could possibly be a dietary protein supplement to
poorly balanced dietary proteins exhibiting to low bitterness
(FitzGerald and O’Cuinn, 2006).
Percentage of recommended daily requirements satisfaction
of EAAs for adult man when consumed 100 grams (P.S/100g %)
of each supplemented crackers were calculated in Tables (33, 34
&35). The results revealed that the consumption for one pack
(100 grams) from supplemented crackers approximately was
enough for satisfaction of the daily requirements of EAAs.
Table (33): Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of EAAs of
supplemented crackers with different levels of FPC.

FPC level
Control 5% 10%
EAAs
g/100 PS/100g(%) g/100 PS/100g(%) g/100 PS/100g(%)

Threonine 0.469 82.3 0.84 148 0.810 142

Valine 0.939 114 1.35 165 1.139 139
Methionine 0.15 14 0.47 44 0.329 30
Isoleucine 0.182 23 0.96 84 0.527 64
Leucine 1.77 158 3.44 307 3.051 272
Tyrosine 0.268 148 0.75 328 0.772 380
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan ND ND ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.936 17 3.19 71 3.768 148
Lysine 0.163 699 0.72 5319 1.498 5586
Tryptophan was not determined.

56
Table (34): Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of EAAs of
supplemented crackers with level 5% WPC

Control WPC
EAAs g/100 PS /100g (%) g/100 PS/100g(%)

Threonine 0.469 82.3 0.73 128

Valine 0.939 114 1.19 145
Methionine 0.15 14 0.26 24
Isoleucine 0.182 23 0.74 91
Lucien 1.77 158 2.92 261
Tyrosine 0.268 148 0.83 308
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.936 17 2.86 81
Lysine 0.163 699 0.82 5917
Tryptophan was not determined

Table (35): Percentage of daily requirements satisfaction of EAAs of

supplemented crackers with level 5% WFPC.

Control FPI
EAAs g/100 PS/100g(%) g/100 PS/100g (%)

Threonine 0.469 82.3 0.293 71

Valine 0.939 114 1.08 131
Methionine 0.15 14 0.085 7.9
Isoleucine 0.182 23 0.35 42.7
Lucien 1.77 158 2.02 180
Tyrosine 0.268 148 0.492 246
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan ND ND ND ND
Histidine 1.936 17 2.46 37.7
Lysine 0.163 699 0.38 6289

55
4.3.2.2. Minerals Content of Supplemented Crackers With
FPC and FPI:
Data in Table (36) show that the minerals content of
supplemented crackers with different levels of FPC and WPC.
The nutritive value of supplemented crackers with FPC and WPC
was determined according to their content of minerals in relation
to the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) as set by
FAO/WHO/UNU (1985); FOOD and Nutrition Board (1989).
Table (36): Major elements (mg/100g) of crackers
supplemented with FPC at different levels.

FPC

Element Control Flesh Waste *RDA

5% 10% 5%

Phosphorus (P) 2587.9 2182 2561 2588 800-1000

Calcium (Ca) 127.56 986.7 928.9 1299.6 800-1000
Magnesium
839.7 977.3 783.3 888.6 350
(Mg)
Sodium (Na) 510.17 4335.77 4517 499.43 2400
Potassium (K) 177.41 1034.97 820.57 918.22 1500
Iron (Fe) 30.08 32.92 21.19 17.28 10-15
*RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance as set by FAO/WHO/UNU (1985); FOOD and Nutrition Board
(1989).

The obtained results pointed that the tested minerals in FPC

supplemented crackers were (2182 and 2561mg/100g), (986.7 and

55
928.9 mg/100g), (977.3 and 783.3 mg/100g), (4335 and 4517
mg/100g), (1034 and 820.5 mg/100) and (32.92 and 21.19
mg/100) for phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium
,potassium and iron, respectively for 5% and 10% FPC
supplemented crackers, respectively.
Concerning crackers supplemented with FWPC, the
minerals content were 2588, 1299.6, 888.6, 499.43, 918.22 and
17.28 mg/100g for phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium and iron, respectively. From the same table, it could be
observed that the predominant tested minerals in all supplemented
crackers were Ca, Mg and K.
Table (37): Major elements content (mg/100g) of crackers
supplemented with 5% FPI obtained from fish
wastes.

Element Control FPI 5% *RDA

Phosphorus (P) 2587.9 2258.3 800-1000

Calcium (Ca) 127.56 1329.3 800-1000
Magnesium(Mg) 839.7 984.44 350
Sodium (Na) 510.17 573.39 2400
Potassium (K) 177.41 747.7 1500
Iron (Fe) 30.08 31.98 10-15
*RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance as set by FAO/WHO/UNU (1985); FOOD and Nutrition Board
(1989).

55
 On the other hand, the minerals content of supplemented
crackers FPI are present in Table (37). Data showed that the
highest value of minerals was phosphorus (2258 mg/100g), the
second was calcium (1329mg/100g) and the third was potassium
(747mg/100g).

From the data in Table (37), it could be observed that most

samples of supplemented crackers with had a higher minerals
content compared with control sample which recorded 2587.9,
127.56, 839.7, 510.17, 177.41 and 30.08mg/100g for phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and iron respectively.
And these products were much higher exception K than the RDA
(FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985); Food and Nutritional Board, 1989).

Finally, it could be concluded that supplemented crackers

with FPC and FPI levels were a high-grade food as regard to their
content of protein, fat and minerals. In addition the supplemented
crackers exhibited a good nutritional protein quality as confirming
by moderate content and better balance of all EAAs in their
protein profile and by a higher A.S than 100 for all supplemented
crackers especially 5% FPC and 5% WPC supplementation
levels.

55
4.4. Effect OF Using Fish Protein Concentrate and Isolate On
Crackers Properties:
4.4.1. Rheological Properties:
The rheological properties of crackers dough supplemented
with 5% and 10% flesh PC, 5% wastes PC and 5% wastes PI
based on sensory testes were evaluated by Mixolab apparatus. It
was reported that flour possesses the unique bread making
properties due to ability of wheat storage protein to form
viscoelastic dough when wetted and kneaded. Therefore, Mixolab
curve obtained for wheat for wheat flour system was used as
standard curve. Also, during initial mixing, the distribution of
material, disruption of initially spherical protein particles and the
hydration of flour compounds occur together with the stretching
and alignment of protein, leading to the formation of three-
dimensional viscoelastic structure with gas retaining properties
(Rosell et al., 2007 and Stauffer, 2007).

4.4.1.1. Rheological Properties of Crackers Dough

Supplemented with FPC and FWPC Powder:
Data in Tables (38 & 39) show the rheological parameters
of supplemented crackers with FPC and FWPC. The first part of
Mixolab curve refers to protein characteristic of the system and its
characterized determination of the following parameters: water
absorption (W.A), dough development time, dough development

55
(C1), dough stability and protein breakdown (C2) which is related
to the protein weakening due to the mechanical and thermal
constraints. From the data in table (38) and fig (2- a &b), it could
be noticed that water absorption was gradually increasing in trials
of 10% FPC and 5% WPC while it was stable in 5% FPC.
Also, the results showed that dough development time (min)
was decreased from 0.97min for 5% FPC to 0.92 for each level of
10% and 5% FPC and FWPC. These results are in agreement with
those reported by (Abd-elazim, 2017) who reported that the
addition of quinoa flour to sorghum flour caused decreasing in
dough development time according to levels of supplementation.
As for dough development (C1), it could be observed that
the dough development (C1) was increased according to the
increasing in supplementation levels of 5% and 10% FPC to
1.078 and 1.082 Nm, respectively compared with control sample
(1.048 Nm) while in case of FWPC, it recorded 1.084 Nm. These
results may be related to increasing the fish protein powder levels
which required more time for complete hydration of the material,
and could be related to composition and characteristics of protein
and starch as showed by Ruales and Nair (1994). And also there
is might be a relation with high water holding capacity of protein
flour source which limiting the water available for the rest of the
components (Abugoch et al., 2009).

666
 The results showed the dough stability (min) of
supplemented dough increased progressively with the
supplemented levels. The control sample dough stability was 4.22
min while the FPC crackers dough recorded 4.97and 5.54 min for
5% and 10% levels, respectively. On the other hand, the FWPC
dough recorded 4.96 min. These results may be due to the
addition of proteins significantly affected viscoelastic properties
during mixing. Depending on the source of proteins, the
differences occurring in the viscoelastic properties might be
attributed to the functional properties of protein, such as the
emulsifying, capacity and foam stability as reviewed by Matos et
al. (2014) and Aprodu et al. (2016).
These results are in agreement with those found by Abd-
elazim (2017); who reported that the addition of protein source to
sorghum flour led to the increasing in dough stability according to
increasing in protein levels. Concerning to the degree of
minimum torque (C2) or dough breakdown, it could be remarked
that the degree of weakening (C2) decreased with increase the
supplemented levels of FPC to record 0.454, 0.392 and 0.344 Nm
for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC, respectively while the control
sample was 0.380 Nm. The change in protein breakdown (C2),
might be due to the higher temperature required for protein
aggregation (Rosell et al., 2009).

666
Table (38): Effect of FPC and FWPC supplementation levels on rheological properties (mixing
properties) of crackers dough.
Mixolab - mixing parameters;
Flour Dough Dough Protein Protein
Water Development
blends Stability Development breakdown weakling
absorption% Time (min)
(min) C1 C2 (Nm) C1-C2
Control 57.1 1.00 4.22 1.048 0.380 0.668
Flesh PC
57.1 0.97 4.97 1.078 0.454 0.624
5%
Flesh PC
57.8 0.92 5.45 1.082 0.392 0.690
10%
Waste PC
57.2 0.92 4.96 1.084 0.344 0.740
5%

102
 Data in Table (39) describe the second part of Mixolab
curves which revels to starch properties. More attention was paid
on the first peak at (C3) which is the measure of starch
gelatinization and the difference between the C5 and C4values
which represented starch retro gradation (Bonet et al., 2006 and
Ozturk et al., 2008). Results indicated that the rheological
properties in the second part in Mixolab curves decreased parallel
to increasing the supplemented levels of FPC and WPC. From the
Table (39), a result refers to gradual decrease in starch
gelatinization (C3) as result of increasing the supplementation
levels of FPC and WPC. The values decreased from 1.976 Nm for
5% FPC to 1.896 Nm for 10% FPC and 1.869 for 5% WPC while
the control sample was 1.863Nm. These may be due to interaction
between proteins and significant negative effect of beak viscosity
and its effects on water available to starch gelatinization (Abd-
elazim, 2017). In consequence, protein-enriched dough at the
highest protein concentration resulted in a reduction of beak
viscosity (Storck et al., 2013).
These results are in accordance with those reported by
Marco and Rosell (2008) and Abd-elazim (2017) they observed
the same tendency when testing the effect of proteins from
different sources on the pasting properties.

666
Table (39): Effect of FPC and FWPC supplementation levels
on rheological properties (pasting behavior) of
crackers dough.
Pasting ability behavior;
Flour Starch Amylase Starch Set back
blends gelatinization activity gelling torque
C3(Nm) C4 (Nm) C5 (Nm) C5-C4
(Nm)
Control 1.863 1.249 1.941 0.692
Flesh PC 1.976 1.360 1.945 0.585
5%
Flesh PC 1.896 1.287 1.942 0.655
10%
Waste PC 1.869 1.649 2.239 0.590
5%

The amylase activity (C4) and starch gelling (C5) are shown in
Table (39). Values of amylase activity (C4) and starch gelling
(C5) were decreased with increasing of protein levels. Amylase
activity (C4) were 1.360 Nm for 5% FPC and 1.287Nm for 10%
FPC supplementation levels and it was 1.649 (Nm) for 5%
FWPC. The starch gelling (C5) recorded 1.945, 1.942 and 2.239
Nm for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC, respectively. Amylase
activity and starch gelling of control sample were 1.249 and

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1.941Nm for, respectively. Also, the setback values (C5-C4) were
increased in samples supplemented with FPC from 0.585 Nm for
5% FPC to 0.655 Nm for 10% FPC while in case of 5% FWPC
was 0.590 Nm and the value of control sample was 0.692 Nm.
These results may be due to the protein influenced by the water
differently that becomes available for starch and hydrocolloid
which are in agreement with their water binding capacity and on
their denaturation degree with increase in temperature (Ziobro et
al., 2013).
Also, Hera et al., (2014) reported that the small amount of
water from dough prevents intermolecular interactions between
the ingredients and produces a water binding competition between
ingredients. These results are in accordance with those obtained
by Aprodu et al. (2016) and Abd-elazim (2017).

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 Fig (2 A)

Fig. (2 B).

Figs (2- A&B) Mixolab curves of control sample dough.

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 Fig. 3 (A)

Fig 3 (B)
Figs (3- A&B) Mixolab curves of supplemented duogh with 5%
FPC

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 Fig. 4 (A)

Fig 4 (B)
Figs (4– A&B) Mixolab curves of supplemented dough with 10%
FPC

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 Fig 5 (A)

(B)
Figs (5- A& B) Mixolab curves of dough supplemented with 5%
FWPC

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4.4.1.2.Rheological Properties of Crackers Dough
Supplemented with fish protein isolate (FPI) Powder
Data in Table (40) and Figs 6 (a & b) exhibit the rheological
properties of flour supplemented with 5% FPI. The table showed
the first part of Mixolab curves. It could be observed that all
Mixolab parameters (dough stability, dough development and
protein break down) increased in sample supplemented with 5%
FPI compared with control sample with the exception of the
dough development time which recorded 1.02min for dough of
5% FPI and control sample was 1.00 min. In addition, water
absorption recorded little increasing from 57.1% to 58.2%
According to the data, it could be concluded that the dough
stability was increased and recorded 4.98 min comparing with
4.22 min for control sample.
These results may be due to that the animal proteins modify
the flour batter viscoelastic behavior (Matose et al., 2014). As for
dough development (C1), results showed that dough development
(C1) increased from 1.084 for control sample to 1.136 Nm for
sample supplemented with 5% FPI. These results are confirmed
by Bonet et al., (2006) and Marco and Rosell, (2008) whose
reported that when protein source add to wheat flour the
development time is related to the time necessary to hydrate all
the compounds, with proteins being the most involved
compounds in water absorption.

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Table (40): Effect of FPI supplementation level on rheological properties (mixing properties) of
crackers dough.
Mixolab parameters;
Flour Mixing properties
blends Water Development Dough Dough Protein Protein
absorption% Time (min) Stability (min) Development C1 breakdown weaking
C2 (Nm) C1-C2
Control 57.1 1.00 4.22 1.048 0.380 0.668
FPI 5% 58.2 1.02 4.98 1.136 0.387 0.749
Pasting ability behavior
Flour Starch gelatinizationC3(Nm) Amylase activity Starch gelling Set back torque C5-C4(Nm)
blends C4(Nm) C5(Nm)
Control 1.863 1.249 1.941 0.692
FPI 5% 1.879 1.252 1.949 0.697

111
Dough breakdown (C2) value increased up to 0.387 Nm
compared with control sample (0.380 Nm). Our results are in
agreement with those findings by Abd-elazim (2017) who
reported that the dough weakening of sorghum flour was
increased by add the protein source.
Pasting ability behavior are indicated in Table (40) and figs
6 (a & b). All parameters of the second part of Mixolab were
increased for 5% FPI supplemented sample comparing with the
control sample. Results showed that the starch gelatinization (C3)
was increased in FPI supplemented flour to record 1.879Nm
comparing with control sample (1.836Nm). These results are in
agreement with those obtained by Tan and Corke, (2002) they
reported that there a negative correlation has been established
between protein content and the peak viscosity, also Marco and
Rosell, (2008) observed decreased in final viscosity of wheat
flour with the addition of pea, soybean, egg albumin and whey
protein.

Regarding to amylase activity (C4) and starch gelling (C5),

the amylase activity (C4) increased to 1.252 Nm than control
sample (1.249Nm). Also, starch gelling increased from 1.941Nm
for control sample to 1.949Nm for 5% FPI supplemented sample.
The setback values were 0.697 Nm for supplemented sample
while the control sample recorded 0.692Nm. These results may be

666
due to the starch retro gradation gradually decreased when the
protein content increased in wheat flour blends (Aprodue et al.,
2016). Our results are in accordance with those obtained by Abd-
elazim (2017) who found that the mixolab parameters were
decreased parallel with increasing protein percentage in wheat
flour blends.

Fig 6 (A)

Fig 6 (B)
Figs (5- A &B) mixolab curves of dough supplemented with 5% FPI

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4.5.Effect of Storage Period Conditions on Supplemented
Crackers:
4.5.1. Effect of Storage Period For 6 months at ambient
Temperature on Chemical Composition and Quality Indices:
Data in Table (41) described the effect of storage period for
6 months under the ambient temperature on chemical composition
of FPC and FWPC supplemented crackers.
Table (41): Effect of storage period at 6 months on chemical
composition and quality index of supplemented crackers
with FPC and WPC:
Control FPC 5% FPC10% WPC 5%

Zero 6 Zero 6 Zero 6 Zero 6

Constitute
time month time month time month time month

4.82± 4.21 5.4 5.15 5.81 5.61 5.58 5.35

Moisture
0.22 ±0.12 ±0.17 ±0.23 ±0.39 ±0.31 ±0.51 ±0.50
21.95 19.11 32.09 28.39 33.83 32.01 32.02 28.32
Protein
±2.00 ±1.89 ±2.00 ±1.92 ±3.9 ±2.92 ±2.00 ±1.87
25.97 24.68 29.64 29.37 29.20 28.92 28.51 27.88
Fat
±3.4 ±3.00 ±0.12 ±0.10 ±1.97 ±0.1.80 ±0.39 ±0.29
3.58 5.18 3.31 3.45 4.36 4.41 3.70 3.73
Ash
±0.45 ±0.34 ±0.67 ±0.56 ±0.55 ±0.45 ±0.85 ±0.87

NFE 43.68 46.82 29.56 33.64 26.8 29.05 30.19 34.72

Energy(K/cal) 496.25 485.84 513.36 512.45 504.24 505.32 505.43 503.08

TVBN(mg\100gm) --- --- 9.2 9.31 10.00 10.3 13.9 14.31

TBA (mgMA\kg) 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.132 0.21 0.25 0.72 0.77

TVB-N: total volatile basic nitrogen. TBA: thiobarbaturic acid. * NFE nitrogen free extract was calculated by
differences

From data it could be noticed that there was a little decrease

of chemical composition of all supplemented samples after 6
months storage period.

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The moisture content ranged from 5.4 to 5.81 at zero time and it
reached to 5.15 to 5.35 for each FPC and WPC supplemented
samples.
Data showed a little decreasing in protein content which was
32.09%, 33.83% and 32.02% for 5%FPC, 10% FPC and 5%
FWPC respectively, at zero time then it recorded 28.39%, 32.01%
and 28.32% for 5% FPC, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC respectively.
Concerning to the fat and ash content it also decreased after
6 months storage period. The fat content was recorded 29.37%,
28.92 and 27.88% for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% WPC respectively,
when ash content reached to 3.45%, 4.41%, and 3.73% for 5%
and 10% FPC and 5% FWPC supplementation levels
respectively, after 6 months storage period. While control sample
composition was 4.21%, 19.11%, 24.68% and 5.18% for
moisture, protein, fat and ash content respectively. Also NFE was
represent in table and it could be noticed that there an increase in
NFE values in all samples.
With regard to the quality index data showed that there
were slight increase in TVB-N values of all samples after 6
months storage period which were 9.2, 10.0, 13.9 mg/100g for
5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC at zero time respectively, and it
increased to 9.31, 10.3 and 14.31mg/100g for 5%, 10% FPC and
5% FWPC respectively. TBA value also represent in table and it
could be observed that the TBA value was increased after storage

665
period to 0.132, 0.25 and 0.77 mg MA/kg for 5% and 10% FPC
and 5% FWPC respectively, while the control sample was 0.09
mg MA/kg.
Table (42): Effect of storage period for 6 months at ambient
temperature on chemical composition and quality index
of supplemented crackers with FPI.
Control FPI 5%
Constitute
Zero time 6 month Zero time 6 month
Moisture 4.82±0.22 4.21 5.38±0.13 5.33
Protein 21.95±2.00 19.11 26.43±3.2 26.42
Fat 25.97±3.4 24.68 34.92±1.10 34.34
Ash 3.58±0.45 5.18 4.42±0.60 4.49
‫٭‬
NFE 43.68 46.82 28.85 29.42
Energy 496.25 485.84 535.4 532.42
TVBN(mg\100gm) --- --- 11.75 12.14
TBA(mg MA\kg) 0.08 0.09 0.081 0.12
TVB-N: total volatile basic nitrogen. TBA: thiobarbaturic acid. * NFE nitrogen free extract was calculated by
differences

Concerning the FPI supplemented crackers data in Table

(42) showed that chemical composition of FPI supplemented
crackers was 5.33%, 26.42%, 34.92% and 4.42% for moisture,
protein, fat and ash content respectively, after 6 months storage
period. Also data described the TVB-N and TBA values of FPI
supplemented crackers. It was 12.14 mg/100g and 0.12 for TVB-
N and TBA values respectively. From the results it could be

665
observed that the quality index of supplemented crackers was
slightly increased during storage period at 6 months.
4.5.2 Effect of Storage Period for 6 months at ambient
temperature on Sensory Characteristics of Supplemented
Crackers
Data in Table (43) and figs (7 & 8) show the effect of
storage period (6 months) on sensory evaluation (surface
appearance) of supplemented crackers.
Table (43): Effect of storage period at 6 month on surface appearance
of supplemented crackers.
Crackers;
Storage Surface appearance
period Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FWPC 5% FPI 5%
Color
0 9a 9.1a 8.4b 8.9a 8b
2 9a 8.6ab 9a 8.7ab 7.8bc
4 8.6ab 8.4b 8.6a 8.9a 7.6bc
6 8.5b 8.3b 8.4b 8.6ab 7.9b
Shape
0 9.3a 8.4b 9a 8.9a 8.3b
2 9.3a 8.9a 8.9a 8.6ab 7.5c
4 8.9a 8.6ab 8.8ab 8.6ab 8.3b
6 8.8ab 8.6ab 8.4b 8.1b 8b

From data the higher score of color were 9.1 for 5% FPC at
zero time and 9 for 10% FPC after two months storage then it
slightly decreased reached to 8.3, 8.4 and 8.6 for 5% FPC, 10%
FPC and 5% FWPC respectively. While the FPI supplemented

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sample scores were 8 at zero time and reached to 7.9 after six
months storage.

9.5

8.5
0
8 2
4
7.5
6

6.5
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (7) Surface appearance (color)

10
9
8
7
6 0
5 2
4 4
3 6
2
1
0
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (8) Surface appearance (shape)

From the results it could be observed that there is no

significant differences (P<0.05) between zero time and after two

665
months storage in 5% FPC and 5% FWPC and 5% FPI, while
10% FPC had a significant differences (P<0.05) between zero
time and two months storage. Also it was indicated that there is a
significant differences between zero time and end of storage at 6
months in 5% FPC, and there was no significant in all other
samples.
Also data described the effect of storage period on surface shape
of supplemented crackers. The high scores in shape was (9) in
10% FPC supplementation levels at zero time and the lowest was
(8.1) in 5%WPC at the end of storage after 6 months. Results
indicated that there were no significant differences (P<0.05)
between zero time and the end of storage period for 5% FPC
supplemented samples, while there were significant differences
(P<0.05) in case of 10% FPC and 5% FWPC.
Concerning the FPI supplemented sample the highest score
was 8.3 at zero time and the lowest was 7.5 after two months
storage, while it was recorded 8 at the end of storage time. And it
could be observed that there no significant differences between
zero time and the end of storage time.
Effect of storage period on interior appearance of supplemented
crackers is presented in Table (44) and figs (9&10).
Color scores of supplemented crackers at zero time were 9,
9.1 and 8.6 and it became 7.9, 8 and 7.9 for 5% FPC, 10%FPC
and 5% WPC respectively at the end of storage time. While the

665
FPI supplemented crackers had score 8.5 at zero time and 8at the
end of storage.
Table (44): Effect of storage period for 6 month at ambient
temperature on interior appearance of
supplemented crackers.
Storage Crackers
period Interior appearance
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FWPC5% FPI 5%
Color
0 8.7ab 9a 9.1a 8.6ab 8.5b
2 9.3a 8.9ab 8.6ab 8b 7.9bc
4 8.8ab 8.3b 8.3b 8.1b 7.8bc
6 8.5ab 7.9bc 8b 7.9bc 8b
Shape
0 8.7ab 8.6ab 8.8ab 8.3b 8.3b
2 9a 8.8ab 8.8ab 8.8ab 8.4b
4 8.6ab 8.3b 8.1b 8.6ab 8.3b
6 8.6ab 8.1b 7.9bc 8.5b 7.9bc

Also, shape change during storage period in supplemented

samples was described in table (44). The shape score slightly
changed during storage in all supplemented sample with FPC,
FWPC and FPI.

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 9.5

8.5 0
2
8 4
6
7.5

7
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (9) Interior appearance (color)

9
8.8
8.6
8.4
0
8.2
2
8
4
7.8
6
7.6
7.4
7.2
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (10) Interior appearance (shape)

The highest score was 8.8 at zero time in 10% FPC. Also it could
be noticed that there was no significant differences (P<0.05) in
interior shape between zero time and the end of storage period in
all supplemented samples.
Data in Table (45) and figs (11, 12 &13) show the effect of
storage period on eating characteristics (texture, mouth feel and

666
flavor) of supplemented crackers. The texture scores at zero time
were 8.7, 7.9, 8.4 for 5%, 10% FPC and 5%FWPC and it became
8.8, 8.3, 8.5 for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC respectively.
Table (45): Effect of storage period for 6 month at ambient
temperature on Eating characteristic of
supplemented crackers.
Storage Crackers
periods Eating characteristic
(6months) Control FPC 5% FPC 10% WPC 5% FPI 5%
Texture
0 8.9ab 8.7ab 7.9bc 8.4b 7.4c
2 8.9ab 9.3a 8.6ab 8.8ab 7.5c
4 8.6ab 8.9ab 8.4b 8.3b 7.3c
6 8.5b 8.8ab 8.3b 8.5b 7.9bc
Mouth feel
0 8.8ab 7.9bc 9.1a 8.9ab 7.9bc
2 9a 8.6ab 8.4b 8.8ab 7.5c
4 8.6ab 8.5b 8.5b 8.8ab 7.3c
6 8.4b 8.3b 8.3b 8.4b 7.3c
Flavor
0 9a 9.1a 7.4c 9.3a 8.3b
2 8.8ab 8.9ab 8.4b 8.6ab 8.3b
4 8.5b 8.5b 8.3b 8.3b 8b
6 7.9bc 8.4b 8.3b 7.9bc 7.6bc

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 Data indicated that there were no significant differences
(P<0.05) between zero time and the end of storage in texture for
all FPC and FWPC supplementation levels. Also FPI
supplemented sample had no significant differences (P<0.05)
between zero time and after 6 months storage.

Concerning the mouth feel, 10% FPC supplemented sample

had a highest score at zero time recorded 9.1 and the lowest score
was 7.9 for 5% FPC while 5% FWPC was 8.9 at zero time. But at
the end of storage time (6 months) the scores were 8.3 for each
5% and 10% FPC supplemented samples and 8.4 for WPC
supplemented sample.
The mouth feel of FPI supplemented samples scores
were 7.9 and 7.3 at zero time and the end of storage time (6
months), respectively. From table it could be observed that there
were no significant differences (P<0.05) for mouth feel scores
between zero time and the end of storage time in all supplemented
samples.
On the other side effect of storage period on flavor of
supplemented crackers was shown also in Table (45). Results
indicated that there was significant differences (P<0.05) between
zero time and end of storage time for all FPC supplemented
samples. While there was no significant differences (P<0.05) in
FPI supplemented samples during storage periods.

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10
9
8
7
6 0
5 2
4 4
3 6
2
1
0
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (11) Eating characteristic (Texture)

10
9
8
7
6 0
5 2
4 4
3 6
2
1
0
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (12) Eating characteristic (Mouth feels)

10
9
8
7
6 0
5 2
4 4
3 6
2
1
0
Control FPC 5% FPC 10% FPC 5% FPI 5%

Fig (13) Eating characteristic (Flavor)

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4.6. Economic Evaluation of FPC and FPI Production
The economic evaluation of FPC and FPI extraction were
described in table (46). Table showed the total coast for one kg of
FPC, FWPC and FPI.
Table (46): Requirements for production of FPC, WPC and
FPI.
Parameters Quantity Coast (Egy. Pound)
Raw carp fish (kg) 25 175
Hexane& Ethanol (Liter) 24 284
Electricity(Kw/h) 65 19.5
Others --- 50
Flesh PC (13.75% flesh) 900 g
Waste PC (8.03% waste) 550 g
Waste PI (7.27% waste) 420 g
Total cost 528.5

From Table(46) it could be noticed that total cost of 25

kg of raw carp fish was estimated by 175 Egyptian pounds,
solvents 24 Lt (hexane and ethanol) was 284 Egyptian pounds, 65
kw per/h electricity was 19.5and others( employee) was 50
Egyptian pounds. In general total cost for all inputs was estimated
by 528.5 Egyptian pounds. Concerning to final products, it could
be obtained 900 g flesh PC (13.75%), 550g waste PC (8.03%) and
420g waste PI (7.27%).

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 Based on these results, table (46) decided that the total
costs of FPC, WPC and FPI from carp fish were less than those of
import one which cost 300 USD per kg. Venugopal et al. (1996)
reported that total costs of production of FPC and FPI are
depending mainly on several issues such as fish species,
marketability, its problem, extraction method, good and safety of
fish powder obtained…etc. Fish protein concentrate and isolate
are an excellent source of highly digestible amino acids, but
production costs normally limit its use.

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Summary and conclusion
 5- Summary and conclusion

Carps, as freshwater fish species, has been one of the most

widely cultured species all over the world due to its fast growth

rate, easy cultivation and high feed efficiency ratio. However, a

carp having intramuscular bones and its feeding behavior has a

bad smell that cause to sell with a lower price has low consumer

preference.

Cereals are the base of the human diet in most countries of

the world. In fact, they provide most of the caloric energy and an

important part of the proteins needed by human beings.

Furthermore, there is evidence showing that healthy diets for

humans should provide most of the calories as complex

carbohydrates such as cereal starch.

This study was conducted in order to determine the effects

of adding carp fish protein concentrate and isolate on chemical

and nutritional properties of crackers. Carp fish was obtained

from local market. Fish samples were transferred under

refrigerated conditions to Fish Processing Technology Lab., El-

127
Qanatir El-Khayria-Fish Research Station, National Institute of

Oceanography and Fisheries. The protein concentrate and isolate

were extracted from flesh and waste. The crackers supplemented

with difference percent (5% and 10% FPC and 5% FWPC and 5%

FPI).

The chemical composition, nutritional value (amino acids and

mineral content), quality indices, sensory evaluation and

rheological properties of FPC, FPI and supplemented crackers

were determined.

The obtained results in the current study show the following:

1-Carp fish chemical composition

The results showed that the chemical composition (on

ww basis)of fresh carp fish flesh was; 74.6% moisture , 17.22%

protein , 6.39 % of fat and 1.79% ash content while the

chemical composition of waste was 75.25%, moisture , 12.93%

of protein, 9.61% fat and 2.21 % ash content. In addition, the

quality criteria of the carp flesh and waste were pH 6.16 and 6.63

respectively, the values of TVB-N were 17.49 and 14.60 mg/100

128
g, TMA-N 1.646 and 0.32 mg/100g and TBA 0.89 and 0.16 mg

Malonaldhyde /kg sample.

2 -Fish protein concentrate and isolate

1- Chemical composition and quality indices of FPC and

FWPC

The results showed that the chemical composition of the

FPC and FWPC were as follows: 7.7 moisture, 80.76% protein,

3.3% fat, 8.24% ash content, while the chemical composition of

the waste protein was as follows: 10.28% moisture, 72.62%

protein, 3.12% fat and 13.98% % ash, respectively. The quality

criteria for both FPC and WPC were: TVB-N 10.1 and 14.61 mg /

100 g, TMA-N 0.84 and 0.85 mg / 100 g and TBA 0.14 and 0.82

mg MA / kg FPC and FWPC, respectively. While the values of

the functional characteristics of the protein as follows, foam

capacity and stability were 9.09% and 95.8% respectively, for

FPC and the value of water holding capacity WHC was 3.85 ml /

g while the FWPC were 8.91% and 97.27% foaming capacity and

stability, respectively and WHC was 3.8 ml / g.

129
 2- Chemical composition and quality indices of FPI

The chemical composition of FPI was 3.17% moisture,

88.96% protein, 3.26% fat and 4.61% ash. While the quality

indices were as follows: 12.77 mg / 100 g for TVB-N and 0.61

mg / 100 g TMA-N while TBA was 0.105 mg MA/kg sample .

The functional properties of the isolated protein were 12.75%,

97.39% and 3.84 ml / g for the foaming capacity, stability and

WHC, respectively.

3- Nutritional values of fish protein concentrate and isolate

The results showed the nutritional value of the FPC and

FWPC , indicating that the content of the amino acids of FPC

and FWPC was higher than recommended by the Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO) and it were 3.68, 6.27, 2.05,

8.28, 3.67, 7.91, 6.06 and 24.36 g / 16 g for both theronin, valine,

methionine, isolucine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine and lysine

respectively, while the concentrated protein of the waste recorded

values of 1.494, , 0.567, 1.05, 4.175, 2.58, 4.99, 1.89 and 74.32 g

130
/ 16 g nitrogen For both threonine, valine, methionine, isoleucine,

leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine and lysine, respectively.

- The results showed significant differences between the

values of the essential amino acids of the FPC and the FWPC.

- FPC and FWPC contained moderate concentrations of

mineral nutrients (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron,

phosphorus) and the nutrient content was higher than the

recommended amounts in both of them

- The results showed that the highest values of the essential

amino acids of the FPI were the amino acid Lysine 56.22 and then

the phenylalanine 3,698 g / 16 gm. Most of the essential amino

acid values in the isolated protein were higher than the

recommended values of the (Food and Agriculture Organization ).

The results also showed the values of the non-essential acids

arranged in ascending order as follows: glycine, alanine,

glutamine, aspirin, serine, arginine and proline.

- Fish protein isolated from waste FPI contained high levels

of mineral nutrients to suit daily consumption needs.

131
 1- Supplemented crackers with FPC and FPI

 Chemical composition and nutritional values of

supplemented Crackers with FPC and FWPC

- The results showed that the chemical composition of the

supplemented crackers was significantly higher than the control

samples as follows: 5.44%, 5.81% moisture, 32.09%, 33.83%

protein, 29.64%, 29.20% fat, 3.31%, 4.36% ash for 5% and 10%

protein muscles. The chemical composition of the crackers

supported by FWPC was 5.58% moisture, 32.02% protein, 28.51

fat and 3.70% ash. The carbohydrate values were 29.56%, 28.8%

for 5%, 10% FPC and 30.0% for the WPC

- The results of the evaluation of the quality of food for FPC

and FWPC based on the composition of essential amino acids,

these products were characterized by high quality of food and the

balance of the composition of all essential amino acids at

concentrations higher than recommended by the Food and

Agriculture Organization World Health, in particular, is supported

by 5% of muscles protein.

132
- The results also reported that the nutritional assessment

indicated that the consumption of 100 grams of subsidized

products is sufficient to meet the daily requirement of all amino

acids except methionine. Compared to the control sample.

- Products supported by FPC and FWPC contained high

concentrations of mineral nutrients (calcium, phosphorus,

magnesium, potassium, sodium and iron) compared to control

samples and concentrations higher than the recommended

concentrations of the daily needs of the individual by the Food

and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

 Chemical composition and nutritional values of

supplemented crackers with FPI

- The results showed a significant increase in the chemical

composition of isolated fish protein compared to the control

sample. The chemical composition was 5.38% moisture, 26.43%

protein, 43.29% fat 4.42% ash respectively while NFE recorded

26.85%.

133
- Quality evaluation for the crackers supported by FPI basis

of the composition of essential amino acids showed that these

products were characterized by high nutritional quality and

stability in the composition of most essential amino acids at

concentrations higher than recommended by (FAO) With the

exception of methionine and histamine.

- Dietary Quality Assessment showed that the consumption

of a 100g package of protein-fortified rations meets the daily

needs of an adult of most essential amino acids except

methionine.

- Crackers supplemented by isolated protein contained

balanced concentrations of nutrients, especially potassium,

magnesium, calcium and sodium compared to the control sample

and a concentration higher than the limits allowed by the

FAO/WHO.

 Rheological properties of supplemented crackers

1- The rheological properties of the crackers dough

supported by the FPC and WPC

134
- The addition of 5% and 10% FPC and 5% FWPC led to

relative stability in water absorption in the supplemented dough

sample compared to the control sample. Also observed a slight

decrease in the time of development of the sample 0.97 and 0.92

and 0.92 minutes for each of 5% and 10% FPC supplementation

levels and 5% FWPC respectively.

- The results showed that the addition of fish protein to the

sample led to an increase in the values of the development of the

dough where increases from 1.048 for the control sample to

1.078, 1.082 and 1.084 N / m for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC.

- The results showed an increase in the stability of the dough

by adding the fish protein, which was 4.22 minutes in the control

sample and then increased to 4.97, 5.45 and 4.96 minutes for the

muscles protein and waste respectively.

- The addition of the concentrated protein to the dough

resulted in a decrease in the degree of weakness of the dough,

which is estimated by the force of torque (Newton / m) by

135
increasing the ratio of the addition, where the values were 0.454,

0.392, 0.344 N / m for 5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC .

- The results showed a significant decrease in starch and

amylase activity, in addition to concentrated fish protein,

especially in 10%FPC.

2- The rheological properties of the crackers dough supported

by the FPI:

- The addition of protein isolated by 5% resulted in a slight

decrease in water absorption in the sample compared to the

control sample. A slight increase was observed in the sample

development time of 1.02 min

- The results showed that the addition of the isolated protein to the

sample led to an increase in the values of dough development,

with increases from 1.048 for the control sample to 1.136 N / m

for 5% isolated protein. The results reveled an increase in the

stability of the dough by adding the fish protein, which was 4.22

minutes in the control sample and then increased to 4.98 minutes

for the isolated protein.

136
- Addition of protein isolated to the dough led to a slight increase

in the degree of weakness of the dough, which is estimated at the

force of torque (Newton / m), where recorded 0.387 N / m each of

5% isolated protein. The results also showed a slight increase in

the values of starch and enzyme activity in addition to isolated

fish protein.

5- Effect of storage period for 6 months at ambient

temperature on quality characteristics of supplemented

crackers

- The obtained results showed that no significant changes

in the chemical composition of the supplemented

crackers by concentrated and isolated fish proteins during

the storage period for six months

- The results recorded a slight decrease in the chemical

composition of the crackers supported by different

percentages of FPC, FWPC and FPI during storage

period.

137
 - The results showed a slight increase in the values of total

volatile basis nitrogen TVB-N and TBA in the

supplemented crackers during the storage period

- The results showed no significant differences between the

sensory properties of the supported crackers, especially

5%, 10% FPC and 5% FWPC. And there were significant

differences between sensory properties in isolated

protein-supported preparations at the beginning of

storage and the end of storage period.

 Recommendations

Based on the results obtained, this work

recommends the following issues:

1- Overcoming the marketing and sensory problems of

carp fish.

2- The possibility of exploitation from the catch of carp

to obtain some value-added products such as fish

protein powder.

138
3- Cleanliness and protection of the environment from

leftover of processing, which could be converted to

economic food products.

4- Improvement the sensory, rheological properties and

nutritional value of crackers supplemented by fish

protein powder.

5- Creating of jobs chances by coordination between the

concerned organizations in this field.

139
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010
Arabic summary
 ‫الملخص العربي‬

‫تعتبر أسماك المبروك العادى ذات قيمة تسويقية منخفضة بسبب احتوائها على‬

‫أشواك رفيعة فى النسيج اللحمى مما يؤدى الى عدم قبوله لدى المستهلكين‪ .‬بالرغم‬

‫من نجاح استزراعه فى مصر وسرعة معدل نموه حيث وصل االنتاج الكلى‬

‫لسمك المبروك فى مصر الى ‪ 171712‬طنا خالل ‪ 1276‬أى يمثل ‪%71.11‬‬

‫من جملة االنتاج السمكى( ‪ 7126111‬طنا) فى مصر ‪ ،‬باالضافة الى انه‬

‫يحتوى نسب عالية من البروتينات والمغذيات المفيدة للجسم‪.‬‬

‫تعد المقرمشات الخفيفة من أكثر االغذية استخداما بين الكثير من طوائف المجتمع‬

‫وخاصة الشباب واالطفال على الرغم من انها تعد أغذية فقيرة فى القيمة الغذائية‬

‫وخاصة البروتين الالزم لبناء العضالت واالنسجة‪ ،‬وذلك النها سريعة االستخدام‬

‫والتناول ومتوفرة على اشكال عديدة باالضافة الى انها رخيصة السعر‪.‬‬

‫وقد اجريت هذه الدراسة بغرض الحصول على البروتين السمكى المركز والمعزول‬

‫من انسجة لحم سمك المبروك وكذلك من المخلفات (الجلد‪ ،‬والراس‪ ،‬والزعانف‪،‬‬

‫واالحشاء‪ ،‬والعظام) واستخدامها فى تدعيم منتجات فقيرة فى القيمة الغذائية مثل‬

‫المقرمشات بهدف زيادة القيمة الغذائية بما يفيد المستهلك لها‪ ،‬وكذلك االستفادة من مادة‬

‫غذائية تنتج بكميات كبيرة وال يتم استهالكها مما يشكل عبئا بيئيا واقتصاديا على‬

‫المجتمع ‪.‬‬
‫تم الحصول على عينات االسماك من االسواق المحلية خالل ‪ ، 1272‬ثم فصل اللحم‬

‫عن العظام والجلد واالحشاء واستخالص البروتين المركز من اللحم والمخلفات كال‬

‫على حده‪ .‬بينما تم استخالص البروتين المعزول من المخلفات فقط‪ .‬تم تدعيم‬

‫المقرمشات بنسب مختلفة من البروتين السمكى المركزمن اللحم ‪ ، %72 ، %5‬و‪%5‬‬

‫من البروتين المركز من المخلفات‪ ،‬و‪ % 5‬من البروتين المعزول من المخلفات‪ .‬تم‬

‫تقدير القيمة الغذائية (التركيب الكيميائى‪ ،‬واألحماض األمينية‪ ،‬والعناصر الكبرى)‪،‬‬

‫وبعض معايير الجودة‪ ،‬والخواص الوظيفية لكل من البروتين المركز والمعزول وكذلك‬

‫الخواص الريولوجية للمقرمشات المدعومة ‪ ،‬عالوة على دراسة تاثير التخزين على‬

‫الخواص الحسية للمقرمشات المدعومة‪.‬‬

‫وأوضحت النتائج المتحصل عليها مايلى‪:‬‬

‫اوال‪ :‬سمك المبروك الخام‬

‫التحليل الكيماوى ومعايير الجودة لسمك المبروك الخام‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫سجلت قيم التركيب الكيماوى (على أساس الوزن الرطب) لعضالت سمك‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المبروك الخام على النحو التالى‪ %12.6 :‬رطوبة ‪ %71.11 ،‬بروتين ‪%6.16‬‬

‫دهون و ‪ %7.16‬رماد بينما كان التركيب الكيماوي للمخلفات على النحو التالى‬

‫‪ ،%15.15‬رطوبة‪ %71.61 ،‬بروتين‪ %6.67 ،‬دهن‪ ،‬و ‪ % 1.17‬رماد على‬

‫التوالى ‪ .‬باالضافة الى ان معايير الجودة النسجة ومخلفات سمك المبروك كانت على‬

‫النحو التالى قيمة االس الهيدروجينى ‪ 6.76‬و‪ 6.61‬بالترتيب و قيمة القواعد‬

‫النيتروجينية الطيارة ‪ 72.62، 71.26‬مجم‪722/‬جم‪،‬وأمين ثالثى الميثيل ‪7.626‬‬

‫‪ 2.11،‬مجم‪722/‬جم ‪ ،‬ورقم حامض الثيوباربتيوريك ‪ 2.76 ، 2..6‬مجم مالونالدهيد‬

‫‪ /‬كجم على التوالى‪.‬‬

‫ثانيا‪ :‬البروتين السمكى المركز والمعزول‬

‫التحليل الكيماوى ومعايير الجودة والخصائص الوظيفية للبروتبن السمكى‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫المركز والمعزول‬

‫البروتين السمكى المركز‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫سجلت قيم التركيب الكيماوي للبروتين المركز المستخلص من العضالت‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫والمخلفات ‪ 1.1‬رطوبة ‪ %.2.16 ،‬بروتين ‪%1.1 ،‬دهن ‪ %..12 ،‬رماد بينما كان‬

‫التركيب الكيماوى للبروتين المستخلص من المخلفات كاالتى‪ %72.1. :‬رطوبة ‪،‬‬

‫‪ %11.61‬بروتين ‪ %1.71 ،‬دهون ‪ %71.6. ،‬ورماد على التوالى‪ .‬وكانت معايير‬

‫الجودة لكال من البروتين المركز من العضالت والمخلفات كاالتى‪ :‬القواعد‬

‫النيتروجينية الطيارة ‪ 72.67، 72.7‬مجم‪722/‬جم‪ ،‬و أمين ثالثى الميثيل ‪، 2..2‬‬

‫‪ 2..5‬مجم‪722/‬جم‪ ،‬ورقم حامض الثيوباربتيوريك ‪ 2.72‬و ‪ 2..1‬مجم مالونالدهيد‬

‫‪ /‬كجم عينة بروتين العضالت والمخلفات على الترتيب‪ .‬بينما كانت قيم الخصائص‬

‫الوظيفية للبروتين على النحو التالى‪ :‬كمية الرغوة وثباتها ‪ %6.26‬و‪ %65..‬على‬

‫التوالى لبروتين العضالت‪ ،‬و كانت قيمة القدرة على ربط الماء كاالتى ‪ 1..5‬ملل‪/‬‬
‫جم وسجل بروتين المستخلص من المخلفات قيم كمية الرغوة وثباتها كاالتى ‪%..67‬‬

‫و‪ % 61.11‬على الترتيب بينما كانت القدرة على ربط الماء ‪1..‬ملل‪/‬جم‪.‬‬

‫البروتين السمكى المعزول‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫كانت نتائج التركيب الكيماوي للبروتين السمكي المعزول كاالتى‪%1.71 :‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫رطوبة‪ %...66 ،‬بروتين‪ %1.16 ،‬دهن ‪ ،‬و‪%2.67‬رماد‪ .‬بينما كانت معايير‬

‫الجودة كاالتى ‪ 71.11 :‬مجم‪722/‬جم للقواعد النيتروجينية الطيارة ‪2.67،‬‬

‫مجم‪722/‬جم ألمين ثالثى الميثيل‪ ،‬بينما سجل رقم حامض الثيوباربتيوريك ‪2.725‬‬

‫مجم مالونالدهيد ‪ /‬كجم‪ .‬وكانت الخصائص الوظيفية و تكوين الرغوة وثباتها والقدرة‬

‫على ربط الماء للبروتين المعزول كاالتي‪1..2 ، %61.16 ،%71.15 :‬ملل‪/‬جم من‬

‫بالترتيب‪.‬‬

‫القيمة الغذائية للبروتين السمكى المركز والمعزول‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫البروتين المركز المستخلص من العضالت والمخلفات‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫حدوث زيادة فى قيم محتوى البروتين المركزالمستخلص من العضالت و‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المخلفات من حيث االحماض االمينية االساسية وغير األساسية وكانت اعلي من تلك‬

‫الموصى بها من قبل منظمة االغذية والزراعة (الفاو) حيث سجل البروتين المركز‬

‫المستخلص من العضالت قيم ‪1.67 ،1.61 ،..1. ، 1.25 ،1.61 ،1.2. ، 1.22‬‬

‫‪ 12.16، 6.26 ،‬جم ‪76/‬جم نيتروجين لكل من الثيرونين‪ ،‬الفالين‪ ،‬الميثونين‪،‬‬

‫ايزوليوسين ‪ ،‬الليوسين‪ ،‬التيروسين ‪ ،‬الفينايل االنين‪ ،‬هستدين والليسين على الترتيب‬

‫بينما سجل البروتين المركز المستخلص من المخلفات قيم ‪2.561 ، 1.166 ،7.262‬‬

‫‪ 12.11 ،7..6 ،2.66 ، 1.5. ، 2.715 ، 7.25 ،‬جم ‪ 76/‬جم نيتروجين لكل من‬

‫الثيرونين‪ ،‬الفالين‪ ،‬الميثونين‪ ،‬ايزوليوسين‪ ،‬الليوسين‪ ،‬التيروسين ‪ ،‬الفينايل االنين‪،‬‬

‫هستدين والليسين على التوالى‪.‬‬

‫وجود فروق معنوية بين قيم االحماض االمينية االساسية لكال من البروتين‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المركز من العضالت والمخلفات‪.‬‬

‫احتوي البروتين المركز من العضالت والمخلفات على تركيزات من العناصر‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المعدنية المغذية (كالسيوم‪ ،‬ماغنسيوم‪ ،‬بوتاسيوم‪ ،‬صوديوم‪ ،‬حديد ‪ ،‬فوسفور) اعلى من‬

‫المستويات الموصى بها دوليا‪.‬‬

‫البروتين السمكى المعزول‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫سجلت االحماض االمينية االساسية للبروتين المعزول قيما أعلى لكل من‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫الليسين‪ 56.11‬ثم الفينايل االنين ‪1.66.‬جم ‪ 76/‬جم نيتروجين‪ ،‬وكان محتواها فى‬

‫البروتين المعزول من المخلفات اعلى من القيم الموصى بها من قبل منظمة االغذية‬

‫والزراعة (الفاو)‪ .‬كان ترتيب قيم االحماض الغير اساسية تصاعديا على النحو التالى‬

‫جليسين‪ ،‬االنين‪ ،‬جلوتامين‪ ،‬اسبارجين‪ ،‬سيرين‪ ،‬ارجينين‪ ،‬البرولين‪.‬‬

‫احتوى البروتين السمكى المعزول من المخلفات على قيم عالية من العناصر‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المعدنية الكبرى بما يتناسب مع االحتياجات اليومية لالستهالك‪.‬‬

‫ثالثا‪ :‬المقرمشات المدعومة بمستويات مختلفة من البروتين السمكى المركز‬

‫والمعزول‬

‫التركيب الكيماوي ومعايير الجودة والقيمة الغذائية للمقرمشات المدعومة‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين السمكى المركز‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫سجل التركيب الكيماوى للمقرمشات المدعومة ببروتين العضالت المركز‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫ارتفاعا ملحوظا عن العينة الضابطة وكان على النحو التالى ‪%5..7 ،%5.22‬‬

‫رطوبة ‪ %11..1، %11.26 ،‬بروتين ‪ %16.62 ،‬و ‪ %16.12‬دهون ‪1.17 ،‬‬

‫‪ %2.16 ،%‬رماد‪ %1... ،%16.56 ،‬كربوهيدرات عند مستويات ‪ %5‬و‪%72‬‬

‫بروتين مركز‪ .‬بينما سجل التركيب الكيماوي للمقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين المركز‬

‫من المخلفات كاالتى ‪ %5.5.‬رطوبة ‪ %11.21،‬بروتين‪ 1..57 ،‬دهون‪%1.12،‬‬

‫رماد‪ %12.2 ،‬الكربوهيدرات‪.‬‬

‫زادت قيم جميع االحماض االمينية االساسية فى المقرمشات المدعومة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫بالبروتين السمكى المركز من العضالت والمخلفات مقارنة بالقيم الموصى بها من قبل‬

‫منظمة االغذية والزراعة (الفاو) ومنظمة الصحة العالمية‪ ،‬خاصة المعاملة المدعمة‬

‫بمستوى ‪ %5‬من بروتين العضالت‪.‬‬

‫أوضحت نتائج التقييم الغذائي لجودة البرويتنات على اساس االحتياجات اليومية‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫)‪ )USRDA‬ان استهالك عبوة (‪722‬جرام ) من المنتجات المدعومة كافية‬

‫باالحتياجات اليومية لالنسان البالغ من جميع االحماض االمينية باستثناء الميثونين‬

‫مقارنة بالعينة الضابطة ‪.‬‬

‫احتوت المنتجات المدعومة بالبروتين المركز من العضالت والمخلفات على‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫تركيزات عالية من العناصر المعدنية المغذية (الكالسيوم‪ ،‬الفوسفور‪ ،‬الماغنسيوم‪،‬‬

‫البوتاسيوم‪ ،‬الصوديوم‪ ،‬والحديد) مقارنة بالعينة الضابطة‪ ،‬وكذلك بالمستويات الموصى‬

‫بها لالحتياجات اليومية للفرد من قبل منظمة االغذية والزراعة (الفاو)‪.‬‬

‫المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين السمكى المعزول‬ ‫‪-2‬‬

‫حدوث ارتفاع ملحوظ فى قيم التركيب الكيماوي للمقرمشات المدعومة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫بالبروتين السمكى المعزول حيث سجلت ‪ % 5.1.‬رطوبة‪ %16.21 ،‬بروتين‪،‬‬

‫رماد‪ % 1...5 ،‬كربوهيدرات مقارنة بالعينة‬ ‫‪% 2.21‬‬ ‫‪ % 21.16‬دهن‪،‬‬

‫الضابطة‪.‬‬

‫احتوت المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين السمكى المركز من المخلفات على قيم‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫أعلى لمعظم االحماض االمينية االساسية مقارنة بالموصى بها من قبل منظمة الزراعة‬

‫واالغذية (الفاو) ومنظمة الصحة العالمية باستثناء الميثونين والهستدين ‪.‬‬

‫استهالك عبوة (‪722‬جرام) من المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين المعزول كافية‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫باالحتياجات اليومية للفرد البالغ من معظم االحماض االمينية االساسية باستثناء‬

‫الميثونين‪.‬‬
‫احتوت المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين المعزول على تركيزات متزنة من‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫العناصر المغذية خاصة البوتاسيوم والماغنسيوم والكالسيوم والصوديوم مقارنة بالعينة‬

‫الضابطة وبتركيز اعلى من الحدود المسموح بها والمحددة من قبل منظمة الصحة‬

‫العالمية ومنظمة االغذية والزراعة التابعة لالمم المتحدة (الفاو)‪.‬‬

‫الخصائص الريولوجية للمقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين السمكى‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫الصفات الريولوجية لعجينة المقرمشات المدعمة بالبروتين المركز من‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫العضالت والمخلفات‬

‫حدث ثبات نسبي فى نسبة امتصاص الماء فى العينة مقارنة بالعينة الضابطة‪،‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫وحدوث انخفاض طفيف فى زمن تطور العجينة ‪ 2.61 ، 2.61، 2.61‬دقيقة لكل من‬

‫‪ % 72، %5‬بروتين عضالت و‪ %5‬بروتين مخلفات على التوالى‪.‬‬

‫حدوث زيادة قيم تطور العجين من ‪ 7.22.‬للعينة الضابطة الى ‪، 7.21.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪ 7.2.1‬و‪ 7.2.2‬نيوتن‪/‬متر عند مستويات ‪ %72،%5‬بروتين اعضالت‪ ،‬و‪%5‬‬

‫بروتين مخلفات على التوالى‪.‬‬

‫زيادة فى ثباتية العجين باضافة البروتين السمكى حيث كانت ‪ 2.11‬دقيقة فى‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫العينة الضابطة ثم ارتفعت الى ‪ 2.66 ، 5.25 ، 2.61‬دقيقة عند مستويات‬

‫‪ %72،%5‬بروتين اعضالت‪ ،‬و‪ %5‬بروتين مخلفات على التوالى‪.‬‬

‫حدث انخفاض فى درجة ضعف العجينة والتى تقدر بقوة عزم الدوران‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫(نيوتن‪/‬متر) بزيادة نسبة االضافة حيث سجلت قيم ‪2.122، 2.161 ، 2.252‬‬
‫نيوتن‪/‬متر عند مستويات ‪ %72،%5‬بروتين اعضالت‪ ،‬و‪ %5‬بروتين مخلفات على‬

‫التوالى‪.‬‬

‫أيضا حدث انخفاض ملحوظ في قيم جلتنة النشا ونشاط انزيم االميليزعند اضافة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫البروتين السمكى المركز وخاصة بنسبة ‪ %72‬بروتين عضالت‪.‬‬

‫الصفات الريولوجية لعجينة المقرمشات المدعمة بالبروتين السمكى المعزول‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ادى اضافة بروتين االنسجة السمكي المعزول بنسبة ‪ %5‬الى انخفاض طفيف‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫فى نسبة امتصاص الماء فى العينة مقارنة بالعينة الضابطة‪ ،‬بينما لوحظ ارتفاع طفيف‬

‫فى زمن تطور العينة ‪ 7.21‬دقيقة‪.‬‬

‫حدوث زيادة فى قيم تطور العجين حيث ازدات من ‪ 7.22.‬للعينة الضابطة الى‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪ 7.716‬نيوتن‪/‬متر عند نسبة ‪ %5‬بروتين معزول ‪ .‬كما زادت ثباتية العجين الى‬

‫‪ 2.6.‬دقيقة باضافة البروتين السمكى بينما كانت ‪ 2.11‬دقيقة فى العينة الضابطة‪.‬‬

‫حدثت زيادة طفيفة فى درجة ضعف العجينة والتى تقدر بقوة عزم الدوران‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫(نيوتن‪/‬متر) حيث سجلت ‪2.1.1‬نيوتن‪/‬مترعند نسبة ‪ %5‬بروتين معزول ‪.‬‬

‫لوحظ ارتفاع طفيف في قيم جلتنة النشا ونشاط انزيم االميليزعند اضافة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫البروتين السمكى المعزول ‪.‬‬

‫رابعا‪ :‬تاثير التخزين على خصائص الجودة للمقرمشات المدعومة‬

‫لوحظ عدم وجود اختالفات جوهرية فى التركيب الكيماوي للمقرمشات‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المدعومة ببروتينات االسماك المركزة والمعزولة خالل فترة التخزين لمدة ستة‬

‫اشهرعلى درجة حرارة الغرفة‪.‬‬

‫حدث انخفاض طفيف فى التركيب الكيماوي للمقرمشات المدعومة بنسب‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫مختلفة من البروتين السمكى المركز والمعزول خالل مدة التخزين‪.‬‬

‫حدوث ارتفاع طفيف فى قيم القواعد النيتروجينية الطيارة وقيم حامض‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫الثيوباربتيوريك فى المقرمشات المدعومة خالل مدة التخزين‪.‬‬

‫عدم وجود فروق معنوية بين الخصائص الحسية للمقرمشات المدعومة وخاصة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫بنسب ‪ %5‬و‪ %72‬بروتين عضالت‪ ،‬و‪ %5‬بروتين مخلفات‪.‬‬

‫وجود فروق معنوية بين الخصائص الحسية فى المقرمشات المدعومة بالبروتين‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫المعزول فى بداية التخزين ونهاية مدة التخزين ‪.‬‬

‫التوصيات‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫التغلب على المشكالت التسويقية والحسية لسمك المبروك خاصة وانه يمثل‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫نسبة كبيرة فى االنتاج السمكى‪.‬‬

‫امكانية االستفادة من سمك المبروك فى الحصول على منتجات ذات قيمة‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫مضافة مثل البروتين السمكى المركز والمعزول‪.‬‬

‫العمل على نظافة البيئة وحمايتها من مخلفات تصنيع األسماك والتى أمكن‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫تحويلها الى منتجات غذائية اقتصادية‪.‬‬

‫امكانية تحسين الخواص الحسية والريولوجية والقيمة الغذائية للمقرمشات وذلك‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫بتدعيمها ببروتينات األسماك‪.‬‬

‫ايجاد فرص عمل حقيقية من خالل التنسيق بين الهيئات المعنية فى هذا المجال‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬