ss3 1st Term

SS 3 FIRST TERM 2015/2016 ACADEMIC SESSION
CHEMISTRY NOTE
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS
1. Quantitative and Redox titration, identification of cations and anions. Test for gases, food
qualitative analysis substances and functional groups.
2. Metals and their Physical and chemical properties of metals. Principles of extraction of
compounds metals. The alkali metals (general properties). Sodium – extraction,
properties, compounds and uses.
3. Metals and their The alkaline earth metals (general properties). Calcium – extraction,
compounds properties, compound and uses. Aluminium – extraction, properties and
uses
4. Metals and their Tin – extraction and properties. Transition metals – properties (the first
compounds transition series only). Copper – extraction and uses. Iron – extraction and
uses. Rusting of irons and method of prevention.
5. Fats and oil Sources, physical and chemical properties, reactions ,uses, hardening of
oils (hydrogenation)
6. Soap and Preparation and structure of soap, action of soap as emulsifying agents.
detergents Preparation and mode of action of detergents. Differences between soap
and detergents.
7. Giant molecules Sugar: sources and classification, hydrolysis of sucrose and starch, test for
starch and sugars, uses of starch and glucose.
8. Revision and
examination
9. Examination
10. Compilation and

vacation
HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the IRON under the following headings
(i) extraction (ii) uses (iii) reactivity with air, water and acids
NOWASEC, Karshi SS 3 Chemistry Note for First Term 2014/2015 Academic Session by T.R. Onibon Page 1
WEEK: 1
TOPIC: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
REDOX TITRATION
The solutions commonly used for redox titration are the oxidizing agents and reducing agents. The
following pairs are examples of redox titration;
1. Acidified MnO4- with Fe2+
2. Acidified MnO4- with C2O42-
3. I2 in KI with S2O32-
In redox titration, only the net ionic equation is required e.g.
(a) 2MnO4-(aq) + 5C2O42- + 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
(b) MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(c) I2(aq) + 2C2O32-(aq) S4O62-(aq) + 2I-(aq)
Suitable indicators are used in redox titration to monitor the end point. However, when KMnO 4 is
the oxidizing agent, an indicator is not required because of the intensity of the KMnO 4 colour both
before and after the titration.
Example
A is a solution of KMnO4, B is 0.02mol/dm3 of ethanedioic acid and solution C is 0.1mol/dm 3 of
concentrated H2SO4. Titrate solution A against 25cm3 of solution B which has been acidified with
5cm3 of solution C. Average volume of 16.5cm3 of A was required for complete oxidation of solution
B. From the result obtained calculate;
(a) the concentration of solution A in mol/dm 3
(b) the concentration of A in g/dm3
Equation of the reaction;
2MnO4-(aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) + 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
[K=39, Mn=55, O=16]
Solution
(a)
COAVOA = nOA
CRAVRA nRA
Where; COA = ?, VOA = 16.5cm3, nOA = 2, CRA = 0.02mol/dm3, VRA = 25cm3, nRA = 5
COA = CRA x VRA x nOA
nRA x VOA
= 0.02 x 25 x 2
5 x 16.5
= 0.0121mol/dm3
(b)
Molar mass of KMnO4 = 39 + 55 + 64 = 158g/mol
Mass conc. = molar conc. X molar mass
= 0.0121 x 158
= 1.91g/dm3
Note: in the reaction above, KMnO4 was added from the burette until the solution turns
permanently pink. That is the end point.
IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS USING NaOH(aq) AND HH3(aq)
The basis for the identification rests on the formation of a precipitate, its colour and solubility in
excess of the reagent.
S/N Metallic Dilute NaOH Dilute NH3
ion In drops In excess In drops In excess
in
solution
1. Zn2+ White Precipitate soluble in White Precipitate soluble in
gelatinous excess precipitate excess
precipitate
3+
2. Al White Precipitate soluble White Precipitate insoluble
precipitate precipitate
2+
3. Ca White Precipitate insoluble No instant Precipitate insoluble
precipitate visible reaction
2+
4. Cu Blue precipitate Precipitate insoluble Blue Precipitate soluble
precipitate forming deep blue
solution
5. Fe2+ Greenish Precipitate insoluble Dark-green Precipitate insoluble
6. Fe3+ Brown Precipitate insoluble Brown Precipitate insoluble
7. Pb2+ White Precipitate soluble White Precipitate insoluble
8. NH4+ No precipitate No precipitate. On No precipitate No precipitate
heating or warming
NH3 is liberated
Note: the observation for both Pb2+ and Al3+ are similar. To distinguish between them, add aqueous
potassium Iodide (KI) or potassium tetraoxochromate (VI) – K2CrO4 to samples of both solutions,
only Pb2+ will give a yellow precipitate. Also, add a few drops of conc. HCl to the solutions, formation
of white precipitate which dissolves when warmed but reappear on cooling confirms the presence
of Pb2+.
TEST FOR ANIONS
To identify the anions in an unknown salt, carry out the following tests.
S/N ANIONS TEST OBSERVATION AND INFERENCE
-
1. NO3 Add dilute NaOH solution. Then add a piece Effervescence is observed. The red
of aluminium foil. Warm the mixture. Test litmus paper turns blue. NH3 gas is
the gas liberated with a piece of moist red liberated.
litmus paper.
2-
2. CO3 Add dilute HCl. Pass the gas liberated into Effervescence is observed. A white
lime water precipitate of CaCO3 is formed with
lime water. CO2 is liberated.
-
3. HCO3 Add dilute HCl. Pass the gas liberated into Effervescence is observed. A white
lime water precipitate of CaCO3 is formed with
lime water. CO2 is liberated.
4. Cl- Add dilute HNO3. Then add AgNO3 A white precipitate of AgCl is
formed
Add dilute HNO3. Then add Pb(NO3)2 A white precipitate of PbCl2 is
formed
5. SO42- Add dilute HCl, then add Barium Chloride A white precipitate of BaSO4 is
solution formed
6. SO32- Add dilute HCl, warm the mixture. Test the Effervescence occurs. The acidified
gas liberated with a piece of paper soaked K2Cr2O7 paper turns green. SO2 is
with Acidified K2Cr2O7 liberated.
7. S2- Add diluted HCl. Test the gas liberated with a Effervescence is observed. The
piece of moist (CH3COO)2Pb paper moist (CH3COO)2Pb paper turns
black. H2S is liberated.
8 I- Add dilute HNO3. Add AgNO3 A yellow precipitate of AgI is
formed
Add dilute HNO3. The add Pb(NO3)2 A yellow precipitate of PbI2 is
formed.
TEST FOR SOME GASES

S/N GAS CONFIRMATORY TEST COLOUR /ODOUR
1. Hydrogen; It makes pop sound with a glowing splint Colourless and odourless
H2 It burns with blue flame if mixed with air
2. Ammonia; It turns moist red litmus paper blue. Colourless with characteristic
NH3 It forms white dense fumes of NH4Cl when in choking smell.
contact with drops of conc. HCl on a glass rod
3. Carbon It turns damp blue litmus paper red. Colourless and odourless
(IV) oxide; It turns lime water milky. The milkiness
CO2 disappears in excess of CO2
4. Hydrogen It turns damp blue litmus paper red. Colourless and sharp irritating
chloride; When blown across the mouth of test tube, it smell
HCl forms copious fumes.
When in contact with a drop of NH3 solution
on glass rod, it forms white dense fumes of
NH4Cl
5. Sulphur It turns damp blue litmus paper red. Colourless with
(IV) oxide; It turns K2Cr2O7 acidified with dilute H2SO4 pungent/irritating smell like that
SO2 from orange to green. of burning matches.
It turns acidified KMnO4 from purple to
colourless.
6 Hydrogen It turns damp blue litmus paper red. Colourless with offensive odour
sulphide; It turns K2Cr2O7 acidified with dilute H2SO4 like that of rotten egg.
H2S from orange to green and produces a yellow
precipitate of sulphur.
It turns acidified KMnO4 from purple to
colourless and produces a yellow precipitate
of sulphur.
TEST TUBE TEST FOR FOOD AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

1. ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES: To distinguish these hydrocarbons, carry out the following
tests.
- add some acidified KMnO4 to the test sample. If no reaction occurs then the sample is an alkane
(saturated hydrocarbon) but if the KMnO4 is decolourised, the sample is either an alkene or an
alkyne (unsaturated hydrocarbons). Bromine water can also be used in place of acidified KMnO 4 to
get the same result.
- to the sample that decolourises bromine water or acidified KMnO4, add some ammoniacal solution
of copper(I) chloride or ammoniacal solution of silver oxide or silver nitrate. If no reaction occurs,
then the sample is an alkene. However, alkynes form reddish-brown precipitate with ammoniacal
copper(I) chloride and forms yellow precipitate (which rapidly turns grey) with ammoniacal silver
oxide or silver nitrate.
2. ALKANOLS (-OH Group): to the unknown substance, add some ethanoic acid acidified with dilute
H2SO4 and warm gently. A pleasant fruity smell (from ester) formation shows the presence of –OH
group.
3. ALKANOIC ACID (-COOH): add some ethanol acidified with H2SO4 to the unknown and boil
carefully. The occurrence of pleasant fruity smell of an ester indicates the presence of –COOH
group.
Or
Add about 2cm3 of saturated NaHCO3 solution to the unknown. The effervescence of a colourless
and odourless gas which turns lime water milky indicates the presence of –COOH.
4. TEST FOR SUGAR
(a) Using Fehling solution – Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution to 5cm3 of the unknown solution in
a test tube. A brick-red precipitate obtained on boiling indicates the presence of glucose.
Note: Fehling’s solution is a mild oxidising agent containing copper(II) complexes.
(b) Using Benedict’s solution – Heat the unknown substance with the Benedict’s solution for few
minutes and allow to cool. The formation of a brick-red precipitate indicates the presence of
aldehydes (or reducing sugar).
Note: Benedict’s solution is a deep-blue solution used to test for the presence of the aldehyde
functional group; CHO.
5. TEST FOR STARCH
Add a few drops of iodine to some boiled starch. A dark-blue colouration which disappears on
heating and reappears on cooling indicates the presence of starch.
6. TEST FOR PROTEINS
(a) BIURET TEST: Add about 1cm3 of dilute caustic soda solution into a test tube containing some
dilute egg solution. Add 1% CuSO4 solution drop by drop. Shake the solution thoroughly after each
drop. The formation of a violet colouration indicates the presence of proteins.
Note: egg solution is prepared by mixing egg-white with three times its volume of water and adding
little common salt to dissolve the egg white.
(b) MILLON’S TEST: add a drop or two of Million’s reagent to some egg-white in a test tube. The
formation of a white precipitate which turns brick-red on heating indicates the presence of
proteins.
(c) XANTHOPROTEIC’S TEST: add three or few drops of conc. HNO 3 to 2cm3 of the unknown solution.
The formation of an intense yellow colour indicates the presence of proteins. At alkaline pH, the
colour changes to orange due to the ionization of the phenolic group.
(d) NINHYDRIN TEST: Ninhydrin (triketohydrindane hydrate) is a powerful oxidizing agent. Α-amino
acids react with ninhydrin to give a purple coloured product (diketohydrin)
Assignment
1. How would you test for fat and oil?
2. State the confirmatory tests for the following ions: Pb 2+, Zn2+, NH4+, Cu2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Cl-,
SO32-, CO32-, NO3- and SO42-.
3. State the effects of Conc. H2SO4 and HCl on the anions in the list of ions above.
Tutorial questions
1.
C is a mixture of an inorganic and an organic compound. The following tests were carried out on C.
Copy and complete the table.
s/n Test Observation Inference
a C + water and Partially soluble in water. Colourless filtrate .........................................
filter and white residue
b Filtrate + litmus Filtrate is acidic
paper
c Filtrate + BaCl2(aq) White precipitate .......................................
+ HCl(aq) Precipitate insoluble .....................................
d Filtrate + NaOH(aq) ................................................................ Gas is NH3 from NH4+
+ heat ................................................................
...............................................................
e Residue + few .................................................................. Starch present
drops of I2 solution
2.
i) State an indicator suitable for the titration of (a) dilute HCl and NaOH (aq) (b) dilute CH3COOH and
KOH(aq) (c) dilute HCl and NH3(aq). Give a reason for your answer in each case.
ii) Calculate the volume of water that would be added to 50cm3 of 0.10moldm-3 of HCl to dilute it to
0.010moldm-3
iii) Name one gas that could be used to perform fountain experiment.
WEEK 2
TOPIC: METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Metals are elements whose atoms ionize by electron loss. They show certain characteristics which
distinguish them from non-metals. Their physical properties depend on the arrangement of their
atoms or molecules in crystal lattice when in the solid state and the bonds that bind the atoms or
molecules in the solid, liquid or gaseous state. The chemical properties depend on the number of
valence electrons present in their atomic structure. More than 75% of known elements are metals.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
- High melting and boiling points
- Characteristic luster
- Malleability i.e. ability to be hammered into sheets
- Hard but not brittle with great tensile strength.
- Good conductors of heat and electricity
- Ductility i.e. can be drawn into thin wire
- Relatively high densities
- Sonorous i.e. gives off a sound note when hit
Exceptions
1. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature with a melting point of -390C.
2. Sodium and Potassium are soft, light metals with low melting points of 97 0C and 630C
respectively.
Metals are solids at room temperature and exist as crystal lattice in which their atoms are held
together by strong metallic bonds. Non-metals exist as covalent molecules held together by weak
forces except carbon in the form of diamond and graphite.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
- Ionization behavior: metallic atoms have a great tendency to ionize and form positive ions
by losing electrons. Thus, they are electropositive.
- Reducing agents: they are reducing agents because they donate electrons readily during
chemical reactions e.g.
2Na(s) + ½ O2(g) Na22+O2-(s)
- Reaction with acids: Metals which are more electropositive than hydrogen readily displace
the hydrogen ion from an acid e.g.
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Zn2+(Cl-)2(aq) + H2(g)
- Nature of oxides: Most metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides which dissolve in
water to form alkalis e.g.
Ca(s) + ½ O2(g) Ca2+O2-
Ca2+ + O2-(s) + H2O(l) Ca+(OH-)2(aq)
- Formation of compound with hydrogen: Few very reactive metals force hydrogen to accept
electron to form their hydrides which are salt-like solids.
Na(s) + ½ H2(g) NaH(s)
The hydride reacts with cold water to liberate hydrogen. In molten state, the hydrides of metals act
as electrolytes liberating hydrogen at the anode.
- Reaction with water: Sodium metals combines vigorously with water liberating hydrogen
and forming the hydroxide. Potassium reacts more rapidly and violently with water. The
heat produced in the reaction ignites the hydrogen formed which burns with lilac flame.
Calcium react with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Other metals like Mg,
Al, Zn, Fe, Pb and Cu react with steam when red hot to form the corresponding oxides and
hydrogen.
PRINCIPLES OF METAL EXTRACTION
The Earth's crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, iron oxide and aluminium
oxide, but when found in the Earth these are often mixed with other substances. To be useful, the
metals have to be extracted from whatever they are mixed with. A metal ore is a rock containing a
metal, or a metal compound, in a high enough concentration to make it economic to extract the
metal.
The method used to extract metals from the ore in which they are found depends on their
reactivity. For example, reactive metals such as aluminium are extracted by electrolysis, while a
less-reactive metal such as iron may be extracted by reduction with carbon or carbon monoxide.
Thus the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal's position in the
reactivity series:
Metal Reactivity Most common ore Method of extraction
Potassium (K) Electrolysis of fused hydroxide and
Chlorides
Sodium (Na) chloride
Calcium (Ca) Very
Chlorides and
Magnesium reactive Electrolysis of fused chlorides
trioxocarbonates (IV)
(Mg)
Aluminiun (Al) Oxides Electrolysis of oxides
Zinc (Zn) Oxides,
Roasting of trioxocarbonates (IV) and
Iron (Fe) Moderately trioxocarbonates (IV)
sulphides to form oxides; reduction of
Tin (Sn) reactive and sulphides
oxides by carbon or carbon (II) oxide
Lead (Pb)
Copper (Cu) Sulphides Roasting in air
Mercury (Hg) Least Heating in air
Silver (Ag) reactive
Free element Mined as free element
Gold
The Alkali metals (group 1 elements)

General properties
- They are all metals except hydrogen
- They react with water to form alkalis
- They are very electropositive
- The form univalent positive ions when ionized
- They tend to be soft and light with low melting point. This is because the metallic bond in
their crystal lattice is weak since each atom in the crystal can only contribute one valence
electron for the electron cloud that forms the metallic bond.
- The first ionization energy decreases down the group, hence reactivity increases down the
group.
- All alkali metals and their ions give characteristic flame colours which are used to identify
them.
Sodium: Occurrence, Extraction from Downs process; properties and uses
Occurrence
Lithium occurs mainly as silicate minerals such as spodumene [LiAl(SiO 3)2], lepidolite
[(Li,Na,K)2Al2,(SiO3)3 (F,OH)2] etc. It is the 35th most abundant element by weight.
Compounds of sodium and potassium have been known from ancient times. Sodium and potassium
are seventh and eighth most abundant elements by weight in the Earth's crust and together make
up over 4% of the Earth's crust by weight. NaCl and KCl also occur in large amounts in seawater.
Rock salt (NaCl) is the major source of sodium. Potassium occurs mainly as deposits of KCl (sylvite),
which is a mixture of KCl and NaCl (sylvinite) and double salt KCl.MgCl 2.6H2O (carnallite).
Rubidium and cesium are obtained as a by-product of lithium processing. Francium being
radioactive does not occur appreciably in nature.
Ores of Sodium
Albite (soda feldspar) NaAlSi3O8, Borax (as tincal) Na2B2O7.10H2O, Glauber's salt Na2SO4.10H2O,
Sodium chloride, (common salt) found as rock salt, in sea water and in lakes.
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) as chile saltpetre.
Extraction of Sodium
The metal sodium, was prepared in 1807 by an English chemist, Sir Humphery Davy by electrolysis
of fused caustic soda. The two methods used for extracting sodium metals are,
Castner's process: By the electrolysis of fused caustic soda.
Down's process: By the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride.
Down's process
In this process, molten sodium chloride (common salt) is electrolyzed using a graphite anode and a
ring shaped iron cathode. The two electrodes are separated by a wire gauge partition to avoid the
mixing of sodium and chlorine so formed. As Sodium chloride melts at a very high temperature of
1085K, a mixture containing sodium chloride, potassium chloride and potassium fluoride (NaCl + KCl
+ KF) is employed. This mixture melts at about 850-875K.
The reasons for lowering the temperature are:
o It is difficult to maintain a high temperature of 1085K.
o Sodium is volatile at this temperature and so a part of the metal formed may vaporize.
o At this high temperature chlorine produced as a by- product corrodes the vessel.
o Metal at this temperature will be in a colloidal state and its separation will be difficult.
On passing electric current, chlorine is liberated at the carbon anode and escapes through the dome
shaped steel hood outlet. Sodium rises from the cathode and remains in the wire gauze shell. The
sodium produced is in molten state. Being lighter than the electrolyte it rises to the surface. As the
level of molten sodium rises, it is forced into the receiver. The process is continuous and fresh salt is
introduced to maintain the level of molten electrolyte high enough to allow sodium to rise into the
iron pipe. Chemical reactions involved in this process are as follows:
At cathode:
At anode:
Fig - Down's cell
Advantages of Down's process
Sodium metal obtained has high degree of purity (99.5%).
The starting material, sodium chloride is very cheap.
Chlorine is obtained as a useful by-product.
Physical properties of lithium and sodium
Lithium and sodium are light, soft metals with silvery white lustre. Lithium is harder than sodium.
As sodium metal is light and soft, it can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut surfaces are shining,
but get covered with a layer of oxide or carbonate when kept in contact with air. Lithium though
harder than sodium is soft enough to be cut with knife.
The densities of lithium and sodium are low (lithium = 0.634 g cm -3 sodium = 0:97 g cm3). Lithium is
the lightest metal known.
These metals give color to the flame, when heated in the Bunsen burner. Sodium gives golden
yellow while lithium gives crimson red. This is due to their low ionization energy, which makes their
valence electrons get excited to higher energy levels when heated. On returning to the ground state
these elements emit colored radiations in the visible region.
Both have high melting and boiling points.
chemical properties of lithium and sodium
Both lithium and sodium are extremely reactive metals. Sodium is more reactive than lithium.
Action of air
Both lithium and sodium remain unaffected by dry air but get readily tarnished in moist air forming
a film of oxide. These oxides react with moisture of the air to give the corresponding hydroxide and
finally carbonate.
This is the reason that sodium and potassium are stored under paraffin wax.
With oxygen
Lithium tarnishes slowly in moist air while dry air has no effect. When heated in air or oxygen at
about 200°C, it burns with a brilliant white light forming lithium monoxide.
When heated in air or oxygen, sodium burns with a golden yellow flame forming a mixture of oxide
and peroxide.
Action of water
Both, lithium and sodium decompose cold water vigorously liberating hydrogen. Sodium reacts with
water more vigorously than lithium.
The hydroxides of lithium and sodium are strong alkalies. They are highly soluble in water and their
aqueous solutions contain hydroxyl ions:
Sodium hydroxide is a stronger base than lithium hydroxide.
Action with Non-metals
Both lithium and sodium combine directly with hydrogen, sulphur, halogens and other non-metals
on heating.
With hydrogen
These hydrides are ionic hydrides.
With chlorine
These halides are ionic crystalline halides. Lithium halides are less ionic than sodium halides.
With sulphur
With phosphorous
With nitrogen
It may be noted that lithium reacts with N 2 to form lithium nitride but sodium does not form sodium
nitride.
With ammonia
Sodium and potassium give the corresponding amide when heated in ammonia gas.
These amides act as reducing agents and reduce many oxides.
Reducing action
Lithium and Sodium act as strong reducing agents. So, they reduce some metallic chlorides and
oxides into metals. This property is applied in the preparation of some metals. For example,
beryllium, uranium etc., can be obtained by the reduction of the corresponding halides using
sodium.
Action with acids
Sodium reacts vigorously with acids evolving hydrogen.
Action with mercury
With mercury, sodium form amalgams of varying composition e.g., NaHg, Na 2Hg, Na3Hg etc.
Solubility in liquid ammonia
Sodium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give conducting blue-colored solution due to the presence of
ammoniated electrons in solutions.
The blue color of the solution is due to ammoniated electrons, which absorb energy corresponding
to red region of visible light, for their excitation to higher energy levels. The transmitted light thus
imparts blue color to the solution.
The solution is made conducting in nature by both ammoniated cation and ammoniated electron.
Uses of Sodium
In the manufacture of sodium peroxide, sodamide, sodium cyanide etc. About 50 per cent of
sodium extracted is used in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead (C2H5)4Pb, which is used as anti-
knock agent in petrol.
For producing amalgams and alloys. Amalgams are used as reducing agents.
Sodium also finds application in illumination engineering and in sodium vapor discharge lamps.
Acts as a catalyst in the preparation of artificial rubber.
As a deoxidizer in the preparation of light alloys.
Liquid sodium or its alloy with potassium is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
Is used as a laboratory reagent (Lassaigne's extract).
COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM; PROPERTIES AND USES
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Physical Properties
- It is a white crystalline solid

- It is deliquescent and melts at about 3200C without decomposing.
- It dissolves exothermically in water to give a strong alkaline solution
Chemical properties
With acids and acidic oxides – it neutralizes all acids to produce salt and water. It also reacts with
acidic oxides to form sodium salt. E.g.
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) NaHSO3(aq)
With ammonium salts – When sodium hydroxide is heated with an ammonium salt, ammonia gas is
liberated.
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(s) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
With metals – aluminium and zinc react readily with NaOH to form sodium aluminate (III) and
sodium zincate (II) respectively with evolution of hydrogen gas. Aluminium or zinc container should
therefore not be used to store NaOH.
2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) + 3H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) + H2(g)
Formation of precipitates – NaOH solution is often used to precipitate insoluble hydroxides. E.g
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
In the case of zinc, aluminium, tin(II) and lead (II) salts, the hydroxides are amphoteric and will
redissolve in an excess of sodium hydroxide to form complex salts. E.g
Zn(OH)(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2Zn(OH)4(aq)
With non-metals: NaOH reacts with various non-metals to form sodium salts.
Reaction with glass – molten and concentrated solution of NaOH attack glass to form sodium
trioxosilicate (IV). This explains why glass stoppers become sealed into reagent bottles containing
the concentrated alkali, and burette tap tend to get stuck after the alkali has been used in the
burette. This is called etching.
Uses of NaOH
 As a strong alkali
 As an analytical and precipitating reagent
 For absorbing CO2
 For making soap, rayon (artificial silk), paper and various compounds like sodium
trioxochlorate (V), sodium methanoate and phosphine.
 For purification of bauxite
 For refining of petroleum
 In the bleaching of cotton textiles.
The first 3 points are the laboratory use of NaOH while last 4 are the industrial uses.
Sodium chloride – NaCl
Properties
- It is white anhydrous crystal

- It melts at 8010C and boils at 14200C.
- The pure form is not deliquescent but the impure form may be deliquescent due to the
presence of MgCl2.
Uses
 As food preservative and seasonal

 As important raw material in the chemical industry for manufacturing of Na, NaOH, Cl 2,
Na2CO3, NaClO3 and other related compounds.
 For slating out soap
 In glazing earthenware
 In regenerating water softener.
Sodium tetraoxosulphate (IV) – Na2SO4
Properties
It can exist in the anhydrous form known as salt-cake or as a decahydrate form known as Glauber’s
salt
The decahydrate form is efflorescent.
Uses
 In the production of sodium sulphide

 As a purgative
 In the manufacture of wood pulp, glass and detergents.
Sodium trioxonitrate (V) – NaNO3
Properties
 It is a white solid which melts at 3100C and decomposes on further heating.
Uses
- Used as a nitrogenous fertilizer

- In making trioxonitrate (V) acid, potassium trioxonitrate (V) and sodium dioxoxnitrate (III).
Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) – Na2CO3
Properties
 Na2CO3 in form of soda ash (i.e. anhydrous Na2CO3) is a fine white powder, while washing
soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) is translucent and crystalline.
 They both dissolve in water to form an alkali solution by hydrolysis.
 Washing soda is efflorescent
 It does not decompose on heating
 It reacts with acid to liberate CO2
Uses
 In the industrial manufacturing of glass

 As a water softener
 In manufacturing of detergent
 In manufacturing NaOH, borax, water-glass, soap and paper
 Used in laboratory to standardize acids and as an analytical reagent.
Assignment
1. State the properties and uses of sodium oxochlorate (I) – NaClO
2. Name any 10 metal metals and state its relative abundance
Tutorial questions
1. Mention two methods of extracting metals
2. State three uses each of the following
i. NaOH ii. Na2CO3 iii. NaNO3 iv. Na2SO4 v. NaClO
3. State two properties each of the following
i. NaOH ii. Na2CO3 iii. NaNO3 iv. Na2SO4 v. NaClO
WEEK 4
Alkaline earth metals (Group II elements)

They do not occur freely in nature. They occur as trioxocarbonates(IV) and tetraoxosulphates (VI).
The elements in the Group include calcium, magnesium, beryllium, strontium, barium and radium.
Barium occurs as tetraoxosulphate (VI), calcium and magnesium compounds are formed by the
weathering of rocks and are found in the soil and in most fresh waters as hydrogen
trioxocarbonates(IV), tetraoxosulphates (VI) and chlorides, causing hardness of water. Bones and
teeth contain calcium tetraoxophosphate (V). Beryllium is found in small quantities as
tetraoxosilicate minerals. It is not abundant because it is difficult to extract. Strontium is also not
abundant but occurs as concentrated ores. Radium is radioactive.
Physical properties of alkaline earth metals
- They are divalent

- They have closely packed metallic structure, except barium
- They are harder than alkali metals because of the stronger metallic bond. They become
increasingly soft as their atomic number increases.
- They are better conductors of heat and electricity than the alkali metals
- They are less soluble than the corresponding alkali metals
- They have higher b.p and m.p than the alkali metals
Chemical properties of alkaline earth metals
 Reaction with air or oxygen – they tarnish in air forming a film of oxide. The film is protective in
beryllium, preventing further reaction, but not protective in the other alkaline earth metals.
When heated in air, they all burn brilliantly to give the oxide and some nitrides. E.g.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Calcium
Calcium is too reactive to occur as free metal in nature. Instead, it occurs as calcium
trioxocarbonate (iv), CaCO3, in limestone, marble, chalk, aragonite, calcite and coral; as calcium
tetraoxosulphate(vi), CaSO4 in gypsum and anhydrite; as double trioxocarbonate (iv), CaCO 3.MgCO3,
in dolomite; as calcium fluoride, CaF2, in Fluospar; and as various trioxocarbonates(iv).
Extraction
Since calcium compounds are very stable. Metallic calcium is commonly extracted by electrolysis of
fused calcium chloride, a by-product of Solvay process. Some calcium fluoride is added to the fused
calcium chloride to reduce the melting point from 850 oC to 650oC. The mixture is placed in a large
crucible, lined on the inside with graphite which serves as the anode of the cell. The cathode
consists of iron rod which just touches the surface of the electrolyte. As electrolysis proceeds,
metallic calcium collects on the cathode which is gradually raised to an irregular stick of calcium
formed on it. Chlorine gas is liberated at the anode.
Chemistry of the reaction:
At the anode Ca2+(aq) + 2e- Ca(s) (reduction)
At the cathode Cl-(aq) Cl +e-
Cl +Cl Cl2
Physical properties of calcium
It is silvery white
It is malleable and ductile
It has a melting point of 851 oC
It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
It has a relatively low tensile strength
It has a density of about 1.55g/cm3
Chemical properties of calcium
It tarnishes in air when exposed as it is very reactive to form calcium oxide which in the presence of
moisture and carbon (iv) oxide form calcium hydroxide and finally calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) and
water
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
It reacts with non-metals like chlorine, nitrogen, sulphur and hydrogen
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2 (s)
Ca (s)+ Cl2 (g) CaCl2(s)
Ca(s) + H2(g) CaH2(s)
It reacts with water to liberate hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
It reacts with ammonia to form calcium nitride
3Ca(s) + 2NH3(g) Ca3N2(s) +3 H2(g)
it reacts vigorously to displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
Uses of calcium
- It is used in the extraction of uranium

- As a deoxidant in steel castings and copper alloys
- In the manufacture of calcium fluoride and calcium hydride
- It is used as a dehydrating agent in the preparation of pure ethanol
- It is used to remove impurities from petroleum
Calcium Oxide
Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical
compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature. The broadly used
term lime connotes calcium-containing inorganic materials, which include carbonates, oxides and
hydroxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, and iron predominate, such as limestone. By
contrast, quicklime specifically applies to a single chemical compound.
Quicklime is relatively inexpensive. Both it and a chemical derivative (calcium hydroxide) are
important commodity chemicals.
Preparation
Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials such as limestone, that
contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3; mineral calcite) in a lime kiln. This is accomplished by heating the
material to above 825 °C (1,517 °F), a process called calcination or lime-burning, to liberate a
molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2); leaving quicklime. The quicklime is not stable and, when cooled,
will spontaneously react with CO2 from the air until, after enough time, it is completely converted
back to calcium carbonate.
Annual worldwide production of quicklime is around 283 million metric tons. China is by far the
world's largest producer, with a total of around 170 million metric tons per year. The United States
is the next largest with around 20 million metric tons per year.
Uses
Heat: Quicklime produces heat energy by the formation of the hydrate, calcium hydroxide, by the
following equation:
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) (ΔHr = −63.7 kJ/mol of CaO)
As it hydrates, an exothermic reaction results and the solid puffs up. The hydrate can be
reconverted to quicklime by removing the water by heating it to redness to reverse the hydration
reaction. One litre of water combines with approximately 3.1 kilograms (6.8 lb) of quicklime to give
calcium hydroxide plus 3.54 MJ of energy. This process can be used to provide a convenient
portable source of heat, as for on-the-spot food warming in a self-heating can.
Light: When quicklime is heated to 2,400 °C (4,350 °F), it emits an intense glow. This form of
illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions prior to the
invention of electric lighting.
Cement: Calcium oxide is a key ingredient for the process of making cement.
Paper: Calcium oxide is used to regenerate sodium hydroxide from sodium carbonate.
Plaster: There is archeological evidence that Pre-Pottery Neolithic B humans used limestone-based
plaster for flooring and other uses
Other uses of calcium oxide
- It is used to make refractory bricks for furnace linings because it can withstand high
temperature
- It is used in the manufacture of slaked lime, mortar, cement, plaster and calcium carbide
- It is used in agriculture as a base to neutralize soil acidity
- It is used as a drying agent e.g for ammonia gas
- It is used in the manufacture of bleaching agents
- It is used in the extraction of iron and removal of silica impurities
- It is used in smelting process and in glass making
Calcium hydroxide [ Ca(OH)2 ] – slaked lime
Properties
1) It is a white powder which dissolves slightly in water to give an alkaline solution of lime water.
2) Its solubility decreases with increasing temperature
3) It decomposes at 4800C to give Calcium oxide and water
Ca(OH)2(aq) CaO(s) + H2O(l)
4) It neutralizes acids to give salts and water
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)
5) It liberates ammonia gas from ammonium salts
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s) CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)
6) When chlorine gas is passed over moist Ca(OH)2, bleaching powder is product
Ca(OH)2(s) + Cl2(g) CaOCl2.H2O(s)
7) When cold solution of Ca(OH)2 is saturated with chlorine, calcium chloride, calcum oxochlorate (I)
and water are produced
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2Cl(g) CaCl2(aq) + Ca(OCl)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
With hot solution of Ca(OH)2 is used, calcium trioxochlorate (V) will be produced
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 6Cl2(g) 5CaCl2(aq) + Ca(ClO3)2(aq) + 6H2O(l)
8) When Carbon (IV) oxide is passed into lime water for a short time, the solution turns milky due to
the formation of insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate (IV);
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
When CO2 is passed for a long time (in excess), the milkiness disappear due to the formation of
calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) which is soluble;
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Uses of calcium hydroxide
- It is used in the production of slaked lime

- It is used in softening water (Cark’s process)
- It is used in the manufacture of glass
- In the recovery of ammonia from ammonium chloride(Solvay process)
- In the purification of coal gas and sugar
- In agriculture to neutralize acidic soil
- In the laboratory preparation of ammonia
- In the laboratory test for carbon (IV) oxide
- A suspension of calcium hydroxide in water known as milk of lime is used as white-wash in
the preliminary painting of new buildings and in lining tracks. As the suspension dries, it
absorbs CO2 form the air and turns white due to the production of CaCO 3.
Calcium trioxocarbonate (iv)(CaCO3)
It occurs naturally as lime stone, chalk, corals, etc. It is the constituent of aquatic shells, bones,
teeth, etc. It is prepared by the action of carbon (IV) oxide on calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).
Ca(OH)2(S) + CO2 (g) CaCO3Cs) + H2O(l)
Properties
1) It reacts with acids to liberate carbon (iv) oxide
CaCO3(s) +HCl (aq) CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2) It decomposes when heated to yield Calcium oxide and carbon (iv) oxide
CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3) It reacts with dilute acids, except tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to liberate carbon (IV) oxide. Dilute
tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid forms an insoluble protective layer of CaSO4 around the trioxocarbonate
(IV) thus preventing further reaction.
4) it is a white solid, insoluble in water but soluble in water containing carbon (IV) oxide.
Uses of CaCO3
- It is used in making sodium trioxocarbonate (IV), glass, cement, quick lime and steel
- In the production of pigments, distempers and putty.
- As a source of CO2 in fire extinguishers
- As whiting in painting houses and lining tracks
- In blast furnace for the smelting of iron
- Marbles and limestone are used as building materials
Calcium chloride – CaCl2
Properties
1) The anhydrous form is a white powder, very deliquescent, absorbing moisture from air to form
hydrated calcium chloride.
CaCl2(s) + 5H2O(l) CaCl.5H2O(s)
Uses of CaCl2
- It is used in dessicators and as drying agent for all gases except ammonia
Calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI) – CaSO4
Properties
It is a white, non-deliquescent solid
Its solubility increases with rise in temperature to a maximum of 40 0C after which the solubility falls.
Uses
When it is in form of gypsum on heating, it is used for the manufacture of plaster of paris (POP)
In the manufacture of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI)
ALUMINIUM
Extracting aluminium from bauxite
Aluminium is too high in the electrochemical series (reactivity series) to extract it from its ore using
carbon reduction. The temperatures needed are too high to be economical.
Instead, it is extracted by electrolysis. The ore is first converted into pure aluminium oxide by the Bayer
Process, and this is then electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite - another aluminium compound. The
aluminium oxide has too high a melting point to electrolyse on its own.
Aluminium ore: The usual aluminium ore is bauxite. Bauxite is essentially an impure aluminium oxide.
The major impurities include iron oxides, silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide.
Purifying the aluminium oxide - the Bayer Process
Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution
Crushed bauxite is treated with moderately concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. The concentration,
temperature and pressure used depend on the source of the bauxite and exactly what form of aluminium
oxide it contains. Temperatures are typically from 140°C to 240°C; pressures can be up to about 35
atmospheres.
High pressures are necessary to keep the water in the sodium hydroxide solution liquid at temperatures
above 100°C. The higher the temperature, the higher the pressure needed.
With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, aluminium oxide reacts to give a solution of sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate.
The impurities in the bauxite remain as solids. For example, the other metal oxides present tend not to
react with the sodium hydroxide solution and so remain unchanged. Some of the silicon dioxide reacts,
but goes on to form a sodium aluminosilicate which precipitates out.
All of these solids are separated from the sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate solution by filtration. They form
a "red mud" which is just stored in huge lagoons.
Precipitation of aluminium hydroxide
The sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate solution is cooled, and "seeded" with some previously produced
aluminium hydroxide. This provides something for the new aluminium hydroxide to precipitate around.
Formation of pure aluminium oxide
Aluminium oxide (sometimes known as alumina) is made by heating the aluminium hydroxide to a
temperature of about 1100 - 1200°C.
Conversion of the aluminium oxide into aluminium by electrolysis
The aluminium oxide is electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6. Cryolite is another aluminium
ore, but is rare and expensive, and is now made chemically.
The electrolysis cell
The diagram shows a very simplified version of an electrolysis cell.
Although the carbon lining of the cell is labelled as the cathode, the effective cathode is mainly the
molten aluminium that forms on the bottom of the cell.
Molten aluminium is syphoned out of the cell from time to time, and new aluminium oxide added at the
top.
The cell operates at a low voltage of about 5 - 6 volts, but at huge currents of 100,000 amps or more. The
heating effect of these large currents keeps the cell at a temperature of about 1000°C.
The electrode reactions
Aluminium is released at the cathode. Aluminium ions are reduced by gaining 3 electrons.
Oxygen is produced initially at the anode.
However, at the temperature of the cell, the carbon anodes burn in this oxygen to give carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide.
Continual replacement of the anodes is a major expense.
Properties of aluminium
1) Reaction with air: When a piece of aluminium sheet is exposed to moist air, it acquires a thin,
continuous coating of aluminium oxide which prevents further attack of the metal by atmospheric
oxygen, water or steam under normal condition. This is why aluminium is corrosion free. Aluminium
metal burns in air at about 8000C to form the oxide and nitride.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
2Al(s) + N2(g) 2AlN(s)
2) Reaction with acids: Aluminium reacts slowly with dilute HCl but more rapidly with concentrated acid
to displace hydrogen. It does not react with dilute H 2SO4 but hot conc. H2SO4 attacks aluminium to
liberate SO2. It does not react with HNO3 in any form due to the formation of a protective layer of
aluminium oxide
Uses of aluminium
Aluminium is usually alloyed with other elements such as silicon, copper or magnesium. Pure aluminium
isn't very strong, and alloying it adds to its strength.
Aluminium is especially useful because it;
- has a low density;
- it is strong when alloyed;
- it is a good conductor of electricity;
- it has a good appearance;
- it resists corrosion because of the strong thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer
can be strengthened further by anodising the aluminium.
Anodising essentially involves etching the aluminium with sodium hydroxide solution to remove the
existing oxide layer, and then making the aluminium article the anode in electrolysis of dilute sulphuric
acid. The oxygen given off at the anode reacts with the aluminium surface, to build up a film of oxide up
to about 0.02 mm thick.
As well as increasing the corrosion resistance of the aluminium, this film is porous at this stage and will
also take up dyes. (It is further treated to make it completely non-porous afterwards.) That means that
you can make aluminium articles with the colour built into the surface.
The uses of aluminum include the following:
- aluminum foil are used as packaging materials

- aluminium ions, Al3+ are used as coagulating agents e. g. Aluminium tetraoxosulphate (VI) is used
in water treatment plants to remove colloidal organic matter.
- It is used in making overhead electric cables because it is light and conducts electricity
- It is used in making cooking utensils because it is cheap, light and good thermal conductor
- Its powder suspended in oil is used in paints and mirrors because of its high reflectivity
- It is used in making useful alloys such as duralumin (Al, Cu, Mg Mn), bronze (Cu, Al) etc. the alloys
are stronger and harder than pure aluminium but retain its lightness and resistance to corrosion
- Its powder is used in the thermite process for welding together broken metallic parts of machines
and equipment.
Tutorial questions
1. In Solvay process, explain with equations the functions of the following substances.
- limestone
- ammonia
2. Mention two types of aluminium ores
3. Sodium and aluminium are extracted by the electrolyses of molten sodium chloride and alumina
respectively. Write balanced equation for the reactions at the anode and cathode during the extraction
of: (a) sodium (b) aluminum
b. Explain briefly why extraction of aluminium is considered environmentally friendly while that of
sodium is not
WEEK 5
TIN (Sn)
It occurs naturally as Cassiterite or tinstone, SnO2. The ore is present abundantly in Malaysia, Bolivia and
Indonesia. Some quantities occur in graphite rocks and alluvial beds in Jos, Nigeria.
Extraction
The ore is crushed and washed in strong water current. It is then roasted in air to remove impurities like
sulphur, arsenic and antimony as volatile oxides. The tin (IV) oxide obtained is reduced by heating with
coke in a reverberating furnace. The molten tin is then tapped off.
SnO2(s) + 2C(s) Sn(l) + 2CO(g)
The molten tin is further purified by heating it gently in a sloping surface. As it flows down the surface,
the impurities are exposed to air and are converted to oxides which are left behind as scum.
Uses of tin
1. It is widely used in coating steel to prevent it from corrosion. This is done by electrolytic deposition or
by dipping steel into molten tin.
2. It is used for making sheet glass because it has low melting point and its resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
3. It is used in making alloys such as bronze (Sn, Cu), solder (Sn, Pb), and type metal (Sn, Sb and Pb).
4. Tin plating is used in canning of food and drinks because it is not poisonous.
COPPER
Copper exists mainly as sulphide ore; copper pyrites, CuFeS2, and Chacocite, Cu2S. It is less reactive, very
stable in air and can be found in the free metallic form.
EXTRACTION
Copper is extracted from CuFeS2. The ore is concentrated by froth floatation; in this process, air is blown
into a large tank containing a mixture of crushed ore and water to remove earthly impurities. The clean
sulphide is then roasted in limited supply of air to oxidize the iron and some of the sulphur to iron (II)
oxide and sulphur (IV) oxide respectively.
2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g)
The SO2 escapes from the top of the furnace. SiO2 is added and the mixture is heated in the absence of
air to remove the iron(II) oxide in form of iron (II) trioxosilicate (IV) which floats on copper (I) sulphide as
slag and is removed.
FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(l)
The copper (I) oxide that remains is heated in a regulated supply of air to produce copper with a purity of
97-99%
Cu2S(s) + O2(g) 2Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Further purification can be done by the electrolysis treatment of the impure copper. The cathodic copper
obtain is about 99.9% pure.
Physical properties of copper
- It is a reddish-brown, soft metal with a characteristic lustre
- It is malleable and ductile
- It has relatively high tensile strength
- It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
- Its melting and boiling points are 10800C and 23000C respectively.
- The relative density is 8.95gcm-3.
Chemical properties of copper
 Copper being less electropositive is relatively stable in dry air but when exposed to moist air for a
long time, it becomes covered with a green coating of basic Copper(II) tetraoxosulphate (VI),
CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2 and trioxocarbonate (IV). On heating in air it is readily oxidized to black cooper
(II) oxide.
 Copper is oxidized by hot conc. H2SO4 to CuSO4. With HNO3, NO is liberated by the dilute acid
while NO2 is liberated by the hot conc. acid. Copper does not react with HCl in any concentration.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
 Copper at red heat is attacked by the halogens to form both copper(I) and copper (II) halides. The
less available the halogen in the reaction, the more copper(II) halide is produced.
 At red heat copper reacts with sulphur vapour to form copper(I) sulphide
 Copper is displaced from its salts by most metals because it is low in the electrochemical series.
Uses of copper
- It is used for making electrical wires and cables because it is ductile
- It is used in plumbing and roofing because of its attractiveness and resistance to corrosion.
- It is used in making alloys like bronze, brass and cupronickel.
- It is used in ornamental works because it is not attacked by air.
Compounds of copper
Copper (II) oxide
Properties
- It is a black, hygroscopic solid which is insoluble in water.
- It is a basic oxide, forming copper (II) salts with acids
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(i)
- It decomposes on strong heating above 1000 0C to give Cu2O and O2.
4CuO(s) 2Cu2O(s) + O2(g)
- Heated copper(II) oxide is readily reduced to metallic copper by hydrogen or CO
Uses
 It is used in organic analysis and as a catalyst in the thermal decomposition of potassium
trioxochlorate (V)
Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Properties
- The pentahydrate loses four molecules of water of crystallization at about 100 0C and the white
anhydrous salt is formed at temperature above 300 0C.
- The anhydrous salt readily absorbs water to reform the coloured hydrate
Uses
 It is used as fungicide for spraying vines, citrous tree and potatoes
 It is used in electroplating and in dyeing
 It is used as a timber preservative and in the preparation of other copper compounds
Copper (I) chloride: it is a white covalent solid which readily oxidizes to green copper (II) chloride in
moist air.
COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS AND THEIR USES
Alloy Composition Uses
Brass Cu = 60 - 80% For making nuts, bolts, tubes, rods, ornaments, moving parts of clocks
Zn = 20 – 40 % and watches, music instruments and for general metal works
Bronze Cu = 90% For making coins and medals; sculptures and for general metal works
Sn = 10%
Steel Fe = 99.5% Construction of bridges, ships, cars and machinery
C = 0.5%
Stainless Fe = 60 – 80 % For making cutlery, tools and surgical instrument.
steel Cr = 10 – 20%
Ni = 10 – 20%
Duralumin Al = 95% Construction of aircraft, ships, cars, spacecraft and moving parts of
Cu = 3% machines
Mg = 1%
Mn = 1%
Soft solder Pb = 50 – 70% For welding and plumbing
Sn = 30 – 50%
Pb = 70 – 75% For printing

Sb = 15 – 20%
Sn = 5 – 10%
Permallory Fe = 25% For making electromagnet
Ni = 75%
Alnico Fe = 20 – 25% For making permanent magnet
Al = 10 – 15%
Ni = 15 – 30%
Co = 5 – 35%
Assignment
1. Discuss the rusting of iron and its prevention
WEEK 6
TOPIC: ALKANOIC ACID (CARBOXYLIC ACID)
The functional group of carboxylic acid is –COOH. They form the homologous series with the general
molecular formula of CnH2n+1COOH. They are sometimes called fatty acids because some of them
are found in natural fats and oils.
Types of alkanoic acids
The aliphatic carboxylic acids can be grouped as follows:
- Monocarboxylic acids. They are the most common type. They contain one –COOH group per
molecule e.g. methanoic acid (from insect bite) and ethanoic acid (from vinegar).
- Dicarboxylic acid: they contain two carboxylic groups per molecule. E.g.
ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid);
cis-butenedioic acid (maleic acid);
2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid.
- Tricarboxylic acids: they contain three –COOH per molecule e.g.
2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid (citric acid)
The two important aromatic carboxylic acids are benzoic acid and 2-hydroxybenzoic acid.
General properties of alkanoic acid

Physical properties
 The lower members are colourless liquids at room temperature.
 Due to the presence of hydrogen bonds, the boiling points of carboxylic acids are higher
than those of the corresponding alkanes.
 They dissolve in aqueous solution to form oxonium ion (hydrogen ion)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
 The solubility and the acidic nature decrease with the increasing number of carbon atoms
because the oxygen-hydrogen bond becomes stronger.
 They are fairly stable and are not easily decomposed by heat or affected by ordinary
reducing, oxidizing and dehydrating agents.
Chemical properties (acidic properties)

 They are weak acids. They slightly ionize in dilute solution e.g.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The presence of oxonium ion gives the solution the acidic behaviors which are
- They liberate carbon(IV) oxide from trioxocarbonates(IV) or hydrogentrioxocarboantes(IV)
e.g
CH3COOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
- They liberate hydrogen when in contact with a strongly electropositive metal like
magnesium and calcium
CH3COOH(aq) + Mg(s) (CH3COO)2Mg(aq) + H2(s)
- They neutralize bases or alkalis to form salts known as ethanoates and water only.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
Uses of ethanoic acid

 It is used as an important solvent
 It is used in food industry as vinegar for preserving and flavouring food.
 It is sometimes used for coagulating rubber latex.
 It is used in making various compounds which include:
ethenyl ethanoate(vinyl acetate) used in vinyl resins
ethanoic anhydride which is used in aspirin
propanone (acetone)
various dyes.
Cellulose ethanoate (cellulose acetate) used in the filter tips of cigarette and manufacture of
synthetic fibres like rayon and artificial silk
ESTERS
The reaction between alkanol and carboxylic acid produces ester and water. The reaction is called
esterification reaction. It is a reversible reaction and is quite analogous to neutralization reaction.
esterification
Alkanol + carboxylic acid ester + water
hydrolysis
Esters contain –COO- as their functional group. It also contains the polar carbonyl group, C=O and
two C-O single bonds attached to the same oxygen atom. All the bonds that make up the functional
group are polar. Esters are named as alkyl derivatives of carboxylic acids. Examples of ester are
methyl ethanoate [CH3COOCH3] and ethy ethanoate [CH3COOC2H5]. The portion which does not
carry the –COO- is named the alkyl radical while the portion that contains the –COO- group is
named the carboxylic radical.
Esters are the main constituents of many naturally occurring fats and oils. Many of them have
pleasant smell and are largely responsible for the fragrance of flowers and the flavours of fruits. For
example; pentyl ethanoate has the odour of banana and is called banana oil while octyl ethanoate
has the smell of oranges.
Ethyl ethanoate
It is one of the simplest esters with the molecular formula CH 3COOC2H5 and the structure as:
Ethyl ethanoate can be prepared by the reaction between ethanol and glacial ethanoic acid at
1500C, in the presence of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
C2H5OH(aq) + CH3COOH(l) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l)
Physical properties
- It is a colourless volatile liquid with a pleasant smell
- It is only slightly soluble in water but dissolves readily in organic solvents
- It boils at 750C
Chemical properties
 It is hydrolyzed by water in to its component acid and alkanol. The reaction is catalyzed by a
dilute acid or alkali. When an alkali is used, it reacts immediately with the carboxylic acid
formed to produce the salt of the acid.
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(l)
CH3COOC2H5(l) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)
 When ammonia is bubble through esters such as ethylethanoate, ethanol and ethanamide
are produced
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + NH3(g) C2H5OH(l) + CH3CONH2(s)
 Ethyl ethanoate is reduce to ethanol by hydrogen from strong reducing agents, like Lithium
tetrahydridoaluminate (III)
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + 4[H] 2C2H5OH(aq)
Uses of ester
- Esters are used mainly as solvents for cellulose nitrate and quick-drying substances like
paints, lacquer, nails-vanishes and adhesives.
- They are used in perfumes and cosmetics and as artificial flavoring for foods.
FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids. Fats are solids and of animal origin while
oils are liquids mainly from plants at room temperature. They are complex mixtures of esters of
trihydric alkanol, propane-1,2,3-triol. Each molecule of propane1,2,3-triol is esterified with 3
molecules of fatty acids as follows;
R’COOH HO –CH2 R’COOCH2
R’’COOH + HO - CH R’’COOCH + 3H2O
R’’’COOH HO - CH2 R’’’COOCH2
R’, R’’ and R’’’ can be the same or different.
The fatty acids commonly found in lipids are long chain alkanoic acids of the general formula
RCOOH where R contains about 10 to 18 carbon atoms.
The terminal –COOH group is polar, hence the acid is soluble in water. The carboxylic acid group
ionizes in water to a certain degree to form H + and the carboxylate ion. Fatty acids are thus weak
acids.
RCOOH(aq) RCOO-(aq) + H+(aq)
The long alkyl group is not polar and so does not dissolve in water.
Fatty acids are divided into two groups;
(i) saturated and (ii) unsaturated fatty acids
The saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in their hydrocarbon chain while the unsaturated
fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their hydrocarbon chain.
Physical properties of fats and oils
- Fats have higher melting points because they consist of higher proportion of esters of
saturated fatty acids.
- Oils have lower melting points because they consist of higher proportion of esters of
unsaturated fatty acids
- They are insoluble in water and decompose at temperature above 3000C.
Chemical properties of fats and oils
 Hydrogenation of oils – this is also known as hardening of oil. The process involves passing
hydrogen into an unsaturated oil at about 200 0C and 5 atmospheric pressure of finely
divided nickel catalyst. The unsaturated part of the oil is saturated and the oil becomes
hardened (i.e. changes to fat). The hardened oil is then mixed with salt, vitamins, skimmed
milk and various fat to form margarine.
H , Ni catalyst
Vegetable oil 2 Margarine
High temperature
 Saponification (formation of soap) – this is the general process of alkaline hydrolysis of ester
by which soap is produced. For example, the hydrolysis of fats and oils with caustic alkalis
yields propane1,2,3-triol and the corresponding sodium and potassium salts of the
component fatty acids. The salts are the principal components of soap.
Fat or oil + cautis alkali soap + propane-1,2,3-triol
R’COOH R’COO-Na+ HO-CH2

R’’COOH + 3NaOH R’’COO-Na+ + HO-CH
R’’’COOH R’’’COO-Na+ HO-CH2
Soap propane-1,2,3-triol
(glycerol)
Uses of fats and oils
- They are used as essential ingredients of food
- Vegetable oils (e.g. coconut oil, palm oil or olive oil) are used for making soaps.
- Oil such as vegetable oil and palm oil are hardened into fats to make margarine.
- Linseed oil is a raw material used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes.
- They are used in making glycerol and candles
Test for fats and oils
Paper test: a drop of oil or melted fat on a piece of filter paper forms a transluscent grease spot
Sudan III test: shake a few cm3 of coconut oil with water. Add 4 to 5 drops of Sudan III stain. The oil
is stained red. This is the main test for fats and oils
DETERGENTS
Detergent is any substance which has the ability to clean an object. This includes soaps, soap
powders and dish washing liquids as well as water. There are two main types of detergents – soapy
detergent and soapless detergent.
Soapy detergents: they are the sodium (RCOO-Na+) or potassium (RCOO-K+) or triethanolammonium
(RN+CH2CH2OH)3 salt of long chain fatty acid. They are saponification products.
In the commercial production of soap, animal fats or vegetable oils are steam heated in a large vat
with sodium or potassium hydroxide, until saponification is complete. Conc. Solution of NaCl is then
added to decrease the solubility of the soap, so that it separates out as a hard cake on the surface
on cooling. This is known as salting out. Dyes, perfumes and disinfectants are added on the alkali
and the fat or oil used. Hard soaps used for laundering are composed of sodium salts of saturated
acids, while softer soaps are composed of the potassium salts of unsaturated acids.
Propane-1,2,3-triyl trioctadecanoate sodium octadecanoate propane-1,2,3-

triol
Or glyceryl tristearate (sodium stearate) soap
Nature of soap molecules
Each molecule of soap possesses a long hydrocarbon chain R, attached to an ionic head which is
either COO-Na+ or COO-K+. The hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic (water – hating), so it is insoluble in
water but soluble in oil or organic solvents. The ionic head is hydrophilic (water-loving), so it is
soluble in water. When soap is dissolved in water, the soap molecule forms miscelles. Each mescelle
may contain several molecules which are arranged with the hydrocarbon tail pointing inwards and
the ionic heads pointing outwards into the water. The miscelles are kept apart by the repulsion of
the similarly charged ionic heads.
Action of soap as an emulsifying agent
When an oil – water mixture is shaken vigorously, the oil will be suspended as tiny droplets in the
aqueous layer. This is known as oil-water emulsion. On standing, the oil will coalesce and form oil
layer. If some soap solution is added to the oil – water emulsion, the soap molecule crowd around
each oil droplet. The hydrocarbon tail dissolves in the oil while the ionic head projects into the
surrounding water. Electrostatic repulsion prevents the coalescing of the droplets into larger
droplets, thus forming a stable emulsion in water.
Cleaning action of soap
Upon the application of soap solution to a grease-coated piece of fabric, the soap molecule first
approaches the grease spot. At the interphase of oil and water, the hydrophobic tail of the soap
particle dissolves in grease while the hydrophilic head dissolve in water. The water molecule
attracts the polar ionic head of the soap molecules. This action helps to lift the grease spot upwards,
enabling more soap particles to dissolve in the grease. With mechanical scrubbing, the grease patch
is emulsified and is removed.
Advantages and disadvantages of soap
- Soap is a good cleaning agent in soft water but forms scum with hard water.
- It reacts with excess H+ in acidic water to form unionized fatty acids. This lowers the cleaning
action of the soap.
- It is biodegradable, so it does not cause water pollution.
Soapless (synthetic) detergent
They are made from petroleum products and are more favoured all-purpose cleaning agents
because they are not affected by hard water. Soapless detergents are made from complex alkenes
of about 12 to 18 carbon. The alkene is first treated with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
i.e. it is sulphonated.
C15H30(aq) + H2SO4(aq) C15H31SO3H(aq) + H2O(l)
The sulphonated alkene is treated with sodium hydroxide solution to convert it to the sodium salt of
sulphonated alkene, which is the detergent.
C15H31SO3H(aq) + NaOH(aq) C15H31SO3Na + H2O(l)
Detergent
Structure of soapless detergent
The detergent molecule also has hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head. The hydrophobic tail is
either a long chain hydrocarbon or a benzene ring with a long alkyl group attached. The hydrophilic
head can be positively or negatively charged or even neutra, unlike soap molecule. The high
solubility of soapless detergent in water is due to the –SO3Na+ group that is present in the
molecule.
Advantages and disadvantages of soapless detergent
 Soapless detergents do not form scum or react with hydrogen ions. They retain their
cleansing properties with all types of water.
 Detergents are neutral in aqueous solution unlike soap that hydrolyzes to give a slightly
alkaline solution which may not be suitable for washing acid-sensitive fabrics.
 They are not biodegradable, so they create water pollution problem when their foams clog
up waterways. Most detergents nowadays are made of straight chain hydrocarbons which
are biodegradable.
Assignment
Give examples of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and name their sources.
Tutorial questions
1. When crushed plantain was warmed with dilute hydrochloric acid, a sweet compound P was
obtained. When compound P was treated with the enzyme zymase and the mixture distilled, a clear
and colourless liquid R was obtained. When liquid R was warmed with ethanoic acid in the presence
of a few drops of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI), a compound S, with a fruity smell was
obtained.
i. Compound P belongs to what class of organic compounds?
ii. Name R and S
iii. Write the functional group of S
iv. Write the equation between R and ethanoic acid in the presence of concentrated
tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
2. State one use of each of the following processes in the chemical industry
- hydrogenation of vegetable oil
- esterification
WEEK 7
TOPIC: GIANT MOLECULES (CARBOHYDRATES)
Carbohydrates are naturally occurring natural compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The general molecular formula is CxH2yOy or (H2O)y.
Classification of carbohydrates
 Simple sugars: they are crystalline, soluble in water and have a sweet taste. They are further
divided into:
- Monosaccharide e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose
- Disaccharides e.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose
 Complex sugars: they are non-crystalline, insoluble and tasteless substances. They are also
known as polysaccharides. Examples are starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Monosaccharide: they are simple sugars which cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller molecules. The
most important are; the hexoses (carbohydrates with six carbon atoms), pentoses (carbohydrates
with five carbon atoms) and trioses (those with three carbon atoms).
The hexoses are the most important. They have the general molecular formula C 6H12O6. They
include glucose, galactose, fructose and manose.
Glucose (grape sugar or dextrose): it is found in fruits like grapes, in honey and the cell sap of
plants. It is the main source of energy for animal tissues and is present in the blood of animals. It is
synthesized by plant during photosynthesis. It exists in two forms – open and cyclic forms.
Properties of glucose:
- It is a strong reducing agent because of the presence of –CHO group. It reduces Fehling’s
solution to a red precipitate of copper (I) oxide on boiling
- When heated with conc. H2SO4, a black residue of carbon is formed. This property is
peculiar to all carbohydrates.
- Its solution is readily fermented to ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide by the enzymes zymase
zymase
C6H12O6 C2H5OH(l) + CO2(g)
Test for glucose:
Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution to glucose solution in a test tube. A brick-red precipitate is
obtained on boiling.
Uses of glucose
- It is used in the manufacture of jam and sweets
- It is used as an intermediate source of energy for sick people and sportsmen.
Fructose is found together with glucose in sweet fruits and honey. It resembles glucose in many
ways.
Disaccharide: they are formed by the condensation of two molecules of monosaccharides and
elimination of one molecule of water. Their general molecular formula is C12H22O11. All disaccharide
are crystalline solids which are soluble in water.
Disaccharides are classified into two;
- Reducing sugars: they have effect on Fehling’s solution
- Non-reducing sugars: they have no effects on Fehling’s solution.
The following are examples of disaccharides and their components
 Sucrose (cane sugar) – glucose + fructose
 Lactose (milk sugar) – glucose + galactose
 Maltose (malt sugar) – glucose + glucose
Sucrose: it is the common granulated sugar used for sweetening food. The main sources are sugar
cane and sugar beef.
Physical properties
- It is a colourless crystalline solid with very sweet taste.
- It dissolves readily in water but not in alkanol
Chemical properties
- It chars on strong heating with conc. H2SO4.
-11H2O
C12H22O11 12C
- When heated to a temperature of about 210 0C, it forms a yellowish-brown substance
called caramel.
- It is readily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or the enzyme invertase to give an equimolar
mixture of glucose and fructose. The reaction is known as inversion.
invertase
Sucrose + water glucose + fructose
- It is a non-reducing sugar because it has no free carbonyl group and hence has no effect
on Fehling’s solution.
Test for sucrose
Add a few drops of freshly prepared seliwanoff reagent to 5cm3 of sucrose solution. Warm in water
bath. The mixture turns red after 10 minutes.
Uses of sucrose
 To sweeten food
 For preserving food
 To produce ethanol by fermentation
 Caramel is used for flavouring and in confectionery
Maltose: it is obtained by the action of malt on starch. Malt contains the enzyme diastase.
Properties of maltose
- It is crystalline, soluble white solid
- It melts between 1600C – 1650C
- It is hydrolyzed by dilute acid or by the enzyme maltase to two molecules of glucose
maltase
C6H11O5-O-C6H11O5 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
-H2O
- Maltose is a reducing sugar. It reduces Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent.

Lactose: it occurs in the milk of mammals. It is not found in plants.
Structure of lactose
Properties of lactose
- It is a crystalline, soluble white solid
- It melts at 2030C
- It is hydrolyzed by dilute acids or by the enzyme lactase to an equimolar mixture of
glucose and galactose
lactase
- C6H11O5-O-C6H11O5 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
-H2O
Polysaccharides: they are high polymers of very long chain monosaccharides linked together by
condensation with the molecular weight ranging from a few thousands to several millions.
condensation
n(Monosaccarides) polysaccharides + n(water)
hydrolysis
The important polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose and inulin. They are all polymers of
hexoses with the general formula, (C6H10O5)n, where n is a very large number.
Starch: it is present in all green plants, wheat, rice, barley, potatoes etc. its structure consists of
many units of glucose i.e. it is polymer of glucoses.
Structure of starch
Properties of starch
- It is a white, odourless and tasteless powder
- It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water to form a colloidal solution which
sets into a jelly on cooling
- It is hydrolyzed by dilute acids to yield a mixture of maltose and glucose. Further
hydrolysis yield glucose
- It is decomposed on heating in the presence of the enzyme diastase to form maltose
sugar
- It is not a reducing sugar because it does not contain free carbonyl group nor reduce
Fehling’s solution
Test for starch: add a few iodine to some boiled starch. A dark-blue colouration, which disappears
on heating but reappears on cooling results.
Uses of starch
 It is used mainly as food
 It is used to produce ethanol and glucose
 It is used as a stiffening agent
Cellulose: it is the main structural component of plant’s cell walls and plants fibres. The main
sources of cellulose include cotton and wool. It is the most widely distributed organic compound.
Properties of cellulose
- It is a white solid which is not soluble in water and ordinary organic solvent
- It is not easily hydrolyzed by dilute acids
- It is readily hydrolyzed by the enzyme cellulose. Cellulose is produced by the
microorganisms present in termites and herbivorous animals
Note: cellulose cannot be digested by man but serves as roughages to promote movement in the
digestive tract.
Uses of cellulose
 It is used in the manufacture of paper, cellophane, textile and ropes.
 In the manufacture of gum, cotton and explosives.
Assignment
Write short notes on glycogen
WEEK 8
TOPIC: GIANT MOLECULES (AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS)
Amino acids are the basic structural units of proteins. Each amino acid contains an amino group (-
NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) in its molecule. Its general structure is:
The carbon atom of the amino acid to which the functional groups are attached is known as the α-
carbon. In neutral solution, amino acids are mainly in the dipolar ions called Zwitterions. The
structure is as follows;
There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids which are of biological importance. Some of them;
known as essential amino acids cannot be synthesized in the body and have to be present in our
dietary proteins. All proteins found in living organisms are combinations of the natural amino acids.
Examples of amino acids include glycine, cysteine, alalnine, phenylalanine etc
Peptides: they are amides formed by the interaction between amino group and carboxyl group.
Peptide bond is the bond joining α–amino group of one amino acid and the α–carboxyl group of
another amino acid.
Two amino acids react to formed dipeptides, three amino acids form tripeptide while a number of
amino acids linked together form polypeptide. A polypeptide chain has an amino end and a carboxyl
end. It consists of a regularly repeating part and a variable part (indicated by R) or side chain.
Proteins
They are made up of polypeptide chains. Some proteins contain only one peptide chain (e.g.
myoglobin) while some contain more than one chain which may be alike or different. The amino
acid in a polypeptide chain of a protein is specified by genes. The sequence is important because it
determines the three dimensional structure and hence the biological function of the protein.
Examples of proteins include; insulin (an enzyme), haemoglobin (oxygen – carrying pigment in the
blood), ribonuclease (an enzyme) and collagen (a muscle protein).
Properties of proteins
Denaturation: proteins normally form colloidal solutions. When the colloidal solution is heated, the
proteins precipitate or coagulate due to the irreversible changes in the shape of the proteins. The
proteins are then said to be denatured. The conditions that cause the denaturation of proteins are:
- Temperature above 400C
- Certain organic solvents and chemical reagents
- Variation in pH
A denatured protein no longer possesses its biological activities since the functions of a protein are
related to its shape. This explains why living system operates within narrow temperature and pH
range.
Hydrolysis: proteins can be hydrolyzed to give amino acids when boiled with solutions of
hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. Suitable enzyme can also be used to hydrolyze proteins. The
amino acids obtained can be separated and identified by using paper chromatography.
Test for proteins
(a) BIURET TEST: Add about 1cm3 of dilute caustic soda solution into a test tube containing some
dilute egg solution. Add 1% CuSO4 solution drop by drop. Shake the solution thoroughly after each
drop. The formation of a violet colouration indicates the presence of proteins.
Note: egg solution is prepared by mixing egg-white with three times its volume of water and adding
little common salt to dissolve the egg white.
(b) MILLON’S TEST: add a drop or two of Millon’s reagent to some egg-white in a test tube. The
formation of a white precipitate which turns brick-red on heating indicates the presence of
proteins.
(c) XANTHOPROTEIC’S TEST: add three or few drops of conc. HNO3 to 2cm3 of the unknown solution.
The formation of an intense yellow colour indicates the presence of proteins. At alkaline pH, the
colour changes to orange due to the ionization of the phenolic group.
(d) NINHYDRIN TEST: Ninhydrin (triketohydrindane hydrate) is a powerful oxidizing agent. Α-amino
acids react with ninhydrin to give a purple coloured product (diketohydrin)
POLYMERS
Giant or macro-molecules are compounds (mostly organic) which contain thousands of atoms per
molecule. Their relative molecular masses range from 5000 and above. Some macro-molecules are
formed when a large number of smaller molecules, known as monomers, are joined together. Such
macromolecules are called polymers. Thus a polymer consists of repeating units.
All polymers are macromolecules but not all macromolecules are polymers e.g. diamond is a
macromolecule but not a polymer.
Polymers may be natural or artificial. Examples of natural polymers include starch, cellulose, all
proteins, rubbers and many resins
Synthetic polymers: chemists are able to subject natural polymers to chemical treatment to
produce polymers with desired quality. Such polymers are called synthetic polymers.
Synthetic polymers are commonly called plastics i.e. a synthetic material which can be softened by
heat or pressure and then moulded into any desirable shape.
There are two categories of plastics:
 Thermoplastics: they can be softened repeatedly by heat and remoulded. Examples include;
polythene, polypropene, polystyrene, nylon, terylene, and perspex
 Thermosets: once they are formed, they cannot be softened by heat and remoulded again.
Examples include Bakelite and urea-methanal.
Properties of plastics
 They are strong but light
 They are inert to air, water and other chemicals
 They are resistant to bacterial or fungal attacks
 They are good insulators of heat and electricity
 Plastics can be made to exact requirement e.g. hard, rigid blocks, thin, flexible sheets, fibres
that can be made into ropes and fabrics, very light foams. They have wide applications.
 Raw materials for manufacturing plastics are readily available from the refining of crude oil.
 Plastic items can be made at very low costs by using moulds and automated manufacturing
processes.
Disadvantages of using plastics
 Heavy dependence on crude oil for raw material
 Most plastics are non-biodegradable; hence they cause land pollution
 Burning plastics releases toxic vapour or gases into the atmosphere.
POLYMERIZATION
Synthetic polymers are made by the polymerization of monomers. For polymerization to occur
there must be presence of heat and a chain-initiating substance called an initiator.
Monomers: monomers are simple compounds whose molecules can join together to form
polymers.
Polymers: polymers are naturally - occurring or synthetic compounds consisting of large molecules
made up of a linked series of repeated simple monomers.
Polymerization: it is the process whereby two or more monomers link together to form a
compound of high molecular mass called polymer.
Kinds of polymerization
(a) Addition polymerization
Addition polymerization is the process whereby two or more of the same monomers link together
to form the polymer without elimination of any small molecule.
In addition polymerization, the monomers simply join together to form the polymer which has the
same empirical formula as the monomer, but with a higher molecular mass. The monomer must be
simple, unsaturated molecules with double bonds, e.g. ethene, propene, substituted ethene of the
type CH2=CHX where X can be – H, -R, -Cl, -CN or benzene ring.
Most monomers are derived from petrochemicals. Polymers made from ethene or its derivatives
are called vinyl-type polymers. Addition polymers include;
poly(ethene): ...CH2-CH2-[CH2-CH2]n-CH2-CH2...
poly(chloroethene): ...CH2-CHCl-[CH2-CHCl]n-CH2-CHCl... (also called polyvinyl chloride)
poly(phenylethene): ...
or polystyrene
persplex: ...
or poly(methyl-1,2-methypropenoate)
poly(propenonitrile): ...CH2-[CHCN-CH2]n-CHCN...
(b) Condensation polymerization
It is the process whereby two or more monomers link together to form the polymer with the
elimination of a small molecule.
Examples of the small molecules being eliminated include water, ammonia and hydrogen chloride. If
the two condensing monomers are of different types, the resultant polymer is called a copolymer. if
the monomers are the same, then the resulting polymer is a homopolymer. The relative molecular
mass of a condensation polymer is not an exact multiple of the monomers as in an addition
polymer. This is because there is a loss in mass during the condensation.
The two most important condensation polymers are nylon (a polyamide) and terylene (a
polyester).
Rubber: It is another group of polymers and is of two types; natural rubber and synthetic rubber.
Natural rubber: it is obtained from the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. When the bark of the tree is
cut, a thick white liquid called latex oozes out. If the latex is collected and heated, it changes into an
elastic solid called rubber. It is soft and sticky. Its chemical composition is 2-methylbutan-1,3-diene
monomers known previously as isoprene. When sulphur is added and heat is applied to the rubber,
it becomes hard. This process is known as vulcanization. The vulcanized rubber possesses greater
tensile strength, durability and elasticity over a wide range of temperatures.
Synthetic rubber: the most useful and all-purpose synthetic rubber is SRB(styrenebutadiene
rubber). It is obtained by the co-polimerization of phenylethene (styrene) with three part of
aqueous buta-1,3-diene. It is vulcanized by careful heating with about 3% by mass of sulphur.
SBR rubber is often used in making vehicle tyres and footwear because of its high resistance to
abrasion.
Polymers in living organisms
The main natural polymers in living organisms are carbohydrates and proteins. Fats and oils are not
polymers but macromolecules.
Enzymes: Enzymes are protein molecules secreted by special cells in a living organism. They are
organic catalysts responsible for the metabolic reactions that take place in living organisms. They
can be classified according to the type of reactions they catalyze. E.g hydrolases catalyse hydrolytic
reactions.
Properties of enzymes
 Enzymes are soluble
 They are proteins. Co-enzymes are not proteins
 They are specific
 They are temperature sensitive. They work best between 33 – 400C.
 They are pH sensitive
 They can be inactivated by inhibitors
 An enzyme can catalyse reversible reaction in either way
 They work very rapidly
Assignment
Study the occurrence and structure of proteins
State the chemical tests for plastic using; acids, heat and alkalis
State the uses of polymers
Tutorial questions
1. Mention three condensation polymers
2. Write the structure of the amino acid, CH3CH(NH2)COOH in
-(i) acidic medium (ii) alkaline medium

ss3 1st Term

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ss3 1st Term

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

SS 3 FIRST TERM 2015/2016 ACADEMIC SESSION

WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS

10. Compilation and

TEST FOR SOME GASES

TEST TUBE TEST FOR FOOD AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

The Alkali metals (group 1 elements)

Sodium: Occurrence, Extraction from Downs process; properties and uses

Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) as chile saltpetre.

Castner's process: By the electrolysis of fused caustic soda.

Down's process: By the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride.

The reasons for lowering the temperature are:

o It is difficult to maintain a high temperature of 1085K.

Fig - Down's cell

Advantages of Down's process

Sodium metal obtained has high degree of purity (99.5%).

The starting material, sodium chloride is very cheap.

Chlorine is obtained as a useful by-product.

Both have high melting and boiling points.

chemical properties of lithium and sodium

Sodium hydroxide is a stronger base than lithium hydroxide.

Action with Non-metals

These hydrides are ionic hydrides.

These amides act as reducing agents and reduce many oxides.

Action with acids

Sodium reacts vigorously with acids evolving hydrogen.

Action with mercury

Solubility in liquid ammonia

Acts as a catalyst in the preparation of artificial rubber.

As a deoxidizer in the preparation of light alloys.

Is used as a laboratory reagent (Lassaigne's extract).

COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM; PROPERTIES AND USES

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

- It is a white crystalline solid

NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) NaHSO3(aq)

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(s) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) + 3H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) + H2(g)

Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)

Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)

Zn(OH)(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2Zn(OH)4(aq)

Sodium chloride – NaCl

- It is white anhydrous crystal

 As food preservative and seasonal

Sodium tetraoxosulphate (IV) – Na2SO4

The decahydrate form is efflorescent.

 In the production of sodium sulphide

Sodium trioxonitrate (V) – NaNO3

 It is a white solid which melts at 3100C and decomposes on further heating.

- Used as a nitrogenous fertilizer

Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) – Na2CO3

 In the industrial manufacturing of glass

1. State the properties and uses of sodium oxochlorate (I) – NaClO

2. Name any 10 metal metals and state its relative abundance

1. Mention two methods of extracting metals

2. State three uses each of the following

i. NaOH ii. Na2CO3 iii. NaNO3 iv. Na2SO4 v. NaClO

3. State two properties each of the following

i. NaOH ii. Na2CO3 iii. NaNO3 iv. Na2SO4 v. NaClO

Alkaline earth metals (Group II elements)

Physical properties of alkaline earth metals

- They are divalent

Chemical properties of alkaline earth metals