PROCEEDINGS Prioritization of Potential Riparian For PDF

PROCEEDINGS
EMERGING ISSUES ALONG URBAN/RURAL

INTERFACES III: LINKING SCIENCE
AND SOCIETY
April 11-14, 2010

Sheraton Atlanta
Atlanta, Georgia
Edited by:
David N. Laband
Conference Co-sponsors:
Auburn University Center for Forest Sustainability
USDA Forest Service

Centers for Urban and Interface Forestry
Auburn University Forest Policy Center
Auburn University School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences
August 2010
Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The papers included in this Proceedings volume were presented April 11-14, 2010 in Atlanta,
Georgia at a conference titled, “Emerging Issues Along Urban-Rural Interfaces III: Linking
Science and Society.” Although 3 years had passed since our previous URI conference, this
conference, held despite the deep downturn in the economy, reflected a decision made by B.
Graeme Lockaby, Director of Auburn University’s Center for Forest Sustainability and Ed
Macie, Annie Hermansen-Baez and Wayne Zipperer of the USDA Forest Service’s Southern
Research Station to develop this conference as a continuing, every-other-year event. With our
focus on urban-rural interfaces and explicit goals of encouraging broad, cross-disciplinary
contributions and participation by young scientists, we believe that this conference is quite
unique.
Our 2010 conference attracted 135 attendees, from several countries. Including the 5 keynote
speakers, there were 110 presenters, reflecting a wide spectrum of perspectives, both academic
and non-academic. All presentations made at the conference are represented here, in the form of
either a paper or an abstract. This information also is available from the Center for Forest
Sustainability website: https://fp.auburn.edu/cfs/ or the InterfaceSouth website:
http://emergingissues.interfacesouth.org/pastconferences. I would like to take this opportunity to
thank all contributors to the conference for helping to make it a genuinely exciting and
exceptional event for everyone who attended.
Planning for the conference benefited greatly from the contributions of many individuals,
especially members of the Steering Committee: Annie Hermansen-Baez, Graeme Lockaby, Ed
Macie, and Wayne Zipperer. Our keynote speakers, Ted Gragson, Rich Pouyat, Chuck Redman,
Marina Alberti, and Steward Pickett not only set an enthusiastic tone for the conference with
their focused, comprehensive, and thought-provoking introductory comments, their continued
presence at the conference and interactions with the participants was widely appreciated. They
merit special thanks for contributing their expertise and perspectives so generously, with such
good humor. Thanks to Vaughn Elliott, Molly Otiende, and Shaun Tanger from the School of
Forestry & Wildlife Sciences at Auburn University and, especially, my wife, Anne, for their help
as conference facilitators.
David N. Laband
Center for Forest Sustainability
Auburn University

INTRODUCTION
The expansion of urban-rural interfaces continues apace and with that expansion come new
challenges and opportunities. How effectively we meet these challenges and opportunities
depends, in no small measure, on information provided by the scientific community. Our
Emerging Issues conference series focuses on interdisciplinary aspects of the information needed
to really understand what is happening along urban-rural interfaces. Specific objectives included
the (1) facilitation of discussion and sharing of perspectives by stakeholders from around the
world and (2) fostering interdisciplinary linkages that better enable complex ramifications of
urban sprawl to be addressed.
Despite the economic downturn, which has adversely affected conferences across-the-
board, approximately 140 people attended our third URI conference. Participants came from a
variety of venues across the United States and from several countries. We specifically
encouraged attendance and contributions from students, as our conference provided a unique
opportunity to help develop interdisciplinary perspectives in the rising generation of scientists
that will tackle issues related to urban-rural interfaces. In addition, our conference provided
opportunities for participants to establish valuable contacts with other researchers, practitioners,
educators, and/or policy makers. We hope and trust that these contacts serve as conduits for
continued exchange of ideas and future collaborations.
The papers and abstracts in this Proceedings volume reflect the breadth of perspectives
presented at our 2010 URI conference. Additional presentations from the conference will be
published in a special issue of Urban Ecosystems. The conference organizers and sponsors thank
those who attended and presented their ideas. Our continuing hope is that the Proceedings will
serve as a long term source of information that facilitates the search for compatibility among
urban sprawl, natural resources, and the quality of human lives.
B. Graeme Lockaby
Director, Center for Forest Sustainability
Auburn University

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- David N. Laband...........................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION -- B. Graeme Lockaby .................................................................................................................... 3
Papers
Changing Landscapes, Shifting Values: Land Use Dynamics at the Rural-Urban Interface in Calaveras County,
California -- Colleen Hiner .................................................................................................................................. 11
UFORE Model Analysis of the Structure and Function of the Urban Forest in Auburn, Alabama -- Ann Huyler,
Arthur H. Chappelka, and Edward F. Loewenstein ............................................................................................. 18
Stewardship Footprints and Potential Ecosystem Recovery:Preliminary Data for Seattle and Puget Sound --
Weston Brinkley, Kathleen L. Wolf, and Dale J. Blahna ...................................................................................... 24
The Changing Roles Professional Development Program -- L. Annie Hermansen-Baez and Nicole M. Wulff ........... 31
The Impact of State Urban-Rural Composition on Environmental Policy -- Shaun Tanger ....................................... 38
Urban Ecosystem Services: Metro Nature and Human Well-Being -- Kathleen L. Wolf ............................................ 45
Urban Tree Cover Distribution as a Human Health Indicator: A Case Study of Tampa, Florida -- V. Jennings, E.
Johnson, C. Brown, W. Zipperer ,and R. Gragg .................................................................................................. 52
Green For Life! Implementing Environmental Education Within the Urban-Rural Interface --
Charlene LeBleu, Rebecca O'Neal Dagg and Carla Jackson Bell ....................................................................... 56
Landowners’ Incentives for Forest Conservation Around El Yunque National Forest: Obstacles and
Opportunities--Tania López Marrero and Marianne Meyn .................................................................................. 61
Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Negative Drivers of Ecosystem Change: The Case of El Yunque
National Forest in Puerto Rico--Tania López Marrero ...................................................................................... 67
Oregon Forests in Transition:Education Initiatives to Address the Effects of Forest Fragmentation Along
the Urban-Rural Interface--Derek Godwin, Paul Ries, Robert Emanuel and Michael Wing ................................ 73
Prioritization of Potential Riparian Forest Buffer Locations in an Urbanizing, Agricultural Midwestern U.S.
Watershed-- Andrew P. Rayburn and Molly Van Appledorn ................................................................................ 80
Urban Crowns: Crown Analysis Software to Assist in Quantifying Urban Tree Benefits --
Matthew F. Winn, Sang-Mook Lee Bradley and Philip A. Araman ...................................................................... 86
Urban Agriculture and its Function in Urban Environmental Management in the Context of Adaptation, Food
Security and Climate Change--Andrew Adam-Bradford ...................................................................................... 92
A Proposal for the Restoration and Enhancement of Mobile’s Relationship with the Mobile River:
The Peoples Wharf--Daniel Ballard ................................................................................................................... 100
Better Storm System Practices for Mobile, Alabama -- Domini VJ Cunningham ..................................................... 110
Pedestrian Street Design, Revitalization of Dauphin Street Downtown, Mobile, Alabama

Jiayang Xie ......................................................................................................................................................... 117

General Planning Based on the Connection of City Fabric and Green Infrastructure System
in Mobile, Alabama -- Xuanxuan Luo ................................................................................................................ 124
GREEN WALLS: Utilizing & Promoting Green Infrastructure to Control Stormwater in Mobile, Alabama --
Van Webb ........................................................................................................................................................... 130
Stormwater Management in Dauphin Street Area, Mobile, Alabama --

Junyi Li ............................................................................................................................................................... 137
Abstracts
KEYNOTE ADDRESSES
Southern Appalachia on the Edge -- Ted L. Gragson ................................................................................................ 145
Creating and Translating Ecological Knowledge: The Case of Urban Ecological Systems --
Richard V. Pouyat .............................................................................................................................................. 146
Urban Ecology, Resilience Theory, and Sustainability at the URI -- Charles L. Redman ........................................ 146
Mechanisms linking urban patterns to carbon dynamics: Hypotheses, observations, and future scenarios --
Marina Alberti .................................................................................................................................................... 146
Challenges and Opportunities for Interdisciplinary Research along Urban-Rural Gradients: Examples from
Baltimore, MD. -- Steward T.A. Pickett ............................................................................................................. 147
PRESENTATIONS
Tropical warming and the dynamics of endangered primates-- Ruscena Wiederholt and Eric Post ......................... 147
Characterizing Ecosystem Health in Fragmented Northeastern Forests -- Stella J.M. Cousins,

Jeffrey S. Ward and Mary Tyrrell ....................................................................................................................... 148
An assessment of Illinois Conservation Opportunity Areas: Stakeholders' Perspectives on Conservation

Planning, Implementation, and Threats -- Natalie Mountjoy, Mae A. Davenport, David J. Myers
and Matt R. Whiles ............................................................................................................................................. 149
Land change scenarios for resolving urbanization–conservation conflicts at the edge of metropolis --
Monica Dorning, Douglas A. Shoemaker, and Ross K. Meentemeyer................................................................ 150
Forest ownership across the urban-rural spectrum -- Brett J. Butler and Stephanie Snyder ...................................... 150
Quantifying the dynamics of human footprint: Do landscapes exhibit a legacy of sprawl? -- Douglas A.
Shoemaker and Ross K. Meentemeyer ................................................................................................................ 151
Southeastern Coyote Home Range Size, Activity Patterns, and Habitat Use Across an Urban Gradient --
Holly Jantz, Jim Armstrong, Todd Steury, and Wendy Arjo .............................................................................. 151
The Impact of Forest to Urban Land Conversion on Water Quality Entering a Drinking Water Supply
Reservoir in Southern Alabama, USA-- Emile Elias and Mark Dougherty ....................................................... 152
Assessing and Understanding Environmental Impacts of Mountain Bike Technical Trail Features in Urban-
Proximate Parks -- Christopher Kollar and Yu-Fai Leung ................................................................................. 153
The Impacts of Housing Development on Birds and Amphibians in Upstate South Carolina -- J.R. Courter,
T.D. Surasinghe, R.F. Baldwin, and R.J. Johnson ............................................................................................ 1533

Flow Variability in Urban vs. Rural Streams of an Urbanizing Landscape of Piedmont Province, North
Carolina -- Kunwar K Singh, Craig Allan and Ross Meentemeyer ..................................................................... 154
Metabolism of Boston -- Lucy Hutyra, Nathan Phillips, et al. .................................................................................. 155
Sediment Pollution Assessment of Abandoned Developments Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Joshua D. Werts, Elena A. Mikhailova, Christopher J. Post and Julia L. Sharp .............................................. 155
Using Occupancy Modeling to Estimate Avian Species Richness and Determine the Effects of
Exurbanization in the Southern Appalachian Mountains -- Paige Barlow, Jeff Hepinstall-Cymerman
and Myung-Bok Lee ........................................................................................................................................... 156
Wildfire and Social Vulnerability Across the South -- Neelam Poudyal, Cassandra Johnson Gaither and
Scott Goodrick .................................................................................................................................................... 156
Phenology and Physiology of an Urban Heat Island -- Will Wilson and Joe Sexton ................................................. 157
Realizing the Economic Value of a Forested Landscape in a Viewshed -- Neelam Poudyal, Donald Hodges,
John Fenderson, Ward Tarkington, and Tim Phelps ......................................................................................... 157
Using Ecosystem Service Values to Reduce Spatial Cost Disparities in the Interface: The Lower Churchill
Hydro Project in Labrador -- Nejem Raheem and Murray Rudd ........................................................................ 158
Analysis of Morphological Effects of Sprawl on Rural Form in Contemporary Tehran Metropolitan Area --
Hossein Estiri ..................................................................................................................................................... 158
Leaf Litter Decomposition and Nutrient Dynamics Across an Urbanization Gradient in Western Florida --
Heather A. Enloe and B. Graeme Lockaby and Wayne Zipperer ...................................................................... 159
Vegetation Patterns in an Urbanizing Metropolitan Area: Socio-Economic Drivers and Effects on Carbon
Storage and Water Flows -- Karis Puruncajas ................................................................................................... 159
Reproduction of Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis) in Relation to Land Management and Food Resources
in North-central Florida -- John J DeLuca and Kathryn E Sieving ................................................................... 160
The Influence of Urbanization and Landscape Structure on the Persistence of Native Plant Diversity and
Exotic Species Distribution Along an Urban to Rural Gradient -- Amy Stephens Davis and Ross K.
Meentemeyer ...................................................................................................................................................... 160
InterfaceSouth: Providing Resources for a Changing Landscape -- L. Annie Hermansen-Baez ............................... 161
Forests on the Edge -- Susan M. Stein, Lisa G. Mahal and Ronald E. McRoberts .................................................... 163
Tree growth Modeling to Improve Tree Size and Canopy Coverage Predictions -- Julia Bartens and
Eric Wiseman ..................................................................................................................................................... 163
Engaging Land Use Planning Officials on Forest Fragmentation - The FREMO Project -- David W. Dickson ....... 164
Green Infrastructure and Your Growing Community: Forest Resource Education for Local Officials --
Patrick Beggs and Christy Perrin ....................................................................................................................... 165
Engaging Family Woodland Owners: A Social Marketing Approach -- Mary L. Tyrrell, Brett Butler and
Purnima Chawla................................................................................................................................................. 165
Using i-Tree Applications to Assess the Effects of Urbanization in Desoto County, Mississippi --
Eric Kuehler ....................................................................................................................................................... 166

Factors Influencing Residents' Knowledge About Urban Wildlands and the Potential for Alternative
Dissemination -- Laura E. Martin, Urs P. Kreuter, and Michael G. Sorice ....................................................... 167
A Participatory Mapping Exercise in Land Owner Preferences Toward Exurban Development Within Three
Distinct Communities of Southwestern Montana and Northeastern Idaho -- Andra Toivola, Heidi Kretser,
Nancy Connelly, and Jeff Burrell ....................................................................................................................... 167
Riparian Buffer Demonstrations: Promoting Protection of Waterways -- K. Cunningham, C. Stuhlinger,

H. Liechty, and J. Pennington............................................................................................................................ 168
Structuration of Complex Adaptive Social Ecological Systems: Focusing on Decision Making in Context --
Wayde Morse, Megan Lupek and Bill McLaughlin ........................................................................................... 169
Path Dependence, Critical Junctures Theory and Urban-Rural Planning: A Water Sharing Case Study --
Lorraine Nicol ................................................................................................................................................... 169
Alternatives for Residential Development Along the Urban Fringe: Developer, City Staff, and Resident
Perceptions of Low-Impact and Conservation Subdivision Designs -- Troy Bowman, Jan Thompson
and John Tyndall ............................................................................................................................................... 170
Regional Governance of Natural Resources: Emerging Rural-Urban Interactions in Newfoundland

and Labrador, Canada -- Jennifer Daniels and Kelly Vodden............................................................................ 171
The Establishment and Development of Green Feng Shui Villages in Okinawa -- Bixia Chen and Yuei Nakama .. 172
Approaches to Development of a Peri-urban Garden Community: South Korea as a Case -- Mark I. Wilson
K. Irene Shim, Jungmin Choi and Eunseong Jeong........................................................................................... 172
The Growing Trend of Multi-habitation and its Policy Implication in Korea: a Possible Win-Win
Strategy between Urban Areas and Rural Areas -- Jungmin Choi ..................................................................... 173
Demand for and Supply of Urban Trees: Empirical Evidence from a Citizen Survey -- Yaoqi Zhang and
Bin Zheng, .......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Urban Forestry Strike Team - Landscape Scale Urban Storm Damage Assessments -- Daniel Westcot .................. 174
Developing a stakeholder-driven family forest initiative through Maine's Center for Research on
Sustainable Forests -- Patrick Lyons and Jessica Leahy .................................................................................... 174
An approach for quantifying threats from cumulative impacts across the urban-rural-wild spectrum for
ecoregional scale planning -- Gillian Woolmer, Mark Anderson, Karen Beazley, Rob Baldwin, Patrick
Doran, Graham Forbes, Louise Grattan, Alexis Morgan, Justina Ray, Conrad Reining, and
Steve Trombulak, ............................................................................................................................................ 1775
Sentiments toward land use regulation and planning to benefit wildlife at the rural-wildland fringe near
Yellowstone National Park and Adirondack State Park -- Heidi E. Kretser, Nancy A. Connelly and
Barbara A. Knuth ............................................................................................................................................. 1775
Opportunities for conservation design to facilitate wildlife habitat protection in county development
regulations in the western U.S. -- Sarah E. Reed, Jodi A. Hilty and David M. Theobald................................... 176
Merging science, policy, and human dimensions to conserve wildlife habitat and connectivity in the
Adirondack State Park -- Leslie Karasin, Michale Glennon, Zoe Smith, and Heidi Kretser .............................. 177

Setting Conservation Priorities for Pool-Breeding Amphibians in Urbanizing Landscapes: Comparison of
Models -- Robert F. Baldwin .............................................................................................................................. 177
Rivers as Systems: Implications for Sustainable Policy and Management -- Michael Kensler ................................. 178
Urban Markets as a Method Of Downtown Revitalization Through Facilitating Cultural and Economic
Exchange -- Tyler Smithson............................................................................................................................... 178
Bird Diversity Indicates Ecological Value in Urban Home Prices -- Michael C. Farmer, Mark Wallace,
and Michael Shiroya ........................................................................................................................................... 179
Conceptualizing Urban Areas as Urbanized Ecosystems (Urbecosys): Proof Of Concept -- Michael Iversen ......... 180
Predicting the Spatial Distribution of Human-Black Bear Interactions Across an Urban Area -- J.A. Merkle,
P.R. Krausman, J.J. Jonkel and N.J. DeCesare ................................................................................................. 181
Using Remote Sensing Data to Understand Urban Sprawl and Land Conservation Influence on Land Cover
Changes -- David Fleming.................................................................................................................................. 181
Growth Management and Patterns of Land Cover Change in the Central Puget Sound, Washington,
1986-2002 -- Jeffrey Hepinstall-Cymerman ....................................................................................................... 182
Assessing Performance of Conservation-Based Best Management Practices: Coarse vs. Fine-Scale Analysis --
Denise Piechnik, Sarah Goslee and Tamie Veith .............................................................................................. 183
Characterizing Landscape Changes in Coast Watersheds in the Gulf of Mexico by Using Remote
Sensing and GIS -- Shufen Pan, Larry Prince, Guiying Li, and Hanqin Tian .................................................... 183
Land Use Plans and Urban Sprawl -- Seong-Hoon Cho, Jiyoung Kim, Roland K Roberts, and
SeungGyu Kim ................................................................................................................................................... 184
Bringing Culture and Stormwater Retention Back to the Mobile Bay -- Scott Benson ............................................. 185
Effects of Land Use/Cover on Carbon Storage Near Apalachicola, FL-- R. Chelsea Nagy and
B. Graeme Lockaby ............................................................................................................................................ 185
The Piedmont Crescent: Integrating Human and Natural Systems -- Ed Macie ........................................................ 186
The Role of Impervious Surface and Socioeconomic Factors in Determining Water Quality -- Molly Otiende ...... 187
Impact of Urbanization on Water Quality in Northern Georgia -- Jun Tu ................................................................. 187
Terrestrial Carbon Dynamics Across Gradients of Urbanization -- Lucy Hutyra, Marina Alberti,
Nathan Phillips et al. .......................................................................................................................................... 188
Impact Of Different Mulching Type on Soil Co2 Flux Of An Urban Forest Ecosystem -- Thomas Nyatta
Legiandenyi, Kamran Abdollahi, Zhu Ning and Asebe Negatu, ......................................................................... 188
Effects of Urban Development on Garry Oak Acorn Dispersal Processes - - Julia Michalak ................................. 189
Impacts of Current Use Value Property Tax Policy on Land Use Change Decisions in Georgia --
Daowei Zhang and Li Meng ............................................................................................................................... 189
Conservation Democracy: Ecology, Democratic Theory, and National Forest Management Under the
Healthy Forest Initiative -- Andrew George ....................................................................................................... 190

Mainstreaming Forest Conservation and People Well-Being -- Hedy I. Nieves and Tania Lopez ........................... 190
Trees are Us -- John Murungi .................................................................................................................................... 191
Park Park-Fabric Landscape-Landscape Systems Give Form to Architecture -- Sean O. Surla ............................... 191
Exploring Decision Making Practices in Sustainable Development Assistance Organizations: Achieving

Environmental Justice in Rural Appalachia -- Curt Gervich .............................................................................. 191
Anthropogenic Impacts on Ecosystems, Ecosystem Services and Human Health Along the Urban-Rural
Continuum -- Andrew Adam-Bradford ............................................................................................................. 192
Economic Development and Flood Reduction in Mobile, Alabama through Mixed-Use Infill and Sustainable
Stormwater Management Practices -- Will Hargrove......................................................................................... 192
Using Alternative Stormwater Treatment Methods, to Reduce Expenses, Pollution and Generate Sustainable
Practices within Local Municipalities -- Mark H. Curry .................................................................................... 193
Tree Inventory and Analysis Using the UFORE Model at a Southeastern U.S. University -- Nicholas A.
Martin, Arthur H. Chappelka, Gary J. Keever, and Edward F. Loewenstein..................................................... 194
Measuring Urban Forest Health and Sustainability: Introducing Urban Forest Resources and Institutions
(UFRI) -- Richard G. Thurau, Sarah K. Mincey, Jacqueline M. Bauer, Tom P. Evans, Burnell Fischer,
and Rinku R. Chowdhury .................................................................................................................................... 194
Preferences for Trees In Residential Landscapes In Suburban Communities -- Bin Zheng and Yaoqi Zhang .......... 195
Urban Forests and Carbon Flux: Cities as Windows into the Future -- John Hom, Nicanor Saliendra,
Kenneth Clark, Matthew Patterson, Nicolas Skowronski, Ian Yesilonis, and David Nowak ............................. 195
Increasing Canopy Cover on Single-Family Residential Property in Seattle, Washington -- Jana Dilley ................ 196
Market for Urban Forest Carbon Credits -- Neelam C. Poudyal, Jacek P. Siry, and J. M. Bowker ........................... 196
RUAF Foundation: The Mission and International Work of the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture
and Food Security, The Netherlands -- Andrew Adam-Bradford ....................................................................... 197
Ecological Restoration and Urban Planning: Integrating to End Disturbance - - Mary Roderick ............................. 198
Roof Renovations by Application of Planted Material for the Purpose of Saving Energy Costs and
Storm Water Recycling -- Russ Harrington ....................................................................................................... 198
Status Report on Efforts to Manage and Eradicate Large Constrictors in Florida -- Christina Romagosa
and Graig Guyer ................................................................................................................................................ 199

PAPERS

Changing Landscapes, Shifting Values: Land Use Dynamics at the
Rural-Urban Interface in Calaveras County, California
Colleen Hiner
University of California, Davis
cchiner@ucdavis.edu
Introduction Problem Statement
Calaveras County, situated in the middle- The definition of rurality can vary from
northern part of California, is a foothill person to person, from place to place, and
county, which stretches from the floor of the although general descriptors of rurality exist
Central Valley of California into the alpine – such as having, or having had, primary
reaches of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. production or natural resource extraction
The landscape is both heterogeneous and activities, being characterized by large open
dynamic. The county is rural by spaces or vistas, and, very importantly,
conventional descriptions (Cromartie and being perceived as rural – our definitions of
Bucholtz 2008, Ilbery 1998, Woods 2005), rurality are nonetheless unstable (Ilbery
with a total population of around 46,000 1998, Woods 2005). This instability makes
people (US Census 2009). As there is only our definitions inadequate because in order
one incorporated municipality, the county to ensure the continuation of rural places – a
government is the primary decision making societal desire as evidenced by the numerous
body. Currently, the county is going through quality of life migrants to so-called rural
a General Plan update process in accordance areas (Ilbery 1998, Duane 1999, Woods
with California law, stating each county and 2005, Travis 2007), we must be able to
incorporated city must have a “general plan” identify and understand the key components
in place which details current circumstances, of rurality. For if our definitions cannot tell
forecasts future trends and describes us what is truly occurring on the ground,
preferences for policy on a long-term time how can we use that information to assess
horizon, usually 15-20 years (Office of changing circumstances and plan effectively
Planning and Research 2003). for the future? My project, therefore, is
situated within a larger conversation
As part of this process, unincorporated areas regarding (re)constructing the rural.
can voluntarily create non-binding
“community plans” to express preferences To gain traction into such a broad issue, I
for planning and policy in distinct areas of a have chosen to focus in on the rural-urban
county. Because citizens and officials have interface, that place where rural and non-
been directing attention to place and land rural meet and intermingle. I use the rural-
use preferences, I selected Calaveras County urban interface as a frame to understand the
as the focus of my research, indentifying social, ecological, economic and other
three separate cases with which to compare processes occurring. The rural-urban
varying land use outcomes. These three interface is characterized by social conflict
cases represent three stories of change and and rapid environmental change (Ilbery
land management, which, despite having 1998, Woods 2005, Travis 2007, Duane
similar starting points, turn out very 1999). Despite the inadequacy of many of
differently. our contemporary understandings of rurality,

rural meaning and values remain important endeavor to conduct engaged, responsible
to local identities and local politics and scholarship which is relevant to the
policy (Duane 1999, Walker and Fortmann community being studied.
2003, Walker 2003, Hurley and Walker
I am taking a case-based, mixed-method,
comparative approach (Patton 2002). I have
chosen three sites with similar land use
contexts but varying outcomes, and I am
employing three methods: in-depth
interviews, participatory photography and
mapping workshops and a GIS analysis,
looking at social and physical change over
time (Babbie 1973, Burawoy 1998, Rose
2001, Chambers 2002, Batty 2003). The
three sites are in different areas of the
Figure 1. Historic structure and aging rock fence county and represent three very different
on the Garamendi property.
paths a given property might traverse. Each
place has a unique story to tell, and each can
teach us a variety of lessons about land,
2004, Woods 2005, Travis 2007). In this meaning, and politics.
way, my project goals are simple. I seek to
explore the changing nature of rurality and Findings
to (re)conceptualize the rural-urban
interface, framing it not simply as a place of Garamendi
intersection but also one of transformation. The Garamendi Ranch belongs, via a family
trust, to the five Garamendi children, who
Approach were entrusted with its care upon their
father’s passing. Their grandfather, who
As a political ecologist, I recognize that an arrived during the mid-19th century mining
examination of power is integral to boom, consolidated numerous contiguous
understanding social, political, economic properties which were used for mining and
and environmental processes, and I allow for cattle ranching. Grandfather Garamendi
the environment to be an actor in terms of passed the land to his son, who then
analysis, rather than seeing the “natural bequeathed it to his children. The land has a
world” as simply an object to be long heritage which predates the
manipulated by humans (Swyngedouw and Garamendis, and that heritage is carried
Heynen 2003, Walker and Fortmann 2003, down through the generations in the form of
Zimmerer and Bassett 2003, Walker 2003, storytelling and a tradition of naming fields
Robbins 2004, Offen 2004, Paulson and after the families that once inhabited them.
Gezon 2005, Robbins 2007). Moreover, my Indeed, a tour of the property is a trip into
approach is phronetic (Flyvbjerg 2001) and the past as historic flumes for water transfer
participatory (Herr and Anderson 2005, to nearby mines and crumbling debris from
Kindon, Pain and Kesby 2007, McIntyre century-old households are named off one
2008), meaning I accept the subject as an by one (Figure 1). Also, although not the
active participant in meaning making and largest cattle operation in Calaveras, the
knowledge production. Specifically, I

nearly 3000 acre contiguous parcel is a historical homestead of the winemaker’s
relatively large one to be owned by one wife. The property was historically orchard
entity. and cattle land and was transformed into a
vineyard, wine making facility, tasting
One of the five Garamendi children leases room, and large outdoor event center. In
the land from the trust for use as a cattle bringing investment and attention to the
ranch. Respondents who recognized that a area, Ironstone served as a catalyst for the
land user actively manages the Garamendi local, fledgling wine industry. Moreover,
land identified the rancher as a model land Ironstone has developed into a fixture of the
steward, someone who has, in the tradition community, hosting cooking and wine
of his family, thoughtfully cared for the land events, concerts, festivals and acting as a
over time. Despite this fondness for the for-hire venue for other functions. Ironstone
ability of one family to steward such a large is seen as a stand-out example of
parcel for so long, respondents also see agritourism (Adams 2008, Sznajder,
cattle ranching as an out-dated and Przezborska and Scrimgeour 2009) in the
uneconomical profession. Ranching is seen county because it bridges agricultural land
as a lifestyle choice, something one person uses (vineyard and some cattle ranching)
chooses as a means for preserving with closely linked tourism (wine tasting,
agriculture, open space and local history. food events) and brings in thousands of
The issue inherent in this mindset is that tourists for concerts who stay and patronize
although ranchers provide recognizable nearby restaurants, boutiques, overnight
ecological and aesthetic values to the wider accommodations, and other wineries.
community, they receive little to no
compensation for those services. Although it is difficult to find anyone who
will speak against Ironstone’s beginnings or
Furthermore, concerns over private property current activities, many people admit that
rights make valuing common goods “things are different now.” Ironstone is a
difficult. So although there are some large, high capacity facility, a notable tourist
agricultural conservation programs in place, destination which is accessed by a narrow,
such as the Williamson Act (Department of two-lane road (Figure 2). And, although no
Conservation 2007a), ideologically minded one seems to know for sure – or is otherwise
folks who see government intervention as willing to admit it – all of the required
Inherently wasteful and even immoral permits may not have been secured for the
(Advocates 2010), end up pushing for cellar blasting, building improvements, and
“freedoms” which can ultimate threaten the other activities that were required to make
landscapes they purport to admire and Ironstone what it is. The lesson learned from
support. The solution to a contradiction such this, whether intended or not, is that as long
as this is to find viable options to support as an operation proves itself to be useful for
ranchers keeping their land consolidated and economic or cultural growth, the criticism
working, something ranchers want as much against it will generally remain muted.
as other stakeholders.
However, there are downsides to such a tacit
Ironstone understanding, which are blatantly manifest
Ironstone Vineyards was started by a in the final case.
prominent wine family from the Central
Valley of California, who, in their search for
a winery site were led “home” to the

complete on the course, it encompassed
eighteen holes and was being featured in
golf magazines and receiving numerous
paying customers in addition to having
nearly a dozen well-invested, exclusive
“members.”
Having ostensibly begun as a private-use

endeavor, the property owner had not been
subjected to the usual environmental
reviews of such a project. A retrospective
environmental impact report was ordered,
but the owner’s request for a zone change
was ultimately denied – as was his claim
Figure 2. Road leading to Ironstone Vineyards. that the course was agritourism because of
Traversed by thousands of concert/ the on-site olive orchard and associated sales
event goers on event days along with
of value-added olive oil beauty products.
regular winery traffic on other days.
The course was deemed illegal and ordered
to cease operations, but the owner sued the
Trinitas county over technical issues. The case is
In the case of Trinitas, an urban in-migrant now tied up in the courts, leaving the owner
transformed a piece of “idle” land into a free to continue his operations as usual.
unique, sprawling golf course, which spans
280 acres of a 440 acre property. The Aside from the legal fees being incurred by
landowner argued that his golf resort would the cases and the costs of the numerous
become a prominent tourist destination, public hearings and multiple environmental
drawing visitors to Calaveras County first review processes undertaken by the
for the golf and then leading them to linger landowner and the county, there are many
overnight and shop at other local points of disagreement between Trinitas
establishments. Controversy arose, however, supporters and detractors: roads, signs,
because the property was enrolled in an cobbled stream beds (Figure 3), and
agricultural protection mechanism which numerous natural resource/environmental
operates on a rolling ten year cycle concerns (felled trees, loss of habitat and
(Department of Conservation 2007b), and, wildlife, excessive water use, etc.), and most
although the property had been removed importantly a concern over the implications
from the program, its protections were still of the case for the credibility of the local
in place. Being an agricultural preserve, the government and the rule of law in the area.
property was zoned exclusively for Respondents are troubled by what appears to
agricultural use. That said, there are certain be unethical and devious behavior on the
allowable uses on land zoned as agriculture part of the “developer,” the landowner who
in Calaveras County, including recreational bought the land and built the course.
uses such as golf courses for private use.
The landowner, or “developer,” as his critics Indeed, the Trinitas issue has become an
prefer to call him, began the project under epic battle of good versus evil, a battle
the auspices of building a nine-hole course which represents material, environmental
for private, “friends and family” use only. and symbolic concerns on all sides. The
However, by the time construction was

In terms of reconceptualizing the rural-urban
interface, this research has indicated that the
interface can take many forms: it may be
linear, ragged, or gradual; it may be located
in different places for different people; and
the scale of perspective matters. When asked
whether their county is rural or non-rural,
most respondents indicate it is rural, but
upon deeper questioning, will admit that
there are areas that have more “urban”
Figure 4. Cobbled stream bed on the Trinitas qualities to them. Therefore, although
Property. respondents generally place their county on
the rural side of the rural-urban interface, a
finer grain inspection reveals that “rural”
ultimate irony is that the owner likely would and “urban” – or rather our conceptions of
have “gotten away” with his idea in prior them – continue to interact, even in places
times. Just as Ironstone would likely not overwhelmingly deemed to be “rural.”
have been able to become what it is in
today’s planning climate, had the Trinitas Conclusion
landowner arrived 15 years earlier, he likely
would have managed to realize his The rural-urban interface not only serves as
development goals. Once in place, and a boundary between two distinct things, but
theoretically accruing positive societal also acts as a conduit, a place of exchange,
benefits, his property and its uses might and a flux point between them (Cadenasso et
have been seen in a different light. al. 2003a). In ecology, boundary and patch
delineations are determined by research
Discussion questions, literally by how the observer
defines what is to be observed. As such,
As these cases highlight, land use boundaries or patches can shift depending
encompasses many important issues in on what is under study (Cadenasso et al.
society and the environment. Land use 2003b). The concept of relative observation
impacts agriculture, the economy, the holds when identifying socio-culturally
environment and human well-being all at mediated boundaries as well; one person’s
once, determining which environmental rural can be another person’s non-rural
outcomes are profitable and which are relics; (Cromartie and Bucholtz 2008).
directing economic development toward Recognizing where boundaries lie for whom
certain industries rather than others; and can be instrumental in understanding
challenging our values, morals and ethic physical changes taking place and for
foundations. Moreover, the impacts of land mitigating conflict between different
use decisions are not distributed evenly stakeholders. In sum, if rural is a state of
socially or spatially. At its core, the question mind, then who thinks what matters.
is who gains and who loses through the
process of land use decision-making, as
landowners, land users, residents, investors,
developers, the environment, and more, are
all stakeholders in the outcomes of land use
change.

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UFORE Model Analysis of the Structure and Function of
the Urban Forest in Auburn, Alabama
Ann Huyler*, Arthur H. Chappelka, Edward F. Loewenstein
School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences
Auburn University
*agh0001@auburn.edu
Abstract Introduction
Environmental services that urban forests In 2008, the United Nations Population Fund
provide for urban dwellers have only recently (United Nations, 2010) estimated that over
been investigated. Many urban forest half the world’s population, 3.3 billion, now
projects utilize the US Forest Service lived in urban areas. The United States
computer model, “Urban Forest Effects”, reached that 50% threshold between 1910
UFORE or i-Tree Eco, to assess an urban and 1920, with the country’s population
forest’s structure, function, and value. In roughly 100 million (US Census Bureau,
2008, we used the UFORE protocol to 1995). By 2000, the US population increased
analyze the urban forest of Auburn, AL. to 281,421,906 and 79% lived in urban areas.
Overall, Auburn contained an estimated Presently, urban areas only cover 3.5% of the
19,536,000 trees with a tree density of 985 contiguous states, but 27.1% was covered by
trees per hectare and a tree cover of 49.2%; urban forest (Dwyer et al. 2000).
of which 81.9 % were less than 15.2 cm (6
inches) in diameter. Loblolly pine, Pinus These urban trees provide numerous
taeda, sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua, environmental services: shading and
and water oak, Quercus nigra, comprised reduction in energy costs for cooling (Akbari
60.6% of the total tree canopy. The city’s and Taha, 1992), capturing particulate and
land use categories ‘institutional’, gaseous pollution (Beckett et al., 1998,
‘residential’, ‘vacant’, and ‘manufacturing’ Nowak et al., 2000), storing atmospheric
had tree density of 1200 trees/ha, 1100 carbon (Nowak and Crane, 2002), retaining
trees/ha, 975 trees/ha and 300 trees/ha, storm water and improving water quality
respectively. Auburn’s urban forest stored (Seitz and Escobedo, 2008), mitigating
36,000 metric tons of carbon and removed erosion (Wolman 1967), moderating noise
1,080 metric tons per year of pollution, (Fang and Ling, 2003), and increasing
primarily O3 and PM10. The carbon property values (Anderson and Cordell,
sequestration value was estimated to be $14.5 1988).
million and pollution removal value to be
$5.75 million. Output from this model Environmental services and the financial
provides information for city planners and values placed upon them are dependent upon
urban foresters to maximize the financial and the structure of the urban forest. The US
environmental benefits of Auburn’s large, Forest Service created a computer model,
aggrading urban forest. "Urban Forest Effects“, UFORE (now
referred to as i-Tree Eco) to assess an urban
forest’s structure and the corresponding
functions and values (Nowak and Crane,
1998). An urban forest’s structure is defined

by the species composition and the physical Methodology
variables of trees. The function of an urban
forest describes the collective activity of the Site Location
individual trees and their effects upon the The city of Auburn is located in south-east
surrounding environment. Calculations based Alabama, approximately 48 km (30 miles)
upon individual tree measurements and local from the Georgia border. The city covers
meteorological and pollution-concentration 147 km2 (56.6 square miles) and has a
data provide an overall description of the population of 56,088 people (City of Auburn
city’s tree population and its environmental Planning Commission, 2009).
services and value. Auburn’s elevation is 197 meters (646 ft.).
The mean annual maximum temperature is
The UFORE model facilitates effective 23°C (74°F), the mean annual minimum
management of urban trees by linking temperature is 9°C (49°F), and the total mean
descriptive tree variables and financial annual precipitation is 147 cm (58 inches).
benefits with land use zones. Auburn has a typical southern climate with
Auburn is a prime city to highlight the cool winters, hot, muggy summers, and mild
usefulness of the UFORE model. The autumn and spring conditions.
southern location of Auburn provides a
contrast with other UFORE analyzed cities in GIS Map
different climate zones, such as Minneapolis, A ½ mile2 grid was placed across a GIS map
MN and Sacramento, CA. Auburn’s small of Auburn. A random plot generator created
size provides contrasts with large cities, such 408 plots within the city limits. The most
as Atlanta, GA and Houston, TX. In northern plot per grid was selected. If access
addition, the city’s population is growing was denied then the next most northern plot
rapidly; in 2008, Forbes.com designated was chosen successively until permission to
Auburn, with its sister city
Figure 1. 2008 aerial map of Auburn, Alabama with UFORE plots
Opelika, the 5th fastest growing
small metropolis in the US.
This rapid expansion also
provides long-term opportunities
to investigate the effects of
population increases and land
use changes on the structure,
function, and value of an urban
forest.
Using the UFORE model

protocol we examined Auburn’s
urban forest to determine the
tree size distribution, trees per
hectare, species composition,
and to ascertain the
amount of carbon stored and
pollution removed, and the
value of these ecosystem
services.

enter the plot area was attained. A total of 83 Results and Discussion
plots were measured, one plot per grid, in the
summer of 2008 (Figure 1). UFORE model analysis estimated Auburn’s
urban forest contained a total of 19,536,000
UFORE protocol trees with a tree density of 985 trees/ha and a
Circular plots were 0.04 ha (0.1 acre) in size tree cover of 49.2%. Loblolly pine,
with a radius of 11.3 m (37.2 ft). Within a sweetgum, and water oak were the three
plot, all trees with a dbh≥ 2.54 cm (1 inch) dominant tree species, comprising 60.6% of
were recorded to species. Each tree was the urban forest (Table 1). 81.9% of all trees
measured for dbh (stem diameter at breast had a stem diameter <15.24 cm (6 inches)
height, 1.37 m), total height or live height, (Fig. 2). These results illustrate Auburn’s
height to crown base, and crown width. expansion into rural, secondary old-field
Estimations were made for % canopy forests surrounding the city.
missing, % crown dieback, and crown
light exposure. Shrubs were not Table 1. Most important tree species in Auburn
measured. The raw data was analyzed
with city land use zones using the Urban
Forest Effects Model (Nowak and Crane,
1998).
City land use zones

Each plot’s location within one of Auburn’s
land use zones was recorded. For analysis
purposes, land use zones containing few or
Figure 2. Percent of tree population by diameter class
no plots were combined. The four city land
use zones classified as residential, multi-
family residential, vacant building, and
boarded-up condemned building were
combined into a zone labeled ‘residential’
(45 plots). Vacant land, open space &
preservation, natural resources, parks,
cemeteries, and private recreation areas were
combined into a zone labeled ‘vacant’ (20
plots). Commercial, general transportation,
infrastructure/ utilities, manufacturing, and
unknown areas were combined into the land
use zone ‘manufacturing’ (6 plots).
‘Institutional’ was the only land use zone that Institutional’ land use zone had ~2,800,000
remained the original city designation (12 trees (data not shown) which covered 2341
plots). ha and represented the highest density of tree
cover, 1200 trees/ha (Fig. 3).
Residential’ land use zone contained far more

trees, ~10,700,000 (data not shown), had the

Figure 3. Number of trees/ha in Auburn by land use Figure 4. Carbon sequestration and value for species
with greatest overall carbon sequestration in Auburn
greatest land use area, 9961 ha, and only a

slightly lower estimated density of 1100‘
trees/ha. ‘Vacant’ zones had roughly half the Auburn’s urban forest predominantly filtered
trees as ‘residential’ areas, ~5,300,000 trees out ozone (O3) and particulate matter (< 10
(data not shown), distributed within 5510 ha, micrometers, PM10 (Fig. 5). Removal of O3
producing a density of 975 trees/ha. and PM10 was valued over $3,000,000 each.
‘Manufacturing’ zones covered the smallest The monetary value of pollution removal was
land use area, 2015 ha, and within an estimated using the median externality values
estimated 660,000 trees (data not shown), for the United States for each pollutant.
contained a low density of 300 trees/ha. (Murray et al., 1994).
‘Residential’ zones contained many trees in
part due to homes residing on large tracts of Figure 5. Pollution removal and associated value
forested land near the county line.
Auburn University, the first land-grant

college in the South, owns most of the
institutional land use zone, and maintains a
large percentage in forested condition. The
tree density in the ‘vacant’ land use area was
due to secondary tree succession on
abandoned land. Low tree density for
‘manufacturing’ areas resulted from the
prevalence of lawns with few trees.
Loblolly pine, sweetgum and water oak are

the three dominant species in Auburn. Each
species sequestered over 6000 metric tons of Small diameter trees dominate the urban
carbon, a value estimated to be roughly forest which indicates that carbon
$138,000 per species (Fig. 4). The carbon sequestration and pollution removal functions
sequestration value is based upon the and their value will increase in the near
estimated marginal social costs of CO2 future, until the trees reach maturity. Despite
emissions (Fankhauser 1994). the large number of city trees, few trees were

measured near buildings which did not allow Dwyer, J.F, D.J. Nowak, M.H. Noble, and
us to utilize the UFORE model analysis of S.M. Sisinni. 2000. Connecting people
the energy savings possible with urban trees. with ecosystems in the 21st century: an
Strategically planted trees can reduce cooling assessment of our nation's urban forests.
costs in the summer and can block winds and Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-490. Port-
subsequent heat loss in the winter. land, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
In conclusion, Auburn is a rapidly expanding Northwest Research Station. 483 p.
city with a large, aggrading urban forest that
provides highly valuable environmental Fankhauser, S. 1994. The social costs of
services for the city. Maximizing the natural greenhouse gas emissions: an expected
functions provided by the urban forest would value approach. The Energy Journal.
require protection for the growing trees as 15(2): 157-184.
well as implementation of strategic tree
planting around businesses and homes for Fang, C.F., and D.L. Ling. 2003.
additional energy savings and services. Investigation of the noise reduction
provided by tree belts. Landscape and
Urban Planning 63:187-195.
References
Murray, F.J., L. Marsh, and P.A. Bradford.
Akbari, H. and H.Taha. 1992. The impact of 1994. New York State energy plan, vol.
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heating and cooling energy use in four State Energy Office.
Canadian cities. Energy 17: 141-149.
Nowak, D.J., and D.E. Crane. 1998. The
Anderson, L.M., and H.K. Cordell. 1988. urban forest effects (UFORE) model:
Influence of trees on residential property quantifying urban forest structure and
values in Athens, Georgia (U.S.A.): a functions. Integrated Tools Proceedings,
survey based on actual sales prices. pages 714-720.
Landscape and Urban Planning 15: 153
– 164. Nowak, D.J, K.L. Civerolo, S.T. Rao, G.
Sistla, C.J. Luley, and D.E. Crane. 2000.
Beckett, K.P, P.H. Freer-Smith, and A modeling study of the impact of urban
G.Taylor. 1998. Urban woodlands: their trees on ozone. Atmospheric
role in reducing the effects of particulate Environment 34: 1601 – 1613.
pollution. Environmental Pollution
99:347 – 360. Nowak, D.J, and D.E. Crane. 2002. Carbon
storage and sequestration by urban trees
City of Auburn Planning Commission. 2009. in the USA. Environmental Pollution
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May 18, 2010, From
http://www.auburnalabama.org/pl/Misc/ Seitz, J., and F. Escobedo. 2008. Urban
PC%20Presentation%20July%202009.p forests in Florida: Trees control storm-
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(FOR184). Gainesville: University of
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Agricultural Sciences. Retrieved May
18,2010, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/
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censusdata/urpop0090.txt
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully thank James Ransom,

research assistant II, for technological
ssistance and for creating all GIS maps, and
Justin Steinmann, principal planner for the
city of Auburn, for the land use zone
information. We also greatly appreciate
Jonathon Bartlett, Matthew McCollough,
Mark Caldwell, Craig Godwin, and Efrem
Robbins for field data collection. We are
forever grateful to Eric Kuehler, Technology
Transfer Specialist for the USDA Forest
Service, for assistance in field data
collection, data input, and for working on
data analysis with the Forest Service
personnel at the Northern Research Station in
Syracuse, NY. Partial financial support was
provided by Mcintire-Stennis funds and was
received with many thanks.

Stewardship Footprints and Potential Ecosystem Recovery:
Preliminary Data for Seattle and Puget Sound
Weston Brinkley1,2, Kathleen L. Wolf*1,2, Dale J. Blahna1
1
U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station
2
University of Washington
*corresponding author: kwolf@uw.edu
Ecosystem Decline & Science Response Puget Sound Context
Natural systems across the interface The Puget Sound estuary and surrounding
landscape face ongoing threats, such as land urbanized watersheds support a population
use sprawl, air and water pollution, and of 4.1 million, and are expected to attract an
climate change. Science and policy entities additional three million human residents in
are responding to such conditions with the next 20 years (Washington State Office
initiatives for knowledge building and of Financial Management). Despite the
action. Yet fiscal shortfalls in local breathtaking appearance of this estuarine
government and environmental resource system, many of the processes supporting
organizations restrict the capacity to address diverse species and ecosystem services have
ecosystem needs and recovery. In the face of been disrupted or severely degraded by
limited and declining fiscal and technical urbanization. The decline of the Puget
resources for ecosystem management, Sound ecosystem is alarming, and multiple
society must consider new solutions to organizations at the federal, state, and local
restore and sustain natural systems. The levels have launched citizen-based
need to enhance understandings of the environmental stewardship programs as a
relationship between people, human key strategy to address recovery goals. The
systems, and the natural environment is Puget Sound Action Agenda prioritizes
widely recognized (Pickett et al. 2001, basin-wide as well as area-specific efforts,
Marzluff et al. 2008). and creates programs that address the
complex interactions across land, water,
New urban ecology research is underway in species, and human needs (PSP 2009).
Pacific Northwest region of the United
States. The ecological footprint concept is a The entire estuary system includes 12
popular representation of urbanization counties. Of these King and Pierce counties
demands and ecosystem impacts contain 2.5 million residents, representing
(Wackernagel and Rees 1996). The footprint 42% percent of the total population of the
metaphor can also be applied to the positive State of Washington (U.S. Census 2000).
consequences of human agency on the The two counties are in the largest
landscape. Environmental stewardship is an metropolitan region of the state, and include
acknowledged, though little understood the cities of Seattle and Tacoma. These
societal response to ecosystems decline on counties were chosen as initial study sites
urbanized landscapes. This paper outlines an due to their actual and potential impacts of
emerging science program about upland urbanization on the Puget Sound.
stewardship, including initial data collection.

New Research Program organizations within the Seattle
metropolitan area,
Environmental stewardship is a potentially 2. map and geographically display the
important strategy to address both scope and extent of stewardship
ecosystem and human community needs. programs and activities across the
Yet across the literature of urban ecosystem landscape,
decline and recovery there is little 3. conduct a more in-depth
recognition of the effects of stewardship. organizational analysis to determine
The challenge is to better understand the scope and extent of capacities,
stewardship organizations, programs, and efficiencies, networks, and coalitions
activities and how these efforts might – current and potential.
intersect with ecological recovery goals to
provide the greatest benefit, and the means This work is generally a Pacific Northwest
by which those benefits are accomplished. A based replicate of the STEW-Map
footprint approach can be used to spatially (stewardship mapping) project conducted in
assess and record both ecological conditions New York City (Svendsen and Campbell
and stewardship activity across a designated 2008). The initial geographic focus will be
region or landscape. the landscape of the Seattle area, and
eventually may include the entire Puget
The Green Cities Research Alliance Sound basin. In time, the research will be
(GCRA) is a collaborative initiative expanded to bridge and compare
launched in 2009, with purposes being to stewardship activity in other U.S. and
facilitate research, and partner and international cities.
coordinate efforts to better investigate the
urban environmental resources situations of The purpose of these projects is to build a
our region. One science goal of the alliance comprehensive understanding of how
is to assess and understand the role of stewardship is and could be mobilized to
environmental stewardship in urban address concerns of urban ecosystem health
ecosystem health, recovery, and and sustainability. Our research will provide
reconciliation. This work regards useful knowledge for governmental agencies
stewardship not as isolated, occasional such as Puget Sound Partnership, and other
actions on the land, but as a set of public, private, and nonprofit organizations
comprehensive and diverse systems of as they implement and sustain stewardship
ecosystem response that are imbedded programs and activities.
within coupled natural and human systems.
Our goal is to understand the pathways by Initial Organization Census
which the ecological and social footprints of
stewardship interrelate at the individual, In summer 2009 a rapid census of public and
group, and community levels. non-profit organizations that sponsor
environmental stewardship was conducted.
The research will start with descriptive data The preliminary database was a compilation
collection: of organizations operating in King and
Pierce Counties, with data derived from web
1. conduct an assessment and build a sources.
database of stewardship

This database will be expanded over time, Database Development
and will provide the basis for future
stewardship networking research. Full The following criteria were used to
development of the database will enable determine if an organization would be
GCRA to: identify and assess organizational included in the census:
resources and needs, coordinate efforts
across the region, provide information to 1. The organization conducted
program leaders and managers, and initiate environmental stewardship work; where
collaborative research across other U.S. stewardship is defined as motivated
regions. physical action, education, or outreach
for the purpose of improving the
physical environment.
Census Methodology 2. The organization conducted
environmental stewardship work within
The database was populated by Internet either King or Pierce County.
search using a snowball sampling method. 3. Environmental stewardship is a clearly
An initial set of local organizations and stated primary or secondary purpose or
agencies entities having a prominent public focus of activity.
commitment to stewardship were identified
and used to begin the sampling. Database records included eight fields
for each organization:
Some organizations have multiple
administrative units conducting different • Address: Physical location of office
stewardship efforts, such as departments and or leadership
divisions, and programs within. A record • County: Jurisdiction(s) of
was created for a unit but not for each stewardship activity, King or Pierce
sponsored program. Nested organizations • Web Address & e-Contact
having local and regional or national • Legal Status: Private, non-profit,
branches were treated as distinct records public
(such as Audubon Washington, and • Mission/Goal: Publically stated
Audubon Society of Seattle). Once the list purpose
was constructed, information was then • Location Focus: Activity area
gathered for each of the organizations from within the landscape gradient: urban,
their websites. suburban, rural, wildland
• Terrestrial or Aquatic: General
As organizations were recorded, their web-
ecosystem focus: terrestrial or water
listed partners, collaborators, and contacts
• Activity Scope: Single or multiple
were also added to a search list. Data were
activity site(s)
collected on these new organizations. This
snowball technique was continued until the
Results and Highlights:
appearance of new stewardship
organizations was exhausted.
The initial assessment identified 588
organizations conducting environmental
stewardship in King and Pierce Counties;
16% exclusively in Pierce, 51% exclusively
in King, and 33% in both.

Descriptive statistics indicate some notable Of the 453 organizations that had accessible
patterns. Most organizations are working in information about gradient work location(s),
multiple activity sites, rather than focusing 74% are active in urban areas, 32% have
on a single place. The types of organizations programs in wildlands, with equivalent mid
conducting efforts are highly varied. level rates of activity in suburban and rural
Additionally, activity on waterways and areas (56%).
water bodies was prevalent.
Within the landscape gradient organizations
Interestingly, activity location is focused typically focus on or have an affiliation with
neither in rural or urban areas, but is specific work sites. Considering geographic
prevalent across all zones. Forty three scope, 82% of groups conduct stewardship
percent of organizations work at locations in multiple project sites. This was one
throughout the landscape gradient, that is, defining feature of the census.
they conduct work in either urban or
suburban landscapes and rural or wildland There appears to be response to endangered
areas. Fourteen percent of organizations species listings for salmon, and more
focus strictly in rural and wildlands, with the general concern for the Puget Sound. While
remaining 43% active in urban and suburban 88% of the organizations do at least some
areas. work in terrestrial ecosystems, 58% either
focus on, or do some work on aquatic
Another informative grouping is to look at resources. Specifically, 22% focus their
total organizations working in each stewardship on water, with 12% working
landscape type along the gradient (Figure 1). almost exclusively with water.
400 There is surprising diversity of legal status

and affiliation within the organizational
350 population (Figure 2). Private,
environmentally affiliated business interests
# of organizations (n=453)
300
represented 13% of the tally, with non-
250 profits comprising 64%. This compares to
1% and 62% respectively in the New York
200 City results (Svendsen and Campbell 2008).
Thus for-profit firms or coop based
150
programs are more common, and public
100 programs less numerous in the Seattle
region.
50
Eight percent of the entities were
0
partnerships, alliances, and collaborative
organizations. These groups enable clusters
of smaller organizations to combine efforts
on projects, policy, or advocacy. They may
be important for organizational efficacy, and
Figure 1: Tallies of organizations active
across landscape locations (total count greater
offer collaborative structure for delivering
than 453 due to multiple responses) stewardship resources, a situation of interest
for future research.

prominently, as expected. The pronounced
emphasis on community (from a social,
rather than ecological perspective based on
phrasing review) came as a surprise, and
indicates that organizations intend a broad
range of inter-related ecosystem and social
community may also reflect the interests of
the participant volunteer base of
organizations.
community 152
environment 104
education 85
provide 76
health 72
protect 62
promote 61
people 59
Figure 2: Summary of organizations’ legal sustainable 58
status (n=570) work 52
Table 1. Mission statements, word tally
Mission Statement Analysis:
An organization’s mission statement is a Assessment Limitations:

public statement of principle and
commitment. The process of generating a There were certain inherent limitations in
statement often yields motivating sentiments constructing this database. Snowball
and an organization’s social identity. Across sampling may overlook some groups that are
the web sources, 337 mission statements not connected with this larger network of
were collected. Statements were merged into organizations. Additionally, organization ata
a single text document, with derivatives entry was limited to that available on a
(e.g., community and communities) website; groups without websites are largely
combined, and trivial words removed (e.g., unrepresented. Nonetheless, some
a, and, this). Table 1 lists a frequency count organizations without web presence were
of the ten most used terms. included as they were displayed on another
organization’s site with enough information
The text file was uploaded to Wordle, an to fit the sampling criteria for inclusion. The
online word analysis program that generated data limitations are noted, and provide
a visual representation of word counts useful input for more reliable data collection
(Figure 3). Word size denotes greater outcomes within their stewardship
frequency of use across all mission programming and action. The emphasis on
statements. Considering both Table 1 and of an expanded and more thorough census.
Figure 4, the term environment figures

Figure 3: Word-use Frequencies in Stewardship Organization Mission Statements
Discussion & Implications Initial discussions with environmental

agency staff and policy makers indicate that
This initial census is the inception of a little is known about stewardship. It is
planned comprehensive characterization of recognized as a positive citizen activity, but
environmental stewardship organizations likely underestimated in both scope and
and activities in the Seattle metro area, and impact. As was discovered in the New York
perhaps throughout the Puget Sound basin. City assessment (Svendsen and Campbell,
Preliminary results provide both focus and 2008) the scale and location of service
need for clarification as we proceed to delivery is quite variable, and potentially
develop more detailed research questions highly interactive socially.
and methods. Key findings about
organizations and stewardship include: There are deep concerns for Puget Sound
ecosystem health and recovery. Recovery
A preliminary count of close to 600 efforts in other major estuarine areas (such
organizations in the study region as the Chesapeake Bay and the Everglades)
point to the necessity of engaging all
• An urban centered, yet multiple citizens in action on behalf of an ecosystem
gradient activity focus. at risk. This emerging research program will
• Variability of organizational status and provide knowledge of the current footprint
affiliations. of stewardship activity, and generate
• Activity conducted at multiple sites. insights about how to expand the benefits of
• Social community is a particularly positive human agency on behalf of the
compelling organizational principle. environment.

References:
Svendsen, E. S. and Campbell, L. K. “Urban
Marzluff, J.; Shulenberger, E.; Endlicher, ecological stewardship: understanding
W.; Alberti, M.; Bradley, G.; Ryan, C.; the structure, function and network of
ZumBrunnen, C.; Simon, U. (Eds.). community-based urban land
Urban Ecology: An International management.” Cities and the
Perspective on the Interaction Between Environment. 2008, 1:1:5.
Humans and Nature. Springer, New
York, 2008. 808 pp. Wackernagel, M. and Rees. W. . Our
Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human
Pickett, S.T.A.;. Cadenasso, M L; Grove, Impact on the Earth. Gabriola Island,
J.M.; Nilon, C.H.; Pouyat, R.V.; BC: New Society Publishers. 1996.
Zipperer, W.C.; and Costanza, R..
"Urban ecological systems: Linking Washington State Office of Financial
terrestrial ecological, physical, and Management. Growth Management Act
socioeconomic components of (GMA) Population Projections,
metropolitan areas." Annual Review of Washington State Growth Management
Ecology Systematics, 2001, 127-157. Act, (RCW 43.62.035). 2007.
Puget Sound Partnership. Puget Sound Wordle. http://www.wordle.net/. (Accessed

Action Agenda: Protecting and 10/5/2009). 2010
Restoring the Puget Sound Ecosystem
by 2020. Puget Sound Partnership,
Olympia, WA 2009, 204 pp.

The Changing Roles Professional Development Program
L. Annie Hermansen-Baez1 and Nicole M. Wulff2
U.S. Forest Service
Southern Research Station
InterfaceSouth, Bldg 164
Mowry Rd, P.O. Box 110806
Gainesville, Florida, USA
www.interfacesouth.org
1
ahermansen@fs.fed.us, 352-376-3271
2
nmwulff@fs.fed.us, (352) 378-2451
Abstract bulletin, evaluation questions, and an online

webinar series. The resources can be
As populations and urbanization expand in modified and used in a variety of
the Southern United States, human combinations to create a two-hour, two-day,
influences on forests and other natural areas or two-week training program, and anything
are increasing. As a result, natural resource in between.
professionals are faced with complex
Introduction
challenges, such as managing smaller forest
parcels for multiple benefits, and wildfire The South is one of the fastest growing
prevention and management in the wildland- regions in the United States, with an
urban interface (areas where urban estimated population increase of 1.5 million
development and vegetation intermingle), people each year and 65 of the top 100
but often do not possess the skills or tools to fastest growing counties in the nation. The
meet these new challenges. The Changing southern U.S. also consistently has the
Roles Professional Development Program, highest number of wildfires per year of any
developed by the U.S. Forest Service- region in the United States. Some of those
InterfaceSouth, the University of Florida, fires are quite large, as in the case of the
and the Southern Group of State Foresters, 1998 Florida wildfires. These wildfires
provides state and federal natural resource brought the challenges of working and living
agencies and other organizations in the in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) to the
southern United States and nationwide a set forefront for the U.S. Forest Service (FS)
of resources to address these new and other natural resource agencies across
challenges. the southern U.S. Shortly after these fires,
the FS Chief conducted a review of the
The program consists of four modules: South and identified the WUI as an area on
(1) wildland-urban interface issues and which to focus research and information
connections, (2) managing interface forests, efforts.
(3) land-use planning and policy, and (4)
communicating with interface residents and In response, the Forest Service conducted an
leaders. Each module includes a trainer’s assessment of the wildland-urban interface
guide, exercises, fact sheets, and in the South. This assessment, titled Human
presentations. Additional resources include Influences on Forest Ecosystems: the
case studies, a resource list, a DVD, the Southern Wildland-Urban Interface
Changing Roles listserve and quarterly e- Assessment (Macie and Hermansen 2002),

demonstrated that a range of professionals- how they are interconnected and
from urban planners to natural resource gives reasons why natural resource
managers- need access to new information, agencies should focus on interface
technology, training, and skills that will help issues.
them meet the challenges of working and (2) Managing interface forests - This
living in the interface. module provides tools and
knowledge for effectively managing
Addressing Professional Development fragmented forests in the WUI and
Needs: Changing Roles includes information about
characteristics of interface
The U.S. Forest Service-InterfaceSouth, the landowners; practicing silviculture at
University of Florida, and the Southern the interface; small-scale harvesting
Group of State Foresters developed the systems; managing for wildlife, fire,
Changing Roles Professional Development and visual and recreational
Program to address the training needs amenities; enterprise opportunities
identified in the Southern Wildland-Urban for landowners; and forest
Interface Assessment. The focus groups that cooperatives.
were conducted as a part of the assessment (3) Land-use planning and policy - This
revealed that natural resource professionals module explains land-use decision-
felt unprepared to tackle the complex making tools, the role of natural
challenges associated with managing resource professionals in the
resources in a rapidly changing landscape decision-making and land-use
(Monroe et al. 2003). planning process, and how natural
resource professionals can get
The target audience for this program is involved.
natural resource professionals in the (4) Communicating with interface
southern United States, including residents and leaders - This module
professionals from state forestry agencies, discusses key tips for effective
cooperative extension, other state and communication with WUI residents
federal agencies, and non-governmental and community leaders, beginning
organizations. with the need to understand the
audience, strategies for effectively
Changing Roles consists of four modules, sharing information and planning
each of which includes a trainer’s guide, programs, and working to resolve
exercises, fact sheets, and presentations. The conflict and support changes in
modules are extremely flexible and can be behavior.
modified and used in a variety of
combinations to create training programs of Additional resources include case studies, a
variable lengths to address the training needs resource list, evaluation questions, and the
of each agency/organization. The four Changing Roles listserve and quarterly e-
module topics are: bulletin. The resource list includes
publications, videos, field trips, and other
(1) Wildland-urban interface issues and materials that trainers can use to enhance
connections - This module their programs. In addition, the U.S. Fish
introduces participants to key and Wildlife Service produced a video,
wildland-urban interface issues and When Nature is at Your Doorstep, to

introduce training participants to WUI issues bulletin, called the “Changing Roles
and can be used as an outreach tool with Update”, is distributed.
residents and leaders.
The Philosophy
The interactive exercises provide a variety
of activities including icebreakers, Many of the Changing Roles materials
discussion questions, and worksheets that incorporate communication and behavior-
help training participants further explore and change techniques. Not only are we aiming
apply what they have learned. The exercises to change the behaviors of the participants to
can be modified to suit the group size, time work more effectively in the interface, but
allowances, and objectives. Fact sheets we are also potentially changing the
outline important points, strategies, and behaviors of trainers and agencies. The
information about various topics related to following guidelines were used to develop
each module. They are typically two to four each module:
pages and are useful as handouts for training
participants. Fact sheets can be used with a • Trainers need accurate and current
wide range of audiences and trainers can use information supported by
them for additional background material in documentation. We provide fact
preparation for trainings. sheets with citations, background
information in the trainer guides, and
The case studies provide examples of an additional reference.
interface issues, challenges, and success • Trainers need a variety of tools to
stories from across the southern United give them options for presenting
States. Case studies help participants information. Presentations, fact
imagine a new way of solving problems. sheets, and background information
Discussion questions are included to are provided.
facilitate deeper understanding and • Trainers need to be able to adapt and
encourage dialogue. After the completion of revise materials to meet their
a workshop, trainers can submit an audiences’ needs. Most of the
evaluation form to InterfaceSouth so that we activities or concepts can be used in
can continually improve the program. The any order; many are adaptable so that
evaluation questions provided can be used examples and issues can be revised
before and after a training, as well as in a as need be. Handouts for exercises
follow-up survey that agencies may wish to are provided in MS Word® files to
conduct several months after the training. make it easier for trainers to create
their own versions. The website
All of the program resources are available in encourages trainers to share their
the Changing Roles section of the Interface adaptations with others and provides
South website (www.interfacesouth.org/ some examples.
changingroles), as well as new materials • Exercises suggest a number of styles
including example agendas, planning guides, of interaction to suit a variety of
handouts, PowerPoint presentations, field participant learning styles.
trip ideas and new exercises. A Changing • Participants learn from each other.
Roles listserve currently has over 300 Case studies and exercises provide
subscribers, through which a quarterly e- discussion questions to help trainers

engage participants in meaningful the needs of new audiences, such as
conversation. community leaders and planners.
• New skills are learned through
practice in comfortable Changing Roles can be integrated into
environments. Many of the exercises existing training programs and the training
give participants a chance to try new materials are user-friendly, flexible and can
ways of working in the interface be tailored to meet each agency’s training
during training workshops. needs. Additionally, the knowledge and
• Clear directions and icons utilized in skills gained can be integrated into current
the training materials help those activities and projects. Participants can also
trainers who are looking for a earn continuing forestry education credits
cookbook of presentations, materials, through the Society of American Foresters.
and activities that they can use
without much preparation. Recent Examples
• Adaptable presentations and Two train-the trainer workshops were
materials available on the website conducted, the first in February 2006 in
make the program flexible for Atlanta, GA shortly after the program was
trainers who want to invest more developed, and the second in Conroe, TX in
time customizing their trainings to April 2009. These workshops introduced the
meet local needs. training materials, explained their purpose,
• Experts reviewed each module for and demonstrated ways to use the materials
accuracy and applicability across the to about 100 total participants. Since these
region. Pilot tests of the materials train-the-trainer workshops, resource
were performed with students and agencies have used the Changing Roles
natural resource professionals who materials in a variety of ways, such as the
helped improve the directions and following:
the flow of the exercises.
• The Changing Roles Tour 2010 aims
The Benefits to (1) distribute CR materials; (2)
Trainers have commented that they believe help participants develop skills and
Changing Roles training can help natural learn concepts by participating in
resource management agencies adapt to hands-on exercises; (3) provide
changes currently underway in urbanizing examples of how CR has been used
areas, including changes in landowner in the past, and (4) encourage agency
perceptions and values and in land-use. In personnel to consider how they
more rural areas, Changing Roles can help would use the materials in their own
prepare professionals to be pro-active as work situations. The workshops are
they see development beginning to occur in tailored to meet agency and site-
wildland areas. Changing Roles can also specific needs to take advantage of
help agencies by encouraging increased local opportunities and make the
collaboration, which is vitally important workshop content relevant
during times of reduced funding and limited to each audience. In some cases, the
program capacity. Additionally, natural workshops target state agency
resource professionals can broaden their personnel while in other cases the
contribution to a sustainable future for audience is broader, including
forests, wildlife, and people by addressing

participants such as developers and numerous specialists discuss WUI
city planners. We have conducted issues in Texas such as water quality,
four one-day introductory workshops prescribed fire, small-scale
so far in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and harvesting, and managing
Mississippi, with over 60 total endangered and nuisance species.
participants. • The Texas Forest Expo, an annual
• The Kentucky Division of Forestry three day event designed to teach
led three one-day multi-agency landowners new and innovative ways
Changing Roles trainings in August to protect their families, properties,
2009, with participation by and communities from wildfire,
approximately 130 speakers and evolved from a Changing Roles
participants. Trainings were held in workshop. The Expo aims to teach
three different regions of the state to people how to sustain their forests,
increase participant accessibility. A trees and natural resources. The
multi-agency steering committee event includes vendor and exhibitor
planned and designed the workshop booths, classes, and activities for
to ensure that the training was children.
relevant for all agencies and regions
involved. New Methods And Topics
• The South Carolina Forestry
Commission (SCFC) held a half-day Webinars are becoming an increasingly
workshop in June 2009 with over 40 popular mode of teaching and learning in an
participants from SCFC and age of restricted travel and shrinking
Clemson University extension. In budgets. Webinars allow participants to
this workshop, exercises and local learn right from the comfort and
case studies were used to: introduce, convenience of their office.InterfaceSouth
prioritize, and identify solutions to offered the first Changing Roles Webinar
WUI issues affecting forest Series in the fall 2009. This 4-part series
management in South Carolina; consisted of live, interactive, online
identify the role that foresters can educational events that targeted a subset of
play in addressing WUI challenges; concepts and skills found in the Changing
and illustrate the importance of Roles modules. Collectively, the sessions
working with residents and addressed opportunities and challenges in
community leaders to address land- the WUI related to forest management, land-
use policy and planning issues, such use policy and planning decision making,
as ordinances that affect forest and communication skills for working with
management. interface residents and leaders. A second
• The Texas Forest Service staff and series is planned for fall 2010 based on
Stephen F. Austin State University recommendations from participants in the
(SFA) faculty worked together to first webinar series.
incorporate Changing Roles
curriculum into SFA’s Summer 2009 Additionally a new module is under
Field Station course for development that will help resource
undergraduate Forestry students. professionals better understand emerging
Students attended field trips, issues in the wildland-urban interface and
participated in exercises, and heard identify new approaches and tools to address

these issues. Some specific topics that will restoration projects and approaches
be included in this new module are: and tools applicable for restoration at
different scales.
(1) An ecosystem goods and services 5) Social Responsibility - This section
approach to market-based will explore environmental justice
conservation - This section will issues, help resource professionals
examine the ecosystem goods and reflect upon their own values,
services that forests provide and the explore the basis for decision-
relationships between goods and making, provide guidelines for
services, human activities, and making ethical decisions on
human wellbeing. It will also explore environmental issues, and present the
how natural resource managers can use of partnerships as a tool to
incorporate ecosystem goods and encourage pooling of resources and
services into forest planning and increase representation and visibility
management on smaller-parcels of in the decision-making process.
land in urbanizing areas, and how the
use of an ecosystem services Conclusion
approach can provide incentive for
landowners to sustainably manage The Changing Roles: WUI Professional
and continue to own forest land. Development Program is a highly flexible
(2) Small-scale forestry - This section set of training tools and resources that can
will include alternative methods for be used in programs of one hour or one
costing a forestry operation at week, inserted into existing programs or
smaller scales, marketing strategies, designed to stand alone. Activities and
examples of value-added processing, information can be reorganized and
sample templates for contracts and designed to focus on interface issues, skill
business plans, and resources on building, or geographic areas. Individual
entrepreneurship. exercises, handouts, and slide presentations
(3) Climate change - This section will can be modified. The more skilled the
examine how forests can mitigate trainers, the more flexible the program is.
climate change, identify potential Changing Roles is not an established
effects of climate change on curriculum with preordained lectures and
ecosystems and the goods and activities for each day. The wildland-urban
services they provide, outline a interface in the southern United States is not
“Toolbox Approach” to managing so consistent, predictable, and static to
for climate change in an urbanizing support anything other than a flexible,
context, and highlight specific tools adaptable, resource.
and models that can inform
management and decision-making. Changing Roles was designed to help
(4) Ecological restoration at multiple resource agencies train their staff and other
scales- Ecological restoration efforts professionals to address increasingly
in the wildland-urban interface occur complex and urgent issues in the wildland-
at different scales and include both urban interface. The title of the program
ecological and social goals. This recognizes that the roles of natural resource
section will highlight principles for professionals are indeed changing as we aim
guiding the implementation of to keep abreast of the rapidly changing
landscape.
Changing Roles empowers resource
agencies to build their own capacity and to
work with others in multi-agency teams in
the interface. Changing Roles is a growing
and changing program that will, in the
coming years, continue to evolve and
develop in ways that help natural resource
professionals and others face interface issues
and challenges.
References
Macie E A, Hermansen L A. eds. (2002)

Human influences on forest ecosystems:
the southern wildland-urban interface
assessment. In General Technical
Report SRS-55. Asheville, NC:
Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southern Research Station.
Monroe M C; Bowers A W, Hermansen L A

(2003) The moving edge: perspectives
on the southern interface, Southern
Wildland-Urban Interface Assessment
Focus Group report. Gen. Tech. Rep.
SRS-63. Asheville, NC: Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
Research Station.

The Impact of State Urban-Rural Composition on Environmental Policy
Shaun Tanger
School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences
Auburn University
tangesm@auburn.edu
Abstract providing public goods to their constituents

by instituting taxes and regulations whose
In this paper I examine the significance of burden is borne, in the main, by individuals
urbanization with respect to voting on living outside their jurisdiction. But reality
environmental policy in the United States may be more complex than merely exporting
Congress. While other researchers have costs to those outside the jurisdiction of a
broached this subject, only one of these given politician. Perhaps, if the number of
studies examines whether or not the urban- constituents in urban areas is sufficiently
rural composition of the voters in a given large in comparison to rural voters this
state is related to environmental voting. behavior can be observed with respect to
Anderson and Mizack (2006) find that states politicians as well. If indeed urban citizens
with higher population densities have higher do demand environmental amenities
“scores” for congressmen on environmental produced in rural areas, they likely will
issues, ceteris paribus. These scores are demand more if costs/price to them are
developed by the League of Conservation lower - - vote-maximizing politicians will
Voters (LCV), an organization that, in part, respond by providing more of these
examines how often a House or Senate amenities when costs are borne elsewhere.
member votes in relation to the desired
position of the LCV. The more supportive of A question, heretofore not empiricized, is
the suite of bills identified each year by the whether or not urban residents impose costs
league, the higher the score a congressman on rural dwellers as it relates to land use for
receives. My analysis follows the line of environmental services and/or amenities.
inquiry set out in Anderson and Mizack While Laband (2001) does not use empirics
(2006), but is unique in two respects; First, I to determine whether or not this
proxy political support for the environment phenomenon occurs, he provides economic
by using the average LCV scores of each rationale for why it might occur. In the
state’s two Senate members. Second, I use hypothetical scenario Laband (2001) creates,
the percentage of urban dwellers in the state urban citizens will demand differentially
rather than population density per se, to high amounts of environmental
determine the impact, if any, on the services/amenities if the costs are borne by
environmental scores of the states’ two rural citizens. Laband is merely applying
senators. this theory of exported costs to the context
of urban/rural constituents and
Introduction environmental amenities.
Beginning with Maloney et al. (1984), In this way it may be possible to augment
researchers find that vote maximizing Maloney et al (1984). If the proportion of
politicians attempt to export costs of urban voters is large enough then vote-

maximizing politicians will provide these political support for pro-environment
amenities because even if they face reprisal legislation in the U.S. Senate for the year
from their rural constituents, it will not 2000. Political support for pro-
affect re-election outcomes. environmental legislation is measured using
the Environmental Scorecard ratings of
With respect to environmental policy, Congressmen and Senators published
Hussain and Laband (2005) find that if annually by the League of Conservation
benefits of environmental services/amenities Voters. I find evidence that is consistent
accrue to states and those same states don’t with both Laband (2001), Hussain and
pay the costs of providing that legislation Laband (2005) and Anderson and Mizak
then they find that the state’s legislators (2006), that political support for the
(senators) are more likely to support said environment is positively related to the % of
legislation. More interestingly, if a state bore residents in the state that are urban dwellers.
the costs of the legislation under
examination then the legislators in that state I submit my model of the relationship
were less likely to support the legislation. between political support for pro-
We apply this finding to the urban/rural environmental legislation and urbanization
interface in the following way. If urban in section II. In this section I also introduce
voters can receive benefits from and discuss the data used in my analysis.
environmental legislation while rural voters This is followed by a brief discussion of
bear the costs, will this lead to those urban methods. In Section III, I present my
voters demanding more of those services. empirical results. In section IV, I discuss the
More specifically, do Senators support results of importance to my analysis and
legislation that is environmentally “friendly” how it relates to environmental policy. My
as the percentage of urban voters within the conclusions round out the presentation.
state increases? This is the focus of my
paper. Controlling for other factors, I
examine whether the level of urbanization in Models & Data
the state is important to the support of
legislation that is environmentally focused. The general model implied by the exporting
Only one other paper (Anderson and Mizak costs literature for the purposes of my
2006) has examined this question research is as follows:
empirically. The authors use population
density to determine any “urbanization” (1) Political Support for the
impact on environmental policy. They find environment = f (urbanization in
that as population density increases, so to state)
does the amount of pro-environment stances
on roll-call bills that the League of Identifying a metric that accurately reflects
Conservation Voters scores deemed political support for the environment is
important for the time period that the challenging, because the production process
researchers examined. in politics can be difficult to track
accurately. Much of the real action, in terms
Using data from the United States, I use of support for, or opposition to, a bill takes
Ordinary Least Squares regression place behind the generally closed doors of
estimation to investigate the possible (sub) committee meetings. Moreover, there
relationship between urbanization and is a myriad of things a politician can do to

benefit the environment - - adding funding density of 1000 people per square mile, but
riders for environmental interest groups to this result is driven by one city which is
pursue projects, changes in the tax code that highly urbanized say 5000 people per square
encourage recycling or other mile then the majority of voters in that state
environmentally friendly behaviors, and the could still live outside of this area, thus a
like. Tracking all of these possible political politician may not be willing to support
activities is sufficiently daunting that, to my legislation where costs are borne by people
knowledge, no one has even attempted it. outside of this one city, classified as “rural”
Moreover, aggregating these activities into a voters. Indeed, it’s misleading as the one
single metric would be additionally city has biased the population density
problematic, as there is no established upwards. If on the other hand state number
methodology for weighting the impacts. two has a population density of 1000 and 15
These difficulties notwithstanding, a number of the cities within the state have that same
of empirical researchers have used the population density then indeed politicians
Environmental Scorecard (ES) ratings of will be more willing to support legislation is
Senators and members of the House of borne by the rest of the state. This crude
Representatives, developed and published example illustrates the misleading nature of
annually by the League of Conservation population density as it applies to my
Voters (LCV), as a barometer of their analysis. That is it doesn’t shed light on how
support for the environment (e.g., Nelson many people in the state are at the overall
2002; Shipan and Lowery 2001). Scaled population density of the state.
between 0 and 100, the score reported for
each senator or congressman reflects the Another variable that is useful for research
percentage time that each senator or examining urbanization is a variable called
congressman voted in accord with the percent urban. This is merely the percentage
LCV’s desired position on a set of bills of people in the state that are living in urban
selected by the LCV that were reported out areas; more specifically, the number of
of committee and came to floor votes. people within a state that are living in areas
Following in this tradition, I use LCV scores with a population density of 1,000 people or
as out measure of politicians “support” for more. However, this variable doesn’t
the environment. describe how “urban” a state may be. The
variable essentially only explains whether or
Identifying a metric of urbanization within a not a certain number of people in the state
state is difficult in its own right. The only have a population density of more than a
other study in which a measure of 1000 per square mile or less than 1000
urbanization is tested is Anderson and people per square mile.
Mizak (2006). The authors use population
density as their metric for urbanization, While both variables have their
which is simply the number of people per shortcomings with respect to my analysis,
unit of area, usually per kilometer or square perhaps using some combination of the two
mile. This measure is flawed however will provide further insights into the
because it does not explain the composition relationship between urbanization and
of the people within the state. An example to political support for the environment. While
explain this point is that if you have two urbanization statistics are calculated at the
states with the same population density. If state and national level, but not available for
on the one hand a state has a population congressional districts, my analysis focuses

on ES ratings averaged across all members of those items we value positively increases
of the Senate. (decreases). As Cropper and Griffith (1994)
point out “As citizens become better off they
I investigate alternative specifications of the tend to demand more environmental
following OLS model: amenities/services/regulation. Even if the
benefits are merely “existence” in nature.
(2) LCVscoret= α0 + α1 %URBABt + α2
POPDENt + α3 PERCAPINCt + I expect that the party affiliation of a Senator
α4 ALLDEMt+ α5 ALLREPt + εt is important in determining
where, support/opposition of a bill or set of bills.
Environmental groups are heavily aligned
LCVscoret = the average LCV score in the with the Democratic Party, so one would
U.S. House of Representatives/Senate in the expect Democratic senators to be more
year 2000, likely to vote in favor of positions consistent
%URBABt = the percentage of the residents with environmentalists (Shipan and Lowry
in state that are classified as urban dwellers. 2001). Therefore I expect those states with
POPDENt = the number of people per square Democratic Senators to positively influence
mile in state t, LCV scores in those states. The implication
PERCAPINCt = per capita income in is that a negative relationship may exist
chained (2000) dollars, between LCV scores and Republicans.
ALLDEMt = coded one for states where
both Senators were affiliated with the Methods
Democratic Party.
ALLREPt = coded one for states where both All models were estimated using Ordinary
Senators were affiliated with the Republican Least Squares regression. I estimated a
Party. number of different model formulations,
εt = the error term. including linear and squared terms for each
variable as well as interaction terms to
I expect the average LCV score of the investigate the structure of possible
Senate in any given year to be influenced relationships. No models included in the
positively by the percentage of urban manuscript exhibited autocorrelation or
residents in a given state. This expectation heteroskedasticity. As well no variables
results from a straightforward application of were found to have a correlation coefficient
the theory of exporting costs to demand for over 0.6.
publicly-provided goods/services. Relatedly,
I expect the average LCV score of the My sample confined to the 105th Congress.
Senate to be related positively to other The percentage of urban residents in a state
indicators of urbanization such as population are only collected for census years. I focused
density. exclusively on Senators for my analysis in
order to use state level observations due to
I also expect the average LCV score of the the limitations of the explanatory variables
House/Senate in any given year to be being state level in nature. Each state has
influenced positively by per capita income. two Senators, but in order to avoid
This relationship should hold for a very redundant dependant variables I proxy
simple reason: as real income rises (falls), political support for the environment by
our collective ability to afford consumption using the average LCV scores of each state’s

two Senate members. In order to both test
for party effects on the LCV scores and in TABLE 2. Ordinary Least Squares Regression
Results. N=50
light of the fact that I aggregate LCV scores
Standard t- p-
for the entire state effects, it was necessary Variable Coefficient
Error statistic value
to aggregate the party variable for the Constant -184.95 112.96 -1.64 0.1092
individual states. Specifically, I control for
Percent
those states with split representation in order Urban
-3.15 1.30 -2.42 0.0198
to observe states where both Senators are Percent
0.02 0.01 2.08 0.0442
form either the Democratic or Republican Urban ²
Populatio
Party. n Density
0.04 0.01 3.52 0.0011
Per
Sample statistics for LCV score averages for Capita 31.24 9.83 3.18 0.0028
Income
the U.S.Senate, as well as the percent urban Per
residents in the state and other explanatory Capita -0.69 0.23 -3.02 0.0044
variables used in the analysis are reported in Income ²
Democrat 29.31 5.99 4.89 0.0001
Table 1. Republica
-34.70 4.73 -7.33 0.001
n
TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics. N=50 Durbin
Watson 1.951
Statistic
Standard Adjusted
Variable Mean Minimum Maximum 0.8353
Deviation R-square
LCV score 42.29 34.15 0 100
This result is to be expected. If indeed a
Percent
Urban
71.82 15.08 38.18 94.40 Senator is going to export costs at the
Population 1138.0 expense of a group of his constituents
Density 185.66 251.65 5.10
0 (voters), then the smaller this group in
Per Capita relation to the constituents receiving benefits
Income
20792 2865 15853 28766
Democrat 0.26 0.45 0 1 the better, so to avoid the possibility of
Republican 0.37 0.49 0 1 his/her not being re-elected.
Second, I find that state-level Senatorial

Results& Discussion support for the environment is related
positively to population density. This result
In Table 2, I report my OLS findings for the is in line with the theory of exported costs.
Senate. Several findings are noteworthy. The greater the population density in a state
the more likely the citizens will be urban
First, I find evidence of a statistically dwellers and consequently the more they
significant relationship between the percent will demand environmental legislation of
of urban dwellers in a given state and the which the costs they are not as likely to bear.
Senators’ support for environmental
legislation. However, this relationship is Third, according to Baumol and Oates
curvilinear. As more citizens are classified (1988) and Cropper and Griffith (1994)
as urban the result is negative until a higher income voters are more likely to
threshold of approximately seventy-eight favor environmental legislation. This is
percent. supported by my findings. As incomes
increase, Senators vote more in line with a
pro-environment policy agenda. My finding

also indicates that this result exhibits merely shows that the relative representation
diminishing returns. Once Per Capita of urban versus rural dwellers influences
Income reaches approximately $22,000 support for environmental legislation, but it
dollars, Senators begin to oppose does not indicate who bears these costs. It
environmental legislation. After this may indeed be that the costs are borne by
threshold, for every $1,000 increase in Per constituents in state, but it is just as likely
Capita Income, average LCV scores for that the costs are borne by residents from
Senators drop by .7 points. other states. More importantly it does not
indicate if rural residents are bearing these
Lastly, Party affiliation is found to have a costs. Indeed, I would expect that if the costs
significant impact regardless of which party were borne out of state a Senator would be
affiliation I observe. For states where both more likely to support environmental
Senators are Democrats, LCV scores are legislation than if a group of his constituents
approximately thirty points higher than the bear the costs, but we cannot rule out that
states with Senators from both parties. For possibility.
states where both Senators are Republicans,
LCV scores are approximately thirty five What is needed for further research is an
points lower than states with split analysis of specific bills for two reasons:
representation. This finding is in line with
all of the previous literature that includes 1) To test whether in-state or out-of-state
party as an explanatory variable for LCV areas will be affected.
scores or other metrics of environmental
support. &
2) If it is in-state residents who bear the
Conclusions costs, are the costs borne by rural
residents specifically.
My analysis of U.S. Senate over the year
2000 legislative cycle suggests that
Senators’ voting patterns on environmental References
legislation is consistent with the hypothesis
put forth by Maloney et al. (1984) and Anderson, William L. and Daniel A. Mizak
Hussain and Laband (2005); that policy (2006). “Politics of Environmental Law:
outcomes may be impacted by how costs of Political ideology ,Elitism or Urban-
those outcomes are distributed. More rural Interests?” Public Choice,
specifically, if the costs of legislation are not 129:131-157.
internalized in the individual Senator’s state
then his/her support is more likely. Rational Baumol, W.J. and W.E. Oates (1988). The
policymakers can be expected to exploit a Theory of Environmental Policy. New
majority rule decision mechanism by York: Cambridge Press.
strategically designing legislation that
spreads the benefits and concentrates the Cropper, M. and C.Griffiths. (1994). “The
costs among a minority of political Interaction of Population Growth and
jurisdictions. Environmental Quality.” American
Economic Review, American Economic
How this relates to the urban/rural split Association, vol. 84(2), pages 250-54,
within a state is not clear as my analysis May.

Hussain, A. and D.N. Laband (2005). “The
Tragedy of the Political Commons:
Evidence From U.S. Senate Roll Call
Votes on Environmental Legislation.”
Public Choice, 124:353-64.
Laband, D.N. (2001). “Regulating

Biodiversity: Tragedy in the Political
Commons.” The Freeman: Ideas on
Liberty. September.
Maloney, M. T., McCormick, R. E. and R.D.

Tollison (1984). “Economic regulation,
competitive governments, and
specialized resources.” The Journal of
Law and Economics, 27(2), 329–338.
Nelson, J.P. (2002). “Green” Voting and

Ideology: LCV Scores and Roll-Call
Voting in the U.S. Senate, 1988-1998.”
The Review of Economics and
Statistics, 84(3): 518-529.
Shipan, C.R and W.R. Lowry, (2001).

“Environmental Policy and Party
Divergence in Congress.” Political
Research Quarterly, 54(2):245-263.

Urban Ecosystem Services: Metro Nature and Human Well-Being
Kathleen L. Wolf
kwolf@uw.edu
The concept of ecosystem services (ES) is a intangible experiential benefits now

fundamental shift in how natural resources described by ES frameworks don’t
are defined and valued by human society. adequately elaborate the full range of
Natural assets, such as forests, agricultural services provided by nature in urban
lands, shorelines, and seas, have long been settings, the landscapes where the majority
recognized as the sources of essential and of the world’s citizens now live. Despite an
economically valuable goods and services. extensive evidence base, current
ES specify additional sources of direct or classifications seem to imply that non-
indirect benefits and their economic material services (such as recreation,
consequences, such as flood protection, culture, and education) are primarily
pollinator activity, natural filtering of generated within large scale, rural, perhaps
potable water, and climate stability. even pristine landscapes – places beyond the
city.
Various ES classifications have been
proposed. i Each sorts and defines Also, ES classifications purport to address
derivations of natural capital, summarizing psychosocial benefits, but subsequent
across extensive scientific evidence. Each descriptions and applications rarely treat the
also recognizes non-material, experiential human experience of nature in the same
benefits that people derive from natural level of detail as biophysical dynamics.
systems, thereby considering the role of Notably, urban residents gain extensive
environment in human and social capital. intangible, indirect benefits from the
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment experience of nearby nature, that is, the
classification ii, for instance, lists cultural green spaces found immediately around the
services, including spiritual, educational and places where people live, work, and learn.
recreational components. These cultural This article serves three purposes. First, it
services, and the nature-based goods and suggests that a comprehensive ES outlook
services that satisfy human biological needs, should include metro nature services,
largely determine levels of human health referring to an expanded set of ES that are
and well-being. profoundly important for billions of urban
dwellers around the world. Second, it
Today about 80 percent of the U.S. provides a sampling of the studies and
population lives in cities and urbanized methodologies that affirm metro nature
areas; the sum is at about 50 percent across services and demonstrate that there is
the planet. iii Urban populations consume scientific capacity to understand much more.
concentrated quantities of ES, extracting Finally, a web-based resource that catalogs
food, water, energy and the raw materials of human health and well-being research
goods from ecological systems, near and far. results is introduced.
There are observed patterns across the
current literature. First, the categories of

Metro Nature Services of cities and towns. An expanded ES
approach should encompass the services
Metro nature is the everyday green within provided by smaller scale nature patches,
built environments, still regarded by some particularly those found in close proximity
ecologists as being dysfunctional. It includes to high-density human populations
naturalistic patches, such as urban forests,
greenbelts, conserved open spaces, and City leaders increasingly employ natural
riparian corridors. Metro nature also elements and urban ecology to enhance the
includes constructed nature such as parks, sustainability and efficiencies of cities.
streetscapes, community gardens, pocket Studies indicate that small remnants of
parks, and recreation paths. Metro nature is native ecosystems or entirely constructed
fragmented and diverse in content and nature elements provide environmental
character, often imbued with cultural artifact benefits. Green infrastructure innovations -
and character. rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs – are
installed to achieve ecology-based
Natural systems are the fundamental sources management of water, air or energy.
of human sustenance and livelihood that Landscapes of large buildings – schools,
provide tangible materials and goods for libraries, city halls – are designed and
human society. Yet ecosystem scientists installed to reduce chemical use, enhance
may perceive the processes of productivity biodiversity, and integrate with regional
to be far removed from urban centers. Metro ecosystems. Roadside plantings are
nature may not measure up to more becoming more amenable to wildlife and
traditional scientific perceptions of what is wetlands. When measured cumulatively
“natural.” Certain disciplinary biases across a metropolitan area the positive
sometimes preclude thinking about nature in benefit/cost implications of such
cities as anything more than a means of biotechnologies are substantial
beautification, or as a way to mask or screen
sensory annoyances. Consequently, many Due to space limitations and typically high
natural resources scientists and managers real estate costs in cities natural elements of
may overlook the opportunities of metro any scale must be multi-tasking. Metro
nature, perhaps even taking it for granted. nature should be planned and managed to
generate biophysical benefits, but also
Environmental services configured in ways that satisfy other human
needs.
Large-scale ecosystems, such as oceans and
forests, were the necessary focus of initial Science and social benefit
and seminal concepts concerning ES. Recent
urban ecology research is revealing the Extensive social science research indicates
particular dynamics of nature in that the presence of greenery in the daily
metropolitan areas, and amending ecological activities and lives of urban dwellers
assumptions that were once based on generates profound and important affects.
extrapolation from the better understood Both passive and active experiences of
ecology of rural and wildland landscapes. nearby nature enable extensive
Thus scientists and resource managers can psychological, social, and physiological
expand how ES are envisioned and defined, benefits.
based on the specific environmental contexts

Discourse on the humanistic contributions of Health and well-being benefits
nature to individuals, communities and
society was once prominent in public Scientific findings imply associations
debate. iv Today’s decision-makers are often between even the smallest bits of nearby
more inclined to pursue observed facts and nature and human health and well-being. A
economic valuations as the basis for public rich research literature about metro nature
policy. Even though they may privately and human capital spans several decades.
acknowledge the beneficial experiential Below is a sampler:
aspects of human encounters with nature,
they premise their public actions on a. Individual Health: Hospital patients who
empirical sources. have a view of nature recover faster from
surgery and require less pain relief
Some ecologists regard anecdotal accounts medication. v. Views of nature reduce
of human health, happiness, functioning and physiological stress response, vi including
spirit as important, but not quantifiable. driving stress. vii More active lifestyles
However investigators have employed combat obesity, improve cardiovascular
empirical methods to explore the extent and health, increase longevity, and enhance
quality of the human services of urban physical and psychological development of
greening for nearly 40 years. children. viii Trees and landscapes contribute
to more walkable cities and increase
Looking across this body of work, the use of recreational benefits City trees may help
analytic methods has provided two insights. reduce escalating personal and public
First, the observed benefits of restorative spending for health services.
experiences and social renewal due to time
spent in gardens and parks have been b. Individual Mental Functioning: Nearby
intuitively noted for centuries, and are now nature provides restorative experiences that
empirically confirmed. While nature in cities aids in overcoming the mental fatigue
may provide beauty and delight, the studies associated with urban lifestyles. Desk
have expanded our understanding of how workers who have a view of nature report
people and communities benefit from greater job productivity and satisfaction.
interactions with nature in the built world. Experiences of urban nature help children be
more disciplined, and can reduce attention
Second, and more important, the systematic, deficit disorders. Students show better
critical approaches of science have revealed academic performance on green campuses.
greater texture and dimension in the human
relationship to nature. Benefits are described c. Community Wellness: Well-managed
in terms of human scale from individual to urban forests can strengthen communities by
community, with some degree of variability empowering citizens, improving social ties
ix
across place, time and human groups. reducing crime, and revitalizing
Research indicates that metro nature is not neighborhoods. The urban forest contributes
an expendable amenity, but a profoundly to a sense of place. Trees add to our quality
important aspect of urban living. of life and make our cities and towns better
places to live, work, play, and learn.
d. Community Economics: The economic

value of a well-managed urban forest

includes increased property values higher Planning and management
rental rates for commercial properties, and
positive consumer response in business Sustained efforts to plan, conserve, and
districts. A city having high environmental manage metro nature are needed. Many
quality is an attractive environment for new urban parks and green spaces are in local
businesses. These benefits can generate a government jurisdictions that aim to satisfy
larger, local tax base, providing revenue to community-based recreation and aesthetic
offset urban forest management costs goals. Operations are often site-based, and
lacking in comprehensive goals across a
Research Access Tool metropolitan area or geographic region.
Perhaps such studies are not yet well At a larger scale some federal or state
represented in ES classifications because the initiatives address urban natural areas, but
research corpus is dispersed across not systematically. The U.S. Forest Service
numerous disciplines and their associated distributes funds to encourage urban forestry
journals, e.g., psychology, sociology, urban programs, and the Environmental Protection
planning, geography, and landscape Agency has programs that address urban
architecture. Yet the findings constitute ES lands or waters that pose public health risks,
that are of interest to many audiences, such as brownfields. Few agencies have
including resource managers, civic leaders, addressed the full potential of urban nature,
and health officials. treating it as an integral component of city
systems, and worthy of sustained dedicated
A science catalog is now available as a web staff and budget.
site entitled Green Cities – Good Health, at
http://depts.washington.edu/hhwb/ The United States and other nations have
In 2009 nearly 1,200 articles and reports bestowed special status on bold, dramatic
were collected, and content analyzed, landscapes through national park and
resulting in 12 themes of key findings. reserve designations. The extent of ES
Narrative summaries are being prepared for provided by urban green spaces indicates
each theme, to be completed late in 2010. that nature systems in cities should also be
The entire collection serves as a timely recognized as special places. They should be
compilation of knowledge about metro comprehensively defined, planned and
nature and human health and well-being. managed. Some cities have analyzed their
metro nature quotient, using indicators such
Metro Nature Policy & Value as tree canopy cover or parks area per
capita. Additional efforts are needed to
The scientific evidence justifies an expanded determine how to effectively assess and
conceptualization of ES concerning urban monitor the resources, the urban equivalent
settings. Assuming that metro nature of landscape-scale inventory and
services should be assimilated into the assessment. Better planning and
growing civic discourse about ES, there are management practices can then be
important considerations. adaptively applied to enhance metro nature
productivity.

Economic valuation (such as stormwater management and
reduced heat island effects).
Metro nature poses quandaries for societies
that derive economic value based on Economic valuation techniques could also
individualism and private property rights. be applied to assess psychosocial societal
Urban green is a civic resource that may not values. For instance, reduced health care
respect intentions of possession or costs are associated with moderate physical
exclusion. Private gardens are often precious activity. Studies show that landscaped
to their owners, providing joy and beauty to streetscapes and parks contribute to more
a limited number of people. But metro walkable communities. Avoided medical
nature is a valuable civic natural resource, costs are a probable economic benefit.
with attendant tensions of who is to receive
benefit and who is to steward the resource. Equity and access
Economic valuation of nonmarket services
is both contentious and essential to Empirical evidence indicates that metro
incorporate metro nature benefits into nature experiences are beneficial to people
planning and management efforts. of all ages, across diverse cultures, and
Historically, many ecosystems services have positively affect people in all socioeconomic
had an implicit value of zero in public and situations. Social inequity of distribution or
private decision-making. A fair comparison access can be a concern. x In many cities
of policy alternatives requires that all the cultural, political and economic patterns of
consequences of a proposal be weighed, not times past have selectively enabled or
just those that are easily measured and limited access to metro nature for certain
valued in monetary terms because they are populations. We now understand why nature
bought and sold. Numerous market and non- in cities is important, and some cities have
market, direct and indirect techniques are shown leadership in developing strategies
recognized as useful in assessing the for resource conservation and management.
economic value of the goods and services Integral to those efforts should be action to
provided by ecosystems. provide metro nature services equitably to
all urban inhabitants.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the
Environmental Protection Agency each have Conclusions
launched national initiatives to define,
identify, and propose valuations for This essay provides several contributions. It
comprehensive systems of ES. Such efforts demonstrates that an ES outlook that is
should not limit the range of landscapes urban-based may capture an expanded set of
under consideration. functions and benefits that are essential for
Many prior studies and valuation efforts human populations around the world. A
have been applied to rural land or forests, diverse range of studies and methodologies
avoiding urban settings. In cities very small has substantiated metro nature services and
nature patches or remnants of native affirms that scientific research could add
systems, constructed cultural landscapes, or additional insights. Nature in cities, due to
installed biotechnologies can provide intensity of human/environment interactions,
quantifiable net positive economic value is particularly important for human well-
through ecological functions that being and human habitat. The economic
supplement or augment engineered systems implications of these socio-cultural ES are

x
diverse and profound, and have not yet been Parsons, R, L Tassinary, RS Ulrich, MR
fully assessed. A metro nature services Hebl, and M Grossman-Alexander. 1998.
outlook offers many future opportunities in The view from the road: Implications for
resource science, policy, and management. stress recovery and immunization.
Journal of Environmental Psychology
18:113-140.
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Urban Tree Cover Distribution as a Human Health Indicator:
A Case Study of Tampa, Florida
V. Jennings1, E. Johnson1, C. Brown 2, W. Zipperer 3, R. Gragg1
1
Environmental Sciences Institute, Florida A&M University 2 Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M
University, 3 USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station, Gainesville FL
Corresponding Author: Viniece Jennings, viniece1.jennings@famu.edu
Abstract (EPA, 2008). For example, vegetation can

be an instrumental indicator for positive and
Tree canopy is an important natural resource degrading environmental practices (Rodiek ,
in the urban environment. For example, trees 2009). Studies have noted numerous benefits
remove pollutants from the atmosphere and of tree cover (e.g. greenspaces) to include
maybe considered a tool to improve air erosion control, alleviation of thermal stress,
quality and facilitate public health. This promoting physical activity, as well as
preliminary study explored this phenomenon psychological advantages. In addition, some
in Tampa, Florida comparing secondary data trees may improve air quality thru the
for respiratory health status, percent poverty removal of pollutants such as ozone, sulfur
level, and percent tree cover at the zip code dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide,
level using regression analysis. The results and carbon monoxide (Nowak, 2000). The
showed considerable variation and no function of removing atmospheric pollutants
significant relationship. Inverse relationships caused leaf area index to be identified as an
were observed between the percentage of indicator for regulating air quality (de Groot
tree cover and respiratory outcomes for low- et al., 2009). While various diseases can be
and high-income areas. A positive attributed to environmental changes,
relationship was observed in middle income environmental factors are not rightly
zip codes. Further research will be regarded in the paradigm of human health
conducted to account for other factors (e.g research (Gohlke and Portier, 2007). For the
area pollution concentration, and tree cover purpose of bridging such research deficits,
services) that influence this relationship. the primary goal of this project is to
investigate the relationship between
Introduction respiratory health and tree cover
distribution.
While the urban environment can exacerbate
or alleviate health concerns (Barton, 2009; Lovasi et al. (2008) noted that street trees
Jackson, 2003), its condition can also were related to a lower prevalence of
influence the ecological services provided in pediatric asthma in New York City. Yet with
these areas. Land use dynamics and its this observation, Lovasi et al. did not make
relationship to ecosystem functioning and the causal inference that trees are correlated
human welfare are considered a grand with asthma on an individual basis. As urban
challenge in environmental science green spaces are not the source of all
(National Research Council, 2001). Trends ecosystem services, not all green spaces are
in land cover serve as indicators for ecologically beneficial (MEA, 2005).
environmental and human health impacts Pollution removal rates can exhibit spatial

variation due to factors such as the pollution The percentage of tree cover associated with
concentration, precipitation, length of leaf the city of Tampa boundary area designated
season and other environmental factors by the Urban Ecological Analysis (UEA)
(Nowak, 2000). The allergenic index of a study (Andreu et al., 2008). Socioeconomic
tree species also influences its contribution categories for high, medium, and low were
to pollen release and particulate matter. grouped by the percent poverty level as
These observations led us to investigate the identified by the Census Bureau. High
influence of tree cover on human respiratory income areas were determined as areas
health in Tampa, Florida. where less than nine percent of individuals
were below the poverty level. Middle-
Description of Study Area income areas were designated with a range
The City of Tampa is along the western of nine to nineteen percent of individuals
coast of Florida in the middle of the below the poverty line. Low income areas
peninsula. Tampa was ranked the third included zip codes where more than twenty
largest city in Florida and fifty-third largest percent of individuals were below the
city in the United States (US Census Bureau poverty line. Data was analyzed using fit
2000, 2007; City of Tampa, 2008). Tree model regressions of the Statistical Analysis
removal in Tampa is the result of Software (SAS) JMP 8 statistical package.
anthropogenic influences (e.g. development,
safety, preference, etc.) and natural
disturbances (e.g. storms, lightening, Results
disease, etc.) (Andreu et al., 2008). Landry
& Pu (2009) noted that Tampa’s 1974 tree The following results were obtained:
ordinance was effective at enhancing tree
cover in the area as they analyzed time
periods before and after the ordinance.
Methodology
The data sets used in this preliminary study

included secondary data for respiratory
health outcomes, the percentage of tree
cover, and the socioeconomic indicator of
poverty level. Emergency room asthma,
bronchitis, and wheezing health data were
Figure 1: Bubble plot comparison of annual visits
obtained from the Florida Agency of Health rate for overall respiratory health per 1000 persons
Care Administration (AHCA) for the years delineated by high, medium, and low income or
of 2005-2008 filtered by the International socioeconomic status (SES) and the associated zip
Classification of Diseases code 9 (ICD-9) at codes and the percentage of tree cover; note that the
size of the circle depicts the percentage of tree cover
the designated zip codes for the regression
for its respective zip code category or SES.
analysis. Annual emergency room visits rate
per one thousand persons was calculated by
dividing the respiratory health data values
by the population of the respective zip
codes.

Discussion and Further Research confounding factors (e.g. ambient pollution
concentration) that influence the relationship
The results show no significant relationship between tree cover and human health
between variation in income, tree cover, and outcomes. The results and perspectives of
respiratory health in the twenty-one Tampa this study contribute to the continuing
Florida zip code areas in this study (see conversation for the sustainability of the
Figures 1 and 2). Populations with less urban environment and the populations
exposure to green spaces may have less within it.
protection from health disparities (see
Figure 2); (Mitchell & Popham, 2008). A Acknowledgements
limitation in the study includes the scale of
data and analysis at the zip code level. The insight and guidance from the following
Further analysis would consider proxy data individuals is also appreciated in the
at smaller demographic units such as census completion of this project: Dr. Larry
tracks and blockgroups that could account Robinson. Micheal Andreu, Shawn Landry,
for the observed variation. Additionally, the Robert Northrop and Ms. Melissa Friedman
type of health data (e.g. emergency room) provided the tree cover and vegetation data
used in the analyses.
High Income
Middle Income
Low Income
References
Andreu, M. G., Friedman, M.H., Landry,

S.M. & Northrop, R.J. (2008). City of
Tampa Urban Ecological Analysis 2006-
2007. Final Report to the City of Tampa,
April 24, 2008. City of Tampa, Florida.
Barton, H. (2009). Land use planning and

health. Land Use Policy, 26S, S115–
S123.
Figure 2: Regression plot of respiratory emergency room visits per City of Tampa 2009 Press Release. Tampa’s
1000 and the percentage of tree cover; The equation
Population Moves Up In
and respective coefficient of determination for each
socioeconomic group are as follows: high income (y= Ranking.Accessed at:
-0.03x + 3.78; r2= 0.12), middle income (y= 0.04x + http://www.tampagov.net/
4.33; r2= 0.05), low income (y= -0.04 + 10.03, r2= appl_tampa_announcements/ViewReleas
0.07). e.asp?ReleaseID=5899)
could favor low-income populations that
have limited health insurance and may be de Groot, R. Alkemade,R., Braat, L., Hein,
restricted to the emergency room for their L., & Willemen, L. (In Press).
primary source of medical attention. Challenges in integrating the concept of
Including other sets of health data within ecosystem services and values in
AHCA (e.g. insured inpatient and outpatient landscape planning, management and
data) may overcome this deficiency. Further decision making. Ecological Complexity,
research may also account for other doi:10.1016/j.ecocom.2009.10.006

Gohlke, J.M., & Portier, C.J. (2007). The
forest for the trees: a systems
approach to human health
research. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 115(9), 1261-1263.
Jackson, L.E. (2003). The relationship of

urban design to human health and
condition. Landscape and Urban
Planning, 64(4), 191-200.
Landry, S. & Pu, R. (2010). The impact

of land development regulation on
residential tree cover: an empirical
evaluation using high resolution
IKONOS imagery. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 94(2), 94-104.
Lovasi, G.S., Quinn, J.W, Neckerman,

K.M., Perzanowski, M.S., & Rundle,
A. (2008). Children living in areas
with more street trees have lower
prevalence of asthma. Journal of
Epidemiology and Community
Health, 62, 647-649.
Mitchell, R., & Popham, F. (2008). Effect

of exposure to natural environment
on health inequalities: an
observational population study.
Lancet, 372, 1655–60.
National Research Council. (2001).

Grand challenges in environmental
science. Washington D.C.: National
Academy Press.
Nowak, D. (2000). Tree species selection,

design, and management to improve
air quality. American Society of
Landscape Architects Annual
Meeting Proceedings
Rodiek, J. (2009). Landscape and urban

planning cover for 2010. Landscape
Urban Planning, 94(1), 1-2.

Green For Life! Implementing Environmental Education Within The Urban-
Rural Interface
Charlene LeBleu
Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture
leblecm@auburn.edu
Rebecca O'Neal Dagg
Associate Dean and Associate Professor of Architecture
onealrg@auburn.edu
Dr. Carla Jackson Bell
Dir. Multicultural Affairs
cjj0001@auburn.edu
College of Architecture Design and Construction

Auburn University
Abstract Introduction
Environmental education plays a key part in The Boykin Community is situated in

improving the quality of life and education northwest Auburn, AL in the Saugahatchee
of our youth. Green building and living Watershed. Saugahatchee Creek is currently
practices have been suggested to improve listed on the State of Alabama Clean Water
the quality of the water and the overall Act (CWA) 303d list for impairments
health of the watershed. This paper reveals including nutrients and organic enrichment/
how an outreach demonstration site for dissolved oxygen. Numerous non-point
stormwater best management practices source (NPS) pollutants are also listed
(BMPs) is used to assist in the including sediment, pathogens, and excess
implementation of an environmental nutrients. Green building and living
educational program that promotes green practices have been suggested to improve
building. The pilot program works with the quality of the water and the overall
existing after school curricula at a local health of the watershed. How we design and
community center to stimulate academic build our homes, offices and public
achievement in science and arts through the structures will have a substantial impact on
age appropriate hands-on building of a the ultimate ecological footprint of the
demonstration site of “green retrofits.” The community (Beatley and Manning, 1997).
Green for Life! education program Green building practices known as Low
stimulates environmental awareness and Impact Development (LID) are integrated
outdoor activity to combat sedentary Best Management Practices (BMP's) for
lifestyles in children in an underserved stormwater that seek to maintain a site’s pre-
community while laying a foundation to construction hydrology through “micro-site”
promote green building education. management of stormwater. LID practices
encourage stormwater infiltration at the lot
level and have the ability to remove NPS
Keywords: environmental education, water pollutants (Hager 2003). The LID approach
quality, and green building education. has been found to result in increased
retention of stormwater and pollutants on

site, mimicking pre-development hydrologic
function. (Dietz, 2007.
This project provides implementation of a
LID demonstration site for watershed
educational use and implements a
companion education program, Green for
Life! for green building education. Graduate
students from the College of Architecture
Design and Construction (CADC)
Landscape Architecture and Design-Build
programs and other volunteer graduate
Photo 1: Example of flooded conditions at rain
students, assisted in providing design garden #1 site at Boykin Community Center.
assistance and supervising CADC Learning
Community volunteers (undergraduate
students) and after school participants with Objectives
LID BMP strategies at the community
center. Students served as academic program The objectives of this project were to find an
coordinators and implemented the underserved neighborhood within the
companion environmental education plan to Saugahatchee Watershed that was in need of
further reinforce green building and living water quality and erosion and sediment
objectives. Educational signage was control assistance, and to access the site for
designed and installed at all BMP sites along water BMP needs. This assessment would
the demonstration site trail for outreach to lead to BMP design solutions and
the neighborhood and beyond. installation of BMPs to remedy the
problems. The BMPs would be encased
Problem within a demonstration site that suggests
visitors walk the BMP Trails.
The problems this project addresses are
wide-ranging. The Boykin Community Educational signage would be installed at
Center is a former elementary school with a each BMP to inform the visitor of the
typical flat-roof that supports 52+ roof problem and the implemented solution. An
drains of which 32 drain toward the age-appropriate companion green building/
playgrounds. Impervious surface runoff environmental education program would be
from roof and parking lots promote much implemented as part of the afterschool
erosion and saturation to playground and curricula at the community center. The
lawn areas (Photo 1). Every year several environmental education program would
dump truck loads of sand are added to the engage the demonstration site to reinforce
play ground site only for it to be washed LID/green building objectives. The use of
away by the water emitted from the roof the demonstration site would reach beyond
drains. This sand erodes away to the storm the community center to provide watershed
drains and to the tributaries of Saugahatchee education to area residents, municipal
Creek. officials, educators and others.

Methods throughout the Saugahatchee Watershed,
state of Alabama and beyond.
The project is part of a four-part undertaking .
that implements LID integrated practices Demonstration Site
and teaches appreciation for building and The demonstration site contains multiple
living green while fostering ideas of how to BMPs to mitigate stormwater runoff.
be an environmentally responsible dweller Selected BMP’s include: vegetated swales
in the Saugahatchee Watershed. Graduate (2), rain gardens/ bioretention (3) and
students in the building science and cisterns (4) (Photo 2). A kiosk in the NE
landscape architecture programs of the corner of the gymnasium parking lot (main
College of Architecture Design and parking lot) provides information for the
Construction (CADC) accessed the existing overall project and directs you to BMP
conditions of the grounds of the community locations where additional educational
center and how stormwater flow contributed signage provides informative information on
pollutants and sediment to Saugahatchee each site problem and BMP solution.
Creek. Once the assessment was made,
green BMP solutions (green water quality
retrofits) were designed within a
demonstration site. The demonstration site
and the Green for Life! environmental
education curricula work together to
promote LID green building education and
watershed health.
Graduate students calculated stormwater

flow and nutrient and sediment runoff to
determine the load in on-site catchments and
identified LID BMPs to be retrofitted.
Stakeholder meetings were held with facility Photo 2: Rebecca Dagg relaxing at rain garden
groups to receive input and report findings. #1 site after BMP installation.
They also designed and supervised the
Assessment of existing conditions found
installation of BMPs by the CADC Learning
much erosion in the playground and
Communities, university and neighborhood
landscape areas. Calculations were made to
volunteers.
gage nutrient and sediment runoff to
determine load in on-site catchments.
Graduate students and volunteers also
BMP’s were identified for retrofitting and
assisted in the implementation of the
installation. Stakeholder meetings of user
education program, “Green for Life!” to
groups from the facility and city of Auburn,
user groups at the community center. Both
AL officials were held to report findings.
teachers and school children learned what
Once approved, BMP’s were designed and
“green living and building” is and how
installed.
building and living green can make a
difference in their lives in the Saugahatchee
Playing outside is the most anticipated part
Watershed. A template was created to make
of the day for most young children, and at
the Green for Life! project transferable to
Boykin the drainage problems made it very
other after school programs and schools
difficult for the children to go outside due to

the washed-out, flooded, and muddy important to childhood education and family
playground conditions. Past remedies for development. It also builds capacity in
these problems included spreading three support of the pending legislation of No
dump truck loads (approximately three tons) Child Left Inside Act (NCLI Act -- H.R.
of sand on the playgrounds each year. This 2054 / S. 866; pending) by encouraging the
sand would eventually erode away to participants to walk and engage the
surrounding catchment basins and demonstration site BMP tour. The Green for
surrounding tributaries and end up in the Life! program acts as a stimulus to combat
receiving waters of Saugahatchee Creek. sedentary lifestyles in children and adults in
Alleviating this problem alone provides an underserved community while laying a
improvement to receiving waters. This foundation to promote water quality,
problem was alleviated by implementing environmental education and green building
three rain gardens, and a grass swale. Bare education. The grounds of the community
ground at play ground area was covered by center become an outdoor environmental
centipede sod. This retrofit alone will education center for the whole neighborhood
provide much improvement to the community and beyond.
Saugahatchee Creek receiving waters.
Benefits to the watershed from this project

not only include a reduction in pollutant and
sediment load to Saugahatchee Creek but
provide an increase in watershed education
capacity. The demonstration site for
environmental and BMP education increases
the awareness of watershed water quality
and improved stormwater runoff
management by community center user
groups, educators and community residents.
Environmental Education Program Photo 3: Graduate students and volunteers

engaged in service learning and gained
The Green for Life! environmental experience by providing design assistance and
education program is two-fold. First, the implementation expertise.
program provides green retrofits to the
community center and secondly, a green
education curriculum empowers children
The education benefits of this project were
and students to take their new “green
also shared by the graduate students and
knowledge” home and to share how
volunteers (Photo 3). It provided them
“greening” the community will help restore
engagement in service learning and they
ecosystems and make communities stronger.
gained experience by providing design
assistance and implementation expertise.
The pilot program targets school children
Both groups also assisted in implementing
categorized by the following age groups:
the educational plans and gained capacity in
GreenKidz for Life! (K-8) and GreenTeenz
building new relationships with the
for Life! (9-12). This program emphasizes
community center.
the understanding of core principals of
environmental education and why they are

Summary Recommendations for Future
Directions. Journal of Water, Air and
The relationships between environmental Soil Pollution. Vol 186: 1-4. Nov 2007.
education, water quality and green building
education are implemented using a two-fold Hager, Mary C. 2003. Low-Impact
education program that includes the building Development. Journal for Surface
of a hands-on demonstration site of green Water Quality Professionals Volume 4,
retrofits (stormwater BMPs) and the No. 1 (2003).
companion Green for Life! environmental/
green building education program. The Deutsch, William, Eric Reutebuch and
results show that the BMP’s provide Wendy Seesock. Saugahatchee
pollutant and sediment mitigation to runoff Watershed Management Plan. Alabama
flowing over roofs, parking lots, Department of Environmental
playgrounds and lawn areas. The Green for Management and U.S. Environmental
Life! program helps educate facility user Protection Agency, Region 4. March
groups and stakeholders and aids in helping 31, 2009. Auburn University
them understand how the BMP’s work and Department of Fisheries.
how watershed health is improved though
green building practices.
Acknowledgements
The important contribution of this project is
the retrofitting of green building principals This project is financially supported by
within an underserved neighborhood. The Saugahatchee Management Plan Grants and
implication for retrofitting green BMPs in the Alabama Department of Environmental
underserved neighborhoods is to provide Management (319 Clean Water Act). We
green building education to promote would like to thank graduate students
watershed health. Challenges exist between Matthew Biesecker, Master of Landscape
the installation of green retrofits and the Architecture, Michael Glebowski, Master of
ability to engage and educate community Design Build and Joshua Lamberth, Master
participants. Further research is needed to of Landscape Architecture for their design
examine and evaluate neighborhood and supervision assistance, the College of
incentives for participation in green build Architecture, Design and Construction
projects. Learning Community and the Master of
Landscape Architecture Construction III--
References Stormwater class for the service-learning
hours that they contributed to this effort, our
Beatley, Timothy and Kristy Manning. stakeholder groups (Auburn Day Care, Head
1997. The Ecology of Place, Planning Start, Joyland Day Care, Lee County Adult
for Environment, Economy, and Day Care, Lee County Boys and Girls
Community. Island Press. NY. Clubs), and the City of Auburn, AL
Recreation Department.
Dietz, Michael. 2007. Low Impact
Development Practices: A Review of
Current Research and

Landowners’ Incentives for Forest Conservation Around El Yunque National
Forest: Obstacles and Opportunities
Tania López Marrero1 and Marianne Meyn2

1
Institute of Caribbean Studies
University of Puerto Rico
P.O. Box 23361
San Juan, P.R. 00931
Email: lopez@email.uprrp.edu,
tlopez.upr@gmail.com (Corresponding author)
2
Misión Industrial de Puerto Rico
P.O. Box 22311
Estación UPR, Río Piedras, P.R. 00931
Introduction 2006; Lugo et al., 2004). On the other hand,

economic and political factors limit land
Rapid changes in urban and built-up areas purchase for conservation (C. Krupp,
around El Yunque National Forest (EYNF), personal communication).
the largest protected area in Puerto Rico
managed by the US Forest Service (USFS), As monetary resources for land acquisition
have been identified as a major threat to the become scarcer and more competitive, the
forest and the services it provides (e.g., need to explore other initiatives for forest
López, 2010; Lugo et al., 2004). Different conservation around EYNF has become
mechanisms for the conservation of imperative. Forest conservation of privately
peripheral forest lands have been put into owned lands – specifically landowners’
place to minimize the potential negative incentives for forest conservation – is one
effects of urban expansion. These include, initiative that has been identified by the
for example, a regional zoning plan USFS Lands and Special Use Program in
developed by the Puerto Rican government Puerto Rico as a potential mechanism to
in 1983 (Lugo et al., 2000), land acquisition increase (or maintain) forest cover around
for conservation by the USFS, and EYNF to support its functioning and the
collaboration with local non governmental services it provides. There is, however, a
organizations to purchase lands for lack of knowledge about landowners’
conservation through memorandums of attitudes towards incentive-driven land
understandings (C. Krupp, personal conservation programs and their willingness
communication). to take part in them. The present study helps
filling this gap by providing information on
Unfortunately, these mechanisms have been landowners’ knowledge about, and
less successful than expected. Due to poor willingness to participate in three incentive-
enforcement of the zoning plan, for instance, driven land conservation programs for
approximately 85% of the new urban/built- landowners: conservation easements, land
up expansion during the last two decades donation, and the purchase of private lands
has occurred in “non urban” zoning districts for conservation (Box 1). Specifically, the
(e.g., in agricultural, forest zoning districts) objectives of this study were to:
(López Marrero and Villanueva Colón,

• Assess landowners’ knowledge and • Identify opportunities and limitations
interests about the above-mentioned for forest conservation and
conservation programs. programs’ implementation.
Box 1. Incentive-driven land conservation programs for landowners

In conservation easement programs, landowners receive tax credits for approved conservation
practices. It constitutes a legally binding process through which landowners and a governmental or
non profit entity agree upon permanent land use restrictions for the property aiming at granting its
enjoyment for conservation. Landowners retain both tenure and enjoyment of their property.
Likewise, landowners who donate their land for conservation purposes receive tax credits
Source: Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Sustentable (2008)
Methods we asked if they knew about any

conservation program for landowners.
A total of thirty structured interviews were Then, we specifically asked if they have
conducted between September and heard or knew about the three conservation
December 2009 with landowners from 10 programs: conservation easement, land
randomly selected communities within the donation, and the purchase of private lands
USFS priority acquisition areas in the by the USFS. In case they had heard of
proclamation area of EYNF (Figure 1). them, we asked what they knew about them.
Interview questions were composed of both Otherwise, we briefly described what each
closed and open ended questions, and were program was about. After this brief
designed primarily to obtain qualitative explanation, we asked if they would be
information. The interviews were carried interested in receiving more information
out in the homes of participants, were about the programs and, if so, which would
conducted in Spanish, and lasted from 30 that be. Finally we asked if they would
minutes to an hour. Two to three consider taking part in any of these
landowners were interviewed in each programs and, if so, which would it be. If
community. their answer was negative, we asked them to
explain the reasons for their unwillingness to
The first part of the interview included take part in them.
questions regarding the attributes
landowners appreciate of their land, means Figure 1. Location of the study area
of land acquisition (i.e., if it was inherited or
purchased), current land cover and preferred
future land cover (i.e., whether they prefer
land cover to stay similar or if they would
not mind it becoming more urbanized), and
preferred future landownership (i.e., whether
they preferred their land to remain a family
property or not).
The second part of the interview focused on

questions related to the three incentive-
driven land conservation programs. First,

Landowners’ characteristics, land was the least known program, with just one
attributes, ownership, and land cover landowner knowing about it.
A total of 19 male landowners (63.3%) were After briefly describing each program, most
interviewed, compared to 11 (36.7%) female of the landowners (70%) stated not to be
landowners. On average, landowners have interested in receiving more information
lived 39.7 years on their land. The majority about these programs. Just five respondents
(80%) of the interviewees inherited the land, (16.7%) said they would be interested in
while six participants (20%) purchased their receiving information about the land
land. Most of the interviewees (90%) would purchase and the conservation easement
like their land to remain a property of their programs; none was interested in receiving
family. information about the donation program.
Similarly, most participants (24 out of 30 or
Quality of life – including tranquility, social 80%) said they would not consider
relationships, and contact with nature – was participating in any program. Just four
the most mentioned benefit (preferred participants (13.3%) said they would
attribute) of living on their land, cited by consider taking part in the easement or the
90% of all participants. This was followed land purchase programs. In the case of land
by cool temperatures (86.7%), clean air and purchase, respondents asserted that selling
forested landscape (50% each), and access their land to the USFS would depend on the
to water (46.7%). Other less cited benefits price (one determined by the market value)
included access to minor crops (30%), and on how fast the process could be
scenic value (30%), abundant rainfall completed (without much of a bureaucratic
(23.3%), and the presence of fauna (23.3%). hassle). None of the landowners would
Participants related these attributes to being consider donating his/her land for
located in a rural, forested landscape in conservation to the USFS.
general, and to their proximity to EYNF
specifically. In fact, all respondents would Not trusting governmental programs was the
like both their land and the adjoining areas most cited reason for not been interested in
to stay the same in terms of land cover taking part in any conservation program.
(forest, pasture and shrubs, minor crops, More than half of the 24 landowners that
mixed uses); they would not like the area to were not interested in participating in any
become urbanized. program provided this reason (Table 1). The
second most cited reason, mentioned by
Knowledge and willingness to take part in 50% of these landowners, was related to
land conservation programs future decisions about the land.
Specifically, landowners do not want to
encumber their inheritors’ property; they
Overall, participants did not know about any want them to be able to make free decisions
incentive-driven land conservation programs about the land (e.g., land uses, whether they
for landowners. This was also true as would like to keep it or sell it). The third
related to the three programs in question. reason, cited by 45.8% of respondents, was
Some landowners (33.3%) had heard of the related to joint inheritance and land tenure.
purchase of private lands for conservation Many of these lands are inherited by many
by the USFS, followed by the donation people, which means that no action could be
program (16.7%). Conservation easement taken unless all inheritors agree. Moreover,
resolving inheritance matters involves legal

processes that require monetary resources landowner interviewed recommended
and consensus among all inheritors. In most disseminating this type of information
cases, people do not have the economic through regional newspapers and by placing
resources, or there are disputes among informative handouts in residents’
family members; both of which makes it mailboxes.
very difficult to settle land inheritance and
tenure issues. Other less cited reasons The majority of the landowners interviewed
included landowners’ perceptions that the showed lack of interest and unwillingness to
extension of their land was too small for take part in conservation programs, mainly
being of any interest to conservation because of a general distrust in the
program, and owners not being interested in government and governmental programs,
getting involved in governmental and because they do not want to be involved
bureaucracy. in bureaucratic processes. This was the
initial reaction based on the brief
Table 1. Reasons mentioned by landowners explanation we gave about each program.
for not being interested in taking part in any Here again, we would like to emphasize the
conservation program need to provide more information to
Reason % of landowners about how these programs work.
landowners a In this respects, it might be worth
Do not trust governmental 58.3 identifying landowners that have taken part
programs in these programs, particularly easement
programs, and document their experiences
Do not want to encumber 50.0 (e.g., how was the process, how they felt
their inheritors’ property about taking part of the program, what
The land is a joint 45.8 benefits were obtained). This information
inheritance and experiences could be shared with
landowners who demonstrate some interest
Believe their land is too 29.2 in conservation programs.
small for conservation
Not interested in 25.0 Perhaps, one of the main obstacles is the
governmental bureaucracy inheritance and land tenure situation. Since
a many landowners inherited the land, and in
Percentages are based on 24 landowners not
interested in any conservation program. many cases there are many inheritors,
inheritance matters of land tenure has not
Landowners’ incentives for forest been settled. In such cases, even if
conservation: obstacles and opportunities landowners were willing to participate in
these programs, they would not be able to do
The first obstacle for promoting incentive- so. Related to this situation is a lack of an
driven land conservation programs among analysis of land tenure in the area. Up to
landowners is the lack of knowledge about now, the USFS has identified priority
these programs. Even those who said acquisition areas (see Figure 1); yet there is
having heard about the programs did not a lack of detailed and up-to-date analysis of
necessarily know what they consisted of or land ownership of those areas. For instance,
how they worked. In this respect, some interviewed landowners mentioned
developing easy-to-read materials about the there are parcels of lands whose owner does
programs and making them accessible to not live on them, and most probably does
landowners is a must. For instance, one not know about the existence of the

conservation programs. Additionally, fruits, are a natural fertilizer to their lands).
during the interview process we noticed Additionally, information regarding
many parcels of lands for sale. It might be management practices that support EYNF
worth trying to identify their owners, and ecosystem services and that can benefit
provide them with information about the landowners could be developed and
programs, and see whether they would be promoted. Initiatives like these would be
interested in any of these programs. Finally, feasible among landowners even if they
there might even be lands that are property were reluctant or unable to participate in
of the Puerto Rico government. If that is the land conservation programs. Particularly,
case, there might be opportunities for this could be an option for those landowners
negotiating the conservation of those lands who support forest and conservation, but
with the Puerto Rican government. In any who are unable to engage in any
of these cases, the USFS in Puerto Rico conservation program because of inheritance
should be more proactive in promoting these and land tenure situations.
incentive programs. So far they have relied
mainly on people going to the USFS office Final Remarks and Recommendations
to offer their lands for sale. It might be time
for the USFS personnel to go into the field The results of the study show that the USFS
and learn more about the situation of the in Puerto Rico can not rely solely on these
priority acquisition areas and about their landowners’ incentive programs for the
landowners. conservation of peripheral EYNF lands.
While we interviewed just 30 landowners,
While we identified various potential data gathered provide base information for
obstacles for implementing incentive-driven forest managers and show clear trends: lack
land conservation programs for landowners, of knowledge about conservation programs
we also discovered opportunities for and unwillingness to take part in them. On
developing parallel initiatives for the the other hand, landowners valued forest
conservation of privately owned lands benefits and appear to support forested
around EYNF. landscapes. This should be viewed as
opportunities to develop and promote other
Landowners recognized and valued forest initiatives among landowners for the
benefits. Moreover, all participants said conservation of forested lands around
they would like their lands and surrounding EYNF. Consequently, in order to promote
areas to stay as they are, i.e., rural, forested, land conservation programs among
mixed uses. In fact, some landowners landowners, and to develop parallel
mentioned they would even like to have conservation initiatives we recommend the
more trees on their property. This could following:
represent an opportunity for the USFS to • To develop and provide “easy-to-
develop and promote tree planting programs read” information about landowners’
among landowners, and in that way support incentives conservation programs,
EYNF continuity. Here, an analysis of the both to landowners that live on the
kind of trees to be planted should be made to lands and to those that live
assure that, on the one hand trees support elsewhere.
EYNF functioning and ecosystem services,
• To document the experience of
and on the other hand are attractive to
people who have participated in
landowners because of the benefits for
themselves and to their land (e.g., provide

these programs, particularly
easement conservation programs. López Marrero, T. 2010. Ecosystem
• To explore other options that could services and drivers of ecosystem
be attractive to landowners, such as change: a comparison among
tree planting and reforestation stakeholders. Association of American
programs. Geographers Annual Meeting.
• To discuss alternative land uses and Washington, D.C., April 14 – 18.
practices with landowners.
• To make an analysis of López Marrero, T. and N. Villanueva Colón.
landownership, particularly in the 2006. Atlas Ambiental de Puerto Rico.
areas identified as a priority for San Juan, Puerto Rico: University of
acquisition. Puerto Rico Press.
• To identify landowners with large
parcels of land, and access their Lugo, A.E., López Marrero, T., Ramos-
knowledge about, and willingness to González, O.M., and Vélez, L. 2004.
participate in conservation programs. Urbanización de los terrenos en la
• To identify parcels of land for sale periferia de El Yunque. General
and their owners, and provide them Technical Report WO-66. USDA Forest
with the information about the Service, Washington, DC. 29p.
conservation programs.
• To identify lands that might be Lugo, A.E., López Marrero, T., Ramos, O.
owned by the Puerto Rican 2000. Zonificación de terrenos en la
government and explore the periferia de El Yunque. General
possibility of negotiation or Technical Report IITF-16. International
agreements for land conservation. Institute of Tropical Forestry, USDA
Forest Service, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Finally, since this was a pilot study to 12p.
provide base information to the USFS Lands
and Special Program, we recommend a more Acknowledgements
in-depth and extensive study following up This study would have not been possible to
and adding to the findings of the present complete without the participation of
work. landowners; many thanks to all of them.
Thanks to Carolyn Krupp, from El Yunque
References National Forest, for providing insights for,
Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo and reviewing the interview guide. This
Sustentable - Escuela de Asuntos research was done in collaboration with the
Ambientales. 2008. Compendio de Centers for Urban and Interface Forestry –
incentivos y programas para la USDA Forest Service Southern Research
conservación de los recursos naturales Station, El Yunque National Forest, and the
en Puerto Rico. Universidad International Institute of Tropical Forestry.
Metropolitana, San Juan, Puerto Rico. The research was funded by the USDA
114p. Forest Service Southern Research Station
Krupp, C., USFS Lands and Special Use (Cooperative agreement # SRS 07-CA-
Program Manager, Personnel 1130150-068).
Communication (March 25, 2010).

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Negative Drivers of Ecosystem Change: The
Case of El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico
Tania López Marrero
Institute of Caribbean Studies, University of Puerto Rico, P.O. Box 23361, San Juan, P.R. 00931.
Email: lopez@email.uprrp.edu, tlopez.upr@gmail.com
Introduction put into place to minimize the potential

negative effects of urban expansion on forest
Paradigm shifts in applied ecology and functions and services (Lugo et al., 2000).
conservation science emphasize the Unfortunately, this mechanism has been less
importance of including multiple successful than expected. Due to poor
stakeholders and different types of enforcement of the zoning plan,
knowledge in the development of approximately 85% of the new urban/built-
conservation and resource management up expansion during the last two decades
practices (Berkes, 2004). Identifying and has occurred in “non urban” zoning districts
comparing stakeholder knowledge about (e.g., in agricultural, forest zoning districts)
ecosystem services and processes that drive (López and Villanueva, 2006; Lugo et al.,
ecosystem change are needed to identify 2004).
gaps and fulfill information needs among
groups (Carpenter and Folke, 2006). It is The failure of top-down zoning plans as a
also important to identify such knowledge conservation tool calls for the development
and topics groups have in common to of alternative conservation approaches; ones
identify potential for partnerships and that are developed from “the bottom-up” and
collaboration aiming at developing that are more inclusive and participatory in
participatory conservation initiatives and nature. In the case of EYNF, a first step
actions that support ecosystem services towards developing such alternative
(Sheil and Lawrence, 2004). conservation approaches aiming at
minimizing the negative effect on ecosystem
Understanding stakeholder knowledge of the services change requires understanding what
proximate causes and drivers defining stakeholders know about these drivers, and
change in ecosystem services is key to how they understand the processes of
ecosystem management (MEA, 2003). This change. There is, however, a lack of studies
becomes particularly important in areas about stakeholder understanding of the
were intensive human activity threatens drivers of ecosystem change and how this
ecosystems and the services they provide. knowledge compares among groups. This
In Puerto Rico, this is the case for El study helps to fill this gap by:
Yunque National Forest (EYNF), the largest
protected area in the northeastern portion of • Assessing stakeholder knowledge of
the Island. EYNF provides many ecosystem the negative drivers affecting EYNF
services to society. Rapid increases in urban and its ecosystem services.
and built-up areas in its periphery, however, • Identifying areas of agreement and
have been identified as a major threat to the disagreement in regard to this
forest and its services (e.g., Lugo et al., knowledge.
2004). In 1983, a regional zoning plan was

• Assessing stakeholder knowledge identified by all groups as one of the most
and perception of the spatial negative driver of change. A large sheet of
distribution of urban/built-up paper was used to conduct the mapping
expansion. activity. The paper had already delineated
geographic references of the study area – its
Methods delimitation (which is composed of eight
municipalities surrounding the forest),
Focus groups and individual interviews were municipal and neighborhood boundaries,
the main forms of data collection in this major roads, major rivers, and EYNF
study. Four groups of stakeholders boundary. Participants were asked to
participated in the study: scientists that have delineate the areas they thought urban/built-
worked in EYNF (14 participants), EYNF up expansion was occurring within the
forest managers (9), municipal planners periphery of EYNF. All maps from each
from five municipalities that surround group of stakeholders were then combined,
EYNF (9), and community leaders from 10 and a “composite map” for each group was
nearby EYNF communities (14). When digitized into a Geographic Information
possible, data gathering techniques were System (GIS) for representation and
applied with groups of participants; comparison.
otherwise these were carried out
individually. Data collection was carried Finally, aerial photos from 1998 (1.0 m
out between August 2008 and August 2009. resolution) and 2007 (0.3 m resolution) were
analyzed using a GIS to assess actual
Participatory listing and scoring techniques urban/build-up land cover change in the
were used to elicit participants’ knowledge periphery of EYNF. Vector data layers were
about the negative drivers affecting EYNF. created by on-screen digitizing urban/built-
First, the concept of “negative drivers” was up areas. To determine the spatial
discussed and defined as related to the distribution of urban/built-up expansion
objective of the study. Negative drivers of during the two years, an overlay analysis
change were defined as those factors was conducted.
affecting ecosystem and its services both
directly or indirectly either through natural Stakeholder knowledge about EYNF
processes or through human action (MEA, negative drivers of change
2003). Participants were asked to
brainstorm regarding all the possible The majority of the identified drivers of
negative drivers affecting EYNF and the ecosystem change were identified by all
services it provides. All mentioned benefits groups of stakeholders (Table 1). These
were written on a large piece of paper, so included direct drivers (such as land cover
that participants could see all of them and change, unsustainable waste disposal, forest
add any missing ones. Then they were over use, species removal, and species
asked to score the perceived level of impact introduction) as well as indirect drivers
of each driver; ranging from 1 (least impact) (such as lack of knowledge, illegal activities,
to 5 (most impact). Mean values were and institutional factors). Land cover
calculated for each driver. change (specifically urban/built-up
expansion) and lack of knowledge (about the
Participatory sketch mapping was used to ecosystem services of EYNF and the cause-
further understand participants’ knowledge and-effect factors that influence the services
about urban/built-up expansion – which was

it provides) had the highest impact values Table 2. Negative drivers affecting EYNF and
(4.4 mean values in each case, in a scale of 1 its ecosystem services: some groups of
to 5). stakeholders (Sc = Scientists, FM = EYNF
Forest managers, MP = Municipal planners, CM
= Community leaders)
Table 1. Negative drivers affecting EYNF and Negative driver Group Mean
its ecosystem services: all groups of impact
stakeholders Lack of regional Sc 5
Negative driver Mean and up-to date
impact land use plan
Land cover change 4.4 Telecommunication CL 5
Lack of / limited knowledge 4.4 towers
Poor land use plan enforcement 4.1 Climate change Sc, FM 3.9
Institutional factors 4.1 Water over use Sc, FM, CL 3.6
Lack of funds 4.0 Hydromodification Sc, FM 2.3
Unsustainable waste disposal 3.9 Scientific research MP, CL 2.0
Forest over use 3.1
Species introduction (exotic, 3.0 Stakeholder perception about the spatial
domestic species) distribution of urban/built-up expansion
Illegal activities 2.9 in the periphery of EYNF
Species removal 2.8
Natural disturbances (short term 2.7 There was a general tendency for
effects) stakeholders to identify the northwest, north,
and northeastern portion of the periphery of
EYNF as the areas experiencing rapid
Other drivers of change were identified by increase in urban/built-up land cover (Figure
some of the stakeholder groups (Table 2). 1). Scientists and forest managers identified
These included climate change, research, broader areas of increase (Figure 2a and 2b),
hydromodification, lack of a regional and whereas community leaders identified areas
up-to-date land use plan, and the presence of closer to their locations (Figure 2c).
telecommunication towers. These last two Municipal planners identified areas of
drivers had the highest mean impact factor “medium extent” compared to all the other
(5.0), but were mentioned by just one group groups and tended to put emphasis on the
of stakeholders in each case. western part of the study area (Figure 2d).

1998 to 10,189.7 ha in 2007. As correctly
identified by some participants, some of this
expansion (about 54% of the total of 1,375.6
new hectares) occurred north of EYNF;
while another portion (about 41%) has been
sprawling south of EYNF (Figure 3).
Municipal planners identified some of this
“south of EYNF” increase while conducting
their sketch map (a portion on the south
western part), and one group of scientists
identified a portion on the southeastern part.
However, this tendency of expansion south
to EYNF was generally missed by
participants.
Figure 1. Composite map of perceived areas of
urban/built-up expansion in the periphery of
EYNF: all groups of stakeholders. The solid
gray area represents the extension of EYNF.
Figure 2. Stakeholders’ spatial delineation of

perceived areas of urban/built-up expansion in
the periphery of EYNF. The solid gray area
represents the extension of EYNF.
Urban/built-up expansion in the

periphery of EYNF between 1998 and
2007
The analysis of aerial photographs revealed Figure 3. Urban/built-up land cover in the
a 15.6% increase in urban/built-up areas periphery of EYNF in 2007 and increase from
during 1998 and 2007; from 8,814.1 ha in 1998 to 2007

Engaging stakeholders on the initiatives minimizing negative effects. This
conservation of EYNF and its ecosystem information should be accessible in an
services: recommendations and “easy-to-read” way and be transferred in a
concluding remarks way that makes sense to people; i.e., that are
situated in a wider context of human well
The analysis revealed many opportunities being. In fact, lack and poor knowledge
for engaging stakeholders, promoting about EYNF ecosystem services and drivers
dialogue, encourage social learning, and of change was identified by all stakeholders
increase knowledge and awareness about the as having high impact on EYNF and its
factors influencing EYNF and its services. services. This confirms that increasing
Ultimately, the goal is to encourage actions knowledge is needed to promote action.
at different levels, from the individual to the Knowledge transfer must occur in all
collective, to minimize the negative drivers directions. For instance, scientists and forest
of ecosystem change, to promote forest managers should take into consideration and
conservation within the periphery of EYNF, include in their discussions community
and to encourage the wise use forest of members and municipal planners’ views of
ecosystem services. the negative drivers of change, such as the
Stakeholders rightly identified and agreed potential impact of some of past research
on several negative drivers of ecosystem activities conducted in EYNF and the
change. The fact that these drivers were presence of communication towers.
acknowledged provides an opportunity to Acknowledging and tackling such concerns
bring stakeholders together and initiate a can increase confidence between groups,
dialogue as of what could be done to which is needed for establishing transparent
minimize negative impacts. Acknowledging and constructive partnerships and
a driver, however, does not necessarily mean collaborations.
people understand the process of how that Finally, the fact that most participants
driver influences ecosystems and their missed areas of rapid urban expansion in the
services. Here, there is a need for southern portion on the forest periphery
information exchange and increased suggests that there is a need for providing
knowledge about process-related information about such spatial processes and
mechanisms. patterns. This lack of knowledge could
There were several drivers of change which affect intervention, policy, and decision
were expressed only by some of the making regarding land use around the forest.
stakeholders. This was the case, for In spite of the relatively large amount of
instance, of climate change, which was information in the form of aerial
mentioned by scientists and forest managers. photographs, satellite images, and land
This is an example of a driver taking place use/land cover maps available for the region,
at coarser spatial and temporal scales. Local and for Puerto Rico in general, people do
inhabitants often have a weaker not necessarily know about it, are neither
understanding of such coarser spatio- aware of the sources (many which are public
temporal processes (Chalmers and Fabricius, domain), nor do they use them.
2007). Here again, providing information
and knowledge about coarser processes and
how they might affect ecosystem services is
imperative if the aim is to engage people in

References periferia de El Yunque. General
Technical Report IITF-16. International
Berkes, F. 2004. Rethinking Community- Institute of Tropical Forestry, USDA
basedConservation. Conservation Forest Service, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Biology 18(3):621-630. 12p.
Chalmers, N and C. Fabricius. 2007. Sheil, D. and A. Lawrence. 2004. Tropical

Expert and Generalist Local Knowledge Biologists, Local People and
about Land-cover Change on South Conservation: New Opportunities for
Africa’s Wild Coast: Can Local Collaboration. Trends in Ecology and
Ecological Knowledge add Value to Evolution 19(2):635-638.
Science? Ecology and Society 12(1): 10
[online].
Acknowledgements
Millenium Ecosystem Assesment (MEA).
2003. Ecosystem and Human Well- This study would have not been possible to
being: A Framework for Assessment. complete without the participation of
Washigton, DC: Island Press. 245p. stakeholders; many thanks to all of them.
Thanks to Antonio González (Turabo
López Marrero, T. and N. Villanueva Colón. University) and Marianne Meyn (Misión
2006. Atlas Ambiental de Puerto Rico. Industrial de Puerto Rico) for reviewing the
San Juan, Puerto Rico: University of manuscript. This research was done in
Puerto Rico Press. collaboration with the Centers for Urban and
Interface Forestry – USDA Forest Service
Lugo, A.E., López Marrero, T., Ramos- Southern Research Station, El Yunque
González, O.M., and Vélez, L. 2004. National Forest, and the International
Urbanización de los terrenos en la Institute of Tropical Forestry. The research
periferia de El Yunque. General was funded by the USDA Forest Service
Technical Report WO-66. USDA Forest Southern Research Station (Cooperative
Service, Washington, DC. 29p. Agreement # SRS 07-CA-1130150-068).
Lugo, A.E., López Marrero, T., Ramos, O.
2000. Zonificación de terrenos en la

Oregon Forests In Transition:
Education Initiatives To Address The Effects of Forest
Fragmentation Along The Urban-Rural Interface
Derek Godwin
Watershed Educator
Oregon State University Extension Service
Salem, OR
derek.godwin@oregonstate.edu
Paul Ries
Urban and Community Forestry Program Manager
Oregon Department of Forestry
Salem, OR
paul.ries@state.or.us
Robert Emanuel
Watershed Educator
Oregon State University Extension Service
Tillamook, OR
robert.emanuel@oregonstate.edu
Michael Wing
Forest Engineer
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR
michael.wing@oregonstate.edu
Abstract
urbanizing areas are best protected by
Oregon’s land use laws provide a planning having a long term plan that balances dense
structure that uses city and urban growth “smart” growth with open space
boundaries to restrain development to management. The Oregon Department of
designated areas and out of zoned forest and Forestry and Oregon State University
agriculture lands. These land use laws Extension Service joined together to deliver
encourage dense development within the outreach efforts aimed at elected officials,
city limits, provide a boundary for future planning departments, developers, landscape
growth and development (Urban Growth professionals, contractors, and small
Boundaries), and provide a planning woodland owners. These efforts included a
structure to protect water quality and variety of education sessions, a
significant resources (e.g. wetlands, open demonstration project involving case studies
spaces, etc.) in these same areas. However, in four communities, the development of
local jurisdictions have enough freedom to complementary resource materials. This
make land use decisions that could paper highlights these programs, shares
significantly degrade these natural resources lessons learned, and provides suggestions on
in the urban environment. The challenge is how these programs could be adopted in
to help cities and counties recognize that other states.
forests, salmon habitat, water quality and
other significant natural resources in

Introduction when development opportunities present
themselves which can lead to significantly
Forests and forest cover are important pieces degraded natural resources in the urban
in the urban landscape providing many environment. Consequently, these density
environmental benefits including reduced goals can conflict with retention of natural
energy consumption and the protection of resource values if not managed intentionally.
water supply and quality, stream health, fish
and wildlife habitat, as well as air quality. The challenge is to help elected officials,
Forests and forest cover continue to decrease residents and professional staff in
as our population and land development communities who are facing significant
increases. Oregon’s population is projected pressure to develop all available land, to
to reach 4.8 million by 2030, a 41% growth recognize that forests, salmon habitat, and
from the 2000 census data and the 10th most water quality in urbanizing areas are best
rapid growth rate in the U.S. (USDC Census protected from development impacts by
Bureau, 2010). Most of this growth is having a long term plan balancing dense
projected to occur in the Willamette Valley “smart” growth with open space
and southwestern Oregon, with growth in management. This population must also be
coastal areas and central Oregon occurring equipped with the skills and resources to
at a slightly slower rate. Housing densities build these plans, and an adequately trained
are projected to increase by 5 to 20% in workforce must be developed to implement
fourth-level watersheds in the faster growing best management practices (BMP) to protect
areas in Oregon (Stein et al, 2005). and manage urban trees and forests.
Oregon has been referred to as a “state of Oregon State University (OSU) Extension
small cities”. Small cities and rural areas Service and Oregon Department of Forestry
around Oregon have prime habitat for (ODF) utilized a three-phase approach to
salmon and high quality water, and yet they address these challenges in four Western
face increasing pressure to grow. Many Oregon communities. We developed and
residents of these communities value their delivered several education sessions, a
natural resources, but they often lack skills demonstration project and resource
to manage growth while protecting materials. This paper highlights these
ecosystems and the services they provide. programs, shares lessons learned, and
Oregon’s land use laws provide a planning provides examples on how these programs
structure that uses city boundaries and urban could be adopted in other states.
growth boundaries to restrain development
to designated areas and out of zoned forest Education Sessions
and agriculture lands. These land use laws The ODF led a joint educational initiative
encourage dense development within the with Washington Department of Natural
city limits, provide a boundary for future Resources and OSU Extension Service to
growth and development (Urban Growth address forest conservation and
Boundaries), and provide a planning fragmentation issues in developing lands
structure to protect water quality and surrounding the Portland and Seattle
significant resources (e.g. wetlands) in these metropolitan areas. The objectives of these
same areas. However, these land use laws sessions were to provide technical services
also allow flexibility to local jurisdictions to and educational materials (materials
convert forests to alternative land cover described below) that a) help planners,

builders and developers understand BMPs topic to an audience of over 100, and helped
for selecting, conserving, and retaining trees the authors gain contacts for our other
on construction sites and retaining Green related efforts.
Infrastructure, and b) give small forest
landowners and local governments tools to A separate half day “Green Industry
maintain forest values in the urban/wildland Seminar” and several other presentations
interface during development and were delivered to the same target audience
urbanization. The education sessions of professionals, city decision-makers and
included an Oregon-Washington regional interested citizens. These programs provided
forests-in-transition conference, an on-line an overview of low impact development
urban forestry class, a Green Industry practices and focused on establishing,
seminar, and several presentations to OSU- protecting and maintaining urban forests and
facilitated volunteer audiences. A key facet trees in existing and new developments.
of this project was educational outreach These workshops reached at least 75 people;
aimed not only at targeted geographic areas, a majority of these participants responded to
but also at any natural resource professionals evaluations stating that their knowledge had
and community leaders dealing with increased and they planned to incorporate
interface issues. these practices in their daily work. The third
educational offering consisted of the
The regional forests-in-transition conference development and instruction of a new urban
was held in Portland, Oregon, and it was forestry online course to complement the
aimed at natural resource professionals, city already-strong traditional forestry
decision-makers, and interested citizens. The curriculum at OSU. Almost 50 students
organizers utilized an existing annual urban from across the US and several other
forestry conference to deliver a program countries signed up for this undergraduate
with the theme of urban forests, healthy course. Forest fragmentation, growth
watersheds and sustainable development. management and natural resource restoration
The one-day conference included several were among the topics featured.
presentations and discussions regarding
issues of forest fragmentation in the urban- Demonstration Project – Case Studies
rural interface and strategies for sound We conducted case studies on four small,
development that retain the values produced fast-growing communities in Western
by healthy forests and watersheds. Oregon to meet the challenge of increasing
Professional presentations were delivered on community leaders’ awareness and
forest land development issues and current knowledge of the importance of preserving,
research from a national and regional managing or replacing forest cover and the
perspective, recent research on forest cover adoption of codes and planning ordinances
change in four Oregon communities, the that preserve riparian and forest cover.
economic value of intact forests in urban These communities of Damascus,
and urbanizing areas, policies and Sherwood, Grants Pass and Newport are
partnerships to promote sustainable population centers below 50,000 people and
development and forest conservation, tools have experienced significant growth and
for sustaining forests in a changing change in forest cover over the last 20 years.
landscape, and conservation easements and The four communities were selected from
agreements. The conference was successful coastal, southwest, and Willamette Valley
in communicating the latest research on this areas. Damascus and Sherwood are two

cities in the Portland Metro area with existing zoning plans versus developing
populations of 9,985 and 16,115, with alternative goals for more forest cover
respectively. Grants Pass is located in – a.k.a. “leaf out” goals. This analysis
Southwest Oregon and has a population of involved digitizing and calculating the
34,237, and Newport is located on the existing percent of impervious cover for
Central coast and has a population of each different zoning category, then
10,240. The goals of the project were to applying this percentage to all of the areas
quantify changes in each community from inside the UGB as if all tax lots were
forest land use to other land use categories developed. We developed maps that
for the time period beginning around 1990 identified the developed tax lots,
to present day, estimate the amount of land undeveloped tax lots and areas which would
area that has changed from pervious to not be available for future development.
impervious surface area for this same time Figure 2 is an example of this map for the
period, research potential forest land use City of Damascus. This map allows the
changes that are anticipated within each decision-makers to view the buildable lots
county, and present this information in a and make decisions about which lots might
suite of maps and other supporting materials be used to protect or restore urban forests
community leaders. and trees to have the most environmental
benefits.
We chose two time periods for our change
analysis: 1994 and 2005. We used The results of this analysis have been
georeferenced digital aerial photography presented to the planning departments and
with one meter resolution for ground interested citizens in Damascus and
truthing satellite imagery. Landsat TM Sherwood. We created presentation
imagery was downloaded from the USGS materials that provided and overview of the
Global Visualization Viewer (GLOVIS) many benefits of urban forests and trees, as
(USGS 2010). Imagery and the photos were well as the variety of planning and best
matched for the July/August time period. management practices that could be used to
ERDAS Imagine and ArcMap geographic establish, maintain and protect trees in the
information system (GIS) software were urban environment. We used the results of
used to analyze and classify satellite image our analysis to instigate discussions and
land cover types. Our land classification brainstorming sessions on how they might
scheme was based on Anderson et al. (1976) develop “leaf out” goals and change their
and the National Land Cover Database planning and management practices to
mapping effort; we modified this scheme to decrease future forest fragmentation and
represent the dominant land cover types increase forest cover. We plan to deliver
common to our four study areas and to similar presentations in fall, 2010 in Grants
support our research objectives. Figure 1 Pass and Newport. One immediate result of
illustrates the land cover change between this project is a request for further analysis
1994 and 2005 for the City of Sherwood. in the Damascus area to help them with their
future land use planning.
The second part of the analysis involved
predicting the change in impervious cover Resource Materials
over the next 10-20 years as these
communities develop the land inside their A variety of resource materials were created
Urban Growth Boundaries (UGB) using to complement these outreach education

programs. As mentioned above, presentation served as a solid foundation to build more
materials and maps were created and used in targeted programs in some areas while
the various workshops. In addition to these continuing to deliver general education to
materials, a compact-disc of reference new areas around the state.
materials was created for the Urban Forest
conference held in Portland. This resource The demonstration project involving four
compendium included a variety of case studies provided detailed analysis,
professional journal articles, PowerPoint maps and supporting presentation materials.
presentations, fact sheets and other related This allowed us to not just talk about ideas
resource materials we deemed useful tools for modifying future development plans, but
for the target audience. provided visual tools to help explain
changes in forest cover over time and how
During the Urban Forestry conference, we land use decisions could impact future
requested feedback from the audience on environmental conditions. The methods used
their needs for technical publications and in this analysis could be easily adopted by
reference material. They identified the need other states and communities. One important
for a practical field guide of best lesson learned is these presentations with
management practices for establishing, local communities are only the first step in
protecting and maintaining urban trees. As a the decision-making process. Modifying
result, we developed an OSU Extension land use plans and regulations takes time.
publication entitled “Tree Protection on The best possible initial outcomes are
Construction and Development Sites”. (Ries probably an invitation to return with more
et al, 2009). Several thousand copies of this information and help.
new publication was made available to
interested parties and distributed to target The resource materials could be easily
audiences. adapted to other regions in the U.S. The
conference proceedings included many
Lessons Learned and Adaptation by national publications and research, and the
Other States BMP guide was adapted from a similar
The outreach component of this project guide in Tennessee.
revealed to us that people are interested in
learning more about the impacts of forest Next Steps
fragmentation and measures to reduce these These outreach programs have provided a
impacts. All sessions were well attended, solid foundation of education projects and
and participants provided positive feedback materials from which to build. We will
on evaluations and requested more continue to work with the four pilot
information and future training. One communities to help them understand how
unexpected consequence of this work their existing development practices affect
involved discovering that this subject lends forests and natural resources in their areas
itself well to a multi-disciplinary approach. and create leaf-out goals with best
Several new relationships formed with management practices to decrease forest
groups that don’t typically work together. fragmentation and better protect natural
These presentations and conference template resources. As this work progresses over the
could easily be adapted by other states next year, we will implement program
wanting to reach similar audiences. Our evaluations to identify practices that have
variety of presentations and approaches has been adopted and how these efforts have

“made a difference” in local communities. Partners and Acknowledgements
We will also conduct a needs assessment to
help us plan our next phase of outreach. This project was funded in part with grants
from the USDA Forest Service through the
References State and Private Forestry Western
Competitive Grant program and the National
Anderson, J.R., E.E. Hardy, J.T. Roach, and NEMO Network through their FREMO
R.E. Witmer. 1976. A land use and land grant program (Forest Resources Education
cover classification system for use with for Municipal Officials).
remote sensor data. Geological Survey
Professional Paper, 964.
Ries, Paul, D. Godwin, S. Foster and M.

McNaughton. 2009. Tree protection on
construction and development sites: A
best management practices guidebook
for the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State
University Extension Service, Corvallis,
OR. EM 8994. 17p.
Stein, Susan M., R.E. McRoberts, R.J. Alig,

M.D. Nelson, D.M. Theobold, M. Eley,
M. Dechter, and M. Carr. 2005. Forests
on the edge: Housing development on
America’s private forests. General
Technical Report PNW-GTR-636.
Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station.
16p.
United States Geological Survey (USGS).

2010. Global Visualization Viewer
(GLOVIS). Available at
http://glovis.usgs.gov/.
Last accessed, March 5, 2010.

Figure 1. Change in land cover for Sherwood from 1994 to 2005.
Figure 2. Map of undeveloped/vacant tax lots in the City of Damascus that could be used to
protect or restore forest cover.

Prioritization of Potential Riparian Forest Buffer Locations in an Urbanizing,
Agricultural Midwestern U.S. Watershed
Andrew P. Rayburn1* and Molly Van Appledorn2

1
Department of Wildland Resources and the Ecology Center
5305 Old Main Hill
Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-5305
2
Department of Geography and Environmental Systems
211 Sondhiem Hall
1000 Hilltop Circle
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Baltimore, MD 21250
*corresponding author (drew.rayburn@usu.edu)
Abstract were greater than 100 m away from 2008

riparian forest cover, and generally occurred
The establishment of riparian forest buffers in two distinct regions lacking substantial
is a common practice in agricultural forest cover. The more northerly region fell
watersheds, designed to mitigate the within an area of rapid urbanization, while
negative effects of non-point source the more southerly region fell within a
pollution on water quality. However, it is matrix of cropland. The results of this study
often infeasible to create buffers around all inform ongoing attempts in the watershed to
affected streams given landowner desire to mitigate the effects of intense anthropogenic
maximize production and limited land use, and may be used by state and local
conservation funding. Prioritization of agencies to prioritize riparian locations for
potential buffer locations is therefore targeted conservation measures.
required to optimize runoff interception
versus the conservation investment. The Keywords: riparian forest buffers, flow-path
Clear Creek (IA) watershed is an urbanizing analysis, agriculture, Midwestern U.S., GIS
agricultural watershed in eastern Iowa in
which water-quality concerns have
motivated conservation efforts. We used a Introduction
novel set of GIS tools to identify priority
riparian buffer locations in the watershed, Riparian forest buffers, vegetated near-
based on slope, land cover, and drainage of stream areas commonly found in agricultural
upland agricultural fields into unforested landscapes, are designed to intercept
streamside locations. We identified 79 total nutrient-laden runoff from upslope locations
priority buffer locations that were each with the goal of reducing negative effects of
estimated to drain a minimum of 1 ha of intensive agricultural practices on water
upland crop cover. 17 locations were within quality (Dosskey 2001; Schultz et al. 2004;
10 m of 2008 riparian forest cover and were Qiu 2009). The placement of riparian
largely concentrated near the main stream buffers requires careful consideration in
channel. Most of the remaining locations regards to their conservation effectiveness

(Baker et al. 2006; Qui 2009; Tomer et al. Methods
2009). A common methodology is to rely
on “fixed-distance” metrics in which buffers Study Area
are planned or evaluated based on proximity The Clear Creek watershed lies within Iowa
to the stream network (Qiu 2009). The and Johnson counties in eastern Iowa (Fig.
advantages of the fixed-distance approach 1). We limited our analysis to the Johnson
include its ease of implementation; however, county portion of the watershed in which
this approach has been criticized on the numerous ongoing conservation efforts aim
grounds that it ignores topographic flow- to create habitat and to improve water
paths that connect upslope nutrient source quality. The watershed is dominated by
areas to downslope riparian buffers (Baker anthropogenic land uses, with 56% of cover
et al. 2006). Given limited funding for in row-crops, 18% in pasture/hay, 10% in
conservation measures and the pressing need woodlands, and 7% in urban/suburban
in many agricultural landscapes to development (Rayburn and Schulte 2009a).
drastically reduce non-point source At the time of the General Land Office
pollution, it is critical that riparian buffers be Survey of Iowa (1832-1859), the watershed
established and maintained in locations that was comprised of a mosaic of prairies,
maximize nutrient interception (Tomer et al. forests, and wetlands that were rapidly
2009). converted to pasture and cropland in
subsequent decades (Rayburn and Schulte
As an alternative to the fixed-distance 2009b). By 1940, many forest patches had
approach, Baker et al. (2006) presented a been cleared and the most common land
method of buffer prioritization using flow- cover types were crop and pasture. Over the
path metrics constrained by surface next 60 years, forest and urban cover
topography. Flow-path analysis explicitly increased as some agricultural fields were
takes into account the surface topography converted to other land uses (Rayburn and
between nutrient source areas and riparian Schulte 2009a). Forest patches remain
buffer locations. The advantage of the flow- scattered throughout the watershed in the
path approach is that potential buffer present-day landscape, however many
locations are evaluated relative to their stream-side locations receiving drainage
connectedness to both nutrient source and from upland agricultural fields are
stream locations, rather than simple unforested.
proximity to steams.
GIS Analysis
In this study, our objective was to use flow- We prioritized potential riparian forest
path analysis to prioritize potential riparian buffer locations within the Clear Creek
forest buffer locations in an agricultural watershed using a recently developed set of
watershed in eastern Iowa. We GIS tools that incorporate flow-path analysis
characterized the resulting priority locations (Riparian Analysis Tools; Baker et al. 2006),
relative to existing riparian forest patches implemented in ArcGIS 9.1 (ESRI). These
and the surrounding landscape. We briefly tools were designed to aid restoration and
discuss the conservation implications of our conservation prioritization by ranking
results, and potential conservation strategies stream-side areas by their potential to
associated with buffer establishment in the intercept run-off from upslope source areas.
priority locations.

Tool inputs include a digital elevation model Results
(DEM), a land cover raster with nutrient
sources and sinks coded uniquely, and a The number of cropland cells draining to
stream raster. We used a publically unforested stream-side pixels ranged from 0
available DEM from the U.S. Geological to 1,348 pixels. We identified 79 priority
Survey, a stream raster using data from stream-side locations that were each
Rayburn and Schulte (2009a), and a raster of estimated to drain a minimum of 1 ha of
2002 land cover derived in a previous study upland crop cover. Seventeen locations
(Rayburn and Schulte 2009a). All three were within 10 m of 2008 riparian forest
datasets were 10m resolution. Surface flow cover and were largely concentrated in the
pathways were then constructed from all central portion of the watershed near the
potential source cells (row-crop agriculture) main stream channel of Clear Creek. Of the
to the stream network based on steepest 62 remaining locations, most were greater
descent (D8 flow routing algorithm; than 100 m away from 2008 riparian forest
O’Callaghan and Mark 1984). Forest pixels cover and occurred in two distinct zones
contiguous with the stream and along a within the watershed that lacked substantial
source-to-stream flow path were identified forest cover. One zone was located in the
as existing buffers and were not ranked. southern portion of the watershed, in a rural,
Stream-side pixels not classified as forest predominantly agricultural region. The
cover were identified as potential riparian other zone was located in the northern
forest buffer locations. For each of these portion of the watershed near an area of
pixels, upslope source cells were rapid urbanization on the fringes of North
accumulated along all flow paths to that Liberty and Coralville. Many priority
particular pixel to calculate the total locations in both zones were identified along
potential source area contributing to that first-order streams, similar to results from
cell. the analysis by Tomer et al. (2009).
We interpreted stream-side pixels with Discussion

higher amounts amount of contributing
source area to be higher-priority locations The positioning of riparian forest
for the establishment of riparian forest buffers within a landscape is a crucial
buffers. In order to provide a classification determinant of the degree to which they
of potential buffer locations for practitioners function, and the establishment of relatively
and watershed managers, we identified all small buffers in priority locations may pay
stream-side pixels that received more than 1 large dividends in terms of conservation
hectare of potential nutrient source areas as effectiveness. Fixed-distance methods of
priority buffer locations. We then calculated establishing and evaluating riparian buffers
the distance from each priority locations to are commonly used, yet do not include flow-
the nearest present-day riparian forest patch. path information. By including this
Initial comparisons were done with the 2002 information, unforested stream-side
land cover data used in the flow-path locations may be prioritized as buffer
analysis and verified with publicly available locations based not only on their proximity
2008 color aerial photography. to streams, but also on their topographic
potential to intercept nutrients from upland
agricultural fields.

The selection of priority locations for between working farms and newly
riparian forest buffers is part of the much constructed suburban neighborhoods, the
larger rubric of targeted conservation; that establishment of riparian forest buffers
is, the planning and implementation of could serve the dual purpose of intercepting
specific conservation measures in priority runoff while also creating islands of habitat
locations within broader landscapes (Mass et within the urban matrix.
al. 1985; Qiu 2009; Tomer et al. 2009). In
the Midwestern U.S., sweeping changes in An important consideration, however, is the
land use have resulted in lowered rates of existence of extensive tile drainage networks
infiltration, increased surface runoff, in Midwestern agricultural landscapes that
sedimentation, excess nutrients and are designed to transport excess water
agricultural pollution, widespread directly from fields to streams. Water in tile
construction of surface and subsurface drains cannot be intercepted by riparian
drainage systems, and frequent forest buffers and other conservation
channelization of waterways, all of which features, thus potentially rendering buffers
have contributed to problems of water flow largely ineffective in regions with extensive
and quality (Isenhart et al. 1997; Turner and tile drainage networks. As a result, priority
Rabalais 2003). When entire landscapes are buffer locations identified through flow-path
potential sources for non-point source analysis presented here will most likely need
pollution, targeted conservation measures to be evaluated on a site-by-site basis to
are critical to maximize the effectiveness of determine if tile drains exist and to what
efforts to improve water quality and mitigate extent they are involved in the collection
the effects of anthropogenic land use. and transport of runoff.
In this study, our analysis revealed priority Conclusion

locations for riparian forest buffers that were
both near and relatively far from present-day In this study, we identified priority locations
forests. For priority locations that are for riparian forest buffers in a watershed in
adjacent to existing patches of riparian which intensive agricultural land use has had
forest, conservation measures could focus on direct, negative effects on water quality.
the expansion of existing forest patches to Our results highlight the effectiveness of
encompass nearby unforested locations that GIS in conservation planning, and inform
drain significant cropland. For priority ongoing conservation efforts within the
locations that are≥ 100 m from existing region. Riparian forest buffers are effective
patches of riparian forest, conservation at intercepting non-point source pollution
approaches could differ in the rural and that would otherwise enter waterways and
urban zones identified in our analysis. In the reduce water quality, but must be correctly
rural zone, efforts to establish new riparian positioned on the landscape in order to
forest buffers could focus on stream-side maximize effectiveness. The analysis we
locations adjacent to first-order streams performed in this study emphasizes the
(Tomer et al. 2009). These buffers would connection (via overland flow) between
complement existing in-field measure, such nutrient sources and sinks to allow for a
as grass strips, and would provide benefits in more effective means of prioritizing
terms of nutrient interception and habitat unforested riparian locations for buffer
provision. In the more urban zone, establishment.
encompassing the urban-rural fringe

References Landscape and Urban Planning
93(2):132-141.
Baker, M.E., Weller, D.E., and Jordan, T.E.
2006a. Improved methods for Rayburn, A.P., and Schulte, L.A.. 2009b.
quantifying potential nutrient Integrating historic and contemporary
interception by riparian buffers. data to delineate potential remnant
Landscape Ecology 21:1327-1345. natural woodlands within Midwestern
agricultural landscapes. Natural Areas
Dosskey, M.G. 2001. Towards quantifying Journal 29(1):4-14.
water pollution abatement in response
to installing buffers on crop land. Schultz, R.C., Isenhart, T.M., Simpkins,
Environ. Management 28:577-598. W.W., and Colletti, J.P. 2004. Riparian
forest buffers in agroecosystems –
Isenhart, T.M., Schultz, R.C., and Colletti, lessons learned from the Bear Creek
J.P. 1997. Watershed restoration and Watershed, central Iowa, USA.
agricultural practices in the Midwest. Agroforestry 61:35-50.
In: J.E. Williams, C.A. Wood, M.P.
Dombeck (Eds.), Watershed Tomer, M.D., Dosskey, M.G., Burkart M.R.,
restoration: principles and practices. James, D.E., Helmers, M. J., and
Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Eisenhauer, D.E. 2009. Methods to
Society. prioritize placement of riparian buffers
for improved water quality. Agroforest.
Mass, R.P., Smolen M.D., and Dressing, Syst. 75:17-25.
S.A. 1985. Selecting critical areas for
nonpoint source pollution control. Turner, R.E., and Rabalais, N.N. 2003.
Journal of Soil Water Conservation Linking landscape and water quality in
40(1):68-71. the Mississippi River Basin for 200
years. Bioscience 53:563-572.
O'Callaghan, J.F. and Mark, D.M. 1984. The
extraction of drainage networks from
digital elevation data. Computer Vision, Acknowledgements
Graphics and Image Processing 28:323-
344. We thank James Martin for help obtaining
GIS data. This manuscript benefited from
Qui, Z. 2009. Assessing critical source areas comments by H. White. A.P.R. is partially
in watersheds for conservation buffer funded by a S. J. & Jesse E. Quinney
planning and riparian restoration. Env. Doctoral Fellowship and the Utah State
Management 44:968-980. University Ecology Center.
Rayburn, A.P., and Schulte, L.A. 2009a.

Landscape change in an agricultural
watershed in the U.S. Midwest.

Figures and Tables
Figure 1. Location of the Clear Creek watershed in eastern Iowa, USA.
Figure 2. Locations of the 79 priority patches (unforested riparian locations draining ≥ 1 ha

upland cropland) in Johnson Co., Iowa identified through flow-path analysis.

Urban Crowns: Crown Analysis Software to Assist
in Quantifying Urban Tree Benefits
Matthew F. Winn*
U.S. Forest Service
Sang-Mook Lee Bradley
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Va. Tech
Philip A. Araman
U.S. Forest Service
*mwinn@fs.fed.us
Abstract trees can also reduce heating and cooling

energy use by providing shade in the
UrbanCrowns is a Microsoft® Windows®- summer and windbreaks in the winter. In
based computer program developed by the addition to the environmental benefits urban
U.S. Forest Service Southern Research trees provide, they add aesthetic, social, and
Station. The software assists urban forestry economic value to urban communities as
professionals, arborists, and community well. One of the difficulties facing
volunteers in assessing and monitoring the researchers and urban planners, however, is
crown characteristics of urban trees (both how to accurately quantify the benefits that
deciduous and coniferous) using a single urban trees provide. Many tree benefits are
side-view digital photograph. Program linked directly to crown volume, leaf surface
output includes estimates of tree height and area, or leaf biomass, but obtaining these
length as well as crown height, diameter, measurements can be costly and time-
ratio, volume, density, and transparency. consuming.
This paper gives an overview of the
UrbanCrowns program with a more detailed Researchers with the U.S. Forest Service
discussion on the crown volume output and Southern Research Station have developed a
its potential to aid in quantifying functions crown analysis software tool that can easily
and benefits of urban trees. estimate the volume of urban tree crowns.
The program (UrbanCrowns) requires only a
Introduction single side-view digital photograph of the
tree and a few easily collected field
Trees provide many benefits to urban measurements. The volume estimate can
communities. They improve air quality by potentially be used to quantify a variety of
reducing temperatures, lowering VOC tree functions and benefits. Species-specific
emissions, and removing harmful pollutants equations could also be developed to convert
from the air. They can improve water the volume estimates into leaf area or
quality by intercepting and filtering rainfall, biomass estimates.
thus reducing urban runoff and the
pollutants they carry. Strategically placed

Program Input measured using a laser or sonic rangefinder
or a tape measure. There are several
The input for UrbanCrowns consists of a instruments on the market that will measure
ground-based digital photograph of the both horizontal distance and vertical angles
subject tree and several field measurements. from a single location, and though they cost
a bit more than traditional measuring tools,
Digital Photograph they can significantly reduce the data
The photograph can be taken with any collection time at each tree.
standard digital camera. Use of attachable
lenses, however, such as telephoto or wide In order to landmark the photo location, the
angle lenses should be avoided as these can azimuth to the tree should also be recorded.
produce erroneous results. The entire tree The azimuth, in combination with the
should be visible in the photograph and horizontal distance, will make it possible to
centered both vertically and horizontally. return to the original photo location in the
Since this image will be the foundation for future. The program has the capability to
all analyses within the program, the quality store the azimuth and any other tree or site
of the photo can directly affect the accuracy information (species, location, weather
of the results. Things to consider when conditions, etc…) within that tree’s data file.
choosing a photo location include: the time Once the photograph and field
of day, orientation of the sun, weather measurements have been collected, the tree
conditions, and obstructions. Also, the image can be analyzed using the
program requires that the photograph UrbanCrowns software.
contain a portion of the tree crown that is
free from background vegetation or Program Overview
buildings (meaning only sky in the
background). This area will be used to The first step in analyzing a tree crown is to
estimate foliage transparency and the upload the desired photo into the
program has difficulty distinguishing UrbanCrowns program. Once the photo has
between foreground and background been uploaded, the field data and other input
vegetation. The program may or may not be parameters are entered into the program
able to filter out buildings and other man- (Figure 1). The input consists of: tree ID,
made obstructions, depending on the tree species, photo location, photo date,
contrast in color. azimuth to tree, horizontal distance, angle to
the top of the tree, angle to the base of the
Field Measurements tree, and user comments.
In addition to photographing the tree, several
tree measurements must also be collected in The next step is to draw a reference line and
order to scale the photograph within the a set of polygons on the photo (Figure 2).
UrbanCrowns program. First, the angles to The reference line (shown in yellow)
the top and base of the tree must be extends from the base of the tree stem to the
measured using a clinometer or other top of the tree crown, following the lean of
vertical angle measuring device from the the tree. This line, combined with the angle
same location and height where the and horizontal distance measurements
photograph was taken. Next, the horizontal entered earlier, is used to scale the
distance from the photo location to the tree photograph (determine the actual area
stem should be determined. This can be represented by each pixel). The first

Figure 1. Sample input data for the Figure 2. Reference lines drawn on the
UrbanCrowns computer program. photo to scale the image and delineate the
transparency and crown regions.
polygon (shown in pink) is drawn around

the portion of the tree crown that is free
from background vegetation or other
obstructions. This is the area that will be
used by the program to determine crown
transparency and density. The final polygon
(shown in blue) is drawn around the entire
tree crown and is used to estimate crown
volume. Note that neither of the polygons
needs to be drawn close to the crown in Figure 3. Output generated by the
areas where there is sky in the background. UrbanCrowns computer program
When the image is processed, the program
shrink-wraps the selection regions so that
they conform to the unobstructed outline of
the tree crown.
Once the input data have been entered and

the reference lines have been drawn, the
image can be processed. Output generated
by the UrbanCrowns program consists of:
tree height, tree length, crown height, crown
diameter, crown ratio, crown volume, crown
density, and foliage transparency. Figure 3
shows the post-processing results for the
above example. Tree height and length are
38.2 ft, crown height is 35.5 ft, crown

diameter is 34.8 ft, crown ratio is 93%, many open grown trees typically have some
crown volume is 18,097 ft3, crown density is type of radial symmetry, their true shape
92.4%, and crown transparency is 7.6%. cannot always be easily defined by
geometric equations. Also, volume
Since crown measurement terminology and estimates based on geometric shapes may
definitions vary, it is important to know how not take into account the density of the
the output parameters are defined with crown. That is, they provide gross volume
respect to UrbanCrowns. The terminology estimates which include the stem, leaves,
used in the program’s output is defined and branches, as well as the air between
below. them. The volume calculation used in the
UrbanCrowns program not only uses the
• Tree height – The vertical distance from actual shape of the crown to determine
the base of the tree stem to the highest volume, but it also takes into account crown
point of the tree crown. density. Therefore, the result is an estimate
• Tree length – The distance from the base of crown volume that includes tree
of the tree to the top of the tree following structures only.
the lean of the main stem.
• Crown height – The vertical distance Studies have shown that crown volume can
between the lowest point of the crown and be accurately estimated using two or more
the highest point of the crown. photographs taken at different view angles
• Crown diameter – The horizontal distance around the tree. UrbanCrowns is unique in
between the leftmost and rightmost that it can provide an accurate estimate of
regions of the crown. crown volume using only one view of the
• Crown ratio – The vertical crown height tree. Similar to other methods, the program
divided by the vertical tree height. assumes crown symmetry, but not for the
• Crown transparency – The amount of crown as a whole. The assumption is made
skylight visible through the crown that if you pass an imaginary plane
expressed as a percentage of the total tree horizontally through any section of the tree
crown area. crown, the portion of the crown that
• Crown density – The inverse of intersects the plane will be circular in shape.
transparency, or the amount of crown If it’s obvious when photographing a tree
structures blocking light. that this assumption doesn’t hold true (such
• Crown volume – Volume of all tree as trees pruned around power lines), it may
structures (leaves, branches, twigs and be necessary to analyze a second photograph
stem) occurring within the crown. taken perpendicular to the first. After both
images are processed, the two estimates can
Crown Volume Estimation then be averaged.
The most common methods currently used
for ground-based estimates of urban tree Figure 4 shows an example of how
crown volume involve using easily UrbanCrowns derives its estimate of crown
attainable tree measurements (such as DBH, volume. The program first determines the
crown width, and crown height) and some actual width and height represented by each
measure of crown shape. Typically, the row of pixels within the crown selection
assumption is made that the crown takes the region. An imaginary cylinder is generated
shape of a common geometrical solid such for each row of pixels that has a height equal
as a cone, ellipsoid, or paraboloid. Though to the calculated height of one pixel and a

diameter equal to the calculated width of the • Psychological and aesthetic values
row. The volume estimates for each row of • Structural values
pixels are summed to obtain the volume
estimate for the entire crown selection Conclusion
region. This estimate includes tree structure
and void areas, so the volume is then Trees provide numerous environmental and
multiplied by the crown density to get a health benefits to urban communities, but
volume estimate that includes tree structures measuring these benefits has long been a
only. challenge. In order to properly plan for and
manage an urban landscape, decision makers
Figure 4. Illustration showing how need to have some means of quantifying the
volume is determined in UrbanCrowns benefits that urban trees provide. Since
. many of these benefits are directly
correlated to the size and density of the
crown, the first step in quantifying the
benefits is to obtain an accurate estimate of
leaf cover. UrbanCrowns is a software tool
that can be used by urban forestry
professionals to estimate the volume of
individual tree crowns and assist in
quantifying many tree benefits and
functions.
Potential Uses
References
Many of the benefits urban trees provide are
directly correlated to the size and density of
Clark, N.A., S.M. Lee, W.A. Bechtold, and
the crown. Therefore, the volume output
G.A. Reams. 2006. Digital
generated by UrbanCrowns program can be
photography for urban street tree crown
a valuable tool when trying to quantify these
conditions. In: Proceedings of the
benefits. Below are some of the volume-
Society of American Foresters 2005
based benefits and tree functions that
National Convention. Ft. Worth, TX
UrbanCrowns could potentially be used for.
[published on CDROM]: Society of
American Foresters, Bethesda, MD. 4
• Air pollution removal pp.
• Emissions of volatile organic compounds Dwyer, J.F., E.G. McPherson, H.W.
(VOCs) Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
• Carbon storage and sequestration Assessing the benefits and costs of the
• Oxygen production urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture.
• Reduction of air temperatures 18(5): 227-234.
• Energy use reduction on buildings Maco, S.E. and E.G. McPherson. 2003. A
• Evapotranspiration practical approach to assessing structure,
• Rainfall interception function, and value of street tree
• Noise reduction populations in small communities.
• Wind reduction Journal of Arboriculture. 29(2): 84-97.
• Wildlife habitat

Mawson, J.C., J.W. Thomas, and R.M.
DeGraaf. 1976. PROGRAM HTVOL:
The determination of tree crown volume
by layers. USDA Forest Service
Research Paper. NE-354. 9 p.
McPherson, E.G. and R.A. Rowntree. 1988.
Geometric solids for simulation of tree
crowns. Landscape and Urban
Planning. 15: 79-83.
Nowak, D.J. 1996. Estimating leaf area and
leaf biomass of open-grown deciduous
urban trees. Forest Science. 42(4): 504-
507.
Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, R.E.
Hoehn, J.T. Walton, and J. Bond. 2008.
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urban forest structure and ecosystem
services. Arboriculture & Urban
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Nowak, D.J., J. Wang, and T. Endreny.
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47 in The economic benefits of land
conservation, de Brun, C.T.F., (ed.).
The Trust for Public Land, San
Francisco, CA.
Phattaralerphong, J. and H. Sinoquet. A
method for 3D reconstruction of tree
crown volume from photographs:
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Tree Physiology. 25: 1229-1242.

Urban Agriculture and its Function in Urban Environmental Management in
the Context of Adaptation, Food Security and Climate Change
Andrew Adam-Bradford
Department of Geography
University of Sheffield
Winter Street
Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
andy@adambradford.eu
Introduction rapid and often irreversible (McGregor et al.

2006).
In this paper, urban agriculture (UA) and its
function in urban environmental Since the seminal works: Cities Feeding
management in the context of adaptation, People: An Examination of Urban
food security and climate change is Agriculture in East Africa (Egziabher et al.,
discussed along with the notion of a systems 1994) and Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs
approach to agriculture and urban and Sustainable Cities (Smit et al., 1996), it
ecosystems integration, with the objectives is generally accepted that UA has a multiple
of providing design and planning tools to role to play in the sustainable and resilient
bridge the UA practice and policy gaps. UA city, through livelihood creation,
has a key function to play in any sustainable environmental enhancement and increased
and resilient city and can be broadly defined food security (see Figure 2 for the main UA
as the integration of food, fibre, ornamental production systems with commodity
and medicinal production systems within an examples). Despite an undeclared but de
urban ecosystem (see Figure 1). Indeed, facto international consensus supporting UA
agriculture has always featured in urban (only observable through AUSAID; EU-
areas (Anderson and Rathbone, 2000), ECHO; IDRC; IWMI; RUAF; SPHERE
although scale, type and level of integration Project; UNDP; UNHCR; UNFAO; USAID
has, and remains, widely varied reflecting funding initiatives), urban authorities have
agro-ecology, topography, culture and the largely proceeded with caution in
changing ecosystems along the urban-rural mainstreaming UA. Exceptions have
continuum. On the urban fringe or emerged although previously they were from
periphery, the areas of agricultural necessity rather than proactive planning,
production can be defined as peri-urban such as the case of Cuba, the ‘laboratory of
agriculture, whereas agricultural production urban agriculture’ (Viljoen, 2005), but also
beyond the peri-urban interface can then be now in cases were cities are governed by
defined as rural agriculture with its pro-UA leadership as was the recent case in
somewhat decreasing connection to the Kampala, Uganda (Cole et al., 2008), and
urban eco-system. Such definitions offer possibly now emerging in Addis Ababa,
only broad distinctions as there is Ethiopia (Adam-Bradford, 2009).
considerable overlap along the urban-rural
continuum where geographical boundaries
are blurred and multiple transformations are

The Urban Agriculture Classification as linear nutrient and water flows, lies at the
System core of a systems approach to agriculture
and ecosystem integration. Many of these
The purpose of using a systems approach to symbiotic linkages and relationships are
agriculture and urban ecosystem integration illustrated in the second tabular illustration
is to ensure that the potential risks associated addressing the multiple benefits of UA.
with UA are minimized while the multiple
benefits, including food security and urban The Multiple Benefits of Urban
resilience, can be scaled-up and maximised. Agriculture
The systems approach used in this paper is
based on a full classification of urban The main benefits from urban agriculture
agriculture which aims to reconceptualise (UA) can be broadly grouped at two scales,
agriculture and urban ecosystem integration. firstly the micro-scale interventions leading
The purpose of the UA classification system to increased ‘food security’ and ‘income
is to provide a guiding framework in the generation’ projects, and secondly the
development of UA policy and practice The macro-scale impacts of ‘urban resilience’. In
classification system is based on four the UA context, the term ‘micro’ scale is
columns: 1) broad function; 2) defining used to refer to individually targeted human
feature; 3) social organisation and; 4) spatial benefits, although these can be collectively
location, and allows for a rapid and clear considerable and contribute to wider urban
understanding of the multiple variations of food security, whereas the ‘macro’ scale
agriculture in the urban ecosystem (see benefits offer multiple advantages at a
Figure 3). The framework utilizes a clear regional urban ecosystem scale leading to
format which can be adapted for a range of urban sustainability and resilience. Regards
applications in the realms of both policy and to the micro-scale interventions aimed at
practice, such as prioritising risks in research food security measures, there is compelling
on urban food production and health risk evidence of the role UA plays either through
management, or the design of an extension direct consumption of fresh produce or
programme to support urban agriculture though income generation from the sales of
activity in urban regions facing water such produce (Foeken 2006; Adam-
scarcity and limited food security. In both Bradford, 2009). In addition, there is key
cases, the classification system allows for a potential health benefits linked to
rapid checking of all urban agriculture physiological, nutritional and physiological
systems to whatever context the research, improvement (Viljoen 2005). The evidence
development or policy work may be regarding the health benefits from
occurring. Of course, many of the identified consuming fresh fruit and vegetables is
farming systems are not conducted in persuasive and numerous studies have
isolation, such as the use of livestock clearly demonstrated that major physical,
manures and fishpond sediments to fertilize psychological and social benefits are gained
urban crop cultivation systems; these as a result of UA interventions (Viljoen
connections and linkages can be annotated 2005; Leake et al. 2009; Redwood 2009).
as an overlay depending on the local UA
context. In the context of agriculture and In fact, this body of research work is so
ecosystem integration, there are multiple extensive that the macro-scale impacts of
symbiotic relationships found in urban ‘urban resilience is often ignored or
ecosystems, and closing resource loops, such neglected in UA research work and likewise

in generic urban planning and design, and funding initiatives), urban authorities have
that is despite the immense benefits such largely proceeded with caution in
integrated strategies can bring to urban mainstreaming UA. Exceptions have
environmental management (Figure 4). emerged although previously they were from
Scaling up UA functions to reach, and then necessity rather than proactive planning,
maximize, the macro-scale impacts of such as the case of Cuba, the ‘laboratory of
‘urban resilience’ requires effective urban agriculture’ (Viljoen 2005), but also
integrated planning and design, which in now in cases were cities are governed by
return brings multiple advantages, such as pro-UA leadership as was the recent case in
improved urban sanitation, reduced disaster Kampala, Uganda (Cole et al. 2008), and
risk through better urban flood management possibly now emerging in Addis Ababa,
and slope stabilization of steep hillsides, Ethiopia (Adam-Bradford 2009).
protection of fragile and vulnerable habitats
including riverbanks and wetlands, and In UA, the main benefits can be broadly
reductions in the urban heat island effect. In grouped at two scales, firstly the micro-scale
these cases, UA can be used as a land zoning interventions leading to increased
and control tool (urban farmers being physiological, nutritional, psychological and
excellent land custodians once farming economic benefits, and secondly the macro-
tenancy is secured), to counter dynamic scale impacts of sustainable and resilient
pressures such as deforestation and urban eco-systems. In the UA context, the
settlement encroachment. The actual urban term ‘micro’ scale is used to refer to
farming practices can then be designed to individually targeted human benefits,
protect ecologically vulnerable sites from although these can be collectively
entropic processes such as rapid surface considerable and contribute to wider urban
runoff, limited rainwater infiltration and soil food security, whereas the ‘macro’ scale
erosion thus integrating agriculture and benefits offer multiple advantages at a
urban ecosystems. regional urban ecosystem scale leading to
urban sustainability and resilience. Urban
Conclusions challenges can then be embraced through the
planning and design of resilient cities using
Urban agriculture (UA) can be broadly adaptation strategies to mitigate the potential
defined as the integration of fibre, food, effects of climate change while reducing the
ornamental and medicinal production risks from UA and maximizing the much-
systems within an urban ecosystem. Since needed benefits. But such approaches will
the seminal works ‘Cities Feeding People: require bold urban visions, strong and
An Examination of Urban Agriculture in enlightened leadership and human and
East Africa’ (Egziabher et al. 1994) and technical resources, thus shifting urban
‘Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs and ecosystem policy into a much needed
Sustainable Cities’ (Smit et al. 1996), it is dynamic and innovative management
generally accepted that UA has a multiple paradigm.
role to play in the sustainable and resilient
city, through livelihood creation, Principles for UA Planning, Design and
environmental enhancement and increased Policy
food security. Despite an undeclared but de
facto international consensus supporting UA • UA is an important function in the
(only observable through international development of urban resilience and

sustainable urban eco-systems but International Potato Center
UA must be planned and designed to (CIP)/Urban Harvest, Lima, Peru and
minimise risks while maximising the Makerere University Press, Kampala,
benefits. Uganda.
• UA requires a systems approach to
allow for effective and efficient risk Drechsel, P and Kunze, D (eds) (2001)
management addressing the core Waste Composting for Urban and
activities of risk identification and Peri-urban Agriculture: Closing the
risk mitigation planning and design. Rural-urban Nutrient Cycle in Sub-
• In the context of agriculture and Saharan Africa. CABI Publishing,
ecosystem integration, there are Wallingford, Oxon.
multiple symbiotic relationships
found in urban ecosystems along the Drechsel, P Scott, CA Raschid-Sally, L
urban-rural continuum, such as Redwood, M and Bahri, A (eds)
nutrient and water flows; these (2010) Wastewater Irrigation and
should be closed to prevent Health: Assessing and Mitigating
unsustainable and wasteful and linear Risk in Low-income Countries.
source-sink flows. Earthscan, London.
• Traditionally urban farmers have
constantly adapted over time to local Egziabher, AG, Lee-Smith, D, Maxwell,
changing political and ecological DG, Memon, PA, Mougeot, LJA,
conditions but climate change and Sawio, CJ (eds) (1994) Cities Feeing
increased water variability brings People: An Examination of Urban
additional challenges that require Agriculture in East Africa.
planning at the watershed level that International Development Research
encompass the urban-rural Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
continuum.
Forken, D (2006) “To subsidise my
income”: Urban Farming in an East-
References Africa Town. Brill, Leiden, The
Netherlands.
Adam-Bradford, A (2009) Urban
agriculture and the planning and Leake, J, Adam-Bradford, A and Rigby,
design of resilient cities: Risks, JE (2009) Health benefits of ‘grow
benefits and policy implications. your own’ food in urban areas:
Addis Ababa Highlights, 6 (12): 14- implications for contaminated land
16. risk assessment and risk
management? Environmental Health,
Anderson, D and Rathbone, R (eds) 8 (Suppl. 1): S6.
(2000) Africa’s Urban Past. James
Currey, Oxford. McGregor, D Simon, D and Thompson, D
(eds) (2006) Peri-Urban Interface:
Approaches to Sustainable Natural and
Cole, DC, Lee-Smith D, and Nasinyama
Human Resource Use. Earthscan,
GW (eds) (2008) Healthy City London.
Harvests: Generating Evidence to
Guide Policy on Urban Agriculture.

Redwood, M (2009) Agriculture in Urban
Planning: Generating Livelihoods and
Food Security. Earthscan, London. Urban
Ecosystem
Smit, J Ratta, A and Nasr, J (1996) Urban
Agriculture: Food, Jobs and
Sustainable Cities. United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP),
New York.
Medicinal
van Veenhuizen, R (ed) (2006) Cities Ornamental
Farming for the Future: Urban
Fibre
Agriculture for Green and Productive
Cities. RUAF Foundation, IDRC and Food
IIRR, Leusden, The Netherlands.
Wright, J (2009) Sustainable Agriculture and

Food Security in an Era of Oil Scarcity:
Lessons from Cuba. Erathscan, London. Figure 1 Urban Ecosystem and the
Main Production Systems
Viljoen, A (ed) (2005) Continuous
Productive Urban Landscapes:
Designing Urban Agriculture For
Sustainable Cities. Architectural
Press, Elsevier, Oxford.
Acknowledgements
This work is fully funded by the UK

Economic Social and Research Council
(ESRC) Research Fellowship Grant Urban
Food Production and Health Risk
Management (RES-064-27-0025).

Figure 2 Main UA Production Systems with Commodity Examples
Broad Function Product Categories Commodity Examples

Food Bee Honey
Dairy Milk, butter, cheese, yogurt
Fish Tilapia, trout, salmon
Fruit Apple, banana, coco, grape, plantain
Meat Beef, chicken, guinea pig, pork, rabbit
Miscellaneous Forest snail, frog, snake
Mushroom Oyster
Shellfish Crayfish, prawn,
Spice Basil, black pepper, ginger, tamarind
Staple Barley, oat, maize wheat
Vegetable Carrot, cassava, potato, tomato, yam
Fibre Timber Eucalyptus, teak, willow
Cloth Jute, silk (mulberry bush)
Ornamentals Bush Rose
Flower Bougainville, hibiscus, orchid
Tree Wild cherry
Medicinal Balm Comfrey, marigold
Oral Javanese turmeric
Poultice Comfrey

Figure 3 The Urban Agriculture Classification System
i) Broad function ii) Defining feature iii) Social organisation iv) Spatial location
Convention
Cooperative / private
Aquaculture Artificial al Urban / peri-urban
sector
ponds Ecological
Wastewater Local authority
Natural ponds Cooperative / private Urban / peri-urban
sector
Allotment
Community garden Various locations
On-plot Market garden consisting of municipality
(Enclosed-space / private property
Urban farm
production)
Homegarden Backyard / rooftop
School garden / farm School grounds / property
Cultivation
Open field
Coastal / lakeside /
riverside
Off-plot Cooperative / private
sector Along drainage /
(Open-space production)
wastewater channels
Roadside / roundabouts
Hill side / slopes / valley
bottoms
Under high-voltage power
cables
Agroforestry Cooperative / private Urban / peri-urban
Forestry sector
Dispersed Local authorities / private Urban / peri-urban
sector roadsides
Plantation Local institutions / private Urban / peri-urban
sector
Enclosed field Peri-urban
Enclosed structure (pen /
Livestock husbandry stall) Cooperative / private Urban / peri-urban
sector
Free open roaming
Staked in open space
Bee keeping
Cooperative / private Urban / peri-urban
Miscellaneous Mushroom production sector
Hydroponics / aquaponics Local institutions / private Urban / peri-urban /
sector rooftop
(Source A. Adam-Bradford).

Figure 4 Urban Agriculture: Macro-Benefits and the Multiple Linkages
i) End goal ii) Macro- iii) Methods iv) Some techniques v) Some benefits
benefits
Riparian buffer zones Flood plain protection
Flood for seasonal rainfall
prevention / Reforestation of Reduced runoff
mitigation watershed
Environmental Small dams in upper Rainfall / runoff capture
Protection watershed and retention
Urban Indigenous crop
Agroforestry
biodiversity utilisation
and habitat Reduction in urban heat
conservation island effect
Agroforestry in Reduction in Anopheles
wetlands (canopy breeding
URBAN closure)
RESILIENCE Agroforestry Soil binding from plant
(Urban disaster root interaction
Slope
risk reduction) stabilization Increased rainfall /
Swales (ditch on
runoff infiltration
contour)
Formation of strong
mounds on contour
Biogas production Local energy creation
Solid waste Community-based Also engages non-
utilization composting farming households
Environmental Household-based Direct homegarden
Sanitation composting application
Livelihood creation
Agroforestry
(e.g. silk production)
Wastewater
irrigation Reduced health risk
from pathogens
Vegetable production Increased dry-season
food availability
Aquaculture Increased protein
productivity
Food
production Cultivation Low-external input (e.g.
Food Security micro-gardens)
Livestock husbandry Increased meat and
dairy productivity
Creation of local food Employment creation
markets along Reduced dependency on
Income
urban-rural continuum external food aid
generation
Livelihood Increased resilience to
diversification economic shocks
(Source A. Adam-Bradford).

A Proposal for the Restoration and Enhancement of Mobile’s Relationship
with the Mobile River: The Peoples Wharf
Daniel Ballard
Graduate Research Assistant
College of Architecture, Design, and Construction
Auburn University, Auburn, AL
United States of America
Abstract: Alabama is no exception to this rule, having

almost fully severed any and all reasonable
We can no longer isolate ourselves public access to the Mobile River with
from the receiving waters for which the automobile, rail, port, and civic
growing national “green agenda” seeks to infrastructure.
protect; otherwise, we are simply masking
the symptoms of an infection that is Central to the project is the reclamation,
embedded in our existing culture and reformation, restructuring, and
political and institutional stormwater reprogramming of a portion of the Alabama
policies. The planning and design proposal I State Docks downtown container terminal.
present attempts to repair not only the The proposed plan attempts to prove that the
underlying cultural manifestation that is City of Mobile’s working waterfront
built upon a history of centralization and community can and should embrace
technocratic neglect and misuse of our water additional recreational and functional uses
resources, but also to provide an opportunity that provide an unimpeded connection to the
for diversification of Mobile’s working Mobile River. The renewed “connection”
waterfront district. The primary driver and between the citizens of Mobile and the
justification for such a proposal within the Mobile River would provide a tangible
City of Mobile reveals itself as an reality to the detriment caused by
abundance of streams and open waters conventional stormwater infrastructure.
(including the Mobile River) that are Therewith, it would serve as a daily
currently classified by the Alabama reminder of the ecological connectivity and
Department of Environmental Management complexity presented by the urban
as impaired waterbodies. Numerous waterfront interface. Only then would it be
researchers and thousands of studies have possible for local cultural, social, economic,
concluded that there is little question and political values to be reassigned to
regarding the potential for adverse acute and generate the support necessary to further
chronic impacts urban stormwater poses to implement additional retrofitting of
receiving waters. While contemporary Mobile’s stormwater infrastructure (as
“green” and/or “alternative” best currently proposed in Mobile’s “Green
management practices (BMP’s) offer hope Streets Initiative”).
for better stormwater treatability,
infiltration, and attenuation, they do not Elements of this proposal include 1)
address the physical, cultural, and social reclamation and redesign of a portion of the
disconnect that currently exist between Alabama State Docks, 2) lane reduction and
urban communities and their surrounding crosswalk enhancement of South Waters
water resources. The City of Mobile, Street (I-165) as it fronts the Alabama State

Docks and the Outlaw Civic Center, and 3) fundamental for the development of socially
implementation of contemporary “green and culturally respectful places. Below are
streets” retrofit of existing stormwater brief descriptions of the various physical and
infrastructure of downtown Mobile. The ecologically relevant conditions within
theoretical framework for such elements is which the City of Mobile exist.
tested using existing condition assessments
(via geographic information system data Physical and Demographic Setting - The
provided by the City of Mobile), case study City of Mobile, within Mobile County, is
evaluation, historical reference, and located in southwest Alabama and is the
alternative design utilizing plan, section, and only port city within the state. With a
perspective. population of nearly 200,000, it is the third
most populous city in Alabama. The
This project attempts to contend with the municipal boundaries encompass
current standards of practice and reasoning approximately 160 square miles of east-
for implementation of “green streets” and central Mobile County (accounting for 13%
other alternative stormwater best of land within the county), with a north-
managements practices, further questioning south axis extending approximately 20 miles
their ability to bring about the necessary and its east-west axis approximately 15
political, social, and cultural attitudes miles. It is physically bounded to the east
toward stormwater infrastructure. Its by the Mobile River and relatively to the
primary objective is to simply put forth the west by Cody Road. The downtown urban
question as to whether or not core is somewhat circumvented by three
implementation of a “Green Streets major interstates; I-65 to the north and west,
Initiative”, without first addressing existing I-165 to the north and east, and I-10 to the
issues with limited accessibility and use of south (Figure 7).
the Mobile River, is an appropriate response
to address the current impairment of the Physiographic/Ecological Setting –
receiving waters of the City of Mobile. Mobile, as situated alongside the west bank
of the Mobile River and immediately
Key Words: upstream of its mouth, is located within an
Green Streets, Stormwater Infrastructure, area of transition between the Floodplains
Best Management Practices (BMP’s), and Low Terraces Ecoregion, the Gulf Coast
Impaired Waters, Receiving Waters, Public Flatwoods Ecoregion, and the Gulf Barrier
Access, and Working Waterfront Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion
(Figure 1). This is confirmed by the
Introduction presence of each forest type associated with
these ecoregions identified in a geographic
As with any planning and design project, a information system overlay of forest cover
critical component to increasing the within Mobile County. As the potential for
likelihood for success is assuring that those the presence of each ecological
involved have a sufficient understanding of characteristic exists, it is appropriate to
the existing conditions and setting for which describe each individually.
the site is located. Not only is it important Floodplains and Low Terraces – This
for the designers, engineers, and planners in ecoregion is a transition from, and
order to develop appropriately programmed continuation of, the southeastern plains
elements that are tolerant of the various riverine ecoregion, which is characterized by
physical and biological constraints, it is also

its slow moving rivers and abundance of Mobile represents a mere 0.36% of the total
backwater ponds, swamps, and oxbow lakes. contributing surface area. Within Mobile
Common to these areas are bottomland County, the general direction of flow for
hardwood forests that are predominantly most surface waters is south-southeast, with
dominated by either bald cypress and water larger tributaries carrying flows either
tupelo and/or a mixture of oaks. directly to the Mobile River, the Gulf of
Mexico, or the Mobile Bay. Similarly,
Gulf Coast Flatwoods – Forest cover within within the City of Mobile the general
the flatwoods region are typically dominated direction of flow for most free flowing
by pine species of loblolly, longleaf, and/or surface waters is east-south east with the
spruce and are often mixed with a multitude tributaries discharging to either the Mobile
of bottomland hardwoods species. This River or Mobile Bay. Within the 12-block
ecoregion dominates the narrow coastal focus area identified by the Green Streets
fringe between the higher elevation plains Initiative, all surface waters are routed to the
and the Gulf of Mexico and Mobile Bay. It existing storm-sewer system, which
is characterized as having “level terraces and discharges directly to the Mobile River
delta deposits composed of quarternary (Figure 2 - immediately south of the Outlaw
sands and clays” with a prevalence of “wet, Convention Center).
sandy flats and broad depressions that are
locally swampy and usually forested”. It Description of the Problem
should be noted that the majority of the
Mobile urban core is identified as being The City of Mobile, Alabama, as are
located within this ecoregion. numerous cities throughout the United
States, is currently confronted with an aging
Gulf Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes sanitary-sewer, storm-sewer, and
– This is an ecoregion dominated by the ever transportation infrastructure, high
changing, braided system of sand bar and projections of urban growth, large scale
island formations located at the mouth of the suburban sprawl, and an ever increasing
Mobile River as it meets the Mobile Bay. struggle to protect its natural resources in a
Common ecotypes within this region are manner that does not prevent nor reduce
saltwater marshes, brackish marshes, dunes, opportunities for economic development.
and beaches. Vegetation communities For Mobile, some of the flaws associated
common in these regions are cord grass, with the conventional utilitarian
saltgrass, xerics, and pine-scrub. infrastructure of the past have recently
revealed themselves through frequent
Hydrologic Setting – As noted above, occurrences of sanitary sewer overflows
Mobile is uniquely situated at the juncture (SSO’s), an abundance of impaired
that is the terminus of the Mobile River, waterbodies (303(d) Listed Waters),
opening itself to the Mobile delta, Mobile decreasing critical aquatic habitat within the
Bay, and the Mobile Estuary. The Mobile Mobile Bay, and a high pedestrian hazard
River system is classified as receiving index rating (PHI) within the City (Figure
waters from a drainage basin that covers 3). Fortunately, the potential compounding
over 65% of the entire state of Alabama, but nature of these concerns has not gone
also has receives waters from Georgia, unnoticed by either the municipal
Mississippi, and Tennessee. Draining over government or local non-government
44,000 square miles of land, the City of organizations (NGO’s). In response, The
City of Mobile, The Mississippi-Alabama

Sea Grant Consortium (Funding Partner), 1-8). The presence of the Outlaw
the Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce, the Convention Center only further extends this
Downtown Mobile Alliance, Envision divide by its imposing structural mass that
Coastal Alabama, Auburn University, and offers limited monotypic function on a
Barge, Wagner, Sumner, & Cannon temporal basis. Additionally, the adjoining
(BWS&C) have formed the Envision Cooper Riverside Park, though a
Coastal Sustainability and Green Streets commendable attempt at providing a form of
Initiative (hereafter Green Streets Initiative). access to the river, is singular in its
This interdisciplinary partnership of both programming as a passive recreational park
public and private stakeholders seeks to and does nothing to address the underlying
address not only the physical, chemical, and physical disconnect with the downtown
ecological concerns mentioned above, but core. Additionally, this park offers little
also the impact and detriment they have opportunity for active interaction with the
caused to the social and cultural geography Mobile River or any of its ecological or
of Mobile and its citizen base. Due to the socioeconomic services (other than
inherent difficulties associated with the recreational fishing).
citywide scale and complexity of such a
project, the Green Streets Initiative has In summary, there are two primary obstacles
chosen to concentrate its initial efforts of that are contributing to the deprivation of
planning and design within the Lower opportunity for the citizens of Mobile to
Dauphin Street Historic District. More develop a strong socioeconomic bond with
specifically, the stakeholders have identified the Mobile River; first, the physical
twelve city blocks that lay between bifurcation made by various forms of
Cathedral Square (western boundary) and transportation infrastructure and second, the
Bienville Square (eastern boundary), two dominance of the waterfront by the Alabama
city parks that are richly bound to the birth State Docks and its contribution to a
of the City of Mobile (Figure 2). monotypic, rectilinear form and function. If
these core issues are not addressed first
Although the original scale and scope of the and/or simultaneously with other stormwater
Green Streets Initiative is appropriate and quality control initiatives, the City of Mobile
warranted considering the existing and will lose an opportunity to harness, restore,
forecasted conditions for which it is diversify, and stabilize the ecological and
attempting to remedy, it does not identify socioeconomic services for which the
any need to address the correlated and Mobile River is capable of providing.
equally important limited access to the City
of Mobile’s principal receiving waterbody; Design Overview
the Mobile River. The magnitude of this
bifurcation is evident immediately east of Provision for seamless and uninterrupted
the twelve-block area of focus identified by access to the Mobile River and the Mobile
the Green Streets Initiative (photograph 9). Bay for the citizens of Mobile and for the
Between Interstate I-165 (S. Waters Street), diverse assortment of industrial and
the CSX Railroad, and the Alabama State commercial users that rely on it for their
Docks, the City of Mobile has all but economic success and fortitude, is
completely isolated itself from the lifeblood paramount to the social, cultural, ecological,
that is its paternal reason for existence and economic vitality (and sustainability) of
(existing conditions in Figure 7 and Photos the City. The design of The Peoples Wharf
offers opportunities for the redistribution

and reprogramming of a portion of the longer would the six-lane divided highway
existing Alabama State Docks Shipping that is currently I-165 impede this journey,
Container Terminal, while at the same time as a newly narrowed four lane version of its
does not hinder its current capacity to former self would offer clear and visible
function as the United States 10th largest crosswalk (Figure 6).
port (Figure 6). The theoretical framework
and driving force of the concept is the Once within the physical realm of The
provision of opportunities for substantially Peoples Wharf, its users would be
greater public access, an increase in the immediately overwhelmed by its vibrant
potential diversity for alternative atmosphere that is the differentiated, yet
commercial, retail, and residential non-exclusive and intertwined, interface of
economies, and most importantly provision the active working waterfront with that of
for the equitable opportunity for the the commercial, retail, recreational, and
rebuilding of social and cultural ties to the ecological settings. Immediately evident
Mobile River and Mobile Bay. It is the would be the ample opportunity for and
belief of the designer that only through this encouragement of interaction with the
reconnection can the City of Mobile waters of the Mobile River. Just as the piers
reasonably expect to develop the political serve as an extension of the land, the
and institutional reforms that are necessary wharves purpose is to serve as productive
to create the sustainable mechanism for the amplifications of the Mobile River. There
development, redevelopment, and would be launches for nonmotorized
maintenance of critical infrastructure in a watercraft and opportunities for fishing,
manner that is wholly respectful of the shopping, dining, recreating, and relaxing
multitude of services provided by the (Figure 6). The once daunting noises and
Mobile River as the major receiving wake water of the large barges and cargo
waterbody of the City’s storm-sewer system. ships would now be attenuated via the
buffering capacity of the wharf structures
The revitalization and reprogramming of the and would facilitate those services
working waterfront that is The Peoples mentioned above. Though indirectly
Wharf would provide for new and vibrant beneficial, yet primary in function and
opportunities for increased pedestrian utility, the calming provided by the wharves
corridors, diversity in recreational would also serve to facilitate the hidden
opportunity, peak attenuation and secondary ecological function that is within its waters.
treatment of stormwater flows, and spaces A closer look would reveal that the depth of
for unprogrammed yet opportunistic wander. the wharves is relatively shallow in
Favorably positioned so as to provide a comparison to those designed for the draft of
commendable terminus to Dauphin Street, a cargo ship berth. Within its depths and
the proposed wharf typology would serve to throughout its bed would be submerged
perform as just the opposite. The southern- aquatic vegetation (SAV). Receiving the
most wharf at the end of Dauphin Street discharges of the storm-sewer outfalls of
would fulfill its primary purpose as a downtown Mobile, these wharves would
metaphorical extension of the street, thus also serve as secondary treatment facilities.
enchanting its onlookers to venture forth as Excess sediment and pollutant loads either
the unimpeded visual scene that is the not treated initially by the newly retrofitted
Mobile River unfolds before them in a path best management practices of the Green
that is clear and undeniably accessible. No Streets Initiative or from discharges which

overwhelm these systems, would be given Green Streets Retrofit – As is the
opportunity to fall out of suspension and/or expressed and implied intent of the
be utilized by the SAV (Figure 7). stakeholders involved in the formation of the
Together, the multifunctional components of Green Streets Initiative for the City of
this new infrastructure would serve as a Mobile, it is imperative to retrofit, where
template for the City of Mobile and other practicable, all existing storm-sewer
waterfront communities that are struggling infrastructure for the treatment of pollutants
with the desire to balance sustainable growth and/or the attenuation of peak flows. With
with sound economic principals. the knowledge and understanding of the
various impacts associated with urban
Armed with a new dynamic infrasture, the runoff, contemporary “green streets” retrofit
City of Mobile would then be able to practices offer the best opportunity for direct
provide its citizens with a city fabric that is treatment of “first flush” scenarios. Though
more suitable and respectful of its ecological no specifics are offered in the design of The
surroundings; one that nurtures the Peoples Wharf concerning the specific
community ties and sense of place necessary method and practices for which to utilize,
for a vibrant, lasting urban economy. New the urban form for which they are proposed
markets in artisanal and commercial trades, should facilitate and/or necessitate the use of
bound to the river, would be able to thrive mostly small scale contemporary BMP’s.
side-by-side; and each would be able to reap With a prevalence of direct rooftop
the benefits of an explosion of exposure that downspout connection with the storm-sewer
can only be sustained through the provision system, there is an endless opportunity for
of riverfront infrastructure that provides disconnection of rooftop runoff via
diversified opportunities. rainwater harvesting cisterns and/or rain
barrels.
Elements of Design
Rainwater harvesting in urban areas can
Each individual element of The Peoples offer reduction in peak volumes of urban
Wharf is separated as such that they are runoff and can serve to provide irrigation
single and complete projects within water for small gardens and/or greywater for
themselves, yet codependent upon each non-potable use. At the street level there are
other for the successful fruition of their numerous curb inlets that provide for
interrelated function and capacity. These opportunities of curb extension gardens,
elements are 1) the retrofit of existing storm- flow-through filter beds, planted bulb-outs
sewer infrastructure within the twelve-block and/or neck-downs, and/or mechanical
focus area and beyond, 2) the narrowing of filtering systems (such as Filterra tree
I-165 and the reprogramming of multiple boxes). Additionally, the abundance of
crosswalks, 3) the acquisition of and parking lots (both public and private) and
restructuring of the southern portion of the on-street parking provide opportunities for
Alabama State Docks Shipping Container the use of porous pavements and/or
Terminal, 4) the creation of suitable habitat permeable paving techniques. On a vertical
and the subsequent planting of submerged scale, the abundance of buildings that create
aquatic vegetation within the substrate of the the urban form generates opportunity for the
wharves, and 5) the programming of the exploration of green walls and green roofs.
diversification of facilities and operations The use of these techniques though, is likely
within and around each wharf. limited due the age of many of the buildings

within the Dauphin Street District. Without major crosswalks at the intersections of
structural reinforcement, many of the Dauphin Street and Government Street.
existing structures would likely not be able
to sustain the additional load imposed by a Lane Reduction and Narrowing – The
green wall or green roof installation. current combined width of greater than 100
However, on newer buildings and/or those feet for the northbound and southbound
where structural reinforcement is a practical lanes of Interstate 165 and the existing
option, the opportunities of these systems timing of street lights hinders pedestrian
should be explored as they can offer crossing from the downtown core to the
additional benefits such as structural Mobile River in single cycle. Pedestrians
insulation, reduction in heating and cooling are often forced to first cross either the
cost, sound insulation, and reduction of the northbound or southbound lanes and wait at
urban heat island effect. Though these are the median for the next crossing signal,
only several relatively generic elements given the unfavorable timing of the lights.
available for consideration, there is a As a permanent solution, it is suggested that,
multitude of opportunities for custom within the downtown core, the eastern two
retrofitting practices and an endless number northbound lanes be absorbed as an
of design opportunities given the multiple extension of the entrance to The Peoples
scales within which to work. Wharf, while the remaining width be
utilized for an undivided four-lane highway.
Interstate 165 – Though there are several The width of the vehicular lanes would also
factors contributing to the physical be reduced to 12’, leaving room for a 5’ bike
separation of the City of Mobile from the path on either side. In addition to the
Mobile River, there are none as daunting or transportation services provided, the newly
intimidating as that of the crossing of designed highway would incorporate linear
Waters Street. As it parallels the Mobile green streets BMP’s.
River, running north-south along the eastern
periphery of the City, it is a six-lane divided Programming of Major Crosswalks – The
highway with widths of 100 feet or greater proposed crosswalks at the intersections of
(including the center median). Although the Interstate 165 with Dauphin Street and
posted speed limit within the downtown core Interstate 165 with Government Street
is 35-45 miles per hour, drivers tend to would serve as the main entryway for which
operate at a design speed that is much to access The Peoples Wharf. As such,
greater as there are few obstructions, low these crossings would be designed in a
topography, and long visibility. The manner to provide, to the maximum extent
proposed lane reduction, narrowing, and practicable, a seamless and effortless
redesign of Interstate 165 is the most critical pedestrian crossing. The change in the
component for the success of The Peoples texture and color of the pavements between
Wharf (or the success of any public access the vehicular lanes and the crosswalk would
to the Mobile River). In the scenario provide for visual cues to oncoming traffic
presented, the task of eliminating and/or of the need to exercise caution. Various
reducing the capacity for Interstate 165 to plantings associated with the linear BMP’s
act as a barrier to the Mobile River is would provide for a seamless and
separated into two individual, yet correlated uninterrupted corridor to the wharves.
projects; 1) reduction and narrowing of the
vehicular lanes and 2) programming of

Land Acquisition and Dock a viable relationship between the Mobile
Restructuring – The history of the wharf River and the citizens who rely on it. As it
typology for the City of Mobile is one that is exists now, there is a single, collective
as old as the city itself. However, the wharf storm-sewer outfall that receives flows from
structure is not static and has been an ever the historic Dauphin Street District and
changing and dynamic extension of the discharges immediately south of the Outlaw
waterfront since its beginning. Changes in Convention Center. The design of The
the size and method of cargo shipping have Peoples Wharf proposes a concept of the use
been largely to blame for the changes that of multiple “bio-wharves”, of which the
have occurred. Increasing vessel size and conventional wharf structure is altered such
subsequent depth of draft have resulting in that it serves both ecological and utilitarian
the diminishment of small, shallow wharves functions for stormwater treatment and
only to be replaced by large and ominous attenuation. Each wharf would be excavated
container terminals and loading docks to a depth suitable for light penetration to
(creating a rectilinear pattern along the the substrate and such that it is conducive
Mobile River). The only remaining wharves for the growth of SAV (primarily rupia sp.).
that are adjacent to downtown Mobile are Using acceptable soil amendments and
those of the Alabama State Docks (of which methods of establishment for the creation of
are not open to the public). The design of habitat for SAV, each wharf would then
The Peoples Wharf proposes to use the serve as a secondary treatment facility for
historical wharf typology as a catalyst for the discharge stormwater from the
recreating some of the original diversity and downtown storm-sewer system. Each wharf
vibrancy that was once daily life along the basin would serve as a zone of quiescence
Mobile River. By acquiring a portion of the for storm flows, in which polluted sediments
Alabama State Docks Shipping Container could fall out of suspension and be utilized
Terminal, the City of Mobile would have the as productive uptake for the SAV.
opportunity to not only bring back with Additionally, the wharves themselves, along
vitality and utility of the wharf structure, but with the SAV would provide for offline
to bring back the potential for economic habitat and refuge to a number of species
diversity along the working waterfront. As seeking shelter from the turbulent Mobile
proposed, there would be ample opportunity River and shipping channels.
to provide for multiple wharves of varying
widths and programs. Each wharf would Facility Programming – Although The
provide for the potential for the seamless Peoples Wharf would be one centered
integration of additional commercial and around the creation of public access to the
retail business that rely on the Mobile River. Mobile River, there would be opportunities
The increased public access and vitality for both public, private, and public-private
generated by the additional programs would partnerships for the initial and continued
offer additional markets and a operation and maintenance of any number of
diversification of economic streams for the facilities. It would not be economically
which to rely. viable for the City of Mobile municipal
government to assume full responsibility for
“The BioWharf” – The incorporation of the operation and management of such scope
ecological function and process into the and scale. Therefore, although the initial
wharf structure is one of utility and acquisition of land and development of
necessity for the long term sustainability of structure would likely be feasible for a large

scale municipal project, both the short term ensued. With this struggle beginning in the
and long term transition of various facility early 1980’s, “it wasn’t until 2002 when
and operation should be considered as a Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Governor
likely and inedible requirement for its George Patki established the Brooklyn
success. Bridge Park Development Corporation that a
new master plan became possible”.
Case Study Analysis:
Brooklyn Bridge Park – The Brooklyn

Bridge Park, by Michael Van Valkenburgh Conclusions and Further Work:
and Associates (MVVA), is a project of
similar scale to the design of The Peoples The design of The Peoples Wharf is one that
Wharf and also one that was presented with attempts provide for not only equitable
similar constraints with regards to the needs access to the Mobile River and the
for equitable access to a once vibrant distribution of its waterfront for the citizens
waterfront (Berrizbeitia et. al. 2009). of Mobile, but offers a design that begins to
Additionally, it is one in which the designers address the underlying social and cultural
had similar expectations for the functioning adaptations that are the root cause of many
of their program, which was to make the of the underlying physical, chemical,
East River “more available, more complex, biological, and ecological problems
and more varied”. The design is one that resulting in the necessity thereof. With a
encompasses over 85 acres of land theoretical framework that is designed for
stretching over 1.3 miles along the East the provision of opportunities in
River shoreline of Brooklyn Heights. As substantially greater public access to the
with the City of Mobile, Brooklyn Heights Mobile River, an increase in the potential
had a history of physically separating itself diversity for alternative commercial, retail,
from the river, including the construction of and residential economies, and for the
the Brooklyn Queens Expressway (similar to equitable opportunity of the rebuilding of
Interstate 165 in its parallel form) and over social and cultural ties to the Mobile River
industrialization and commercialization of and Mobile Bay, The Peoples Wharf seeks
the working waterfront. In additional to the to challenge current popular mechanisms for
physical similarities, decreasing water the protection and restoration of ecosystems.
quality and increasing urban growth were Rather than focusing on a solution to the
becoming a concern. Differing from the immediate problems of water quality and
current scenario of Mobile, the land for stormwater conveyance, this design seeks to
which the Brooklyn Bridge Park is designed gain insight from the historical adaptations
occupies an area of abandoned and derelict that are the underlying cause of the
bulk cargo storage of the local Port detriment to begin with. As a design that
Authority. Additional plans had already was limited to a semester long course of
been proposed for the site, which included study, there are obvious shortfalls of the
heavy residential and retail development technical detail and specificity necessary to
along with imposing parking structures, yet fully explore and test such a concept, yet the
the surrounding communities began to voice fundamental basis and criterion used to
their concerns and a decades-long struggle develop the overall programming are sound
in their origin and warranted in their intent.

References Waterfront Inventory Project: An
Interdisciplinary Approach. Internet
Author Not Listed. Five Steps for PDF Copy Retried February 5, 2010.
Successfully Introducing Change in
Large Communities. (September 2009). Hur, J, Schlautman, M. A., Templeton, S.
American Water Resources, Inc. R., Karanfil, T., Post, C., Smink, J.,
Journal of the American Water Works Song, H., Goddard, H., Klaine, S., &
Association, Volume 101, Number 9, J.C. Hayes. (March/April 2008). Does
Page 138. Current Management of Storm Water
Runoff Adequately Protect Water
Belanger, P. Landscape as Infrastructure. Resources in Developing Catchments?
(2009). Landscape Journal, Volume 28, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,
Number 1, Pages 79-95. Volume 3, Number 2, Pages 77-90.
Berrizbeitia et. al. Michael Van Valkenburgh Landers, J. LID Gains Ground. (April
Associates: Reconstructing Urban 2008). Water Environment &
Landscapes, Yale University Press, Technology (WE&T) Journal, Volume
2009, Pages 222-253. 20, Number 4, Pages 25-28.
Bochis-Micu, C., & Pitt, R. (2005). Pitt, R. (2002). Receiving Water Impacts
Impervious Surfaces in Urban Associated with Urban Runoff. An
Watersheds. Washington,D.C.: article within the Handbook of
Research paper presented at the 78th Ecotoxicology, 2nd Edition, CRC-
Annual Water Environment Federation Lewis. Boca Raton, FL. 2002
Technical Exposition and Conference.
Springuel, N., Schmitt, C., and Tenga-
Burkhammer, L. Unlikely Urban Areas Gonzalez, K. Access to the Waterfront:
Face Water Shortages. (August 2006). Issues and Solutions Across the Nation.
American City and County, Vol. 121, (2007). PDF Copy Obtained from
no. 8, pages 13-14. www.masgc.org on February 5, 2010.
Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A.,

Comstock, G. Martin, A. Goddard, and
V.J. Hulcher. 2001. Ecoregions of Note: Figures and photographs available
Alabama. U.S. Environmental upon request at dmb0007@auburn.edu
Protection Agency, National Health and
Environmental Effects Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.
Hite, D., Marzen, L, Bailey, C, Byrd, J.,

Nhuong, V, and Martin, M., (April 28,
2008). The Southwest Alabama Working

Better Storm System Practices for Mobile, Alabama
Domini VJ Cunningham
Graduate Student
Masters of Landscape Architecture
Abstract: By installing bladder cisterns through out

the city, some of the excess water flows are
Currently the area around Bienville Park of expected to be diverted to the cisterns
Mobile, Alabama, is within the 100-year instead of the storm drains. The benefit of
flood plain while the parking lot directly this implementation would be two fold. First
west of Bienville Park (Joachim Lot) is the cost having to remove the existing storm
located within the 500-year flood plain. This drain system to replace it with a larger one is
suggests that the area is more susceptible to eliminated, and second, the water collected
seasonal flooding, and due to the current through the cisterns would be stored
deficiencies of the existing storm drain underground to be redistributed throughout
system, the area is prone to flooding. The different hydrological systems within the
existing system currently overflows during city. This would allow some relief to the
heavy rains implying that an auxiliary existing water service by providing an
storage or retention system would be additional location to pull water from.
beneficial to the Mobile’s downtown area in Another benefit from reducing the amount
order to make the storm drain system more of flood waters on the streets would be a
effective in preventing floods. Another issue decrease in the amount of city erosion
affecting a majority of the downtown stemming from flooded streets, this means
Mobile area is the abundance of concrete there would be less sediments deposited to
buildings and pavements. The large amount Mobile bay. Finally, the redesigned parking
of concrete leads to the city having a low lots of Mobile would include native trees
albedo factor. The albedo of an object is its that help shade the location resulting in a
surface’s reflectivity, specifically when higher albedo factor. Thus reducing the
dealing with the rays from the sun. This amount of heat absorbed from the sun and
means that the city of Mobile does not do a reduces cooling costs during warmer
good job of reflecting the sun’s rays, seasons.
therefore causing the city surfaces to retain
most of the absorbed heat during the day, Key words
maintaining higher temperatures and cooling Storm water run-off/on, albedo, green
costs. streets.
In order to combat the issues previously Introduction

stated I am suggesting that the city of
Mobile: 1) Implement bladder cisterns to The beautiful city of Mobile Alabama which
capture excess storm water runoff. 2) is home to many great restaurants, people of
Include more shaded areas via native trees to all walks of life, Mobile Bay, and seasonal
combat the heat island effect celebrations which bring in thousands of
tourist each year. These events draw people
Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III- 110

from the neighborhood, local business higher rates of flooding since these locations
owners, and a number of nationally known are within the 100-year floodplain as seen in
celebrities to perform. Yet the people of the figure 1. This floodplain covers
city constantly have to deal with issues that approximately 50% of the downtown area
have become a norm for them. Most of the while the remainder of the city is still within
city is within a 100-year flood plain leading the 500-year floodplain. The issues resulting
to constant flooding which is accepted as a from a city being constantly flooded include
norm. Other issues throughout the city urban erosion and sediments entering the
include warmer than necessary summers and bay. Another issue throughout downtown
air quality that can always be improved. Mobile is the lack of trees over parking lots.
I shall discuss methods which have been The erosion caused by flooding generates
tested and proved to help with these increased sedimentation and deteriorates the
situations. One way to improve the overall city. “The river’s flowing force erodes and
water quality of the city is to remove the erases the works of man; ebbing, the river
sediment from storm waters and then filter releases sediments from suspension, laying
that water to be reused within the local area. down new land.” (Sprin, pg. 122) With
By doing this both the business owners and frequent floods chipping away at the
the city of Mobile will see economic savings appearance of the city, the result would be a
and eventually ecological benefits. Another decrease in property value and local tourism.
possibility is to include more native trees in The current solution to this issue is to pump
the city to provide more shaded areas capital into restoring the city. With proper
storm water controls to avoid the erosion
After identifying some of the issues that are effect can reduce the cost. The second issue
prevalent throughout the city, I developed a of excess sediment is detrimental to the city
model design that currently covers three of because the natural cycle of the bay’s water
the blank parking lots in Mobile. The level rising and falling would be thrown off
proposed design I am suggesting, calls for a enough to increase the frequency of
cistern to be used as an alternative source of flooding.
water which will provide the local
businesses with an alternative source of The lack of trees throughout the city and the
water. Although it will not be potable water, prevalence of parking lots open to the sky
it will be usable for restrooms and cleaning. increase the heat island effect, which is the
Another aspect of my design is to include city’s ability to retain heat. This causes the
more trees within the urban local of Mobile. storm water to be warmer than the water in
Finally I will discuss a couple of other the bay, which can be detrimental to the
projects which have already taken similar biology of a number of organisms and
steps to making their location more marine life. “Anoxic water events in
sustainable. estuaries have been reported from all over
the world, including the coasts of the United
Problem States. Benthic organisms in those estuaries
Mobile, Alabama’s downtown area currently have shown negative impacts, including
has a storm water management system decreased population sizes, mass mortality,
which is not sufficient enough to properly failure of larval recruitment, decreased
relieve the city streets from flooding. The growth rates, and lowered propagation of
areas to the east and west of the bay have fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and

phytoplankton” (Ueda, Nobuo, et al. 2009). successful in relieving the storm drain
These anoxic water events are a common system the process would be repeated
occurrence in Mobile, Alabama during the throughout the rest of the city to maximize
summer. Another effect the lack of trees has the amount of saving of natural and
on the city that is caused by the heat island economical resources.
effect results “from the production and
accumulation of heat in the urban mass” For the city’s second issue stemming from
(Thomas Ed. 2003). This phenomenon the lack of trees throughout the city I plan on
affects the cost to cool commercial reversing this condition. More trees in the
buildings. city would combat the heat island effect,
erosion caused by flood, and would also
Ideas improve the quality of life of the residents.
In order to relieve the amount of storm water “Storm water and flood management
going to the existing drainage system an benefits from planting trees in parking
auxiliary system is needed. My plan is to lots… the net effect is that planted areas
provide an alternative location to collect increase groundwater recharge and reduce
storm water and have it reused throughout surface runoff and erosion that pollute
the city thereby creating an additional source waterways” (Kent et. al. pg. 95). The plan is
for the city’s water supply. To do this I am to cover the existing parking lots with trees
recommending the installation of bladder thereby altering the site’s albedo. “The
cisterns under certain parking lots. albedo of many natural surfaces, such as
soils and crops, are known to be affected by
The purpose of the cistern would be to solar altitude” (Bolsenga, pg. 7) in other
capture, filter, and store the excess storm words it is the reflectivity of an object,
water to be used at a later time. The bladder specifically when dealing with rays from the
cisterns have been rated to hold natural oils sun. Just by installing more trees in the city
and keep them from seeping out into the it is possible to affect multiple issues in the
environment. In this situation the bladder downtown areas. Since materials such as
cistern would keep sediments from getting concrete tend to have lower albedo, they
into the filtered water. Since “Rainwater is don’t do a great job of reflecting heat, this is
generally considered to be cleaner than grey the primary reason I have decided to propose
water and to entail less risk of infection in new trees in the blank parking lots. The trees
the event of systems not operating properly” have a higher albedo and also provide
(Thomas, p. 97) it serves as an ample source shading for the parking lots and portions of
of water. By implementing the cisterns the sidewalk. Through the shading from the
throughout the downtown area the amount trees, the storm water that does go into the
of water drawn from an auxiliary source storm drain is also cooled. This provides a
would be decreased, also reducing the users’ solution to the anoxic water conditions once
water bill. the water gets to the bay.
The reason why the cisterns shall be placed Not only do additional trees combat the heat
underground at select locations, is to allow island effect, but “Tree canopies intercept
for the parking lots to continue being rainfall, and roots and accumulated leaf litter
functional by providing adequate parking for increase soil permeability” (Kent et. al. pg.
visitors and residents. Once the locations 95). This is beneficial because it means less
with the new bladder cisterns have proven sediment entering the storm drain system

and in turn less sediments going towards the The redesigned parking lot would include a
bay. Also “parking lots planted with trees platform which would maintain the utility of
can help us breath. One acre of trees the lot during the seasonal concerts and
produces enough oxygen for eighteen provide a cover for the new cistern that
people. Moreover, trees help settle, trap, and would be located on the site. (figure 7)
hold particulate pollutants (for example, ash,
dust, pollen, and smoke) that damage human Once the cistern at the Joachim lot fills up
lungs. Trees also absorb carbon dioxide: the excess would flow down to the next
each year once acre of trees absorbs carbon location on the axis which is another parking
dioxide equivalent to that produced by a car lot that is rarely used except for deliveries.
driven 21,000 to 26,000 miles. Trees further After conducting the same contour and
reduce air pollution indirectly through elevation study for this location, it was
shading. Cars in tree-shaded parking lots found that the flow of storm water from this
release 2 percent less reactive organic gas site and the adjacent rooftops continued to
emissions than cars in un-shaded lots.” flow towards Mobile Bay.
(Kent et. al. pg. 95)
The final lot along the axis would be the
Project Design East Royal lot, which is directly across the
For the design of this storm system I began street from the West Royal lot. All the water
by identifying how much space throughout from the Joachim lot and West Royal lot
the downtown area was being used by the will enter into a final cistern within the East
vast wasteland of parking lots through a Royal lot which is intended to slow the
figure ground study as seen in Figure 2. water down so that it is not blasted out into
From this I noticed there was an abundance the bay, creating water damage around the
of negative space within the city that was outlet pipe for the sequence of cisterns. This
absorbing heat from the sun. At this point I final cistern would be located under the
began searching for an axis that would serve square platform in the East Royal lot.
as a connection point from a common
central point in downtown to Mobile Bay, Case Studies
and after visiting the city I was able to The Gatlinburg Riverwalk is located in a
identify such an axis (figures 3). The lot mountain community and mountain
directly west of Bienville Park, Joachim lot, communities in general provide a calm
suffered from all the issues that lead to a relaxing atmosphere and the redesigned
poor storm drain system. The Joachim lot Gatlinburg downtown area is no exception.
was primarily used two or three times a year Gatlinburg was designed to be a tourist
during special concerts, and at those times destination encompassing entrancing scenic
the lot was heavily used. Otherwise there views and trails. In one direction there is
were barely any vehicles parked there. After view of the city, now unobstructed by power
studying the contours and spot elevations of lines, which was designed with the intent to
the city (figure 4), I was able to determine be more pedestrian friendly, and all around
the flow of storm water from this site. the town is the view of the rolling a
(figure 5) The storm waters flowed from the mountainscape. The focus on pedestrians
highest point in the parking lot towards the allows for a more pleasant experience when
streets. Reversing this flow would provide visiting the downtown area since there isn’t
some relief to the existing system and also a need to drive from location to location
provide a location for the cistern. (figure 6) boxed up in a vehicle where views of the

outside world is restricted to the frame of the Mobile, Alabama is not the only location
windows. The refitting of the sidewalks with with stormwater problems and yet they are
brick curbs is more inviting to visiting in a prime position to become a standard for
tourists generating more use of the future stormwater practices in the regions.
redesigned walkways and also allows them Should the officials of the city decide to
to be exposed to the surrounding scenery focus on preservation of the city instead of
which has been sculpted by BWSC. One of restoration, which includes funding for
the more interesting walkways they’ve repaving roads, and re-patching buildings,
created runs by the Little Pigeon River, it then they can begin to allocate savings from
includes cantilevered sections for viewing the paving and buildings to other programs
the river which according to BWSC also that would be glad to have the support of
minimizes the disturbance of the river bank their local government. Again my design is
and is sturdy enough to resist deterioration something that might come off as simple but
by flooding. The idea of providing a viewing in the long run the impacts for the city are
area over the river is a great concept and it is much more.
one I would like to attempt in replicating,
but the choice of materials, concrete, seems References
to be a bit much when the future of the river
bank is taken into consideration. This A Guide for Best Management Practice
relationship between the river and the new (BMP): Selection in Urban Developed
improvements was one of the aspects that Areas. (2001) Reston, VA: American
attracted me to this site as a case study so Society of Civil Engineers,
that I might possibly improve on it. The
seasonal changes in the area are another Bolsenga, S. J. (1979) Solar Altitude Effects
great aesthetic which BWSC took advantage on Ice Albedo. Ann Arbor, Mich. : U.S.
of in this site. Along the some areas of the Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic
river walk they have selected trees and other and Atmospheric Administration,
vegetation which modify the scenery in such Environmental Research Laboratories,
a way that the site is a different being Great Lakes Environmental Research
depending on what time of the year tourists Laboratory.
make their visits. In this project BWSC was
mindful of choosing materials that would Ehlers, Laura. (2005) Urban Stormwater
not upset the balance of the existing river, Management in the United States.
because if they hadn’t 1) the bank would Washington, DC: National Academies
have been washed away, 2) natural Press.
sediments would have been stirred up
making the waters unpleasant for other Han, Qingyuan; Rossow, William; Chou,
marine life and organisms, and 3) should the Joyce; Welch, Ronald. Global survey of
bank collapse it would change the formation the Relationship Between Cloud Droplet
of the river further downstream. Size and Albedo Using ISCCP. Long
Beach, California. 9th Confrence on
Atmospheric Radiation. 1997
Kent, D., Shultz, S., Wyatt, T., Halcrow, D.

Conclusion (2006). Soil Volume and Tree Condition

in Walt Disney World Parking Lots. Appendix
Landscape Journal 25, 94-107
Mehrotra, Rahul (Ed.). (2004). Everyday Figure 1: Flood plain shown over downtown
Urbanism: Margaret Crawford vs. Mobile
Michael Speaks. New York, NY:
Distributed Arts Press.
Ritschard, Ronald. (1993). Energy Efficiency

and the Environment: Innovative ways
to improve air quality in the Los
Angeles Basin. Berkley, California. Figure 2: Figure ground study
Lawrence Berkley Laboratory,
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Sprin, Anne W. (1988). The Poetics of City

and Nature: Towards a New Aesthetic
for Urban Design. Landscape Journal 7,
108-126
Struck, Scott D. (2006) Performance of
Stormwater Retention Ponds and
Constructed Wetlands in Reducing
Microbial Concentrations. Washington, Figure 3: Axis from Mobile Bay through
DC: United States Environmental downtown Mobile.
Protection Agency.
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Urban Design: An Environmental
Approach. New York, NY: Spon Press.
Ueda, Nobuo, et al. (2009). "Heat shock Figure 4: Joachim contours & spot
protein 70 expression in juvenile elevations.
Eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica
(Gmelin, 1791), exposed to anoxic
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Feb. 2010.

Figure 5: Existing water flow
Figure 6: Proposed Water flow
Figure 7: Proposed lot design

Pedestrian Street Design, Revitalization of Dauphin Street
Downtown, Mobile, Alabama
Jiayang Xie
Graduate Student
Master of Landscape Architecture
Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
Abstract: and the city can extend this pattern to other

places in the city.
The purpose of this project is a redesign of There is still much that needs to be solved to
Dauphin Street in Mobile, AL to revitalize the implement green streets and green
historic district of the city. An analysis of the infrastructure in the historic district of
site’s current condition and constraints, Mobile, AL. Planning needs to be coordinated
suggest a pedestrian street that engages a with the different city departments. The
close interaction with the buildings on both revitalization of Dauphin Street, in my
sides of the street that gives way to a opinion, needs to respond to the following the
connection between the working waterfront challenges: 1) How to connect this downtown
and the historic district of the city. area to the whole city, to attract more citizens
get involved? My two block redesign is just a
My design is based on the solutions to the snapshot of that goal; 2) How to redevelop the
current problems of Dauphin Street and the city to engage a green net and a regional
city’s water front culture. I analyze the city’s green infrastructure plan? Mobile currently
green space distribution and find that the has so few green centers for a big urban area,
green distribution in the city is fragmented, and 3) How to use green infrastructure to
and needs connectivity. I make interventions calm the traffic problem on Dauphin Street,
within the sidewalk culture to stimulate the historic district and the waterfront areas?
pedestrian activity and I applied a green net
theory (green infrastructure) and included Key words:
permeable pavement technologies to this Pedestrian street, green infrastructure, history,
pedestrian design. Because Mobile is a city water culture
based on water and the city’s development is
because of the water trade, I use “water” as an
idea to range my design, and apply the water
texture to my pavement design. The special
texture of this pedestrian street is transferable

Introduction
Existing site problems
This Dauphin Street Revitalization project is The site stands between the popular
for the Environment & Dwelling Studio, waterfront park, and the historic district and
which focuses on the relationship between the main residential area of the city. This part
human ecology and natural systems ecology. should serve as a connection between the
Leveraged benefits include enhancement of waterfront area and the historic downtown
the city’s pedestrian connectivity, area, but not a barrier like now. The current
accessibility, and green space. usage of historic Dauphin Street is the main
problem of this site, and the lack of attractive
Site’s background space and green infrastructures are the other
Mobile is one of the most populous cities in two.
Southern U.S., state of Alabama. It is the only
seaport in state of Alabama. With the Relationship between Dauphin Street and
development of the water transportation the other parts of Mobile city
industry, the city became one of the most Dauphin Street connects the three important
important cities in Southern U.S.. parts of the city, the main residential area of
the inner city, the historic downtown, and the
Dauphin Street is the main street of the city
developing waterfront working area. So, a
which is from the west to the east side of the
well designed street can attract lot of potential
city. It connects the inner city with the
visitors to the downtown area. So this section
waterfront working area. The site I chose is
is like an abridge between the two different
an important section of Dauphin Street
function areas in the city. (Fig 1)
between South Conception Street and South
Jackson Street, which is also a part of the
Theories about urban, road and space
historic downtown Mobile.
Urban
“Urban” is basically the place where a group
History reveals Dauphin Street once
of people live together, share a certain range
flourished in the colonial period. But came to
of space, have the same social environment.
recent decades, the street can only be alive in
the nighttime; in the daytime, it’s almost
In some J.B. Jackson’s writings about
dead. The downtown has recently been
American urban landscape, he said “Just as
designated an Enterprise Zone in hopes
we say there is no sound unless there is an ear
stimulating redevelopment and revitalization
to register it, we also assume that there is no
of this area. That’s why my design propose is
human identity unless there is another person
to revitalize Dauphin Street, make the street
to recognize it.” He suggested that urban
back to its flourished time again.
environment is not just a place for people to
live in, it’s also a carrier of people’s sociality

People usually get their identity from the city inside and outside; far away or close by;
or community they live in, and the cultural separate and together; and continuous and
they have. discontinuous. So space is not a particular
category of orientation, but an aspect of any
Road activity. Space is therefore the product of an
Road is basically the path lead people from interaction between the organism and the
one place to another. But in my environment in which it is impossible to
understanding, road is not just the path people dissociate the organization of the universe
drive through, it already become the catalyst perceived from that of the activity itself.
of urban development. Take Mobile as an (Norberg-Schulz, 1971) Space is the place of
example, it has the only seaport in the State of action: places where special actions are
Alabama, so it developed lots of commercial carried out, or places of social interaction. On
trade with foreign countries, such as French, the other hand, actions, are only meaningful
Spain and England. And then because of the in relation to particular places, and are
business needs, people began to build roads colored by the character of the place. So the
from the seaport to the west, and also built character of a place must be understood as a
several railroads to assist the transportation. product of its interaction with the
The established road system invited more and surroundings.
more business men and people to settle down
in the city. Design approaches
Besides that, road system also makes up the Pedestrian street proposal
skeleton of the city pattern. The “skeleton” is In its current condition, the historic district
the basic of an “organic” city. The “organic” lacks beautiful and attractive space which can
city means the city is an organic entirety with invite more citizens to come. A well designed
“skeleton”, “blood”, “heart” and “nerve”. pedestrian street will also become the
Road system is the skeleton of the city, and representative of the Mobile city. So I
the traffic and people are like blood, buildings propose this pedestrian street design idea to
are the muscles. All these parts work together, the site, mainly to increase the street’s
as body organs, to make the city alive. attraction and create more recreational public
space.
Space
Man’s interest in space has existential roots. It Possibilities for pedestrian street
stems from a need to grasp vital relations in In the history, Dauphin Street used to be one-
his environment, to bring meaning and order way street, and also two-way street for a
into a world of events and actions. (Norberg- while. So there is also possibility for the site
Schulz, 1971) Most of the human being’s to be developed as a pedestrian street. Also
activities have some spatial aspects, the there are several successful pedestrian street
activities orientation are often separated by

cases, which all locate in downtown area, can maintain natural ecological processes, sustain
be studied as great examples of how to air and water resources and contribute to the
develop a pedestrian street in downtown area. health and quality of life for America’s
communities and people.”(Benedict &
How does closing part of Dauphin Street McMahon, 2004) There is a particular
effect local traffic? emphasis on long term sustainability and life
One big problem of pedestrian street is how support functions. So in this project, I propose
does close part of Dauphin Street effect the a series of green spaces along the pedestrian
local traffic, especially the traffic from inner street, which aim to provide more attractive
city to the CBD. Based on a series of traffic recreational space along the street and
analysis, I think the close of site will not sustainable urban environment of the city.
effluence traffic a lot. From the auto traffic (Fig. 3)
analysis map (Fig. 2), we can find that several
busiest roads of the city are around this area, Green net idea for long term sustainable
which means people can come to the site by development of Mobile city
several main streets, such as Government To solve the uneven green distribution
Street, Congress Street and Spring Hill Ave. problem in the city, I got the green net idea
for the city’s long term sustainable
On the other hand, the site is linked with other development, which is a green space plan for
parts of the city by lots of walking path. the next few years. (Fig. 4) With the green
People live in a walking distance can get to net, the city will have more green spaces for
the site on foot. Thus we can get a conclusion citizens all over the whole city. It will
that the availability of the site is great, which promote the city’s micro climate, provide
is an important aspect for this project. recreational space to citizen, and make the
city as a continuous green entirety.
Green Infrastructure
Design elements
What is green infrastructure and how to
apply it to pedestrian street design? History of the Mobile City
In August 1999, the Green Infrastructure The site is a part of the historic district in
Work Group developed the definition for Mobile downtown. Several historic buildings
green infrastructure:“Green infrastructure is are especially important, not only because of
our nation’s natural life support system — an their age, but also because of their functional
interconnected network of waterways, importance. By linking these important
wetlands, woodlands, wildlife habitats, and historic points with a pedestrian space, a
other natural areas; greenways, parks and historic alignment could allow for more
other conservation lands; working farms, accessible movement along Dauphin Street.
ranches and forests; and wilderness and other
open spaces that support native species,

Water culture of the Mobile city Develop the section of Dauphin Street
City of Mobile is located at the junction of between South Conception Street and South
Mobile River and Mobile Bay on the northern Jackson Street as a pedestrian green street, to
Gulf of Mexico. Because of the access to the create an attractive pedestrian space.
sea and the river, Mobile had become the only Use green infrastructure approach to develop
seaport in Alabama since the colonial period. the site’s green space.
So most of the development are because of
the water transportation industry. So we can With the new understanding of space and
say, the city has a culture and history of urban area, create an interaction between the
water. So I applied the “water” idea to the street and the historic building.
design, basically applying the water’s pattern
to the pedestrian street’s paving design. Design a series of outdoor recreation space
(Fig.5) for dining, café and rest.
Organic city Successful pedestrian street case-study:

With the study of a series of theories about
urban space, road system and city, I began to Lincoln Road Case Study
understand the city as an organic entirety. Location: Between Washington Avenue and
Alton Road, Miami Beach, FL
As an organic entirety, the city has its nerve Lincoln Road Mall is a single stretch. The
fabric. When we explore a city, we always only interruptions are the crossings with the
can find out some places where people have other streets. An incredibly diverse range of
intense interactions with. In other words, the people enjoy the mall, locals, tourists,
city always has some popular spots, like the families, gays, etc. The street provides lots of
interaction points of nerve fabric. I applied recreational and dining space along the street,
this idea to my design, to find out the which can hold people to stay there and have
“interaction point” along the street, then use some social activities. People watching is the
different paving to connect them, which can perhaps the most popular activity on Lincoln
lead people to these interaction points. (Fig.6) Road. Even in the sweltering heat of the sub
tropics, people prefer to eat outdoors here,
Design process because the people watching is optimized by
Use the current condition analysis to find out the street size and placement of urban
the problems of the site. features--planters, fountains, seating areas.
Based on the problems of the site, I get the The main attraction here is the people.
green net proposal to establish a green
connection between waterfront working area 3rd Street Case Study
and the inner city. Location: 3rd Street (between Broadway &
Wilshire), Santa Monica, CA.

Successful features: References:
1. Lots of seats. ( both formal and informal ).
2. Pedestrian scale achieved in all dimensions. Jackson, John Brinckerhoff .
3. Waterscape along the street. 4. Colorful 1984.Discovering the Vernacular
plant design. 5. Vendors and entertainers as Landscape. Yale University Press.
an integral part of the street. 6. Wide range of
food available. Gastil, R.W. & Ryan, Z. (Eds.). 2004. OPEN:
Unsuccessful features: new designs for public space. New York:
Even though there’re lots of seating, but not Princeton Architectural Press.
enough. 2. Lack of public restrooms. 3.
Rollerblades, bicyclists, and skateboarders Marcus, C.C. & Francis, C. (Eds.). 1998.
can pose hazards to pedestrians. People places: design guidelines for open
urban space. New York: John Wiley &
Conclusion: Sons, INC.
Consider the site as a part of the whole city Norberg-Schulz, C. 1971. Existence, space &
environment. Asking ourselves questions architecture. New York: Praeger
about how does the site effect the urban Publishers.
environment and how does it interact with the
city in a large scale when we design. Woolley, H. 2003. Urban open spaces. New
York: Spon Press.
Making good use of urban public open spaces
will benefit the city and citizen. Loidl, H. & Bernard, S. 2003. Opening
spaces-design as landscape architecture.
Design a public open space with the Basel: Birkhauser-Publishers for
consideration of the surrounding natural Architecture.
environment of the site, establish an
appropriate interaction between the two Kinkade-Levario, H. April 2007. Design for
systems. water: rainwater harvesting, stormwater
Green street design should be an open ended catchment, and alternate water reuse.
design process, which should adjust to city’s Gabriola Island: New society publishers.
ever changing conditions.
Benedict, Mark and Edward McMahon,
More research about how street spaces work Green Infrastructure. Washington DC:
is needed, in terms of the relationship with the Island Press, 2004
dynamic urban environment and citizens.

Fig 1 Site map & Existing space analysis
Fig 3 Green infrastructure approach
Fig 2 Auto traffic analysis map

Fig 5 Water design element
Fig 4 Green net proposal
Fig 6 Interaction point & Nerve fabric

General Planning Based on the Connection of City Fabric and Green
Infrastructure System in Mobile, Alabama
Xuanxuan Luo
Graduate Student
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Charlene LeBleu*, ASLA, AICP

Associate Professor
Landscape Architecture
Auburn University
305 Dudley Hall
Auburn, AL 36849, USA
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 334-844-0192
leblecm@auburn.edu
Abstract: Street and Mobile Riverfront with vegetated

pedestrian bridge.
My planning project is based on a theory of
using vegetated facilities to manage storm My design retrofits stormwater facilities on
water runoff and creating a natural and one side of Dauphin Street and while
livable environment in Mobile City, AL. providing more on-street parking. Vegetated
Part of Dauphin Street and Mobile Bay are curb extensions and permeable pavement are
selected as the typical sites for my planning the most common types of green facilities.
intervention to make green system melting These facilities can collect stormwater
into the city pattern. runoff and allow water to soak into the
ground as soil and vegetation filtering
The basic method of my planning is using a pollutants. Additional stormwater that is
theory of Natural Drainage Systems (NDS) generated from Dauphin Street will be
which is constituted by green streets collected into the pipes underneath and
network to manage stormwater. Traditional transferred to the season garden which is
approach which combined sewage and redesigned as a green space. Due to the
stormwater pipes is not healthy for the railway and highway break the integrated
watershed or economic development. Green relation of commercial district and
streets are designed by using planted swales waterfront, there is no strong bonding
adjacent to sidewalk or roadway pavement between city fabric and the site. I added a
to simulate the work of pipes. This system bridge to connect the two parts, which is
attempts to mimic the natural system to designed by putting infrastructures on it, so
decrease runoff, purify stormwater and the landscape will be connected as a whole.
improve related pedestrian amenities. The
approach is constituted by three parts: put
green facilities on Dauphin Street; redesign Key Words: Green infrastructure system,
Mobile Riverfront as a green space with storm water, pattern
functions of a raingarden; connect Dauphin

Introduction common river for people to enjoy. For a
long time, the Mobile riverside has been
Significance of city history and fabric on occupied by industrial constructions.
landscape Railway and highway separate the riverfront
from downtown area.
City growth is impacted by human activities
which have a different pattern in different Dauphin Street is one of the most important
locations. These differences appear in city’s roads in downtown Mobile, which goes
culture, economy, society and residents. The through the whole city from west to east. I
city fabric, which is formed during hundreds choose Dauphin Street as my research area,
of years, is an identification of a city. for it is in a typical and complex
Landscape architecture is one key background. It located at the most
component of city fabric. It is a profession flourishing area of downtown where the city
dealing with the spatial organization of is fulfilled with business establishments,
outdoor places while meeting human needs including bars, restaurants, banks and hotels.
and desires. On one hand, landscape Residents treat this street as a part of their
architecture protects the natural environment lives and celebrate many festivals there.
and circulation. On the other hand,
landscape architecture enhances Problems of landscape in the city of
environments and quality of human lives. Mobile
(See Figure 1)
Nowadays, city infrastructures which
Theory of green infrastructure system include public parks, roads and buildings are
facing a severe problem of aging. With the
There are many green infrastructure types development of Mobile, city cannot satisfy
providing us mature and complete theories the needs of residents any more. Aging
and techniques to enhance our environment. problems can be found everywhere in
A modern theory of Natural Drainage downtown: unreasonable land use; ponded
Systems (NDS) is used in many city water on the street; no enough open space
development programs. (See Figure 2)This for residents. The most obvious problem is a
is a system constituted by green streets railway along the Mobile River cutting off
network. NDS imitates natural drainage the connection between downtown Mobile
system to manage the whole stormwater or and Mobile riverside. People are limited
other wastewater in communities. [1] inside of the city and cannot get touch with
riverside. These problems block the
Defects in existing conditions of the city development of this city. There is no rational
of Mobile green system as a framework to guide the
city’s construction. Systematic theories and
Background of the city of Mobile technologies are should be applied the whole
planning of Mobile.
The city of Mobile is located at the junction
of the Mobile River and Mobile Bay on the Design intention
northern Gulf of Mexico. The Port of
Mobile has always played a key role in the My design intent of this green street is to fit
economic health of the city. (From as many stormwater best management
Wikipedia) So Mobile River is not like a prachies as possible in between driveway

locations and still provide some on-street is also used in my project as supplementary
parking. It is a Master Plan aiming to keep approach.
pace with new market, neighborhood and
government conditions as well as Case studies
advancements in technological,
environmental, transportation and land-use Beijing Olympic Forest Park, Beijing,
planning. The goal of the plan is to China
maximize community development The Beijing Olympic Forest Park combined
opportunities without compromising the Chinese classic gardening with modern
town’s physical assets and cultural identity. landscape design concept, ecological and
environmental technologies in water saving,
The intent of the riverfront district master energy saving and consumption decreasing.
plan is to reclaim the riverfront as a major The Olympic Forest Park has a self-
public area and icon for the Mobile City, the sustaining and self-regulating water body,
project has been instrumental in fostering a requiring solutions associated with the dry
community spirit and an enhanced sense of climate and high evaporation rate, and
pride and commitment to riverfront necessary to ease ecological pressures on the
redevelopment along the Mobile River. (See city and its scarce water resources. [10] The
Figure 3) main source of landscape water is
constituted by reclaimed water system that
integrates existing water bodies to form
Methods used in the city of Mobile dynamic water reclamation and reuse
system. This wastewater treatment system
There are some common methods that are whose source is purified grey water and
used in sustainable planning. Natural stormwater can protect the health of urban
Drainage System is the basic theory of these environment by returning the reclaimed
methods I will apply in my project. NDS water to the ecosystem.
imitates natural drainage process to manage
stormwater. This theory speeds up the The Lurie Garden, Millennium Park,
absorption of runoff and protects stormwater Chicago, Illinois
from being polluted. There are many types This is a case of a garden which utilizes
of facilities can realize NDS theory. Swales various types of plants to show people
are the most effective way in NDS of different scenery at different season. The
managing stormwater, including grass majority of the plants in the garden are
swales, dry swales and wet swales. They can native to North America and some to
absorb stormwater into ground and recharge Illinois. [11] Using native plants can reduce
underground water. Curb extensions and the maintenance fee for the plants. Native
raingardens are two forms of applying bio- plants live longer, for they can tolerate
wales. Curb extensions provide more green drought and disease and help restore plant
spaces and parking spaces, and can be diversity. The garden also acts as a
flexible used in any type of streets. (See raingarden which can absorb and purify
Figure 4) Raingardens enhance living stormwater.
environment and keep bio-diversity in
residential area. These forms will be the key From Brownfield to Greenfield: A New
elements of my project. Permeable Working Landscape for Wellesley College
pavement as another important way in NDS Wrenched from its Toxic Past

paver and the material of these pavers are
This restoration project confronts a history permeable. (See Figure 5)
of contamination on this site. During the
initial years of the Wellesley College’s Plants
development, the area was a site for the The treatment is accomplished via a series
college's physical plant, industrialized of anaerobic and aerobic vegetation that
natural gas pumping, and ultimately, a house key bacteria that consume pathogens,
parking lot over a toxic Brownfield. [12] So carbon, and other nutrients in the wastewater
this is not just a simple planning work to do, thereby making it clean and sage for reuse or
but also a severe environment problem to reintroduce into the local landscape. For
deal with. The site's toxic history was deeply example, Cattail is a type of shrub that can
embedded its soil. In order to keep eliminate acid from water. It is useful for
vegetations growing on the site, hazardous street area which the waste air from cars
soil was removed or in situ treatment. Then dissolving into stromwater. (See Figure 6)
the area was filled with clean soil to provide
vegetations enough nutrition. Now this area Curb extension
has already recovered to a healthy field. Because of the limited width of Dauphin
Street, stormwater facilities will be placed
The three case studies provide me on only one side of the street with a shed
background information to plan a profile directing runoff to the landscape
sustainable and livable landscape for the city features. I put bio-swales in each curb
of Mobile. First, the of reusing wastewater extension to enhance the ability of soaking
and utilizing natural environment to create a stormwater into ground. Bio-swales are
sustainable system. My main site design densely vegetated open channels designed to
used this method to reuse stromwater to attenuate and treat stormwater runoff. These
irrigate Season Park and create water feature drainage ways have gentle slopes to allow
in the landscape design. runoff to be filtered by vegetation planted on
the bottom and sides of the swale. To
Design details of green infrastructure cleanse stormwater before returning it to the
system melting into city fabric local ecosystem, dry swales, which has a
61mm-bottom width, permit water to flow
Functionalize Dauphin Street through the bottom of the swale but are
designed to leave the grassy top relatively
Permeable pavement dry. Dry swales include a large layer of soil
Permeable pavement offers an fill inside a filter-fabric-lined channel with a
environmentally- friendly alternatives to perforated pipe system at the bottom of the
traditional paving materials designed for swale. The underdrain perforated pipe
residential and commercial development. As usually directs treated stormwater to a storm
part of a stormwater system, permeable drain system or to irrigate vegetation. [3]
pavement can virtually eliminate runoff,
potentially removing the need for retention Redesign Mobile Bay
ponds or underwater sewer pipes. I use
permeable pavement on the sidewalks and Plants
additional parking lots. For the convenience I designed my site not only horizontally but
and comfortable of disabled people, I use the also vertically to inspire the sense of
pavements that with little gap between each landscape spaces. [7] Multiple layers of

vegetation limit different functional area Second, this path is important for people
without barriers and marks. People can use who want to enjoy the riverside at the same
different spaces that are formed by time want a safe way to get there. The green
vegetation choosing their activities. If you bridge achieved the task to introduce people
want a private space, you will find a dense to the park and keep them safe. In addition,
and high level vegetation area; if you want the bridge provides people a good spot to
to communicate with other people, you will overlook the downtown area and riverside.
find an open space which gathering many People can find seats on the bridge and not
people who want the same things. At the just pass over it. [6]
same time, the high trees grown along the
railway will help block the noise from trains
passing. [4] Conclusion
Wetland and fountain The planning is a complex and

The Signature Fountain will have comprehensive process of landscape. My
components of not only a large water feature planning is based on the most common and
but also allow the visitors the ability to get economic theories, and also combine city
down to the water’s edge through a series of fabric with landscape design. Through
docks and floating walkway. Along the developing green space of Mobile to
wetland, there is a long boardwalk path complete a sustainable and healthy
providing people a flat to observe the environment, it is not just beneficial to
vegetation and wetland. (See Figure 7) people but also to economic development. A
People can sit on the broad steps of the beautiful and healthy environment can help
boardwalk and relax completely within the revitalize the local economy. My plan will
natural environment. [5] also serve to guide and enhance and give
advanced example to the overall downtown
Green Harbor Mobile core. The most important outcome is
My design contains an extension of the park the sustainable revolution will provide
which is constituted by boardwalk and green people more livable environment. It will
infrastructures. People can take boats to also address the neighborhoods, to the
experience the river-view and also can learn surrounding industries, the ongoing and
about the history of Mobile development by revitalization of the historic commercial
observing the dock. The green harbor is also corridors to the west and the Mobile
a good place for people to go fishing and riverfront to the east.
experience the river-view. It is not just a
boardwalk but also an extra recreational References:
area.
Alison G. Kwok, AIA + Walter T.
Green pedestrian bridge Grondzik, PE (2007). The Green Studio
Handbook, Environmental Strategies
Bridge is what makes the whole green for Schematic Design. UK, Oxford:
system complete and successful. (See Figure Architectural Press, Elsevier Inc.
8) First, the connection of two parts of green http://www.asla.org/awards/2008/08w
design integrate path into green system. It inners/441.html
increased the green spaces and offering
more recreational area to the people.

http://asla.org/awards/2006/06winners/309
.html
Appendix:
Figure 5. Iris
Figure 1. City fabric of Mobile City
Figure 6. Vegetated permeable pavement
Figure 2. Natural drainage system
Figure 7. Raingarden
Figure 3. General planning of Downtown

Mobile area
Figure 8. Green bridge
Figure 4. Curb extension

GREEN WALLS: Utilizing & Promoting Green Infrastructure to Control
Stormwater in Mobile, Alabama
Van Webb
Graduate Student
Auburn University
Auburn, AL
webbvan@auburn.edu
cell: (256)-872-1276
KEYWORDS
Stormwater, green infrastructure, green walls
Abstract to reduce sewer system overflows and

stormwater runoff. According to the most
Due to Mobile, Alabama’s coastal recent U.S. Annual Rainfall Report, Mobile,
geographic location, there are many storms AL. topped the list at 67”/year and averaged
that make their way through the Gulf of 59 rainy days. Stormwater not only affects
Mexico and travel north into the city of the livability within the city but it also
Mobile. These storms create a great amount affects the aquatic life of the Mobile River
of stormwater runoff throughout the city and Mobile Bay areas. For example, with
leading to flooding of streets, water qualities the great amount of impervious surface in
are degraded by trash and other pollutants, the Mobile area, stormwater runoff sheet
stagnant water-creates breeding grounds for flows across hot surface, warms up, and
mosquitoes, and many other issues. empties into the larger bodies of water
Urbanization and population growth has led nearby. Consequences include: killing off
to greater impervious surfaces throughout many invertebrates, degradation of various
the city which in turn increases stormwater aquatic systems, and surface pollutants
quantity and velocity. Retrofitting green intruding on one of the most biodiverse
infrastructure into the existing urban form bodies of water in the world. A paper by
of Mobile is an excellent method towards Celina Bochis and Robert Pitt studied the
stormwater management while also utilizing relationship of impervious surfaces and
vacant lots throughout the city to create a aquatic systems. Their findings showed that
network of natural systems. In this paper, I aquatic systems are directly related to
will discuss how utilizing green walls within watersheds of impervious surfaces.
the built city will provide aesthetic
improvements, reduce energy consumption, Reporting on stormwater has dramatically
help control stormwater, and promote green emerged in the news over the years. There
infrastructure. are many reasons why stormwater can be
detrimental, however beneficial uses of
Introduction stormwater are beginning to come into
practice. Robert Pitt quotes Dreiseitl (1998),
Stormwater has been a growing problem for “stormwater is a valuable resource and
many cities across the United States. Many opportunity to provide an aesthetic
organizations have been searching for ways experience for the city dweller while

furthering environmental awareness and stormwater, with significant utilization of
citizen interest and involvement.” soils and vegetation rather than traditional
Stormwater is a valuable resource and when hardscape collection, conveyance and
combined with green infrastructure can be storage structures.” Retrofitting green
very helpful in reducing runoff discharge infrastructure into the urban environment of
within the urban environment while also Mobile will reduce stormwater discharges,
providing aesthetically pleasing improve water and air qualities, reduce the
environments and promoting environmental urban heat island effect, reduce energy
awareness and citizen involvement. consumption, promote community
awareness, and restore the urban
Some recent efforts by The City of Mobile, environment. Since a large percentage of
The Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce, the Dauphin Street area’s land use is made
and The Downtown Mobile Alliance have up of buildings, I chose to focus my designs
introduced coastal sustainability and a and research around rooftop stormwater
“green streets” initiative plan. My studio management by proposing green walls on
class and I participated in a charrette that existing structures throughout the city.
took place in Mobile on August 29, 2009
sponsored by The Mississippi-Alabama Sea Greenwall Description
Grant Consortium. The goal of the charrette
was to develop ideas and suggestions that Green walls are not a new form of design.
focused on a four block segment along They have been around since the Babylonian
Dauphin Street in Downtown Mobile. The period. It wasn’t until the 1920’s that
ideas were to focus on enhancing the city British and North Americans began
aesthetically, economically, and culturally integrating the house and garden with
while also promoting the city’s sustainable planted structures. There are two types of
vision and progressive development vertical green structures. The first is a green
practices. The day consisted of a site visit, façade. A green façade consists of climbing
group brainstorming, graphical analysis and plants or aggressive groundcovers that are
concept diagramming, and a final trained to cover a specifically designed
presentation and discussion. During the structure and are planted either in the ground
discussion, the idea of green roofs was or in planters. The second is a green wall.
pondered, but input by a city engineer Green walls are living systems. According
brought up concerns of the buildings’ to Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, “living
capabilities to hold such significant gardens wall systems are composed of pre-vegetated
atop. When my class got back to Auburn, panels, vertical modules or planted blankets
we continued to develop our own individual that are fixed vertically to a structural wall
concept ideas of implementing green or frame.” A green walls’ plant variety far
infrastructure techniques into our designs to exceeds that of a green façade including:
mitigate stormwater, enhance urban groundcovers, ferns, low shrubs, perennial
livability, and aesthetically improving the flowers, vegetables, and herbs. Green walls
Dauphin Street area. Benjamin Grumbles, a are moderately low in maintenance requiring
water assistant administrator for the U.S. only simple fertilization, watering, and
Environmental Protection Agency talks of pruning. According to Randy Sharp, green
green infrastructure writing, “Green walls provide many benefits including:
infrastructure approaches essentially
infiltrate, evapotranspirate or reuse

Public Benefits building’s interior on a clear
summer day by 28 percent.
 Noise reduction- plants and (Di 1999).
planting medium act as an  Mitigate stormwater-
insulator for reducing sound absorbing 45-75% of rainfall,
reflection. act as a natural water filter
 Improved exterior air quailty- and water temperature
captures airborne pollutants moderator.
and atmospheric deposition  Building structure protection-
on leaf surfaces while green walls protect exterior
filtering noxious gases and finishes from UV radiation,
particulate matter. stormwater, and temperature
 Reduce urban heat island fluctuations that wear down
effect- vegetation cools materials.
exterior surface of buildings  Green walls contribute
and reduces amount of towards several LEED credits
reflected heat. Green walls when used in combination
can create microclimates with other sustainable
which will help in reducing building practices.
the city temperature as a
whole.
 Aesthetic improvement- Objective
studies have shown that the
presence of plants can The objective of this research is to show
improve human health and how innovative planning and design
mental well being. techniques such as green walls can help
 Promoting of green mitigate stormwater, aesthetically improve
infrastructure- green walls the urban environment, reduce energy
are considered as green consumption, and promote green
infrastructure. Elaborate infrastructure. In order to utilize green
green walls can show a city’s walls in an urban environment, certain
concern for the environment, measures and investigations must be taken
therefore promoting green in order for the wall to succeed. Picking a
infrastructure techniques. suitable site for green wall application is the
number one objective when analyzing an
Private Benefits urban environment. In this study, one
demonstration site of green wall techniques
 Improve energy efficiency- will be discussed along with the steps I took
green walls improve thermal towards completing the analysis and
insulation capacity by research of the project. I will also discuss
providing a thick layer of the steps I took towards development of
vegetation between the several other potential sites. I will
building structure and graphically show how green walls can create
external temperatures. For a dramatic visual design element.
example, a green wall in
Beijing reduced the peak-
cooling load transfer to the

Methodology qualified my design intentions by using a
section of my site as a design test {figure 4a-
The first step in this research was a site visit. existing; 4b-proposed}. The green wall
Creating aerial maps before the initial site system in this section would be composed of
visit was very beneficial in recording a freestanding modular trellis panel system.
important field data. Mobile gets a large The proposed site is in a prime location for
amount of rain every year and existing promoting green infrastructure. The vacant
gutters drain rooftop stormwater into the lot is surrounded by three large walls
storm drain system causing them to back up, creating a perfect site for green wall
overflow, and eventually flood. Our class installation. I then calculated the rooftop
was given G.I.S. data by the city of Mobile, square footage of the block area and
which helped inform site selection and calculated the amount of rain that could be
design decisions. I began by creating an infiltrated through the green walls seen
existing conditions map depicting the below:
topography, manholes, sewer lines, drainage +Total Block Area= 55,000 sq.f.
points, fire hydrants, utility poles, and the +Total Rooftop Area= 48,925 sq.f.
paved edge of the street system throughout +Amount of rooftop water with one
the study area {figure 1}. This allowed me inch rain= 30,498 gallons/1” rain
to make accurate design decisions. +Mobile Averages 67” per year.
67” x 30,498 gallons= 2,043,366
Further site locating details involved the gallons/year
creation of an existing land use map using +Green walls can absorb 45-75% of
G.I.S. {figure 2}. This map allowed me to stormwater. I chose the median at
establish building priorities. It shows the 60%.
different commercial, civic, industrial, +60% of 2,043,366 gallons/year=
residential, and mixed use building usage in 1,226,020 gallons infiltrated by
the downtown Mobile area. During the site green wall
development stage, these maps were very .
beneficial by providing critical analysis on From there I found myself constricted to this
site specific detail. I chose my site location one area and wanted to find a way to link
because of its relationship to Dauphin Street, other green spaces within the city to my site.
which is located in the core of the social I went back to the drawing board and came
entertainment district of the downtown area up with a rough concept plan {figure 5}.
which gives it many great opportunities for This plan reveals the idea of linking multiple
public awareness and involvement. Another green spaces together by a connection of
reason I chose this site is because of its green walls acting as visual cues throughout
direct relationship to the surrounding the city. Finding the appropriate sites for
buildings in the area and also because it has the other green walls was a bit more
two vertical walls where I am proposing challenging. I began by analyzing the maps
green walls to be installed. The next step I had previously created and tried
towards site development involved the associating building characteristics with
creation of a master plan scenario {figure 3}. building importance. I wanted to propose
This plan shows my design intentions for the the new green walls in places of interest to
green wall demonstration site. {Photo 1} draw city dwellers towards them. The next
shows the existing vacant site where I am step in my research was the creation of a
proposing the green wall systems. I further building heights analysis map {figure 6}. I

then built a 3d model using Google Delta is estimated to be ten miles wide and
SketchUp in order to create a shadow study forty miles long, covering a total acreage of
{figures 7a-c}. By analyzing the building 185,000 acres. Twenty percent of the U.S.
heights and shadow study, I was able to waters flow through the Mobile-Tensaw
quantify suitable green wall sites. An ideal Delta down into the Mobile Bay. The Delta
building for green walls consisted of a is habitat to many endangered species
building height greater than twenty-five feet including the red bellied turtle, which lives
and a northeast or southwest facing façade. nowhere else in the world. There are more
I further qualified the new green wall sites than 250 bird species. The plant species
with a section drawing as my design test exceed 500 different types including:
{figure 8a-existing; 8b-proposed}. The willows, sweet bays, sycamores, pond pines,
section is taken across Jackson Street gums, gulf cypress, red cypress, and many
looking east down Dauphin Street. This others. The estuaries are habitat to many
section exemplifies the aesthetic value green different types of marsh grasses. Estuaries
walls can add to an urban environment. are considered environmentally and
Green walls that size would create dramatic economically important because of their
visual gardens throughout the city, showing exceptional biological diversity and
citizens and tourists that Mobile is taking productivity. Alabama’s numerous
positive steps towards becoming more watersheds are very important to the water
sustainable and eco-friendly. qualities and plant and animal habitats
within the Mobile-Tensaw Delta and Mobile
Related Work Bay areas. Green walls can help mitigate
stormwater runoff and also act as a water
Waters of Alabama temperature moderator, therefore lowering
ground surface temperature in order to keep
There are many rivers and streams located in aquatic systems thriving. (Doug Phillips)
Alabama which all form different
watersheds. Within these watersheds, many Conclusion
plant and animal habitats exist. A watershed
is the surrounding land area that drains into The ideas of green infrastructure are
a particular body of water. Land use within beginning to sink in and become more
a particular watershed, not only contributes pervasive throughout the United States. I
pollutants to their local streams and rivers, have learned that by critically analyzing an
but those pollutants are also carried urban space accurately using graphic
downstream damaging numerous wildlife analysis and data, green infrastructure can
and vegetative habitats. There are seven be innovative and site specific. Mobile,
major rivers in Alabama consisting of: the Alabama is one of the most beautiful coastal
Black Warrior, Tombigbee, Cahaba, Coosa, cities in the United States and stormwater
Tallapoosa, Alabama, and the Mobile. runoff has been an ongoing problem in the
Dauphin Street area. Rooftop stormwater
The Mobile-Tensaw Delta is a geographic can be utilized in the creation of on-site
barrier between urban environments and infiltration systems. The site I chose would
Alabama’s water systems, making it the 2nd provide as a green wall demonstration site
largest delta in the United States. It is not a and also provide as a stormwater reduction
typical delta; it is more elongated than most system. Green walls can improve the urban
other deltas. The size of the Mobile-Tensaw environment by mitigating stormwater while

also creating healthier and aesthetically Appendix
pleasing living environments, reducing
FIGURE 1
energy consumption, and also promote
green infrastructure to the public through
extensive vertical gardening.
References
Pitt, Robert. (1987). Small Storm Urban

Flow and Particulate Washoff
Contributions to Outfall Discharges. A
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Civil and
Environmental Engineering). FIGURE 2
Pitt, Robert. (1999). The Beneficial Uses of

Stormwater in Urban Areas and the
Need for Change in Urban Water
Management. Section 2 of the Guidance
Manual for Integrated Wet Weather
Collection and Treatment Systems for
Newly Urbanized Areas.
Bochis, Celina and Pitt, Robert. (2005). FIGURE 3

Impervious Surfaces in Urban
Watersheds. This paper was presented at
the 78th Annual Water Environment
Federation Technical Exposition and
Conference in Washington D.C.
Loh, Susan. (2008). Living Walls-A way to

green the built environment. BEDP
Environment Design Guide.
Sharp, Randy; Sable, James; Bertram, Flavia

and Mohan, Eva; Peck, Steven. (2008).
Introduction to Green Walls Technology, PHOTO 1
Benefits and Design. Developed by
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities.
Phillips, Doug. Mobile-Tensaw Delta.

Discovering Alabama Video Series.

FIGURE 4a FIGURE 7b
12:15 p.m.
FIGURE 7c
4:15 p.m.
FIGURE 4b
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 8a
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 8b
FIGURE 7a
8:15 a.m.

Stormwater Management in Dauphin Street Area, Mobile, Alabama
Junyi Li
Graduate Student
Key Words:
Stormwater management, rainwater harvesting, runoff, infiltration
Abstract: pavement. 2) Bioswales to slow, collect,

clean rainfall in parking lot, also to provide
The purpose of the project is to retain, shade for users. 3) A cistern was used to
collect, store and reuse stormwater in collect rainwater on the roof, and reuse it.
Dauphin Street area, Mobile, Alabama. This After these installments, it is likely heavy
project seeks to control the quality and runoff and water pollution would be
quantity of stormwater in the proposed area, alleviated for the chosen site.
in order to reduce surface runoff and urban
heat island effect, and reutilize water. Since The author proposes the following seven-
Dauphin Street was built in 18th century, and tiered approach:
still has impervious surface and old
stormwater system. The impervious surface 1) The ability of these facilities to slow,
does not allow water to infiltrate into the collect, and clean stormwater;
ground. Most runoff goes directly into the 2) Longevity of these facilities;
drainage system, and exit into the Mobile 3) Aesthetic value;
Bay. This condition could cause flooding 4) Utility value;
while the system is overwhelmed by the 5) Educational value;
additional flows. 6) Cost-efficient;
7) To promote establishment of regulation
Stormwater management is the management about stormwater management.
of stormwater runoff, often using water
retention facility, to provide controlled In areas like Mobile, with heavy rainfall and
release into receiving streams massive evaporation, a solo stormwater
(watertechnology.net). Stormwater runoff management may not comprehensive. A
causes pollution, erosion and flooding combination of rain cistern, bioswales, and
problems. These problems occur because we permeable pavement could reduce surface
altered the land and changed the way that runoff more effectively than a single
water moves through the landscape. Also, method. This paper will theoretically point
because this system lacks cleaning function, out both successes and failures of this
it cannot eliminate pollution in the water, infrastructure. The proposed stormwater
and thereby pollutes rivers, lakes, and the management method and permeable design
ocean. provide a model for future planning.
For this project, I used 1) Pervious concrete

replaces existing parking impervious

Introduction the management of stormwater runoff, often
using water retention facility, to provide
With the urbanization process, human’s controlled release into receiving streams
activity has more and more impact on nature (watertechnology.net).
habitat. The concrete surface replaced the
natural soil, cut down the connection with Why it’s important to management
rain water and deep soil, which prevent stormwater?
water get into the aquifers, infiltrate and About 55% of stormwater goes directly into
become ground water. Ground water is the drainage system, with dirt, waste,
water located beneath the ground surface in pesticide and fertilizer in urban
soil pore spaces and in the fractures of environment. Stormwater runoff causes
lithologic formations. A unit of rock or an pollution, erosion and flooding problems.
unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer On the one hand, the runoff greatly increases
when it can yield a usable quantity of water. the burden of the city drainage system while
the precipitation is heavy, peak discharges
What is stormwater? can be as much as two to five times the
Stormwater is the water come down to the nature rate; on the other hand, this dirty
ground during precipitation events. It moves water gets into the ecosystem without
on the ground by gravity and flows into infiltration of soil, that greatly aggravates
streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and oceans. eutrophication, sediment, bacteria and
viruses, oil and grease, metals, organics,
In the nature environment, when pesticides in water. Furthermore, since there
precipitation happens, there are about 40% is not enough water in urban area for
stormwater go back to the air through evaporation, heat island effect would
evapotranspiration, 25% get into ground become worse.
through deep infiltration, 25% absorbed by
shallow infiltration, and only 10% get away Unmanaged stormwater could also infect the
as runoff. micro environment. If stormwater has not
been taken good care, it could cause stream
In urban area, due to most pavements are flow at the side walk, path, parking lot, and
impervious. There are about 30% disturb the people’s movement. In some
stormwater go back to the air through area, accumulation of stormwater could
evapotranspiration, 5% get into ground cause a spread of disease, threat people’s
through deep infiltration, 10% absorbed by health. Not only too much precipitation
shallow infiltration, and there are 55% of could cause trouble, in drought area, if
stormwater get away as runoff. This runoff precipitation hasn’t been managed and
usually goes directly into the drainage stored in an appropriate way, it may cause
system the temperature higher than in the nature
environment and make living creature
What is stormwater management? uncomfortable, it will make people use air
Managing the quantity and quality of conditioner more, waste the energy which
stormwater is termed, “Stormwater we could have saved.
Management.” (Washington State
Department of Ecology. “Stormwater Mobile, Alabama
Management Manual for Western Mobile is the third most populous city in the
Washington”). Stormwater management is Southern U.S. state of Alabama and is the

county seat of Mobile County. It is located Beniville Square, which could cause safety
on the Mobile River and the central Gulf and sanitary problem. It also could prevent
Coast of the United States. people from enjoy the space.
Mobile located at the junction of the Mobile Mobile municipal would like to renew the
River and Mobile Bay on the northern Gulf area to provide a better habitat for residents,
of Mexico, the city is the only seaport in also to promote economy here. But the
Alabama. Moist and hot for most of the budget is limited, so I have to pay attention
year. Annual average temperature is 67.5 F°; to both short term cost and the long term
almost 75 days have temperature higher than cost.
90 F°. Annual precipitation is 64 inches; in
August alone, precipitation as high as 7 Stormwater Management
inch/month. Average relative humidity is For this project, I used porous pavement,
75%. Mobile is known for having the oldest bioswales, and rain cisterns to reduce and
organized Carnival celebrations in the infiltrate runoff on the site.
United States, dating to the 1700s of its
early colonial period. Impervious—pervious parking pavement.
American own 45% of auto mobiles in the
Feasibility Analysis world. While eighty to ninety percent of
Mobile City is beside the Mobile Bay, since parking demands in America are met by
precipitation here is very high, flood could surface parking, especially in Dauphin Street
be a potential threaten. However, the area I area I’m going to design, almost all the
design is in the area of 500-year flood, or surface parking lot all with impervious
areas of 100-year flood with average depth paving. Because it will prevent rainfall from
of less than 1 foot. We could almost infiltrate into soil and supply underground
overlook the factor of flood, and structures I water resource, it has an impact on receiving
design could ignore the factor of overflow stream hydrograph as well as water quality.
(Figure. 1). Because of the smooth surface, it also keeps
the parking lot wet and slippery while
Runoff in the site has a pattern to follow. raining. The grey concrete parking lot
Basically, the highest point on the site is in paving is light colored, with smooth surface
the middle, rainwater will flow to the will reflect more heat and light, visually, it
surrounding drainage system beside roads. can result as eyesore and glaring,
Overall, stream flow from southwest to the temperature will be extremely hot in
northeast, and run into the Mobile Bay. summer days.
There is not a significant geological burden To address this situation, I would like to
from doing this project. replace the paving into a permeable
The Dauphin Street used to be the most pavement.
popular street in town, but since this area The paving, from top to the bottom order of
become old, lack of entertainment facilities, porous asphalt, shattered 1” thick concrete,
it has been desolated especially during the soil, shattered 8” thick concrete, and pipes.
depression. Devices in this area are pretty Porous asphalt will not produce dust like
old which is not sustainable. The system has eroded concrete paving, asphalt could
negative effects for the environment. Some absorb some noise, reduce light reflection. It
homeless people would sleep and live at the can easily let rainwater get through it, keep

surface dry and clean. Shattered 1” thick providing protection to natural wetland
concrete could infiltrate roughly; soil could system from frequent storm events by
clean and retain some rainwater; concrete reducing storm flow velocities when
shattered into 8” thick can clean runoff for compared to pipe systems (Figure. 2).
the last time. If there is overflow, those
surface waters will get into the bio-swale. Plants and soil are key functional elements
Those water left after infiltration of of all landscaped stormwater facilities. This
shattered concrete, asphalt paving and soil, natural system approach improves the
will get into the pipes underground and quality of the urban runoff through bio-
collected in the main cistern. retention processes and helps restore lost
hydrologic functions in urbanized areas.
After remove the previous concrete paving, Native plants are used because they are
we could shatter them into small rocks with more resistance of local environment, easier
different diameter; they could be used as to manage.
base of the porous parking lot pavement.
Save the money of moving construction Deciduous trees in these bioswales not only
waste and purchase new material. will provide shade for users in hot days, but
also let sunshine come down in winters.
Bioswales in the parking lot; Also, trees in the bioswales could decrease
Pervious pavement is not enough to solve dirt in air, odors, noise, glare and airborne
stormwater problem on the site. The pollutants.
pervious paving is hard to make large
amount of water infiltrated and get into the Collect and reuse rainwater on the roof.
deep ground. Roof of buildings in this area all covered
with concrete or asphalt, drainages
Bioswales are landscape elements designed connected roof and the ground. Tons of
to remove silt and pollution from surface rainwater just pour into the mobile bay
runoff water. Bioswales in the parking lot without make full use of it.
are intended to slow, collect, clean rainfall
in the parking lot. They are several long and So my idea is to make full use of the
narrow planters, with native grass and native rainwater. First, we need to change the
deciduous trees. Bioretention swales provide drainage system, reorganize the pipes. Then,
both stormwater treatment and conveyance at the end of each drainage, I put a water
functions. The swale component provides sculpture there, to let people notice the
pre-treatment of stormwater to remove rhythm of water dropping, and be able to
coarse to medium sediments, while the play with water. After that, water can be
bioretention system removes finer over flow out of the sculpture and get to
particulates and associated contaminants. infiltrate into soil. The water can’t get
Stormwater will be filtered via the following further in ground will be collected in pipes,
processes: 1) passing through surface and store in a cistern underground (Figure.
vegetation; 2) percolating through 3).
prescribed filter media, which provides The area of the roof in my design area is
treatment through fine filtration, extended about 83595 ft2, annual precipitation in
detention treatment and some biological Mobile is 64 inches, based the rainwater
uptake; 3) disconnecting impervious areas calculation formula:
from downstream waterways; and 4)

Collection Area (ft2) x Rainfall (in/yr.) / 12 could be as the foundation of new porous
(in/ft) x 7.43 (Gallons/Cubic Foot) = pavement. Use native plants also could
Gallons/Year effectively cut down the construction and
So, the amount of rainwater we could management cost.
collect is:
83595 (ft2) x 64 (in/yr) /12 (in/ft) x 7.34 If this project is successful, it could
(Gallons/Cubic Foot) = 3312590.122 promote the establishment of regulation
Gallons/Year about stormwater management. Especially
Over 3 million gallons per year of water in areas have same environment, they could
could have used in the area. use the model of rainwater management in
this project.
The aesthetic value of the new site would
be enhanced a lot comparing to the old Possible Problems
space. Green plants bring pleasure to people The biggest problem of this project is
and relax the eyes. Structures with vivid management. Sediment may deposit on the
color also are able to enlighten the space. edge of the fountain sculptural, debris could
Deciduous trees and evergreen trees mostly block the curb inlet of bioswales. If there is
placed in regular pattern but also have some a large amount of sediment in the designed
in irregular pattern, this arrangement area, the function of the stormwater
provided the space order, yet not too rigid. management system may have compromised
by them. So, it may need to pay more
After design, the mixed use parking lot attention on cleaning these areas.
provides spaces for play; have lunch, take a
break and opportunity for people to interact Conclusion
with each other. It could attract more people
in order to promote consumption. The Dauphin Street area is a place full with
history and glory. But it has not been taken
Since there are three elementary schools ( good care of. The old urban planning and
Leinkauf Elementary School; Council construction methods are hard to follow the
Traditional School; and Howard Elementary problems caused by urbanization. It needs to
School), two middle schools ( Calloway- keep updated with new trends.
Smith Middle School; and Dunbar Middle
School) in the walking distance of the For this project, I used porous pavement,
designed area, the space had the potential to bioswales, and rain cisterns to reduce peak
become a water-collection procedure display stormwater volume and infiltrate runoff as
center. Make children to know the much as possible on the site. 1) The
importance of water conservation, in order pervious concrete replaces existing parking
to establish their conscience to protect the impervious pavement. 2) Bioswales are
environment. intended to slow, collect, clean rainfall in
the parking lot, also to provide shade for
For short run, the devices may cost more users. 3) A cistern was used to collect
than usual project in the same size. rainwater on the roof, and reuse it. After
However, the project could save irrigation these installments, it is likely heavy runoff
water and electricity. And we could reduce a and water pollution would be alleviated for
cost by use the materials already existing. the chosen site.
Like break up existing concrete paving

There are many states have done (Feb. 2005). Stormwater
stormwater project, research, and established management manual for western
stormwater management policy. However, Washington. Washington State
research is still needed in the related field. Department of Ecology Water
Especially cross study with wind, noise, and Quality Program
light specialists. Cooperation with experts in
different areas could stimulate idea collision Christianson, R; Powell, M; Hutchinson,
and promote to emerge of better resolution. S; Presley, D. (July, 2008).
Stormwater best management
References: practice maintenance. Presented by
Kansas State University
Storm, S; Nathan, K; Woland, J. (2009). Agricultural Experiment Station and
Site engineering for landscape Cooperative Extension Service
architects. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gibbons, Jim (1999) Parking Lots.
Zimmermann, A. (2009). Constructing Nonpoint Education For Municipal
landscape-materials, techniques, Officials
structural components. Birkhauser
MA Department of Environmental
Using Smart Growth Techniques as Protection; MA Office of Coastal
Stormwater best management Zone Management. (March 1997).
practices Stormwater Management. Volume
Two: Stormwater Technical
American Society of Landscape Handbook. MA Department of
Architects; Lady Bird Johnson Environmental Protection
Wildflower Center at the University
of Texas at Austin; United States Selman, Mindy (2007) Eutrophication:
Botanic Garden (2009) The An Overview of Status, Trends,
Sustainable Sites Initiative— Policies, and Strategies. World
Guidelines and Performance Resources Institute.
Benchmarks 2009. American
Society of Landscape Architects; The Importance of Imperviousness.
Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Watershed protection Techniques
Center at the University of Texas at
Austin; United States Botanic Clark, Mark; Acomb, Glenn (2008)
Garden Florida Field Guide of Low Impact
Development. University of Florida.
California Stormwater Quality
Association (2003) Stormwater American Society of Landscape
BMP Handbook Pollutant Impacts Architects (2007) General Design
on Water Quality. California Honoraward—NESiskiyou Green
Stormwater Quality Association, Street, Portland, Oregon. American
Stormwater BMP Handbook, 2003. Society of Landscape Architecture.
Washington State Department of

Ecology Water Quality Program.

Appendix:
Figure 1. Flood Plan Analysis
Figure 2. Design Paving Details
Figure 3. Drainage before-after

ABSTRACTS

KEYNOTE ADDRESSES
Southern Appalachia on the Edge - Ted L. Gragson, University of Georgia and Coweta LTER
Landscapes in the southeastern U.S. are expected to change profoundly in the next 50 years. Not
only will the dramatic exurbanization and its driving socioeconomic forces evident the last three
decades persist, they will interact with the anticipated and significant changes in the rates,
frequencies, and intensities of climatic factors. Much attention has been given to the pattern, if
not the process, stemming from this interaction in what represent the end members of our
human-dominated world: urban and wildland areas. I will center my remarks in this presentation
on the rural and quasi-rural lands on which the sprawling urban development characteristic of the
Southeast is now converging. The foundation for these remarks is the accumulated knowledge
from more than 30 years of Coweta LTER research in southern Appalachia. This will allow me
not only to identify some of the critical URI issues we can expect to face in the coming decades,
but some of the challenges and opportunities for organizing the transdiscipinary research these
URI issues require.
Southern Appalachia is legendary in the Southeast for its clear cobble-bottomed streams and
waterfalls, mist-shrouded mountain vistas, and remarkable biodiversity. However, the historic
isolation of the region that protected these environmental amenities ended when southern
Appalachia became part of a vast, trans-metropolitan region that is growing as “…an irregularly
colloidal mixture of rural and suburban landscapes” (Gottmann, 1961: 5). As of AD 2000, this so-
called Piedmont Megapolitan Region had a combined population of over 18 million (6.5% of the
total US population), was growing annually at 1.7% (ranked 5th in the U.S.) and covered 236,000
km2. The state of Georgia is the fastest growing state east of the Rockies at an annualized rate
between 1990 and 2000 of 3.6%. Over the same period, metropolitan and micropolitan
populations across the Southeast grew respectively by 19.2% and 12.0%, while populations
outside defined urban areas grew at the rate of 9.0%. This sprawling urban development is
spreading across the rural and quasi-rural lands of southern Appalachia by a combination of
reductions in development density, segregation of residential and commercial districts, and
expansion of transportation networks.
This sprawl is closely associated with a decrease in household size and an increase in the number
of dwellings that reflect an aging of the U.S. population and changes in behavioral and social
mores. All these factors combined increase the vulnerability of populations in the Southeast to
hydroclimate extremes (i.e., droughts, floods) that accumulating evidence indicates are
increasing in frequency and severity. These extremes are not merely unique, never-to-recur
events as the absence of national, state or community planning would suggest, but are expected
to continue into the future. The increased vulnerability of populations is evident in rising costs of
numerous kinds derived from property damage through loss of human life resulting from
extreme hydroclimate events. In 2004, the Peak’s Creek Landslide (Macon County, NC)
destroyed 15 homes and resulted in 5 fatalities. In September 2008, many parts of metropolitan
Atlanta and surrounding areas had rainfall totals equivalent to a 500-year flood that closed major
transportation corridors and school systems, and contributed to at least 10 fatalities. The

unprecedented times we live in and the environmental challenges we face as a society demand
novel approaches to the production, dissemination and application of knowledge.
Creating and Translating Ecological Knowledge: The Case of Urban Ecological Systems - -
Richard V. Pouyat, USDA Forest Service
Urban ecological systems represent a formidable challenge to ecologists. As a result, until the
1990s ecologists in North America avoided urban areas, or when they did study human
settlements, they focused on ecological processes embedded within cities (i.e., “ecology in the
city”) rather than integrative investigations of greater metropolitan areas as biophysical-social
complexes (i.e., “ecology of the city”). In the case of ecological investigations in the city,
methodologies, conceptual frameworks, and mathematical ecological models were developed
without people explicitly included. By contrast, with ecological investigations of the city, an
integrated approach allows for investigations of feedbacks between the human and biophysical
domains. This requires not only an understanding of ecological systems, but also of human
behavior. However, even with the integration of the human and ecological domains, ecologists
remain observers from outside the system. This presentation will (1) highlight what we have
learned about urban ecological systems, (2) discuss how the study of urban ecological systems
has the potential to advance ecological theory and (3) explore the “human-centered approach” to
the study of urban ecological systems, which embeds the ecological community within urban
ecological systems, and how this approach results in greater understanding and more effective
environmental policy decision making.
Urban Ecology, Resilience Theory, and Sustainability at the URI - - Charles L. Redman,
School of Sustainability, Arizona State University
The conceptual framework we utilize in approaching our investigations impacts the way we
think about the problem, how we work together and even the results of our research. Moreover,
dynamic phenomena, such as the Urban-Rural Interface have characteristics unique to the
phenomenon itself and others conditioned by the context in time and space that it is passing
through. This presentation will address some of the opportunities and conundrums created by
the application of one or all of the conceptual frameworks suggested in the title and where it
might point to as being the most promising and needed avenues of research for the next decade.
Mechanisms linking urban patterns to carbon dynamics: Hypotheses, observations, and

future scenarios - - Marina Alberti, University of Washington
Urbanizing regions are major determinants of global, regional, and local scale environmental
changes. Urbanization affects the structure and function of Earth’s ecosystems through alteration
of biophysical processes and habitat and modification of major biogeochemical cycles.
Environmental changes resulting from urbanization, in turn affect human health and well-being.
Scholars of urban ecology have hypothesized that patterns of urbanization control ecosystems
dynamics through the complexity of interactions and feedback mechanisms linking human

decisions to ecological processes. During the last three decades we have learned a great deal
about the interactions between human activities and ecosystem function. However, empirical
studies of the underlying processes and mechanisms linking urban patterns and ecosystem
function are extremely limited. There are very few empirical data available to systematically
evaluate how alternative patterns of urban development (i.e., centralized versus sprawling)
interact with ecosystem processes along urban gradients across diverse biomes. Identifying
effective strategies to enhance ecological resilience of urban regions requires more mechanistic
and comprehensive studies of such interactions.
Building on current empirical studies on urban carbon fluxes and dynamics, this paper
develops formal hypotheses on how alternative development patterns produce different carbon
signatures and on how interactions between urbanization patterns and carbon stocks and fluxes
might change under alternative future scenarios. By focusing on the interactions between
urbanization patterns and the carbon cycle, I highlight the challenges and opportunities that the
study of coupled human-natural systems poses for ecology and the social sciences. I propose an
integrated approach linking observations, modeling, and scenario building to foster advances in
scientific research and policy making.
Challenges and Opportunities for Interdisciplinary Research along Urban-Rural

Gradients: Examples from Baltimore, MD. - - Steward T.A. Pickett, Cary Institute of
Ecosystem Studies
The initial studies of urban rural gradients were focused on biological systems or patches within
a matrix differing in degree of human habitation and built structure. As urban ecology has
developed as a mainstream research approach, the recognition and need to incorporate human
actions and artifacts within the gradient itself has grown. This need to better integrate socio-
economic and biophysical research is the greatest challenge to the initial frameworks used by the
Baltimore Ecosystem Study, Long-Term Ecological Research project. To enhance integration
we are attempting to build on the human ecosystem framework, as applied in the context of
watersheds and patch dynamics. A first step is to incorporate new theories of spatial controls on
biodiversity and of engineered stream continua to motivate human-biophysical integration. A
second approach is to adopt modeling of locational choices by households and firms. Together
the new theories and more integrated modeling should allow us to project alternative urban-rural
futures based on changing climate and on the new and emerging policies for sustainability in our
region. Examples of research findings and policy implications that have emerged from the
Baltimore Ecosystem Study are presented to ground the discussion of the nature of the balance
between challenges and opportunities for research on the urban-rural interface.
PRESENTATIONS
Tropical warming and the dynamics of endangered primates, Ruscena Wiederholt and Eric
Post, Pennsylvania State University
Many primate species are severely threatened, but little is known about the effects of global
warming and the associated intensification of El Niño events on primate populations in general

or on platyrrhine (NewWorld) monkeys. Quantifying the role of climate change in the dynamics
of primates is crucial because, globally, up to one-third of primate species are threatened with
extinction. Elucidating the role of climate change is further necessitated by the potential for
large-scale climate change to synchronize the population dynamics of widely dispersed species,
which could exacerbate the extinction risk of multiple populations. Here, we documented the
influences of the El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) and hemispheric climatic variability on
the population dynamics of four genera of ateline (neotropical, large-bodied) primates. The
effects of large-scale climate and resource availability (tree phenology) on ateline primate
population dynamics were quantified using autoregressive density-dependent models; these
models were also used to assess the influences of climate on potential primate resource
availability. We then examined the level of interspecific synchrony among the primate
populations and quantified the role of large-scale climatic variability in synchrony. All ateline
genera experienced either an immediate or a lagged negative effect of El Niño events. ENSO
events were also found to influence primate resource levels through neotropical arboreal
phenology; fruit and flower production were positively affected in El Niño years and negatively
affected during La Niña years. Resource availability was found to have either a lagged positive,
lagged negative or immediate negative effect on primate population density. Furthermore, the
more frugivorous ateline primates showed a high degree of interspecific population synchrony
over large scales across Central and South America attributable to the recent trends in large-scale
climate. These results highlight the role of large-scale climatic variation and trends in ateline
primate population dynamics, and emphasize that global warming could pose additional threats
to the persistence of multiple species of endangered primates.
Characterizing ecosystem health in fragmented northeastern forests, Stella J.M. Cousins -

Yale University School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Jeffrey S. Ward - Connecticut
Agricultural Experiment Station, and Mary Tyrrell - Yale University School of Forestry &
Environmental Studies and Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry
The goal of this project is to identify a set of key indicators of forest ecosystem health in an
increasingly fragmented landscape, test the reliability of those key indicators, and create
protocols through which those indicators can periodically be checked to monitor forest health
trends in the forest ecosystem. Throughout the world, forests are being rapidly converted to other
land uses and land covers; the Highlands region of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and
Pennsylvania is a region that exemplifies such a transition. The Connecticut Highlands Project
employed a comprehensive forest inventory in combination with recent land cover analysis to
understand the impacts of an increasingly fragmented landscape on the forest ecosystem. We
collected data on woody and herbaceous vegetation, various abiotic landscape characteristics,
and avian diversity on forty plots distributed randomly in adjacent subwatersheds of the
Housatonic River. These plots were classified along a gradient of forest continuity as core,
perforated, or edge forests. We found that cover of invasive shrub species was greater in the
watershed with more fragmented forests. Further, cover of invasive shrubs was significantly
greater in edge forests as compared to both perforated and core locations. Bird species
abundance was lower in the less fragmented watershed; we are continuing analysis of bird
observations to investigate patterns related to forest configuration and distribution of indicator
species. Preliminary analysis also suggests that some environmental characteristics were

comparable across watersheds and landscape fragmentation categories. For example, disease
prevalence and standing dead basal area, commonly used to identify forest health issues, showed
similar distributions in these categories. Next steps in the investigation will focus on identifying
major predictors of ecosystem health for forests at the urban margin. We expect that some of the
measures will be more sensitive to fragmentation impacts than others, and we will continue to
focus on these specialized predictors. Following our analysis, a revised measurement protocol
will be implemented in a second watershed pair in 2010. We found evaluating ecosystem health
at the landscape scale is a challenge where forests are increasingly interspersed with unforested
areas. Tested methods for monitoring fragmented forests, which we aim to contribute with this
project, will be critical to understanding ecosystem processes in the exurban environment.
Funding for this project was provided as part of a USFS State & Private Forestry Redesign
Grant. In addition to the authors, collaborators included Audubon Connecticut, University of
Connecticut, Connecticut DEP – Division of Forestry, and White Memorial Foundation.
An assessment of Illinois Conservation Opportunity Areas: Stakeholders' perspectives on

conservation planning, implementation, and threats - - Natalie Mountjoy (Southern Illinois
University Carbondale), Mae A. Davenport (University of Minnesota), David J. Myers (Illinois
Department of Natural Resources), and Matt R. Whiles (Southern Illinois University)
Natural resource management is trending away from adversarial, top-down approaches to a more
bottom-up, citizen-led and organized approach. The Illinois Wildlife Action Plan, developed in
2005, recognized thirty-two Conservation Opportunity Areas (COAs) across the state as priority
areas for conserving Illinois’ species in greatest need of conservation. Community-based natural
resource management groups within the newly recognized COAs are collaborating to work as the
community arm of the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). We designed an online
survey of COA stakeholders to establish the status of resource management planning efforts,
perceived conditions necessary for success, expectations for the future of COAs, and current
conservation priorities and threats. The survey documented a variety of planning efforts in
different stages across the state. While stakeholders’ general evaluation of the resource
management plans was that they are somewhat effective, over a quarter acknowledged
uncertainty regarding effectiveness of the plans for managing and protecting habitats or species.
Not having the appropriate level of funding or the type of equipment needed for conservation
planning and implementation appears to be a major constraint to success. Interestingly, the single
most important contributor to success, according to the stakeholders surveyed, is having
community or landowner support. Restoring and enhancing wetlands and improving forests and
savannas emerged as the highest priority conservation actions across the state, though individual
COA priorities varied. The presence of invasive species was perceived as the biggest threat to
COAs. The results of this survey provide much needed insight into the challenges faced and
successes achieved in statewide conservation planning efforts. The study will help local and state
resource managers prioritize technical and planning assistance to individual COAs and across
COAs. In addition, these results will serve as preliminary data for a larger-scale investigation on
the capacity of each COA and the quality of the resource management plans they produce.

Land change scenarios for resolving urbanization–conservation conflicts at the edge of
metropolis, Monica Dorning, Douglas A. Shoemaker, and Ross K. Meentemeyer, Center for
Applied Geographic Information Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Increases in population and per capita land consumption continue to threaten the persistence of
natural ecosystems and create conflicts between demands for development and protection of
valuable natural resources. To address this issue, we focused on North Carolina’s Southern
Piedmont, a biologically diverse and productive region at the intersection of three rapidly
expanding metropolises. Our primary goal is to identify locations which have considerable
potential for future development as well as significant value for natural resource conservation.
We explored land change scenarios to predict conflicts between these competing priorities and
offer alternative futures for meeting development demands while minimizing impacts on natural
resources and landscapes. We identified nationally and regionally significant conservation
priorities according to recommendations from the North Carolina Wildlife Resources
Commission and the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
Historic land change patterns were mapped using Landsat imagery over four time intervals
(1976, 1985, 1996, and 2006) in order to understand the process of urbanization and its potential
influence on these conservation priorities. We then used logistic regression of socioeconomic
and environmental factors driving urban expansion to estimate regional development potential.
This allowed us to identify locations where both the potential for development and value for
conservation are high. Using this modeling framework coupled with trends in per capita land use
and population projections we forecasted multiple land change scenarios, both following the
historical trajectory and applying various conservation planning strategies that increased the cost
of development in locations with higher conservation value. Our results indicate that if historic
trends continue, over 30% of land developed between 2010 and 2030 will conflict with existing
conservation priorities. Our model based on an alternative future that integrates conservation
planning, shows that it is possible to reduce future conflict by 75% without hindering demands
for urban growth. We also examine how these varying strategies for biological conservation may
impact landscape pattern and ecosystem services. The implementation of land use planning
guidelines that reduce conflicts between future growth and resource preservation will benefit
community planners, developers, and conservation organizations, as well as the people who rely
on these natural systems for the services they provide.
Forest ownership across the urban-rural spectrum, Brett J. Butler and Stephanie Snyder,
USDA Forest Service
The fate of the forest lies largely in the hands of those who control it. In the United States, over
half of the forestland is privately owned and of this, nearly two-thirds is owned by families and
individuals. These proportions increase dramatically across much of the eastern U.S. – 87
percent of the forests in the South is privately owned and 74 percent in the North. Understanding
who these landowners are and what they intend to do with their land is critical for understanding
the future of the forests. We will use data on landowners’ attitudes and behaviors from the
USDA Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS) combined with population
data from the U.S. Census to investigate differences among forest landowners across the urban to
rural spectrum. From the NWOS we know that there are over 11 million private forest owners in

the U.S. and that the vast majority of these owners own relatively small parcels of land. This has
important has implications, or at least high correlations with, landowners’ attitudes and
behaviors. For example, as the size of a forest parcel decreases, the relative importance of
amenity values increases, importance of financial objectives decreases, and the probability of
managing the land for timber similarly decreases. As we move along the urban-rural spectrum,
we see changes in, among other variables, the size of forest holdings; size of holdings is
negatively correlated with population density. We will also discuss the implications of projected
changes in population density on forest ownership patterns and the resulting consequences for
forests.
Quantifying the dynamics of human footprint: Do landscapes exhibit a legacy of sprawl?,

Douglas A. Shoemaker and Ross K. Meentemeyer, Center for Applied GIS, UNC – Charlotte
The encroachment of urbanization on natural and agricultural landscapes is an acknowledged

threat to ecosystems and to the sustainability of the essential functions they provide. High impact
patterns of disjunct and low density development, pejoratively know as sprawl, are
conceptualized in classic urban growth theory as a dynamic and ephemeral condition that is
transformed to “non-sprawl” with densifying inputs of population and infill. Recent evidence
suggests that sprawling patterns resist densification, and are in fact increasing at a pace greater
than population growth. We evaluated these hypotheses by conducting a longitudinal study of
per-capita land consumption, or human footprint (HF), at four decadal time steps in a rapidly
urbanizing metropolis. Patterns of urban expansion in the rapidly growing Charlotte (NC)
metropolitan region were mapped from historical satellite imagery and integrated with
concurrent population estimates to quantify a generalizable, spatially explicit HF metric over the
large, heterogeneous region. Remote sensing analysis revealed over 340,000 ha of forest and
farmlands were converted to development between 1976 and 2006, increasing the built
environment to 22% of the non-water area. Lands converted at a mean rate of 31 ha per day,
outpacing population growth 10 to 1. On average inhabitants of the region used 400% more land
in 2006 than in 1976, with HF increasing from 0.07 to 0.366 ha per person during the period.
Growth and sprawl are related but different: Apportion methods estimate only 36% of area
converted was attributed to population growth, with 74% attributed to sprawling consumption
patterns. Repeated measures analysis of HF found areas with high antecedent values resisted
densification and rose faster than other areas. These results suggest there is a legacy of persistent
sprawl-indicated pattern, and that additions of infill and new development have not been
accompanied by proportional increases in population, resulting in increased HF values
regionally.
Southeastern coyote home range size, activity patterns, and habitat use across an urban
gradient, Holly Jantz, Jim Armstrong, Todd Steury, and Wendy Arjo – Auburn University
Coyotes (Canis latrans) have become dominant predators in many parts of North America,
including the southeastern United States. More recently, they have become common inhabitants
of urban areas. The process of urbanization changes a habitat from one that is unfragmented or
hardly fragmented, to a highly fragmented or patchy area. This change in habitat substantially
increases the risk of human-coyote interactions. As the southeast becomes more urbanized, there

is a greater need for information on behavioral adaptations of the southeastern coyote so that
appropriate management plans may be developed. This study examines the home range, activity
patterns, and habitat selection of coyotes across an urban to rural gradient in Lee County,
Alabama. We radio-collared and tracked 15 coyotes, living in urban, suburban, and rural areas of
the county, at random times through 24-hour periods from March 2008-August 2009. The results
of this study will broaden our understanding of urban coyote behavior and habitat usage in the
southeast, allowing for proper management of the species.
The impact of forest to urban land conversion on water quality entering a drinking water
supply reservoir in Southern Alabama, USA, Emile Elias and Mark Dougherty,
Auburn University
For two decades high total organic carbon (TOC) levels in Converse Reservoir, a water source
for Mobile, Alabama, have concerned water treatment officials due to the potential for
disinfection byproduct formation. TOC reacts with chlorine during the drinking water treatment
to form disinfection byproducts, some of which are carcinogenic and regulated under the Safe
Drinking Water Act. This study evaluates how urbanization will alter watershed derived total
nitrogen, total phosphorus and TOC inputs to a source water reservoir. Converse watershed, on
the urban fringe of Mobile, is projected to undergo considerable urbanization by 2020. Base
scenarios using 1992 and 2001 land cover are coupled with 2020 projections of land use and
applied to 62 subwatersheds within the greater 267 km2 watershed. The Loading Simulation
Program C++ watershed model is used to evaluate changes in nutrient concentrations (mg L-1)
and loads (kg) to Converse Reservoir. From 1992 to 2020 simulated urban and suburban growth
of 52 km2, which is an increase in urban area of 19% to a total of 22%, resulted in more than
doubling TN and TP total loads and median monthly loads (kg) to Converse Reservoir. TN and
TP loads increased by 114 and 120%, respectively. From 2001 to 2020 simulated urban and
suburban growth of 32 km2, which is an increase in urban area of 12% to a total of 21%, resulted
in an increase of 51 and 54% in TN and TP loads (kg), respectively. Results indicate total
streamflow increased by 13 to 22% due to urbanization. Urban growth generally increased
monthly flows, but led to lower flows in drought months. Results indicate future median TN and
TP concentrations (mg L-1) are 37 and 75% greater than 1992 concentrations, but TOC
concentrations are 10% lower in future urban scenarios. An increase in urban flow caused TOC
loads (kg) to increase by 14 to 28%, despite lower future TOC concentrations (mg L-1). The
largest average increase in monthly watershed-derived TOC concentrations from TOC loading
occurs in July, ranging from 0.20 to 0.42 mg L-1. This increase may necessitate additional
drinking water treatment due to watershed urbanization, depending upon existing reservoir TOC
concentrations. Post-urbanization source water TOC concentrations will likely increase more
than predicted by the watershed model, which simulates only watershed-derived increases in
TOC. The larger TP loads following urbanization will likely support increased algae growth,
thereby increasing internally generated and overall TOC. Expected urbanization by 2020
increased TN and TP loads by at least 50% and TOC load by at least 14% to a drinking water
supply reservoir. Unless additional drinking water treatment is implemented to remove increased
TOC, the result of urbanization in this source watershed is increased carcinogenic disinfection
byproducts in drinking water.

Assessing and understanding environmental impacts of mountain bike technical trail
features in urban-proximate parks, Christopher Kollar and Yu-Fai Leung,
North Carolina State University
Balancing growing and increasingly diverse recreational demand with conservation objectives
presents a significant challenge for managers of parks and open space along urban-rural
interfaces, especially when information about recreational activities and associated
environmental impacts is lacking in many places. Mountain biking is a case in point. The
estimated fifty million mountain bike riders in the United States as of 2008 consist of several
rider types (free-ride, urban, cross country) that desire various experiences. Much of this demand
is being absorbed in urban-proximate parks and natural areas. In an effort to help park managers
and users understand mountain bike specific impacts, this study developed a protocol for GPS
mapping technical trail features (TTFs) found on mountain bike trails and for assessing their
environmental, social and managerial attributes. TTFs are armoured natural features or built
structures that enhance mountain bike riding experiences through physical and mental
challenges. This protocol was pilot tested in Legend Park, an urban park in Clayton, North
Carolina where mountain biking was popular and a variety of TTFs existed. The collected data
were analyzed across three TTF groups (ground, aerial and traverse) which were based on the
nature of experience enhanced by the features. Comparative analysis found significant
differences in site attributes and environmental impacts between TTF groups, including trail and
landscape slopes, feature footprints and soil erosion as indicated by trail incision adjacent to the
features. Significant impact differences were also found within TTF groups for root exposure,
canopy openness, vegetation removed to construct feature, feature condition, and trail type.
Results from this study address basic questions about the types and environmental ramifications
of these TTFs which are growing in presence along the urban-rural interfaces where official or
unofficial mountain biking activity occurs. The proposed protocol provides managers with an
adaptable tool for assessing and evaluating mountain bike specific impacts. Information gathered
using this or a similar assessment tool can help justify management decisions about existing
mountain biking trails and TTFs while informing planning decisions for future mountain biking
sites with regard to their environmental sustainability.
The impacts of housing development on birds and amphibians in Upstate South Carolina,
J.R. Courter, T.D. Surasinghe, R.F. Baldwin, and R.J. Johnson, Department of Forestry and
Natural Resources, Clemson University
Housing development has been linked to loss of biodiversity but assessment over large areas has
been difficult. GIS technology has been recently used, however, to identify areas that face
environmental risk associated with development. Our study focused on an eight-country region
in upstate South Carolina that harbors important bird and amphibian species and is experiencing
a high degree of developmental pressure. We produced two models in our study: 1) a threat
analysis based on developmental pressure, habitat preference of focal species, and management
authority of the landscape and 2) a range reduction model based on developmental pressure,
percent of each species range protected in our study area, and the ability of species to resist
disturbance. We selected two bird (Eastern Towhee-Pipilo erythrophthalmus and Swainson’s

Warbler- Limnothlypis swainsonii) and two amphibian species (Upland Chorus Frog-Pseudacris
feriarum and Shovel-nosed Salamander- Desmognathus marmoratus) as focal species, with each
pair consisting of a broadly- and narrowly-distributed species. We used 2000-2008 census data to
project the growth rate of housing units for the ten-year period (2000-2010), and used this trend
to estimate developmental pressure for 2020 and 2030. We reclassified distribution maps from
the SC GAP project to reflect habitat preferences of our focal species and reclassified wild lands
to reflect the degree of protection provided by different management authorities. Threat analysis
indicated that the north-central region of our study area faced the greatest threat for all four
species because of increases in housing units and limited protection provided. The northernmost
region of our study area, located within the Blue-ridge ecoregion, faced the least threat because
of its high degree of protection by federal and state authorities. Projected range reductions for
amphibian species were similar, with Upland Chorus Frog negatively affected by development in
unprotected habits and Shovel-nosed Salamander negatively affected by an inability to adapt to
human development. Between bird species, projected range reduction for Swainson’s Warbler
was greater than that of Eastern Towhee because of its high susceptibility to development
pressure. Our results showed that narrowly distributed species had a greater percentage of their
ranges protected, yet faced increased threats because of their inability to tolerate human
disturbance in rapidly expanding urban areas. Species with similar proportions of their range
protected and a similar ability to respond to disturbance, may serve as surrogate species to
predict species declines in response to development pressure. We suggest using a threat analysis
in conjunction with a simple range reduction model that accounts for biological responses of
species, can help identify and compare species at risk from housing development.
Flow variability in urban vs. rural streams of an urbanizing landscape of Piedmont

Province, North Carolina, Kunwar K Singh, Craig Allan and Ross Meentemeyer, Center for
Applied GIS, UNC – Charlotte
Urbanization modifies the land surface by replacing vegetation and pervious soil surfaces with
impervious materials. This process decreases infiltration into soils, delays or inhibits ground
water recharge, and increases the amount of pollutants and volume of and rate at which water
enters streams. Impervious surfaces in urban areas channelize storm water runoff into
surrounding streams and change the timing, magnitude, and frequency of low and high flow
events. These permanent alterations in the natural hydrologic regime commonly result in
increases in the intensity and frequency of flash floods. Utilizing long-term streamflow data from
both urban and rural streams in two watersheds of the Piedmont, NC, this study investigates the
relationship of the variability of stream flow to changes in land cover. The approach involves a
comparative analysis of long-term daily stream discharge characteristics of a highly urbanized
watershed (Little Sugar Creek, Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, NC) and a less-urbanized
watershed (Long Creek, Bessemer City, Gaston County, NC) in a similar geographical,
geological, and hydrological setting using various flow indices. Degree of imperviousness ranges
from 5% in less-urbanized to 90% in a highly urbanized watershed. The highly urbanized Little
Sugar Creek watershed exhibited significantly higher flow frequency, decreased streamflow
distribution, and increased daily discharge when compared to the less-urbanized watershed.
Frequency of events greater than the 10th-percentile flow shows 55.21% increase (38.99 events
per year in Little Sugar Creek and 25.12 events per year in Long Creek) in a highly urbanized

stream, frequency of daily flow corresponding to annual peak flow is about two times in Little
Sugar Creek stream in comparison to the Long Creek stream. The mean and median stream flow
values are 19.17cf/s and 5.10cf/s in the Little Sugar Creek and 27.77cf/s and 16cf/s in Long
Creek stream. Low mean and median flow represents the urbanization process. The results of this
study suggest that urbanization and associated land cover change play significant roles in altering
natural streamflow regimes and increase the magnitude and frequency of extreme flow events.
Keywords: Streamflow, urbanization, flow indices.
Metabolism of Boston - - Lucy Hutyra, Nathan Phillips, et al., Boston University
The urbanization and growth of the human population over past decades has yielded cities of
unprecedented size and form, which emit significant quantities of waste, transform habitat,
modify major biogeochemical cycles, alter local climate, and diminish human health. Carbon
exchange is a key indicator of the intensity and pattern of urban metabolism, but the state of
science currently does not address the close coupling of carbon exchange within and across
human and natural subsystems of urban and urbanizing systems. Almost all research has focused
on urban carbon emissions, or separately on urban vegetation carbon exchange. Thus, we are
currently unable to answer basic questions such as whether vegetation exchanges carbon more
locally than it does with a metropolitan region. This poster will present the initial results from the
Boston ULTRA-Ex research project to develop integrated measurements and an analysis
framework for coupled carbon exchange in an urban-to-rural gradient from Boston to the rural
Harvard Forest Long Term Ecological Research Site. This project combines ground-based
measurements of carbon exchange and energy flows with socioeconomic, meteorological and
satellite measurements and modeling of human activity and the built and natural environments.
These data will be integrated within a dynamic, Geospatial Information System that will
reproduce the existing patterns of carbon exchange from diel to seasonal time scales at sub-meter
spatial resolution across the urban-to-rural gradient. This analytical framework will then be used
to forecast carbon exchange impacts of future land use change and urban growth scenarios,
advancing fundamental knowledge about coupling of carbon exchange in urbanizing systems,
and providing policy makers with specific and relevant information to align urban growth
planning with sustainability goals.
Sediment Pollution Assessment of Abandoned Developments Using Remote Sensing and

GIS - - Joshua D. Werts, Elena A. Mikhailova, Christopher J. Post and Julia L. Sharp
Clemson University
The current economic crisis has left numerous residential developments in the Southeastern
United States in various states of construction. Evidence suggests that many of these
development sites are currently graded and essentially abandoned creating a major source of
sediment runoff to waterways. Residential development locations with significant bare soil areas
were identified through classification of Landsat 5 TM satellite imagery and subsequently
verified from high-resolution county aerial photographs. The Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE) was used in a GIS to estimate the potential magnitude of erosion from each
identified location assuming the worst case scenario of a completely unmaintained site and
combined with hydrography data to assess risk of sediment entering nearby streams. A random
selection of sites was visited and assessed using GPS and a mobile GIS to validate our findings.
Preliminary results indicate 301 sites with a total bare soil area of 2,378 hectares over three
counties in upstate South Carolina.
Using occupancy modeling to estimate avian species richness and determine the effects of
exurbanization in the Southern Appalachian Mountains - - Paige Barlow, Jeff Hepinstall-
Cymerman, and Myung-Bok Lee, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia
The Southern Appalachian Mountains are a biodiversity hot-spot and influence water quantity
and quality throughout the Southeast. Research at the Coweeta Long Term Ecological Research
(LTER) site has addressed regional ecology for many decades, and a current focus of Coweeta
LTER is on the effects of land use. While traditionally forested and agricultural, this region is
undergoing amenity-driven exurbanization. The effects of this development on the biodiversity
of Southern Appalachia and the response of regional decision-makers have not yet been
determined. However, previous research conducted across rural-urban gradients has shown that
changes in land use and land cover affect avian species richness. We present results from a pilot
study surveying bird species at 37 sites across a range of land uses and land cover classes around
Coweeta. Several occupancy models were fit to these data, but the occupancy model with
detection probability influenced by time was most suitable. Species richness was estimated for
each of the 37 sites, and we are currently identifying significant environmental covariates.
Beginning in the summer of 2010 we plan to expand the avian sampling and occupancy
modeling. Further, the bird data, along with data on salamander occupancy, will be used to
develop a series of predictive occupancy models for the Southern Appalachian region. These
models will be validated and modified in subsequent field seasons. Throughout this project,
stakeholders from the region will be involved, and the goal for our final research product is to
assist regional land planning and resource management.
Wildfire and Social Vulnerability Across the South – Neelam Poudyal, Cassandra Johnson
Gaither, and Scott Goodrick, University of Georgia and USDA Forest Service
Recent studies involving environmental risk indicate that natural disasters originate from both
biophysical and social causes. Population strata that are the most vulnerable socioeconomically
tend to be affected most severely by natural disasters because the compromised social conditions
in which these populations live exacerbate risk. In terms of wildfire risk, this would suggest that
socially marginal communities would suffer greater loss in the event of wildfire occurrence
because such communities typically are less able to either mitigate wildfire risk or recover from
its effects. We address the human dimension of wildfire risk by looking at the spatial
convergence of wildfire risk and social vulnerability. We examine spatial association between
wildfire risk and social vulnerability for the 14 states included in the U.S. Forest Service's
Southern Region. Wildfire risk is operationalized by the Wildfire Susceptibility Index (WFSI)
provided by the Southern Wildfire Risk Assessment. Social vulnerability is indicated by a social
vulnerability index (SOVUL). SOVUL is comprised of percent population that is African
American, below poverty, less than high school education, renter, and mobile home dweller. The
geographical scale is the Census Block Group. Our aim is to identify "hot spots" where socially

vulnerable populations coincide with high fire risk areas. Further, we examine the proximity of
wildfire mitigation programs such as Firewise and Community Wildfire Protection Plans to hot
spots to determine whether the most vulnerable groups, in both biophysical and social terms,
have access to mitigation programs. Implications for wildfire mitigation are discussed.
Evaluating changes to ecosystem services along urban-rural gradients
Phenology and physiology of an urban heat island, Will Wilson – Department of Biology,
Duke University, and Joe Sexton - NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
People in cities require the sustained provisioning of many ecosystem services. In this talk we
review the environmental conditions produced by North American cities, including climate,
emissions, socioeconomic inequities, and water quality. We focus primarily on the urban heat
island in Durham, North Carolina, and how this heat island changes throughout the year. Can the
loss of urban tree canopy explain these heat island effects? Can urban trees solve the problems of
heat and reduced air quality? To answer these questions, we compare basic tree physiological
calculations to geospatial measurements of urban-induced environmental changes. We also
present a few studies on the socioeconomic inequities of environmental conditions of North
American cities.
Realizing the economic value of a forested landscape in a viewshed, Neelam Poudyal -

University of Georgia, Donald Hodges – University of Tennessee, John Fenderson, Ward
Tarkington, and Tim Phelps - Tennessee Division of Forestry
Existing literature on non-market valuation indicates an ambiguous value of the view of a forest
due largely to the fact that these studies relied on inappropriate proxies or poor measures of
forest view. The current study attempts to fill this gap by using GIS to measure the actual forest
area that is visible from the house, and then employing a hedonic regression model to examine
how its value is reflected in residential housing price. A spatial hedonic model of residential
housing price was applied to housing sales data in a forested landscape located in the
southeastern portion of Cheatham County and the adjacent Scottsboro-Bells Bend area of
Davidson County, near Nashville, Tennessee. Results indicate that increasing the size of forest
area visible from a house by one acre increased the house price by $30. The findings imply that
residents place a significant value on and likely pay a price premium to preserve the view of a
forest. Findings from this study could be useful in evaluating viewshed protection policies as a
hedge against development pressures that threaten the forested landscapes, and in designing
market protocols for scenic view as an ecosystem service. Keywords: forest view, hedonic
model, spatial lag, valuation, viewshed analysis.

Using ecosystem service values to reduce spatial cost disparities in the interface: the Lower
Churchill Hydro Project in Labrador, Nejem Raheem and Murray Rudd, University of York
Increases in demand for electricity and sustainable energy in urban and suburban areas can lead
to the construction of generation infrastructure in remote regions. This creates a spatial disparity
in costs and benefits, particularly with respect to ecosystem services. The proposed Lower
Churchill Hydroelectric Project (LCHP) in central Labrador, Canada, consists of two dams on a
boreal river, and would generate electricity that would be transmitted away from the project site,
to markets on the island of Newfoundland and elsewhere. Many of the project benefits, such as
more-abundant electricity, will accrue to non-residents. Labradorians will reap benefits as well,
in the form of employment, but the ecosystem services costs of the project will be borne entirely
in Labrador, a fact not addressed in the current Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA). Even with
seemingly environmentally benign technology such as hydroelectric generation, ecosystem
service impacts can range from methylmercury contamination and methane release to loss of
traditional indigenous hunting areas. While many of these potential ecological effects are
addressed in the EIA for the project, they are not counted as costs. Despite considerable
improvements in valuation methodology, guidance on its inclusion in the CBA and EIA process,
Canadian Law does not require CBA for EIAs, only for regulatory change. In the light of this
absence, ex-ante EIAs often do not provide clear descriptions of impacts. We argue that the
project analysis for LCHP should include ecosystem service valuation as part of a project Cost
Benefit Analysis (CBA). To accomplish this end, we have designed a set of choice experiments
to value some of the ecosystem service effects and address the cost-benefit disparity. We believe
that by counting ecosystem service impacts as costs, and by conducting the requisite valuation
research, potential customers, Canadian citizens, and the project proponents would all be better
informed. Hopefully this improved information will lead to more informed choices in terms of
power generation, design of power infrastructure and rates, and conservation efforts.
Analysis of morphological effects of sprawl on rural form in contemporary Tehran

metropolitan area, Hossein Estiri, University of Washington
Physical and spatial changes of urban areas with a rural and historical base can be a considerable
challenge in metropolitan areas of countries with ancient settlement background. There are
several examples of such areas in Iranian huge cities like Tehran which is formed from a network
of villages connecting to each other whilst Tehran's sprawl within last 5 decades. Tarasht is an
instance from those rural areas where has been surrounded and then occupied by Tehran`s
expanding territory during that period, and has faced significant changes in main natural and
physical structure. In this research, with a descriptive-explorative method, changes of rural form,
in terms of natural and built-environmental context, under consequence of a sprawling growth of
Tehran has been examined. Changes in agricultural lands, built-up areas, indigenous structures,
and their corresponding basis from legislative system are core concerns of the study. Main
source of analysis in is based upon interpretations using aerial photos from each decade within
last mid century which have been verified through a local survey from inhabitants of Tarasht
village.

Leaf litter decomposition and nutrient dynamics across an urbanization gradient in
western Florida - - Heather A. Enloe and B. Graeme Lockaby (Auburn University), and Wayne
Zipperer (USDA Forest Service)
Very few urbanization studies have addressed decomposition and carbon cycling in coastal
regions. In particular, the southeastern United States is projected to undergo a large percent
increase in population and a concurrent stress on natural ecosystems. The goal of the proposed
research is to understand how litter decomposition and nutrient cycling are influenced by
urbanization and plantation development in a subtropical coastal landscape of the Florida
panhandle. The research will focus on key biogeochemical processes and carbon dynamics and
will (1) measure foliar decomposition rates, (2) quantify both the mineralization of nutrients in
decomposing foliar litter and soil nitrogen mineralization, and (3) quantify inputs of carbon via
root turnover and litterfall over a two year period within natural, urban and slash pine plantation
forests. This research has just been initiated and we will present our goals, methods and site
selection criteria. The western coastal landscape of Florida presents several challenges to site
selection, including shifts in vegetation communities according to soil drainage and identifying
previous land use history (i.e. fire in natural and plantation forests). The work builds on a
previous study by Nagy (2009) which showed increased carbon sequestration in urban
environments compared to rural forests.
Vegetation patterns in an urbanizing metropolitan area: socio-economic drivers and effects

on carbon storage and water flows - - Karis Puruncajas, University of Washington
A number of ecosystem services are provided by plants: biomass stores carbon, while the canopy
stores rainfall. Vegetative communities are significantly altered with urbanization: impervious
surfaces limit available growing space, chronic stress conditions and land management
preferences and activities alter plant community composition. These changes influence
vegetation structure, which in turn affects the provision of ecosystem services. Given that
residential properties constitute the majority of land in metropolitan areas, household land
management practices can substantially affect ecosystem services. At the same time,
implementing environmental management plans on residential lands is challenging due to the
large number and diversity of homeowners involved. This project aims to understand how land
management practices and behaviors of households across different socioeconomic groups affect
vegetation function. I focus on carbon storage (plant biomass) and hydrological function,
specifically rainfall interception and canopy storage. The primary objectives of my research are:
(1) quantify the spatial patterns of vegetation on residential lands across an urban gradient (2)
assess the relative influence of socio-economic factors on residential urban vegetation structure,
specifically carbon stock and (3) assess the influence of urban residential vegetation patterns on
subsurface and overland water flow, through rainwater interception and canopy storage. I will
combine land cover data sets derived from LandSat imagery and field surveys of woody
vegetation structure to characterize how these two ecosystem services vary across the urban
fabric. This information will inform agencies aiming to increase household support for
maintaining green spaces for stormwater management and carbon storage goals.

Reproduction of Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis) in relation to land management and food
resources in north-central Florida, John J DeLuca and Kathryn E Sieving, Department of
Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida
Conservation biologists recognize that modern farmlands represent critically important, but
largely unsuitable, land area needed for protection of global biodiversity resources. So much land
is under cultivation and close to increasingly limited natural areas that conservation cannot
succeed without increasing the overall biodiversity holding capacity of farmlands. We evaluated
the responses of wildlife populations [Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis)] utilizing both natural and
cultivated lands in the urban-wildland gradient of North-central Florida to reveal issues
influencing whether conservationists can – under the best conditions (sustainably managed
farmlands) – responsibly promote farmlands as wildlife habitat. In 2007, we tested for the effects
of land management (reduced-impact farms [e.g., organic], conventional farms, and natural
control areas) on the reproductive success and breeding behavior of bluebirds using standardized
nest boxes we provided. Farmland bluebirds began breeding earlier and produced more clutches
and eggs than bluebirds in natural areas yet produced the same total number of fledglings over
the breeding season. In 2008, we compared arthropod prey availability in addition to land
management influences on bluebird reproduction. Prey was more bountiful but more unstable on
farms; higher mean prey biomass was correlated with early nesting but higher variation in prey
biomass was correlated with lower hatchling production in first broods. In comparison to natural
areas, farmlands varied from marginally suboptimal (2007, a dry year) to surprisingly poor
habitat for breeding bluebirds in a wet year (2008). Because bluebirds and other native
insectivorous bird species are significant consumers of agricultural pests (lepidotera, orthoptera),
the ability of farmland systems to support viable wildlife populations conveying critical
ecosystem services is a larger sustainability issue - not just a biodiversity conservation issue.
Future research and monitoring of reproduction and health of wildlife populations on farmlands
is needed to determine the full potential for food-production lands to support sustainable human-
dominated ecosystems.
The influence of urbanization and landscape structure on the persistence of native plant
diversity and exotic species distribution along an urban to rural gradient, Amy Stephens
Davis and Ross K. Meentemeyer, Center for Applied Geographic Science, UNC-Charlotte
Land use change and invasions by exotic species are widely recognized as the primary drivers of
biodiversity loss. However, few studies have focused on how landscape structure of rapidly
urbanizing regions is impacting the spread of exotic plant species and persistence of native plant
diversity. Using the rapidly growing metropolitan region of Charlotte, North Carolina as a case
study, we examine the hypothesis that landscape structure of the built and natural environment
are linked to patterns of native and exotic plant diversity in forests along the urban to rural
gradient. We sampled 105 randomly located plots for woody species presence and abundance at
25 forested sites stratified across three land use types (urban, suburban and rural). We
investigated multi-scale effects of building and road density on landscape patterns of woody
species diversity using linear regression analyses and controlling for spatial autocorrelation.
Road density within 1 km negatively influences native diversity. Building density within 1 km

positively influences exotic abundance in urban sites (r2= .473), and building density within 200
m for suburban sites (r2=.340). Native richness and diversity are highest in rural areas and
decrease with increasing urbanization. Unexpectedly, we found that mean exotic abundance is
significantly higher at rural sites as compared to urban and decreases with increasing
urbanization. We hypothesize that historical factors such as past agricultural land use and
patterns of forest connectivity over time influence native diversity and exotic species
distributions potentially confounding the effects of contemporary landscape heterogeneity. We
have mapped land cover at multiple time steps from 1938 to 2006 at each forest sampling site to
examine the influence of historical landscape structure and composition on the persistence of
native diversity and exotic abundance and will report the results of our analysis. One anticipated
outcome of this work is a better understanding of how landscape legacy vs. contemporary
landscape heterogeneity affect exotic species spread and plant species diversity.
Science delivery
InterfaceSouth: Providing Resources for a Changing Landscape, L. Annie Hermansen-Baez,

USDA Forest Service, Centers for Urban and Interface Forestry
The South is one of the fastest growing regions in the United States, with an estimated
population increase of 1.5 million people each year and 65 of the top 100 fastest growing
counties in the nation. The southern U.S. also consistently has the highest number of wildfires
per year of any region in the United States. Some of those fires are quite large, as in the case of
the 1998 Florida wildfires. These wildfires brought the challenges of working and living in the
wildland-urban interface to the forefront for the U.S. Forest Service (FS) and other natural
resource agencies across the southern U.S. Shortly after these fires, the FS Chief conducted a
review of the South and identified the WUI as an area on which to focus research and
information efforts. In response, the Forest Service conducted an assessment of the research,
technology, and education issues that confront the wildland-urban interface in the South. This
assessment, titled Human Influences on Forest Ecosystems: the Southern Wildland-Urban
Interface Assessment, served as the foundation for the establishment of InterfaceSouth (formally
known as the Southern Center for WUI Research and Information) in 2002 in Gainesville,
Florida. InterfaceSouth joined Urban Forestry South in 2006 to become part of the Centers for
Urban and Interface Forestry, the technology transfer centers of the Southern Research Station
work unit SRS-4952 Integrating Human and Natural Systems in Urban and Urbanizing
Environments. This integration combines expertise in urban forestry and wildland-urban
interface (WUI) research and technology transfer for the southern region and nationwide.
InterfaceSouth has focused much of its efforts on WUI fire issues, though it also focuses on a
range of issues related to the urbanization of southern forests. Through a partnership with the
University of Florida and the USDC National Institute of Standards and Technology,
InterfaceSouth has focused on minimizing fire risk to property owners by evaluating the
flammability characteristics of commonly planted shrubs and commonly used mulches, two
items that can contribute to wildfire house damage. This information is also being used in the
development of physics-based models to assess and predict fire spread through communities.
From this research and other research projects, information is developed in a variety of formats
to reach diverse audiences, including homeowners, policymakers, and natural resource

professionals. One such format is publications and on-line decision support tools. The Fire in the
Interface fact sheet series explains WUI fire concepts related to understanding fire and how to
select appropriate plants for landscaping in interface areas. The Quick Guide to Firewise Shrubs
ranks the 34 shrubs that were tested in the flammability study in to high, moderate, or low
flammability categories. These fact sheets and guides provide information to help homeowners
and communities take personal responsibility for the protection of their homes in the event of a
wildland fire. Additionally, at the request of the Southern Group of State Foresters,
InterfaceSouth developed Fire in the South II: the Southern Wildfire Risk Assessment. This
publication brings attention to the critical fire situation in the South, presents the key findings of
this region-wide assessment, and demonstrates through case studies some of its practical
applications. The book titled Forests at the Wildland-Urban Interface: Conservation and
Management provides information, strategies, and tools to enhance natural resource
management, planning, and policymaking at the wildland-urban interface. The on-line
flammability key includes a step-by-step ranking method based on easy-to-identify
characteristics such as type of plant (tree, palm, shrub, or vine), distance between the ground and
branches, denseness of the plant, and other factors. After completing all of the steps, the
homeowner can identify plants as “not firewise,” “at-risk firewise,” “moderately firewise,” or
“firewise.” This method allows fire professionals and extension personnel to make Firewise lists
that can help residents make informed decisions about landscaping in fire-prone areas. Another
important resource is the InterfaceSouth Web site (www.interfacesouth.org), which provides
resources such as a literature database, a photo gallery, and a listing of WUI news and events.
Individuals also can sign up for the SWUINET listserve, through which listserve members
receive the Interface South Update, a monthly electronic bulletin focusing on critical WUI
issues; the InterfaceSouth Post, which is sent out weekly and offers timely information about
upcoming conferences and topical news items; and Leaves of Change, a quarterly bulletin about
the activities of InterfaceSouth, its sister center Urban Forestry South, and partners.
InterfaceSouth has also begun to use social media to deliver information about the unit’s research
projects and products and interact with our clientele, using technology such as Twitter and blogs.
The Web site is now also available in Spanish, as are many of the fire publications. In addition
the Web site offers training program materials, such as the Changing Roles: WUI Professional
Development Program and the Wood to Energy Outreach Program. The Changing Roles
materials teach new skills necessary for managing fragmented forests and communicating
effectively with interface residents and enable participants to apply these skills through
interactive exercises. The Wood to Energy Outreach Program aims to increase community
understanding and discussion about the possibility of using wood for energy in the South.
Demonstration sites are another valuable format that InterfaceSouth has participated in to help
raise awareness about Firewise issues. InterfaceSouth participated in a Firewise Retrofit project
demonstration site in Alachua County, FL with a coalition of federal, state and local partners.
The project, which is documented in a Flash presentation on the Web site, involved retrofitting a
Florida home and its surrounding landscape to reduce its vulnerability to wildfires, as well as
other hazards. InterfaceSouth’s advisory council, the Southern Wildland-Urban Interface Council
(SWUIC), provides feedback regarding research and technology transfer needs and exemplifies
the diversity of InterfaceSouth’s partners and program areas. SWUIC is a chartered council of
the Southern Group of State Foresters and consists of members from state forestry agencies, the
U.S. Forest Service (Research, State and Private, National Forests), universities, cooperative
extension, and non-government organizations. InterfaceSouth has brought together natural

resource professionals from fire, urban forestry, forest health, community planning, and a range
of other disciplines to work together towards approaching and solving interface issues. These
partnerships and the resources provided by InterfaceSouth are vital to the southern U.S. as the
wildland-urban interface continues to expand.
Forests on the Edge, Susan M. Stein, Lisa G. Mahal, and Ronald E. McRoberts,
USDA Forest Service
The Forests on the Edge project identifies areas across the United States where private forest
contributions the economic and social well-being of the nation may be negatively affected by
various threats. Specific contributions include habitat for at-risk wildlife species, provision of
clean water, and timber volume, whereas specific threats include housing development, wildfire,
insect pests and diseases, and air pollution. Research methods are based on scientific application
of geographic information systems (GIS) techniques to national digital data layers. Studies to
date have included assessments of threats to forest contributions across the conterminous USA
using watersheds as the basic spatial assessment unit. Results indicate that by 2030, housing
densities will increase substantially on more than 57 million acres of private forestland across
rural America. Watersheds where private forests provide the greatest contributions to water
quality, timber volume, and at-risk species habitat are found primarily in the Eastern USA, as are
watersheds most threatened by housing development and air pollution. Watersheds where private
forests are most threatened by wildfire, forest insects, and disease are distributed more uniformly
across the conterminous USA. The results of Forests on the Edge studies have been published in
a series of public reports and peer-reviewed journal articles and have been used extensively by
public officials, non-governmental organizations, and universities to raise awareness of and
support for prudent development and forest conservation. The project is sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, and received the Department’s Honor Award for
Excellence in 2008. The presentation will provide a quick overview of entire suite of Forests on
the Edge products and how they have been used by others. Key points to be made are that : 1)
nationally-consistent GIS data can be used to identify areas across the country where important
private forest contributions could be affected by housing development and other threats; 2) the
presentation of this data in a format compelling to Forest Service partners can help increase
public awareness of the need to conserve private forests; and 3) the creation of additional and/or
more detailed data would facilitate efforts to conserve private forests and the many benefits that
they provide.
Tree growth modeling to improve tree size and canopy coverage predictions, Julia Bartens
and Eric Wiseman, Department of Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation,
Virginia Tech
Municipalities use ordinances and zoning to ensure that tree canopy cover is replenished during
land development. Many localities have refined their regulations to enforce their long-term
canopy cover goals, requiring developers to plant trees to provide minimum canopy cover for the
project site within a specified period of 15 to 30 years. To fulfill site plan requirements,
developers specify tree planting densities based on anticipated canopy growth during the

attainment period. However, these calculations are typically based on observations of trees
growing in non-limiting environments such as nurseries and arboreta, which are not
representative of typical urban conditions. Urban conditions are oftentimes very heterogeneous
due to the great degree of disturbance providing various soil conditions ranging from adequate to
unacceptable. Hence, tree size predictions cannot be generalized for all planting sites and designs
and have to be based on research resulting in models that include the factors that significantly
influence tree growth. Planting plans and development regulations that do not account for urban
soil constraints on tree growth may over-estimate the capacity to replenish canopy cover or even
under-estimate the potential of the site leading to bigger trees than suitable. We are currently
researching urban tree growth rates in highly urbanized conditions to reduce the uncertainty
about tree canopy development and improve canopy cover management practices. Our research
objectives are to 1) determine which soil chemical or physical factors best predict tree
development, and 2) estimate tree growth rates across a range of tree pit sizes and soil
conditions. During summer 2008, we collected site and tree data on 80 trees in Washington DC
(Quercus phellos and Zelkova serrata) and 100 trees in Jacksonville, FL (Quercus virginiana) of
various sizes. We chose trees in confined spaces to avoid any unaccountable influences due to
escaping roots to nearby lawns or yards. The soil conditions the trees are growing in were
determined by measuring the available soil volume, taking composite samples for soil chemical
and texture analyses, and measuring the penetration resistance and moisture content of the soil.
Tree parameters, namely tree height, canopy dimensions, and DBH, were measured to determine
the development of the tree. In addition, increment cores were taken from each tree to determine
the age and its growth rate. Trees in urban setting are exposed to various conditions above and
below ground. These conditions result in differences in tree development and thus growth rates.
Consequently, we cannot assume a certain age at a certain DBH. By analyzing increment cores
for each tree we hope to be able to determine the inflection age of the tree, the age at which the
resources were limited and tree growth rate declined. Empirical modeling and tree ring analysis
are being used to identify soil parameters that significantly influence tree growth and to quantify
changes in tree growth through time. We will present our research findings to date and discuss
the implications for managing tree canopy cover in urban areas.
Engaging land use planning officials on forest fragmentation - The FREMO Project,
David W. Dickson, Center for Land Use Education and Research
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension
It has long been understood that the forested landscape is closely linked to water quality, and,
more broadly, the overall ecologic, economic, and public health of our communities. As
communities continue to grow and develop, the health of our forest lands is threatened by their
conversion to other uses, fragmentation, and parcelization. Because the majority of forested land
is privately-owned, the majority of educational efforts seeking to protect the forest resource have
focused on individual land owners. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that
community land use decision makers are also critical to the sustainability of the forest resource.
They make the decisions about where and how to grow, and where and what to preserve that are
critical to confronting the continued fragmentation of our nation’s forests. This presentation will
highlight one effort to begin addressing this audience - the national Forest Resource Education
for Municipal Officials (FREMO) project, which is funded by the USDA. FREMO is an effort to

engage and educate local land use officials about the fragmentation of the forest resource, its
consequences for overall community health, and what can be done through land use planning to
address it. Five states (OR, MN, NC, VT, CT) have initiated pilot projects to look at different
ways to engage this audience and establish recommendations for action. This presentation will
provide an overview of the efforts in these 5 states, as well as a detailed look at the forest
fragmentation study conducted by the University of Connecticut’s Center for Land Use
Education and Research (CLEAR). The CLEAR study has tracked the fragmentation of the
state’s forestlands from 1985 until today using a tool it developed and has made available to
others. The results of the study have been posted on http://clear.uconn.edu and are being shared
with local land use officials throughout the state in an effort to encourage changes to local land
use planning practices and regulations. This presentation will highlight these efforts and provide
recommendations and lessons learned for others looking to reach this critical audience.
Green infrastructure and your growing community: Forest resource education for local
officials, Patrick Beggs and Christy Perrin, Cooperative Extension
North Carolina State University
North Carolina and other southeast states are still experiencing tremendous growth and
unprecedented loss of forestland. Forest loss leads to decreases in water quality, air quality,
habitat, and quality of living. Much of this forestland lies “just outside of town” limits. The
forestland itself is often the driver for development, providing a beautiful setting for new homes
and a scenic drive to work. NC Cooperative Extension, in association with the Forest Resource
Education for Municipal Officials (FREMO) project of the University of Connecticut is
providing local elected and appointed officials with a basic understanding of the relationship
between forests and water quality in the outward growth of towns. Green infrastructure can
provide transportation, recreation, and water quality. These are just a few of the benefits county
and municipal governments can expect from including forestland in their planning efforts. The
online and downloadable curriculum ties together basic watershed science, stormwater,
economic benefits, and cost of services as they relate to forestland. A well informed local
leadership is one of the first steps to improving decisions about local planning issues and they
pertain to natural resources. The presentation will highlight the basic education provided officials
as well as some case studies of similar efforts in NC.
Engaging family woodland owners: A Social Marketing approach, Mary L. Tyrrell, Brett
Butler and Purnima Chawla, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies; USDA Forest
Service; Center for Nonprofit Strategies
Engaging Family Woodland Owners: A Social Marketing Approach Mary L. Tyrrell, Yale
School of Forestry & Environmental Studies; Brett Butler, USDA Forest Service Family Forest
Research Center; and Purnima Chawla, Center for Nonprofit Strategies. Decisions made by
millions of family forest owners are key to the sustainability of U.S. forests. Collectively, their
actions enhance or degrade the landscape; therefore how they manage their forests and whether
or not they convert them to other uses is of significant public interest. Under the auspices of the
Sustaining Family Forests Initiative (SFFI), we have developed a practical set of tools to help

conservation and forestry professionals reach more landowners with effective stewardship
messages and to develop programs that better serve the needs and values of the landowners.
These tools were developed from research on landowner values, objectives, and behavior, as well
as interviews with natural resource professionals in forestry and conservation throughout the
country. With data from the USDA Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS)
and landowner focus groups, and using social marketing analytical tools, we provide new
insights into the 70% to 80% of landowners who are not reached with traditional outreach
programs. Using multivariate statistical analysis, we have identified four “types” of landowners
based on their broad orientation towards their land: Working the Land, Woodland Retreat,
Supplemental Income, and Uninvolved. We further analyzed the NWOS data using a standard
social marketing technique, the prime prospect analysis, and found that two-thirds of landowners
who own between 10 and 1,000 acres in the United States have a stewardship mindset but are not
engaged in managing their woods (e.g. they don’t have management plans, they don’t consult
foresters, and don’t participate in programs such as cost-shares and easements). This is an
indicator of how many people you can expect to influence to engage in stewardship and
woodland management programs. Then, looking at what attitudinal segments they fall into will
give you ideas about how to influence them. Results are packaged on a website, Tools for
Engaging Landowners Effectively (TELE) at www.engaginglandowners.org. There are three
parts to TELE: A primer on targeted marketing; landowner data broken down into attitudinal
segments as well as demographic and behavioral segments (e.g. new owners; those with a
conservation easement); and a communication planning tool.
Using i-Tree applications to assess the effects of urbanization in Desoto County,

Mississippi, Eric Kuehler, USDA Forest Service
Desoto County, MS is the Northwestern-most county in Mississippi and borders Shelby County
(Memphis), TN to its south. Traditionally an agriculturally-based county, it has experienced
rapid urbanization in the past 10-15 years as it is becoming a bedroom community for Memphis.
Several groups including NGO’s, municipal planners, and natural resource managers within the
county and its municipalities are interested in learning how this urbanization is affecting tree
canopy cover and stormwater run-off patterns. The i-Tree suite of urban and community forestry
analysis and benefits assessment tools were developed by the U.S. Forest Service to help
communities strengthen their urban forest management and advocacy efforts by quantifying the
structure of the urban forest as well as the environmental services those trees provide to the
community. The i-Tree Eco application is designed to use field data from randomly located plots
at the landscape scale along with local hourly air pollution and meteorological data to quantify
urban forest structure, environmental effects, and value to communities. The i-Tree Hydro tool is
designed to simulate the effects of changes in tree and impervious cover characteristics within a
watershed on stream flow and water quality. The Hydro application is scheduled to be released in
the Spring of 2010. Urban Forestry South and Mississippi State University Extension are
partnering with several local and state agencies to develop a comprehensive i-Tree Eco and
Hydro project that will include a county-wide assessment as well as an assessment for each of
the five municipalities in Desoto County. The project will include pre-project education
workshops to inform local, state, and regional professionals of the i-Tree tools and how they can
be used as well as an extensive i-Tree Eco training workshop to demonstrate all aspects of

conducting an assessment project. This extensive workshop will teach students and professionals
how to collect the data necessary for the Eco and Hydro models. The results from this project
will give local planners and natural resource managers information regarding forest structure,
canopy cover estimation, carbon storage and sequestration, biogenic volatile organic compound
emissions, energy conservation and pollution removal benefits by land cover type as well as
quantifying and illustrating hourly and total changes in stream flow and water quality. This
presentation will discuss the science delivery techniques and materials used to help organize this
county-wide effort with the local partners. The project will also help Urban Forestry South better
understand the resources needed to successfully organize this type of project, and develop
additional science delivery material that can help other communities conduct their own
landscape-scale urbanizing assessment projects more efficiently.
Factors influencing residents' knowledge about urban wildlands and the potential for
alternative - - Laura E. Martin, Urs P. Kreuter, and Michael G. Sorice, Texas A&M University
In 2007, the six-county area of Austin, Texas led the nation in urban growth and this population
is projected to increase 15 percent by 2012. Due to increasing citizen resettlement in Austin and
land use changes, the City of Austin Wildland Division faces pressure from residential
communities regarding land and wildlife management actions. The study consisted of a mail
survey of 1,000 residents living near the City of Austin’s Water Quality Protection Lands and
Balcones Canyonland Preserve to better understand factors that influence resident’s knowledge
about the purpose and management of these Wildland and about environmental issues pertaining
to the Edwards Aquifer. The adjusted response rate was 47%. Regression analyses suggested
there are positive associations between local newspaper readership and residents’ environmental
knowledge of the Edwards Aquifer and the City of Austin Wildlands. However, the study also
found that that the media as a source of information fails to disseminate detailed information
about the Wildlands. For example, a major misconception was that limestone karst act as a good
filter for impurities in surface water flowing down through it. Previous environmentally-oriented
interests and/or actions by residents correlated positively with their knowledge about karst
aquifers, endangered species, rangelands, and the Wildlands. Some strategies for information
dissemination about the Wildlands include the use of local newspapers and homeowner
association newsletters. New City of Austin residents who are younger and live in close
proximity to the Wildlands are the suggested target audience for initiating a proposed
environmental education program. Such programs should incorporate both local environmental
organizations and other non-environmental local organizations.
A participatory mapping exercise in land owner preferences toward exurban development

within three distinct communities of southwestern Montana and northeastern Idaho - -
Andra Toivola, Heidi Kretser, Nancy Connelly, and Jeff Burrell, Wildlife Conservation Society
Scenic and recreational amenities in the lands near Yellowstone National Park have attracted
rapid population growth to the region in the last 50 years. The ensuing expansive rural residential
development has impacted lands in the area through low-density development patterns
containing parcels of 5- to 40-acres per dwelling that can implicate local biodiversity through

habitat fragmentation, wildlife adaptations to living near humans, and increased human-wildlife
interactions. This rapid development often also impacts regional wildlife conservation planning
as conflicts arise in public perceptions between traditional land owner groups and new migrants
in these changing areas. To understand the role of public perceptions toward wildlife and
conservation-oriented land management activities in exurban landscapes, we developed a
comparative case-study that included a participatory mail survey mapping exercise from which
we explore the spatial characteristics of land owner perceptions in three unique Greater
Yellowstone landscapes with varying mixtures of traditional agricultural, amenity, and
recreational economies. Through the mapping exercise respondents offered spatial
recommendations regarding future residential development and wildlife conservation within their
local region in four categories: 1) controversial places for development and conservation, 2)
appropriate places for new development, 3) areas for restricting future development , and 4)
areas of the most important use for wildlife. The survey responses were compiled into summary
spatial overlays and point density grids to quantify trends in land-use preferences in the varied
landscapes. Comparative spatial analyses were developed within and amongst each region.
Preliminary results suggest that there is variance between the spatial concurrences of land-owner
preferences of these four aspects of the development amongst the three communities. The
assessment and illustration of these variances in land owner preferences promotes effective land
use planning efforts that can be built upon a reliable estimation of land use preferences of local
stakeholders.
Riparian Buffer Demonstrations: Promoting Protection of Waterways - - K. Cunningham,

C. Stuhlinger, H. Liechty, and J. Pennington. University of Arkansas Division of Extension
Research has proven riparian buffers to be beneficial in protecting waterways from storm water
runoff and stream bank deterioration. Specifically, the greatest riparian buffer benefits involve an
ability to reduce sediment loads reaching waterways and to reduce erosion hazard. Buffers also
provide varying levels of protection from excess nutrients from adjacent land-uses. Furthermore,
riparian buffers play a role in maintaining aquatic ecosystems. While riparian buffers are
somewhat commonplace in eastern and midwest states, they have been an underutilized resource
in some southern states including Arkansas. In northwest Arkansas, high P, N, and microbial
levels in waterways has spawned significant concerns, controversy and lawsuits between
Oklahoma and Arkansas in recent decades. Land use dynamics, socio-economics, lack of
information, lack of use of available incentive programs, and other factors have been a primary
factor in the underutilization of riparian buffers to supplement efforts for reducing these impacts.
With the advent of a newly established CREP incentive program for the Illinois River Watershed
in northwest Arkansas, The University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture recognized a need
for information dissemination and has worked to improve stakeholder knowledge of the uses,
benefits, implementation, and available incentives of riparian buffers. The primary method of
information dissemination has been through creating a series of demonstration buffers at
different locations across the region. The demonstrations involved the establishment of five
buffer types including: 3-zone riparian forest buffers, urban buffers, wildlife buffers, grass
buffers, and naturalized buffers. Initially, the 3-zone RFB and naturalized buffer types were
implemented as pilot demonstrations. Ultimately, a demonstration complex of all 5 buffer types

was established at the Water Research and Education Center at the University of Arkansas -
Fayetteville. The demonstrations along with developed informative materials have been utilized
in workshops, conferences, and tours to educate watershed/streamside stakeholders and have
played a role in public policy as the City of Fayetteville has worked to establish a streamside
protection ordinance.
The relationship between land-use policies and ecological processes
Structuration of Complex Adaptive Social Ecological Systems: Focusing on Decision

Making in Context, Wayde Morse – Auburn University, Megan Lupek – Auburn University,
Bill McLaughlin – University of Idaho
Understanding the processes that link social and ecological systems is critical for identifying and
building resilience within these interdependent systems. A framework was developed as a
heuristic device to explain social and ecological systems as they change over time. Specific
attention is given to the decision making process of agents who continually influence the
creation, reaffirmation or change to the social and ecological systems. A modern revision of
Structuration Theory from the social sciences was combined with theory of Complex Adaptive
Systems as applied in Hierarchical Patch Dynamics. Both social and ecological systems contain
fast and slow variables that interact as recursive systems. Overtime, these systems develop
relatively stable structures that both enable and constrain future actions of a diverse set of agents.
This presentation focuses on the land use decision making process of agents situated within the
context of the dynamic systems. As such, decision making is framed as a dynamic process where
agents recurrently adapt to change in social and ecological systems. Agents’ motivations,
capabilities, and knowledge are considered along with the perceived enabling and constraining
influences at the systems level. Furthermore, agents’ monitoring of outcomes and adaptive
strategies are considered. The framework was originally developed and applied in a case study
analyzing the influence of payments for environmental services on landowner land-cover
decisions and the resultant provision of environmental services in Costa Rica. That case will be
presented along with current modifications to the framework that will be applied to a case study
on the decisions of landowners to participate in conservation easements in Alabama.
Path Dependence, Critical Junctures Theory and Urban-Rural Planning: A Water Sharing
Case Study, Lorraine Nicol, University of Lethbridge
In 2006, seventeen municipalities in southern Alberta embarked on a bold initiative to develop a

coordinated approach to land use planning to the year 2075. Under the umbrella of the Calgary
Regional Partnership, the group ventured into new and untested territory. The territory was also
highly conflict ridden with resentment building over decades when the provinces’ Regional
Planning Commissions endowed large, urban municipalities virtual veto over the urban-rural
development agenda. Despite this history, the municipalities persevered and after almost three
years of work, the Calgary Regional Plan (CRP) was unveiled. The key feature of the CRP was
the inclusion of density targets that would reduce “urban sprawl” and manage resources

ecologically. Water management was critical to the CRP, which envisioned a sharing of water
license capacity among member communities on a regional basis. The CRP represented a major
breakthrough in water management in the province and a unique situation where water would be
moving from the water-rich city of Calgary, to rural users. Unexpectedly, at a meeting of the
general assembly of Calgary Regional Partnership members in mid 2009, three rural
municipalities voted against the CRP, primarily due to the three’s opposition to density targets
contained in the CRP and the proposed voting structure. At that meeting the Reeve of one of
those RM’s delivered a blunt message: “…it is clear that there is hangover amongst the CRP
partners about old attitudes. The old rural versus urban clichés that have for so long created
conflict instead of cooperation between neighboring municipalities continues to rear their ugly
heads” (CRP General Assembly June, 19, 2009). Despite the disapproval by these three
members, the CRP was submitted to the Government of Alberta for a ruling. This ruling is
expected in March, 2010, and will either impose the CRP on the region, or force the Calgary
Regional Partnership members back to the table to resolve the outstanding issues. This situation
represents a fruitful case study for the employment of path dependence and critical junctures
theory. Comparing the views, attitudes and behavior of those municipalities opposed to the plan
relative to those who support it, the study will be based on Paul Pierson’s observation that:
“Particular courses of action, once introduced, can be virtually impossible to reverse; and
consequently, political development is often punctuated by critical moments or junctures that
shape the basis contours of social life” (Pierson 2000: 251). While existing planning documents
trace the decision-making process to date, this research case study will also analyse the dynamics
of the ongoing CRP process as it continues to unfold. At this early stage in this research
program, this paper will provide a literature review of path dependence and critical junctures
theory and its application which ultimately will help inform a more in-depth program of
research.
Alternatives for residential development along the urban fringe: developer, city staff, and
resident perceptions of low-impact and conservation subdivision designs Troy Bowman, Jan
Thompson and John Tyndall, Iowa State University
Urban population expansion and declining household size over the last two decades have fueled
urban growth across the United States. Given the immense landscape alterations that have
occurred due to agricultural production on the majority of the landscape throughout the Midwest,
these new impacts to natural land cover in the Midwest are of special concern. As urban land
cover increases, the escalation in negative environmental effects associated with standard
approaches to development has increased interest in the use of alternative design approaches that
mitigate some of these effects. For residential development in particular, there are three major
groups that influence subdivision design by developing, approving, and purchasing: developers,
city staff, and residents. Many prior studies of residential subdivision designs have focused
exclusively on residents and their purchasing decisions. In this case study, we used surveys ,
focus groups and experimental auctions in Ames, IA to examine developer, city staff, and
resident perceptions of urban development in general, and low-impact (LID) and conservation
subdivision design (CSD) features in particular. On average, developers and city staff both
indicated the pace of residential development was too slow; residents, however, indicated that

the pace of development was too fast. Residents also perceived that neither developers nor city
staff members were effective in protecting the natural environment from the effects of
development. On average, developers and city staff overestimated residents’ interest in homes
associated with hypothetical LID and CSD neighborhoods. Both developers and city staff
expressed interest in using LID and CSD approaches, and in most cases believed the amenities
created by including LID and CSD features would add a premium to home prices. Developers,
city staff and residents all preferred designs with LID and CSD elements (in particular, clustered
housing with preserved forest systems and buffered urban streams) over designs with only
standard subdivision features. Certain design elements (for example, culs –de-sac) were favored
by developers and residents, but strongly discouraged by city staff. Other design features, such as
neighborhood streams or clustered housing, were only preferred in combination with explicitly
preserved open space or natural areas. This examination of developer, city staff, and resident
perceptions will identify opportunities for implementation of LID/CSD approaches to
development that will lead to a better balance between development and conservation of natural
resources in urban fringe areas.
Regional Governance of Natural Resources: Emerging Rural-Urban Interactions in

Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, Jennifer Daniels and Kelly Vodden, Department of
Geography, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada’s most rural province. Its extensive history as a staples
economy has resulted in a highly rural population that relies heavily on resource-based extraction
and production. In the sixty years since Newfoundland and Labrador joined the Canadian
federation there have been major changes in the province’s primary industries, including
industrialization and expansion followed by dramatic declines in fishing and forest industries.
The early 1990s collapse of the northwest Atlantic Cod stock has dramatically altered the
traditional economy of rural NL. Following a long period of federal and provincial policies that
often furthered resource dependency and cycles of resource overharvesting and decline, regional
(multi-community) approaches to natural resources governance are emerging that place greater
emphasis on conservation and public participation. The capacity of rural organizations to take on
new responsibilities is threatened by economic and demographic change, including population
losses due to urbanization and natural resource collapse. Recognizing limits to local capacity and
issues of appropriate scale in ecosystem management, small communities in rural NL have
partnered with adjacent communities, often including regional service centres, to pursue
integrated management techniques that incorporate multiple land and resource uses and values.
Preliminary results of a three-year research project examining rural-urban interactions in
Newfoundland and Labrador suggest there are two growing forms of environmental stewardship
in this province known for its culture of resource exploitation: 1) urban environmentalism,
including a local food movement, and 2) regional management of natural resources with
participation of rural resource-dependent communities. While rural communities have taken a
leadership role in areas as diverse as watershed, coastal and wetlands management, marine
protected area establishment, voluntary fisheries closures and gear restrictions, and community
forestry, the power base for decision-making remains centralized in growing urban centres. Rural
communities have collaborated with urban-based scientists, government and non-government
organizations in these conservation and integrated management efforts. Counteracting a trend of

urban values dominating policy and market decisions, with resulting threats to rural community
viability, and empowering rural actors to act as stewards of the resources that surround them,
however, will require greater efforts to ensure genuine, two-way rural-urban dialogue, mutual
understanding and shared decision-making.
The establishment and development of green Feng Shui villages in Okinawa, Bixia Chen -
School of Economics, Fujian Normal University, and Yuei Nakama - Department of Subtropical
Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus
A Feng Shui village landscape features Fukugi (Garcinia subelliptica Merr.) tree lines
surrounding every house and orderly laid out roads. Such a green landscape, which was planned
or reformed during modern Ryukyuan period around 300 yrs ago, is well preserved in Okinawa
Isl. and its nearby isolated islands. But it is still a mystery to the historians when and how these
Fukugi trees were planted. In order to clarify the development process of the house-embracing
Fukugi trees, as well as the distribution of Feng Shui villages in Okinawa, we have visited almost
all the traditional villages and measured the remnant old Fukugi trees. The field survey area is on
Okinawa Gundo, which includes mainland Okinawa and its nearby isolated small islands. It was
found that huge Fukugi trees older than 200 yrs, cluster around the core area around kami-asagi
or haisyo inside the village. Both kami-asagi and haisyo are sacred places where guardian gods
were summoned in order to hold ceremonies and rituals. Biggest trees found in mainland
Okinawa is estimated to be 370 yrs. Fukugi trees older than 300 yrs also exist in some villages.
These old trees might have been planted prior to the period from 1737 to 1750 when Saion was
in power, during which Fukugi trees were planned and recommended. Fukugi trees might have
been planted as windbreak around the houses before Saion period, however, the current house-
embracing Fukugi tree landscape came into being during the Saion period based on Feng Shui
concept.
Approaches to Development of a Peri-urban Garden Community: South Korea as a Case,

Mark I. Wilson - Michigan State University, K. Irene Shim – Michigan State University, Jung
Min Choi – Konkuk University (Seoul, South Korea), Eunseong Jeong - Michigan State
University
Urbanization has long been a significant topic for scholars and practitioners both from developed
and developing countries. Technical advancement and socioeconomic improvements have led
geographical spaces to be dramatically urbanized. This transformation to urbanization produces
better quality of life and amenities to urban dwellers. On the other hand, there is an increase in
urban ills, such as polluted urban environments, crimes, segregation between the poor and the
rich, decrease of vegetation, and disparities between urban and rural areas. These negative
aspects have led scholars, policy makers, and practitioners to study how to reconcile or minimize
these problems. However, peri-urban areas have been largely ignored by both planners and
administrators due to unclear jurisdictional definition, even though studies claim that peri-urban
areas are considered significant buffer zones between the urban core and the countryside. The
paper explores ways to provide new roles for peri-urban zones as garden communities.
Discussion proceeds from definitional issues for peri-urban communities, to strategies of

building a peri-urban community into a garden community using Korea as a case study. Korea’s
example provides a study of improving urban environments with more green spaces, and creating
new spaces for urban residents who want to pursue a rural lifestyle. Garden communities also
offer ways to decrease disparity between urban and rural areas, and suggest an alternative
planning concept for sustainable peri-urban areas.
The Growing Trend of Multi-habitation and its Policy Implication in Korea: a Possible
Win-Win Strategy between Urban Areas and Rural Areas, Jungmin Choi, Department of
Architectural Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul
The research deals with a multi-habitation, a new Korean life style in which inhabitants in urban
areas reside in condominiums primarily during weekdays and retreat to dwellings in rural areas
on the weekends; it was conducted within a win-win strategy between urban areas and rural
areas. The study is composed of three parts as follows: (1) A Basic Study on the Growing Trend
of Multi-habitation and its Demand Analysis The purpose of this study is to investigate the
concept, the necessity, and the increasing popularity of multi-habitation. It also focuses on
finding implication messages from analyzing the demand of multi-habitation in a survey which
was conducted of 735 people who live in Seoul and the surrounding metropolitan areas in July
2009. Analysis of literature shows that based on five aspects (population structure, social
economy, lifestyle, tourism, and housing market) this dynamic lifestyle, multi-habitation, is
believed to be common in South Korea, and may increase in popularity in the near future. The
results of the survey illustrate that the respondents show high interest in multi-habitation, and
their most preferred locations are the green areas around the Seoul metropolitan area, which are
one to two hours away by car. (2) Classification of Multi-habitation and the Situation of the
Related Lifestyles Through the interviews and site surveys, three major subtypes of multi-
habitation were identified to support the theoretical framework: interchange style, sedentary
style, and special style. Findings include that first, in order to discuss multi-habitation, the terms
primary home and secondary home(s) are introduced. Based on the concept of primary home and
secondary home(s), a variety of multi-habitation can be described using spatial locations in urban
and rural areas. Second, systematic deregulation for the second home ownership should be made
to promote citizens' interchange. (3) Proposal for the development of Korean Farm Stay Model:
Focusing on Kleingarten in Japan For this, theoretical research and interviews with site surveys
of Kleingarten in Japan, "small garden” in German, were carried out and some strategic
conclusions were drawn. The results show that, from the perspective of hardware, (1) Facilities
and size should be setup according to the condition in Korea and long-term demands for green
tourism. (2) Adequate size of lodging facility, a cottage, should accompany the garden. In
addition, from the perspective of software, (1) Administration should make an effort to obtain the
understanding and cooperation from the local residents. (2) It turns out that a Kleingarten takes
an important role when urban residents move into rural areas or carry out a multi-habitation.
Demand for and supply of urban trees: Empirical evidence from a citizen survey, Yaoqi
Zhang and Bin Zheng, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University
While evidence shows that urban trees are greatly demanded, financial support and supply of
urban trees does not match the growing demand. This is not surprise we all demand for more if

not costs or lower costs. Another potential cause is the nature of public goods of urban trees:
everyone like the other people to provide the services. In contrast with many studies that
primarily focused on the demand side, this study is to investigate from both demand and supply
and examine how the disparity between demand for and supply of the urban trees from a citizen
survey conducted in Alabama. We mailed our questionnaires to 3500 participants and received
about 500 valid respondents. This paper summarized the major findings from this survey and
examined the factors (demographic and geographical factors) affecting the demand and supply.
The results will provide empirical evidence on institutional and policy recommendation for
future urban forest development. While we must depend on government budgets for urban and
community tree programs, we still need to explore our resources from private and corporate
foundations, nonprofit organizations, local businesses and individual contributions, and in many
cases, volunteer tree activists and businesses that provide in-kind services and goods.
Urban Forestry Strike Team - Landscape Scale Urban Storm Damage Assessments
Daniel Westcot, Georgia Forestry Commission
The Urban Forestry Strike Team (UFST) was developed by the U. S. Forest Service in 2003 in
order to assist communities with urban forestry issues following Hurricane Isabel. Since then,
the UFST program has grown to include over 80 foresters and/or Certified Arborists from 15
states who have assisted 26 affected communities to date. UFST members receive specialized
training in urban post-storm recovery assessments such as: hazardous tree assessment, data
collection, FEMA specifications, operating procedures, and use of specialized technology. Data
collected by UFST response teams are used by communities to provide FEMA with precise
figures for reimbursements, prioritize tree removals, negotiate tree service contracts, and
estimate percent canopy loss.
Developing a stakeholder driven family forest initiative through Maine's Center for
Research on Sustainable Forests - - Patrick Lyons and Jessica Leahy, University of Maine
Family forests are defined as forested land ranging from 10 to 1000 acres. In Maine this accounts
for over 5.7 million acres of land, representing 33 percent of the state's woodlands and
approximately 120,000 owners. Unfortunately, over the past three decades numerous family
forest landowners have subdivided or sold their land. From 1980 to 1995 the number of family
forest landowners increased by twenty percent, though the overall acreage remained the same.
“Highest and best use” practices of this land has been the impetus behind rapid parcelization and
amenity-based development in Maine, particularly impacting lake shore properties. Despite the
impacts family forest owners have on land-use change in Maine, they are a relatively under
served landowner group. This poster examines the research being conducted on family forests
stakeholders through the Center for Research on Sustainable Forests (CRSF) at the University of
Maine. Faculty involved with the CRSF and members of organizations and agencies involved
with forestry and forest owners in Maine were interviewed, totaling over sixty participants.
Stakeholders were identified by the participating faculty of the CRSF and targeted because of
their involvement with and knowledge of family forest owners. This poster highlights the fact
that relatively little research has been conducted on family forests in Maine. The CRSF identifies

family forests as one of three main research units in its mission and thus findings from the
interviews will be critical in shaping future research and outreach that contributes to the
sustainable management of the state’s family forests. Also, this poster emphasizes the
importance of communication and participation among CRSF faculty and the numerous family
forest stakeholders, underscoring how critical this is in creating research that is viewed as
credible by all parties and salient to the needs of family forest landowners. How this will support
a stakeholder driven initiative on sustainable family forests will be discussed.
Application of ecological research in land-use planning
An approach for quantifying threats from cumulative impacts across the urban-rural-wild
spectrum for ecoregional scale planning, -- Gillian Woolmer, Mark Anderson, Karen Beazley,
Rob Baldwin, Patrick Doran, Graham Forbes, Louise Grattan, Alexis Morgan, Justina Ray,
Conrad Reining, and Steve Trombulak, Wildlife Conservation Society, Canada
Understanding how human uses of the land vary and how multiple uses and their impacts
accumulate is important for assessing threats to conservation values for conservation planning
purposes at all scales. The Human Footprint is a multivariate approach to map and quantify such
cumulative impacts. This approach is intuitive, highly scalable and the results readily interpreted
and communicated. To understand the distribution of threats from human uses of the land in the
Northern Appalachian/Acadian Ecoregion the original global Human Footprint methodology has
been adapted to an ecoregion scale and forecast into the future under multiple regional growth
scenarios.The results of this are being applied by the conservation consortium Two Countries,
One Forest and partners to assess current and future threats to conservation targets along the
urban-rural-wild spectrum as part of a multi-year collaborative conservation planning initiative.
Understanding and forecasting the impacts of human development has been vital to the planning
process in this region that has a long history of human settlement that is experiencing rapid rural
development driven by land divestures by the timber industry into the hands of private
development companies. This work is also being used by local conservation practitioners to
support on the ground conservation and promote planning for local and regional connectivity.
The Northern Appalachian Acadian Ecoregion is a transboundary ecoregion that encompasses
four U.S. states and four Canadian provinces, and spans the ecological gradient from deciduous
forest in the south to boreal forest in the north, with taiga found at higher elevations.
Sentiments toward land use regulation and planning to benefit wildlife at the rural-
wildland fringe near Yellowstone National Park and Adirondack State Park, Heidi E.
Kretser – Wildlife Conservation Society, Nancy A. Connelly – Cornell University, and Barbara
A. Knuth – Cornell University
Rural landscapes in close proximity to protected lands are facing increasing development
pressure for residential homes. This type of exurban, or low-density, development, occurring
away from the urban core and facilitated by various forms of transportation and communication,
fragments wildlife habitat and valued open space. One approach to address these issues involves
modifying existing land-use regulations to encourage certain forms of development or activities
and discourage others. We sent a mail survey to landowners (n=6,196) in three communities of

southwestern Montana and central Idaho and four communities of northern New York to
determine attitudes toward wildlife, conservation, and land-use. We selected communities
experiencing different levels of exurban development. For this presentation we focus on
questions pertaining to local landowners’ attitudes toward a variety of land-use options. We
compared responses from permanent residents to those of seasonal residents within each
community, and found more similarities than differences. On questions related to attitudes
toward development, we found no distinction between permanent and seasonal residents for
questions focused on support for land-use policies or for modifications to land use policies that
would benefit wildlife. Comparing results across communities, we found that the Adirondacks
communities were more similar to Island Park (the community experiencing an intermediate
amount of development near Yellowstone National Park), whereas the other western
communities, Big Hole (a ranching community) and Big Sky (a resort development) stood out as
being unique in their responses. For the specific wildlife and development-related questions,
most communities were similarly supportive of the statements of policies to benefit wildlife,
except for Big Hole where responses trended significantly less agreeable to those policies.
Across communities and within communities the results demonstrate that landowners generally
agree with, or at least do not disagree with, policies that benefit wildlife.
Opportunities for conservation design to facilitate wildlife habitat protection in county

development regulations in the western U.S., Sarah E. Reed – Colorado State University and
Wildlife Conservation Society, Jodi A. Hilty – Wildlife Conservation Society, and David M.
Theobald – Colorado State University
Conservation development has emerged as a promising strategy for minimizing the ecological
impacts of low-density residential development, which is expanding rapidly throughout the rural
landscapes of the United States. Conservation development protects or restores the ecological
resources of a property, while restricting compatible housing development to the remainder of
the site. Widespread adoption of conservation design approaches requires development
regulations that allow the flexibility in site design necessary to achieve conservation objectives
and provide for the monitoring and management activities to protect ecological resources over
time. We examined county development codes in 11 western states for specific ordinances or
regulations that establish guidelines or create incentives for conservation development. We
focused on county-level regulations because counties have jurisdiction over development
activities on more than 97 percent of private lands in the study area. Out of 414 counties
surveyed, we found that 32 percent had at least one regulation pertaining to conservation
development. Rates varied widely among states, ranging from two counties in New Mexico to
over half of counties in Washington and Colorado. We reviewed the collected regulations on the
basis of their conservation objectives and breadth of applicability, as well as for specific
guidelines related to ecological site analysis, the design of the protected area, ownership and
management of the protected area, and the design of the developed area. In addition, we
investigated various factors that might explain the adoption and rigor of conservation
development regulations, including recent land-use change and development pressure,
demographic characteristics of county residents, local conservation targets, county planning
capacity, and state-level enabling legislation or model ordinances. We will present the results of
our review and analysis and make recommendations for how county development regulations

could be improved to increase the use and effectiveness of conservation design for protecting
wildlife habitat on private lands.
Merging science, policy, and human dimensions to conserve wildlife habitat and
connectivity in the Adirondack State Park, Leslie Karasin, Michale Glennon, Zoe Smith, and
Heidi Kretser, Wildlife Conservation Society
Rural communities faced with managing development pressures often lack both planning
capacity and expertise in applying scientific principles to achieve best practices for ecological
protections including wildlife and wildlife habitats. This holds true in the towns and villages of
New York state's Adirondack Park, where municipalities have the authority to implement local
planning and zoning, but many fail to do so because of: a) these capacity issues; b) a distrust of
regulatory oversight, which in part is a legacy of the creation of the Adirondack Park Agency, a
state agency with some limited regulatory jurisdiction over private land development in the Park;
and c) a widely held belief that economic development and land use planning are incompatible.
The park's private lands (totaling approximately three million acres) are therefore at increased
risk for exurban development, which threatens to degrade the ecological integrity and functional
connectivity of the park to other protected lands in the Northeast. The Wildlife Conservation
Society Adirondack Program has been working in this landscape for more than ten years,
applying an information- and community-based approach to conservation issues. We will
discuss several initiatives to build conservation-based land-use planning capacity in rural
communities, providing technical assistance, increasing the availability and accessibility of
ecological research , and fostering efforts to align economic development and environmental
protections. We will discuss both challenges and lessons learned in applying these approaches.
Setting conservation priorities for pool-breeding amphibians in urbanizing landscapes:

Comparison of models, Robert F. Baldwin, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources,
Clemson University
Amphibians are in global decline and many of their wetland habitats are under-protected by land
conservation efforts and government regulation. Pool-breeding amphibians are dependent upon
wetlands for breeding and frequently move long distances to adjacent habitats to fulfill other life
history needs. Consequently, conservation planning for pool-breeding amphibians has focused on
defining functional habitat patches for local populations that includes wetlands and surrounding
habitats. Recent advances for setting conservation priority using spatial models have taken into
account three primary factors, (1) habitat patches, (2) landscape resistance, and (3) changing land
uses. Landscape resistance is particularly important component of habitat conservation models
for pool-breeding amphibians because of their seasonal migrations between breeding pools and
adjacent habitats used for foraging, hibernation, and maintaining water balance. This study
compares two recently published approaches to wetland conservation designed to prioritize pools
and associated habitats: threat analysis and resistant kernels. I compare model assumptions, data
sources, outputs, and conservation implications for a single study area. Threat analysis
incorporates potential habitat modified by landscape resistance derived from fine-scale land
use/land cover data, development pressure derived from US Census data, and levels of current
land protection. Resistant kernels incorporate density of wetland habitats and degree of

connectivity among them due to landscape resistance. I employed the same habitat and landscape
resistance data for both models. Nearly half of the study area (46%) had exactly the same outputs
for threat analysis and resistant kernel (difference = 0) and 80% of the landscape had very similar
outputs (difference between outputs -1> <+1). Because the models were run using the same data
inputs, differences between the outputs were attributed to model structure and assumptions.
Several of the areas with the strongest negative difference values (resistant kernels were
identified, but areas of high threat were not) were on lands already protected by easements and
other conservation mechanisms. Threat analysis emphasizes priority for lands having a
combination of high habitat value, strong pressure for conversion to development, and lack of
current protection. Resistant kernels cluster habitats for protection based on density and
connectivity but do not take into account future threats. Thus, threat analysis outputs were more
inclusive than resistant kernels as 97% of the differences were neutral or positive. While
differences were slight, it is important to engage stakeholders in the modeling process so they
understand how assumptions influence conservation outcomes. Priority setting models may be
especially useful for seasonal woodland pools that are under-protected by wetland regulations
and thus require attention by land trusts and other local conservation efforts.
Rivers as systems: Implications for sustainable policy and management, Michael Kensler,
Water Resources Center , Auburn University
Our understanding of the functioning of rivers as systems, including the importance of

connectivity to groundwater, floodplains, and between upstream and downstream river segments,
flow regime, geomorphology,and other factors, has grown significantly over the past twenty
years. At the same time, water policy and management have not evolved to match our growing
scientific understanding of rivers as systems and the ecosystem services they provide. The limits
and liabilities of current approaches to water policy and management are becoming apparent
throughout the Southeast and beyond as population growth and development place ever higher
demands on limited water resources, and ongoing land use changes further disrupt the
functioning of ecosystems and the provision of ecosystem services. This presentation will
explore the disconnect between current policy and management practices and what we are
learning about river systems, and identify opportunities for different, more sustainable
approaches to land and water policy and management that better reflect our understanding of
river ecosystems, and more accurately account for the beneficial services they provide.
Urban markets as a method of downtown revitalization through facilitating cultural and

economic exchange, Tyler Smithson - Auburn University
Marketplaces have facilitated for the activity of buying and selling food for our cities and towns
for centuries. At the heart of every city, public markets are established gathering places for
cultural exchange and social interaction. Alongside the earliest examples of human settlement,
markets have the unique status of being the most enduring, universal form or urban food
marketing and distribution (Spitzer, 2). Markets have allowed civilizations to advance through
specialization of jobs and through the diversification of local economies. However, in most post-
industrial cities, Markets have lost their sense of place through exportation of local economy,

dilution of culture through suburban expansion, advances in technology, ease of transportation
and through the advent of globalization of food markets. Today, enduring examples of successful
markets that are beginning to take shape. Among the best examples are Portland’s Saturday
Market, Charleston’s City Market and New Orleans’ French Market. Providing as tourist
attractions and serving leading roles in the local economy, Markets have facilitated for
community involvement and put millions of dollars back into cities. The purpose of this paper is
to provide evidence that appropriately conceived and rigorously implemented market startups
can help to revitalize downtown economic conditions through facilitating for cultural and
economic exchange. The methods that I use merge sustainable design principles with community
development guidelines to investigate market feasibility through design analysis derived from
case study analysis, section studies, GIS mapping. Through contextual analysis, community
collaboration, and intensive studies on urban markets the idea of Joseph Market was born.
Initially, the design studio aimed towards green street infrastructure and the development of
sustainable methods of remediating the cities stormwater infrastructure problems. However, the
scope evolved to include adaptive reuse of historical landscapes (Bienville Square), providing
food access to underserved residents and the creation of traditional market retailing to revitalize
Mobile from the bottom-up. Integrating the multiple focuses of the project, a cumulative design
was conceived, drawn and modeled. In conclusion, this paper establishes a framework for the
justification Joseph Market and its capability to aid in reinvestment of the City of Mobile.
Bird diversity indicates ecological value in urban home prices, Michael C. Farmer, Mark
Wallace, and Michael Shiroya, Texas Tech University; The Wildife Society; American
Association of Environmental and Resource Economists; Ecological Society of America
Open space and greenspace contribute positively to urban home prices. Yet as economists and
planners discover that not all greenspace provides the same economic benefit, urban ecologists
have long known that not all greenspace provides the same ecological benefits. This work
examines directly whether the use of bird counts and species diversity as an indicator of
ecological value also significantly explains improvements in urban housing prices. We collected
information from approximately 400 homes sold during 2008-2009 in Lubbock, Texas from
local Multiple Listing Service (MLS). We extracted information on key housing features such as
square footage and age of house, and others, along with seventeen neighborhood designations
defined by the Lubbock Realtor Association. We then conducted breeding bird point counts in
neighborhoods with home sales and recorded total numbers and species of birds. We classified
birds as ubiquitous (e.g., house sparrows, starlings, great-tailed grackles and Eurasian collared
doves) or desireable (e.g., American robin, blue jay, mourning dove, northern mockingbird and
western kingbird). We constructed a bird diversity instrument as the product of the total number
of birds observed times the number of desirable urban species observed at each site. Across the
data, the number of desirable species dominated total variation in this index. Finally, we
recorded data on the percentage of tree cover using Google Earth for the immediate blocks
surrounding each parcel sold. This relatively accessible data still provided rich results. Model
selection (using AICc) comparing models with tree cover, presence of a neighborhood park, and
neighborhood dummy variables, indicated that the presence of local parks (traditional
greenspace) did little to predict values for the ecological indicator. The model selected,
attributing the entire weight to the model, included tree cover and 12 of 17 neighborhood

designations. Home price for each sale was regressed against the predicted value of the bird
index and MLS structural features. The predicted bird instrument applied to home price
estimation was highly significant (t = 8.12, P < 0.0001). An AICc comparison of models with
and without the instrument attributed the entire weight to the instrumented model. Expected
values of structural features conformed closely to market values reported by local real estate
professionals. The coefficient value of this instrument predicts the expected improvement to
mean home price due to the addition of one more desirable species was $33,493. The predicted
coefficient for this ecological indicator explains a significant share of price differences among
neighborhoods. However, not all greenspace is ecological space: an expensive established
neighborhood around a local golf course showed little home price improvement. Our predicted
bird diversity is a simple and useful instrument to assess ecological amenities that urbanites are
willing to pay for.
Conceptualizing urban areas as urbanized ecosystems (UrbEcoSys): Proof of concept,

Michael Iversen, University of Illinois – Chicago
Urbanization is the defining ecological phenomenon of the twenty-first century. Urban areas are
among the largest anthropogenic uses in terms of appropriation of land, energy, materials, and
biological primary production, as well as in the alteration of the biogeochemical cycles of
carbon, water, and nitrogen. Despite their significance in these respects, coherent descriptions
and analyses of urban areas regarding the flux and cyclic processes of energy, materials,
information and costs are relatively scarce. There exists an opportunity to investigate urban areas
as analogous to ecosystems, thus allowing a complex systems approach to be applied to the
planning and management of built environments. Similar to how an ecologist studies natural
environments within the hierarchal scale of an ecosystem, this novel approach is based on the
investigation of urban areas as ecosystems onto themselves, or as urbanized ecosystems. Such an
approach is scalable and transferable to neighborhoods, communities and regional applications.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) has long since recognized the important role of
ecological science in furthering the understanding of urbanized ecosystems as evidenced by the
Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Program. As such, LTER created a socio-ecological
theoretical framework that provided the basis for narrowscope research questions to be nested
within each other, allowing one to proceed from broadscope to increasingly more narrowscope
questions. Following this hierarchical progression, the intent of this presentation is to
conceptualize urbanized ecosystems within this socio-ecological framework, so as to provide a
basis for informed planning and policymaking. From this conceptualization, the investigation
focuses on how does one model an urbanized ecosystem in terms of its associated energy,
material, monetary, and information fluxes and relative to various temporal and spatial scales, so
as to provide a basis for informed decision- and policymaking. Towards this end, this
presentation presents a methodology, Urbanized Ecosystems™ (UrbEcoSys™), developed as a
proof of concept application for the Village of Oak Park, IL, which was modeled as a dynamic
and interrelating complex ecosystem. The extent of this 2009 study was based on scoping,
inventorying, and assessing Oak Park’s critical variables and relationships, as represented by the
flux and cyclic processes of energy, materials, costs, and information. The resultant system
model conceptualized the Village of Oak Park as an urbanized ecosystem, so as to allow a more
formalized level of inquiry. From this conceptualization, baseline metrics and alternative

scenarios were developed relative to their alignment with the village’s overall sustainable vision
and policy. The intent was to support and enhance an informed decision- and policymaking
process, which then could be prioritized within the municipal budget’s allocation of finite
revenue and expenditures.
Predicting the spatial distribution of human-black bear interactions across an urban area,
J.A. Merkle, P.R. Krausman, J.J. Jonkel, and N.J. DeCesare, Boone and Crockett Program in
Wildlife Conservation, Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Montana Fish
Wildlife and Parks
Interactions between humans and black bears (Ursus americanus) are increasing throughout
North America. Understanding the spatial distribution of incidents will help predict conflicts in
future housing developments and help create management plans and ordinances that reduce
conflicts in the future. We used human-bear incident data (i.e., phone complaints and conflicts)
collected in Missoula, Montana by Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks from 2003-2008 to
examine the attractants and human impacts of incidents, and develop a model that predicts the
spatial probability of incidents. We combined the locations of black bear sightings (n = 307),
other incidents (e.g., bear was seen feeding on garbage; n = 549), and sites where proactive
management actions were carried out (n = 108), and compared them to 5,000 random locations
using logistic regression. Based on literature, we used distance to forested patches, distance to
water, and housing density as variables in our model. The overall nature of incidents was diverse.
Garbage (38%), fruit trees (10%), and bird feeders (7%) were the most common attractants at
incident sites, and in some cases incidents did result in threats to human safety (9%) and property
damage (7%). All variables were significant in the predictive model, and the model performed
well at discriminating the relative spatial probability of incidents (rs = 0.782; P < 0.01). The
probability of incidents increased when residents lived close to forested patches, close to water,
and in intermediate housing densities (approximately 6.6 houses/ha). Our results suggest that
spatial patterns in human-black bear interactions are predictable and these patterns can be used to
understand the potential for conflict in developing areas and to identify areas where preventative
management is necessary.
Spatial/scale aspects of land-use change
Using remote sensing data to understand urban sprawl and land conservation influence on
land cover changes, David Fleming, Penn State University
As cities grow, land conservation has arisen as main concern for many planners. However, few
researches have examined how these two phenomena can affect final land use decisions done by
owners of non-protected areas. To address this point, in this work I use cross-sectional models to
account for the marginal effect that conservation programs and urban growth have over
agricultural expansion in counties of the Midwestern U.S. Following empirical models used to
address land use change in the literature, I use as dependent variable the change of non-urbanized
land to agriculture (between 1992 and 2001) as well as disaggregated changes from forest, wet
and grass lands to agriculture. Main explanatory variables include land under the Conservation

Reserve Program (CRP) and urban sprawl, among others. In order to avoid endogenenity
problems from these land use covariates, alternative models consider the use of instrumental
variables (IV) defined by the weighted average of the variables (CRP and sprawl) in counties
that surround the county under scrutiny. In other words, to predict agricultural expansion in
county j, IV models consider as independent variables the average values of conservation land
and urban sprawl of its neighboring counties i’s (with i ≠ j). As sou rce of land cover change data,
this work analyzes satellite imagery from the NLCD Retrofit Change Product. This product,
released in 2008 by the USGS, provides the most accurate (to date) remote sensing data of land
cover changes in the U.S. (for the period 1992-2001). In particular, with this resource it is
possible observe changes in land covers at a pixel precision of 30x30 meters. Estimation results
show that, in average, the percentage of land under the CRP has a larger effect than urban sprawl
on the rate of agricultural expansion of a particular county. Both variables present different
magnitude and significance depending on the original land cover to be converted to agriculture.
The analysis finds that, for example, the impact of the CRP on land conversion from wetlands to
agriculture has a lower magnitude and significance than changes from grassland to agriculture.
Growth management and patterns of land cover change in the central Puget Sound,
Washington, 1986-2002, Jeffrey Hepinstall-Cymerman, Warnell School of Forestry & Natural
Resources, University of Georgia
Urbanization and the resulting changes in land cover have myriad impacts on ecological systems.
Monitoring these changes across large spatial extents and long time spans requires synoptic
remotely sensed data with an appropriate temporal sequence. I used a multi-temporal (1986,
1991, 1995, 1999, 2002) land cover dataset for a six-county area surrounding the Seattle
metropolitan region to explore changes in landscape composition and configuration before and
after the implementation of 1990 growth management legislation. Between 1986 and 2002, urban
land cover increased from 8 to 18% of the study area, while lowland deciduous and mixed
forests decreased from 21 to 14%, and grass and agriculture decreased from 11 to 8%. The
intensity of urban land cover also increased with 252 km2 in Heavy Urban (80-100% impervious
surface) in 1986 increasing to 629 km2 by 2002. Increasingly across all time periods, the
majority of new areas were located outside of the 2002 urban growth boundaries (UGB; from
58% of new urban between 1986-1991 to 74% between 1999 and 2002). In addition, new
developed land outside of the 2002 UGB increased more rapidly than areas within the urban
growth boundaries. For example, more than three times the land area was developed outside of
the UGB between 1999 and 2002 than inside (417.3 km2 and 140.1 km2, respectively). Urban
sprawl, as estimated by the amount of developed land per capita, increased overall within the
region, but the more rural counties within commuting distance to cities showed the highest rate
of increase. These results potentially indicate that the intended effect of the 1990 Growth
Management Act to direct growth within the urban growth boundaries may not have been
accomplished by 2002. The ecological systems that are present in this region were likely
significantly altered by these changes in land cover. Multi-temporal land cover datasets can be
used to develop models forecasting future land cover change or combined with ecological data to
explore how landscape change affect ecological systems.

Assessing performance of conservation-based Best Management Practices: Coarse vs. fine-
scale analysis - - Denise Piechnik (Penn State University), Sarah Goslee, and Tamie Veith
(USDA ARS)
Animal agriculture in Spring Creek watershed of Central Pennsylvania contributes sediment to

the stream and ultimately to the Chesapeake Bay. Best Management Practices (BMPs) such as
streambank buffers are intended to intercept sediment moving from heavy-use areas toward the
stream. Water quality and sediment loads were studied within two treatment sub-watersheds with
conservation BMPs applied to 91% and 61% of farms along the stream (BMP1 and BMP2), and
one unmodified reference sub-watershed (REF). Land-use mapping within a 100m stream buffer
from aerial photography for the three sub-watersheds covered an area of 1,980 ha (40%
agricultural use). Percentage of agricultural land-use for each sub-watershed was 46% (BMP1),
37% (BMP2), and 17% (REF). Total hectares for each sub-watershed was 625 ha (BMP1), 699
ha (BMP2), and 653 ha (REF). Percentage of woodland area per sub-shed was greatest within the
REF sub-shed at 45% (377 ha), while the +BMP sub-watersheds had less forested area (BMP1:
19%, 159 ha; BMP2: 36%, 306 ha). Residential, commercial, and transit land-use were similar
for all sub-watersheds. Flow paths calculated from coarse- (USGS 30-m DEM) and medium-
(10m) and fine-grain (1m DEM) topographic data were overlain on landuse and BMP- placement
maps. Flow pathways derived from 1m DEM data show considerably more potential source-to-
stream links than do those from the USGS data. Not all buffers are placed to block movement
along these flow pathways; fine-scale drainage networks are not typically considered when
placing BMPs. Where fine-scale DEMs are available, efficacy of new BMP locations might
increase by considering and including such drainage pathways. LiDAR DEMs are available for
Pennsylvania through the PAMAP program to be used in plans to reduce agricultural sediment
and nutrient loadings into local watersheds and ultimately the Chesapeake Bay.
Characterizing landscape Changes in Coast Watersheds in the Gulf of Mexico by Using

Remote Sensing and GIS - - Shufen Pan, Larry Prince, Guiying Li, and Hanqin Tian
Auburn University
The coastal watersheds in the Gulf of Mexico are being encroached by the expansion of the
surrounding cities. Information on spatial and temporal patterns of land use and land cover is
essential for assessing how environmental changes in coastal zone have affected or will affect
ecosystem services in this area. Remotely sensed data with their advantages in spectral, spatial,
and temporal resolutions have demonstrated their power in providing information of physical
characteristics of land surface and have been widely used for mapping and monitoring of land
surface biophysical features. The objective of this study is to provide spatially-explicit
information on LULC changes over time and develop an integrated geographical information
system in support of coastal watershed study in the Gulf of Mexico. To characterize coastal
landscape changes, we have used various data sources including Landsat MSS amd TM images,
aerial photographs, wetland inventory datasets and land cover datasets from both NLCD and
Baldwin County. We used a procedure of unsupervised classification for developing the LULC
maps, then compared and analyzed LULC maps by using post-classification method. To assess
the classification accuracy, overall accuracy, producer’s accuracy, user’s accuracy, and kappa
coefficient were calculated. Results show significant changes in land cover in the past decades

including decreases in forest, cropland and wetland, and an increase in impervious surface. Our
spatial data also indicate large difference in spatial and temporal pattern of landscapes among
coastal watersheds due to different development stages. These datasets resulted from this study
have provided essential data for evaluating the causes and consequences of land use and land
cover changes in the coastal zone.
Land use plans and urban sprawl, Seong-Hoon Cho, Jiyoung Kim, Roland K Roberts, and
SeungGyu Kim, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Tennessee
The principal objective of this research was to examine whether the management of land use
plans for agricultural-rural residential uses influences spatial development patterns in the
Knoxville, TN area using rezoning approval model. It is hypothesized that rezoning approval
from undevelopable land classifications to developable land classifications are affected by the
land use plan for agricultural-rural residential use. To achieve this objective, we compared 1) the
overall distance between parcels predicted to be approved for developable land classification and
its closest parcels identified as preexisting development under the current land use plans and 2)
the overall distance between parcels predicted to be approved for developable land classification
and its closest parcels identified as preexisting development under hypothetical land use plan
scenarios for agricultural-rural residential uses. The results show that the average distances
between parcels predicted to be approved for developable land classification and its closest
parcel identified as preexisting development drop under hypothetical land use scenarios with
expanded agricultural-rural residential uses. The drop of the average distances is due to increases
in the frequency of denials of rezoning petitions for development in the areas of expanded
agricultural-rural residential uses. These results indicate that the management of land use plans,
particularly a manipulation of the area currently designated for agricultural-rural residential use,
encourages the rezoning for development closer to preexisting development. This research is
unique in that rezoning approval for development, instead of land development, is modeled, to
examine whether government land use plans affects spatial patterns of development associated
with urban sprawl. Modeling rezoning approvals prevents bias that may be caused by redundant
counting of each developed parcel within a subdivision under the land development model. The
predicted changes in spatial patterns due to the manipulations of land use areas under the local
land use plan, i.e. Sector Plan, provides a guideline for local government to improve the current
land use plans to be consistent with the Growth Plan in Knox County. For example, the UGB, a
core of the three types of land classification identified by the Growth Plan in Knox County, does
not differentiate requirements from one region to another. Thus, there is a need to redraw more
effective classifications of the three types of land. The boundaries for the three types of land may
be redrawn by referencing the projections of rezoning approvals based on the current land use
plans as well as the hypothetical land use plans. A need exists to focus future research on
developing models that can provide more meaningful insights associated with land use plans
under the Sector Plan and the three types of land classifications under the Growth Plan.

Bringing culture and stormwater retention back to the Mobile Bay Scott Benson,,
Department of Landscape Architecture and Design, Auburn University
The purpose of this presentation is to develop an understanding of the importance of America’s

working waterfronts and how they affect its surrounding city. Through this project three goals
were established. The first was to create different forms of storm water retention practices to act
as precedents for the entire city. The second was to create a public waterfront space to connect
Mobile’s residents back to its waterfront. The third was to stimulate Mobile’s economic engine
to create jobs, income, and residences in the historic downtown area using green infrastructure.
Throughout its history, Mobile has always relied on its geographic location for prosperity.
Located at the north end of the Mobile Bay, the city has a direct connection to the Gulf of
Mexico and also to markets north up the Mobile River. The city has a history of fishing, boat
building, rail, and ship commerce. At present there are limited areas for pedestrian access to the
waterfront as it is cut off by the ship and rail yards. Mobile’s geographic location also poses a
problem during storm events. Due to its old storm system and low lying land, the city is often
inundated with backed up storm water. To help to alleviate this problem there is a need for
improved storm water management practices. This project seeks to employ design ideas on a
specific sight to achieve these goals. The site on the south side of the convention center was
chosen after a series of site studies was done. Some of those studies included an analysis of
shadow cover done through a 3D modeling software called Sketch Up, section drawings, a
design charrette, and aerial images through Google Earth. The site was also chosen because it
was a terminus to a few of the busy streets of the historic district of mobile including Dauphin
and Government Street. A case study was employed which resulted in valuable design ideas and
techniques through studying Michael Van Vaulkenburg's book, Alleghany Waterfront Park. This
study is a look at the design problems and solutions his team encountered when trying to tie
Pittsburgh, PA back to its waterfront. In my proposed design I suggest implementing a
constructed wetland to catch all rain water runoff. Above ground water cisterns were also
proposed to capture the storm water runoff from the convention center roof, as well as a
constructed vegetated bio-swale were proposed to filter all runoff from the parking area. To
bring people back to the waterfront a series of public structures to stimulate the downtown
economy were proposed including an open air market, docks, store, restaurant space, and a
boardwalk. The boardwalk serves as a connection from the south end of the convention center to
the north end as well as a template for further connection. Results so far have shown that there is
a need for waterfront connection and better storm water management through green
infrastructure; however the appropriate program and scale have yet to be determined.
Human influences on ecosystems
Effects of land use/cover on carbon storage near Apalachicola, FL, R. Chelsea Nagy and B.
Graeme Lockaby, Center for Forest Sustainability, Auburn University
Rapid coastal development coupled with a growing population exerts additional pressure on
coastal ecosystems. The effects of urbanization on ecosystem function, specifically carbon
storage in soils and vegetation, were examined in an area of hastening development along the
Gulf Coast near Apalachicola, FL. Differences in carbon storage among natural pine forests, pine

plantations, urban forests, urban lawns, and forested wetlands were studied. An analysis of all
land use/cover types revealed that forested wetlands have the greatest capacity to store soil and
total ecosystem (soil + vegetation) carbon. In addition to the other benefits that forested wetlands
provide, their capacity to store carbon and thus influence biogeochemical cycling warrants their
protection. A unique result of this study was greater carbon storage in urban ecosystems than in
natural forests and plantations. Urban forests had the highest ANPP of any of the land use/cover
classes and stored roughly twice as much carbon in soils as natural forests and plantations.
Higher soil and vegetation carbon in urban forests and urban lawns compared to natural forests
and pine plantations may be a result of more frequent fires in the latter two classes. The low
native soil carbon of this region (wetlands excluded) coupled with recent fires (both natural
forests and plantations) and understocking (plantations) have led to smaller pools of carbon in
comparison to urban areas. County-level land use change predictions suggest that as urbanization
continues along Florida’s Gulf Coast, declines in ecosystem carbon storage are possible but can
be minimized by protecting forested wetlands and incorporating patches of remnant forests
within urban areas.
The Piedmont Crescent: Integrating Human and Natural Systems - - Ed Macie, USDA
Forest Service
This presentation is a review of a Forest Service ecosystem analysis project, conducted by

American Forests and Michael Gallis and Associates, intended to measure and describe human
induced changes to natural systems at the landscape scale within the Piedmont Region of the
Southern US (from Atlanta to Richmond VA). This systems based analysis was conducted in 4
distict phases: 1) Understanding Ecosystem Deterioration. The main focus of the environmental
community has been the measuring and bench marking of environmental change. These efforts
only prove that the environment is continuing to deteriorate at even more rapid rates. While
studies of the environment are the foundation for environmental action and are vital to
understanding the impacts on the environment, they do not reveal the forces or the factors that
are causing the destruction of the ecosystems. 2) Understanding the Human Network. The
primary factor causing the deterioration of the environment is the global human network. This
network extends around the earth and across the US and continental North America. It is the
foundation for economic activity and urbanization as it represents the pattern of reads, rails,
airlines, shipping and communications. While the agency has information on the ecosystem and
the forests, it does not have expertise or knowledge of the growth and development of the human
network. Yet it is the network that is causing dramatic changes in the forest environment and
without an understanding of the pattern and dynamics of the network effective environmental
management may be impossible. 3) Defining the Relationship of the Environment and the
Human Network. An initial assessment of the impact of the human network on the environment
reveals five distinct categories. The five impacts are fragmentation, depletion, pollution, erosion
and extinction. While these are currently treated as separate problems they are in fact interrelated
affects all stemming from the same cause and together having a devastation impact on the
environment. 4) Identifying the gaps between current programs and the problems of sustaining
the environment in the 21st Century. The Resource Assessment is providing information needed
to create a new framework for internal and multi- agency discussion to identify and address the
gaps between current practices and realities of managing natural systems in the 21st century.

Results and experiences of this analysis will provide a foundation for a new framework for
managing the human network and restoring natural systems in the future.
The role of impervious surface and socioeconomic factors in determining water quality - -
Molly Otiende Auburn University
Water quality is a crucial factor in both human and environmental health. As locations undergo
increasing urbanization, development and other changes in land use are shown to have negative
impacts on water quality. Previous research has focused on the use of percent impervious surface
to develop a threshold for diminished water quality in urbanized/developed watershed as a result
of non-point source pollution from runoff. Although reliance on a percentage at which
impervious surface imperils a watershed provides a straightforward measure, it discounts the fact
that water quality can vary greatly depending on factors related to stream hydrology, land slopes
and soils, and types and configuration of impervious surface. It also fails to address more
specific ways that human development and behaviors affect water quality. Our proposal seeks to
broaden the understanding of the ways in which human factors impact water quality at the
watershed level. In order to do this, we propose to investigate the relevance of socioeconomic
factors at the watershed level that predict water quality, controlling for percent impervious
surface. These factors include income, property and home value, education level, median age,
and length of residency. Our research will allow for a clearer understanding of the relationship
between water quality and socioeconomics so that specific target groups can be developed for
educational purposes in order to alleviate (mitigate) current (future) water quality problems. The
proposed study will focus on the following water quality indicators due to their relationship to
human activities: Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Ammonium, Fecal Coliform, and Escherichia Coli (E.
Coli). Overall, our research goal is to better understand how human factors affect water quality
so that this knowledge can be used at the local and regional level to prevent water quality
problems and target changes in human behaviors that negatively impact water quality.
Impact of urbanization on water quality in northern Georgia, Jun Tu, Department of

Geography and Anthropology, Kennesaw State University
Northern Georgia, especially the Atlanta Metropolitan area, has being experienced rapid urban
sprawl over decades. A study of water quality, land use changes, and population growth trends in
several watersheds of northern Georgia since the 1970s has been conducted to examine the
impact of urbanization on water quality through GIS and statistical analyses. GIS analyses are
used to delineate sub-watersheds using Digital Elevation Models for water sampling sites and to
derive urbanization indicators such as urban lands and population density for each sub-
watershed. Statistical analyses are used to examine, quantify, and compare the relationships
between water quality parameters and urbanization indicators and to find good predicators of
water quality changes in response to the spatial and temporal variations of land use patterns.
Results from this study will contribute to a better understanding of the impact of long-term land
use changes caused by urban sprawl on water quality.

Terrestrial carbon dynamics across gradients of urbanization, Lucy Hutyra - Boston
University, Department of Geography & Environment, Marina Alberti - University of
Washington, Urban Design and Planning, Nathan Phillips - Boston University, Department of
Geography & Environment, et al.
Most of our global population and its CO2 emissions can be attributed to urban areas. The
process of urbanization changes terrestrial carbon stocks and fluxes, which, in turn, impact
ecosystem functions and atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The relationships between
urbanization and ecosystem function are governed by complex interactions and feedback
mechanisms between human choices and ecological processes. Most research to date has focused
on urban carbon emissions, or separately on urban vegetation carbon exchange. Thus, we are
currently lacking the empirical data and evidence of mechanisms linking urban patterns and
ecosystem function that are critical to advance urban sustainability efforts. Using the Seattle,
WA and Boston, MA regions as contrasting case studies, this paper explores the relationships
between terrestrial carbon exchange and land cover across urban to rural gradients.
Micrometeorological, biometric, and remote sensing methods are combined to characterize the
relationships between urban land covers and vegetation across gradients of urbanization.
Impact of different mulching type on soil Co2 flux of an urban forest ecosystem, Thomas
Nyatta Legiandenyi, Kamran Abdollahi,Zhu Ning and Asebe Negatu
Southern University A&M College
With increasing concerns over raising concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere,
forest researchers and managers are currently studying the effects of various arboricultural and
urban forest management practices on the carbon dynamics of intensely managed urban forest
ecosystems. Soil CO2 flux resulting from soil microbial activity and root respiration is one of the
major components of the total carbon flux in forested ecosystems. However, the impact of
arboricultural practices such as mulching on the soil respiration remains poorly understood. This
limits our ability to understand the carbon budget at the urban forest ecosystem level, thus
making it uncertain to predict the impact of arboricultural practices on soil respiration and its
feedback. We determined the effects of five different mulch types on the establishment of urban
trees for CO2 flux, plant nutrient uptake, shoot growth and selected soil chemical properties. We
observed the relationship between microbial organisms and soil respiration and its feedback. To
accomplish this study we applied a complete randomized block design and maintained it for two
years. We were applied five different biobased mulch types namely: Pine Bark (PB=A). Mixed
Hardwoods (MH=B), Pine Needles (PN=C), No-Mulch (D), Mixed Oaks (MO=E), and Pine
Bark + Pine Wood (PB+PW=F) on the soil surface in the study plots. We assessed the impact of
the five urban tree-based mulch types on net canopy CO2 uptake of Quercus nuttallii saplings
and their associated soil CO2 fluxes. In the second year we analyzed the soil and nattall oak leafs
for nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, S, B, Al). Soil CO2 flux (μmol CO2/m2/s) and
tree canopy net CO2 uptake by tree saplings were not significantly impacted by pine bark and
pine needle mulch types. Soil CO2 flux fluctuated significantly during the growing season under
different mulch types. The largest increase in soil CO2 flux occurred during the month of May
under the mixed hardwood mulch. Soil CO2 was highly correlated with time under all the mulch
types. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of five different types of mulches
on establishment of urban tree, plant nutrient uptake, shoot growth and selected soil chemical
properties.
Effects of urban development on Garry Oak acorn dispersal processes, Julia Michalak,
Numerous studies have found that increased urban development reduces native species richness
and increases non-native species dominance and abundance. However, few studies demonstrate
how these changes alter ecosystem processes, particularly animal-mediated seed dispersal.
Development is likely to alter animal-mediated seed dispersal through two mechanisms: 1)
changing the composition of the disperser community and 2) restricting disperser movement
between forest patches. Changes to seed dispersal may affect germination and survival because
plant recruitment is higher when seeds are dispersed farther from the parent tree. Animal
dispersal is especially critical for oak trees which have large seeds and as burying acorns
significantly increases survival probability. My research asks: How does landscape context
influence the recruitment processes (seed predation, dispersal and germination) of Garry Oak
(Quercus garryana)? The study system is located in the rapidly developing Southern Puget Sound
region of Washington State. In this region, Garry Oak dispersal species include the state listed
native Western Gray Squirrel, non-native Eastern Gray Squirrel, and native Steller’s Jay (Larsen
and Morgan 1998). These dispersers vary in their mobility (bird vs. mammal) and landscape
preference. EGS may be inferior dispersers as they remove acorn embryos to prolong storage
(Fuchs 2001). The behavioral differences of these dispersal agents suggest that dispersal
processes will vary depending on landscape characteristics. I selected two oak fragments both
located on the Ft Lewis Military Base, one in a developed landscape and the other in a forested
landscape. Within each fragment acorns were arrayed in plots located under three different
canopy types: oak, non-oak forest, and open. Each plot consisted of 10 acorns planted beneath
the soil surface and 10 attached to flags and left on the soil surface. There were six plots per
canopy type per site with a total of 720 acorns used in the study. Flags facilitate acorn relocation
without significantly influencing dispersal behavior or germination (Xiao et al 2006). Both
landscape type and canopy cover influenced seed predation and germination. Seed predation was
highest under non-oak forest canopy and higher at the urban site. Germination was higher under
oak canopy and at the forested site. Differences in germination appear to be driven by differential
seed predation. Garry Oak woodlands are a priority habitat in Washington due to their increasing
rarity and the importance of acorns as food resources for rare and threatened wildlife species.
Policies to protect oaks often result in “islands” of oak fragments within a matrix of developed
land. These policies may be protecting adult oaks but failing to adequately protect regeneration
processes. Understanding how development affects Garry Oak function is therefore important to
informing both oak protection planning and the management of oaks in developed landscapes.
Impacts of current use value property tax policy on land use change decisions in Georgia,
Daowei Zhang and Li Meng, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University
Abstract: Due to economic development and population expansion, land use change, especially
from rural use to developed intensive use, has become an inevitable environmental change of the
twenty-first century. Though driven by maximizing profits or utilities, the final decisions for
landowners on land use conversion are vastly influenced by public policy, market conditions,
and demographics. A variety of studies can be found to analyze the effects of public policies and
government programs on land use conversion; however, few studies attempted to quantify effects
of property tax policy on land use change. Property tax is the primary revenue source for local
government and most public school systems in the United States and the property tax deduction
has been ranked as the top preference for government-sponsored programs for nonindustrial
private forest landowners in the Midwest and as the second top in the Southeast as a tax relief. In
this study, a random parameter logit model is pursued to examine how property taxes influence
land use and land use change decisions in Georgia based on the first-order Markov transition
probabilities between five major land use categories using the panel data of USDA Natural
Resources Inventory (NRI) sample plots. The results demonstrate that property taxes could
significantly influence landowner’s land use decisions, and rural lands will decrease more by
comparing scenarios with or without the current use valuation program.
Conservation democracy: Ecology, democratic theory, and national forest management

under the Healthy Forest Initiative, Andrew George, Curriculum for the Environment and
Ecology, UNC Chapel Hill
National forest management in the United States has traditionally included public participation in
agency decision-making. Under the Bush Administration’s 2002 Healthy Forest Initiative, the
rules governing citizen involvement were substantially modified. A consequence of this was that
the US Forest Service was able to propose more commercial forestry in US National Forests with
less public oversight and environmental review previously mandated by the National
Environmental Policy Act. This combined with other rule changes allowing use in sensitive areas
with “extraordinary circumstances” that were previously off-limits to commercial activity. This
North Carolina case study explores the effects of the Healthy Forest Initiative on citizen
participation and environmental management in the Pisgah, Nantahala, Croatan, and Uwharrie
National Forests.
Ecosystem impacts on human communities
Mainstreaming forest conservation and people well-being - - Hedy I. Nieves and Tania Lopez
University of Puerto Rico
Increasingly, the natural resources conservation literature puts emphasis on relating local needs
to resource conservation and management. This research places forest conservation within the
wider context of people’s lives and needs. The study took place in three different areas in Piuerto
Rico: the forest within and around El Yunque National Forest, the Northern Karst forest and the
urban forest in the Río Piedras Watershed. Structured questionnaires were used to elicit people’s
everyday concerns in order to understand how forest conservation relates to immediate concerns.
In addition, questions were directed to document residents’ knowledge of forest ecosystem
services and drivers of change. The analysis revealed that people do recognize forest benefits and
the negative impacts they are exposed to. However, people find other concerns – such as health
and economic factors – more pressing. These immediate concerns are not independent from
forest conservation and management, as forests are beneficial to human health and provision of
resources. The results suggest mainstreaming forest conservation into the wider context of
people’s general well being. Identifying and promoting forest conservation initiatives that
include and attend people’s everyday concerns could be a way of promoting local participation
and behavioral changes that support forest ecosystem services and their conservation.

Trees are Us, John Murungi, Department of Philosophy, Towson University
The growing interest in ecology and environmental science has heightened our attention to tress
especially our attention to the fact that the future of humanity is inescapably tied to the future of
trees. There is ample evidence to show that this is indeed the case and there is no doubt that more
and more evidence will be produced. It is not entirely my objective in this paper to produce more
evidence to reinforce the evidence that is already available. I do not want to dwell on the
usefulness of trees to us and to other living organisms. My primary objective to make the case
that trees are us. In part, I will do this by deciphering the message that that Billie Holiday, the
African American musician and poet, calls to our attention in her song “Southern Trees”. I will
attempt to bring forth a definition of a tree that coincides with the definition of a human being -a
definition that challenges the tradition understanding of what it is to be a human behind as well
as the tradition of understating what a tree is -the definition that is given to us by botany and
biology, generally. The coincidence of definitions is not accidental. It is a coincidence that
affirms the identity of human beings and trees. Evidently, there will be those who will argue that
this claim is logically absurd. But it is not self-evident that logic is the ultimate or the sole arbiter
of what can be and cannot be said, or what is or what is not. I will try to show how music and
poetry has much to teach us not only about ourselves but also about trees. Even if I am not
successful in this undertaking, at least, I intend to provoke us into thinking who and what we are
as well as what trees are. How we think about ourselves in relation to trees and vice versa
inevitably bears on our destiny. If it is demonstrated that trees us we have an ethical obligation to
treat trees as ethical subjects.
Park Park-Fabric Landscape-Landscape Systems Give Form to Architecture, Sean O.

Surla, American Society of Landscape Architects
How can an understanding of landscape systems give form to architecture? In natural systems
nothing is wasted, everything is interconnected and self-sufficient simultaneously. How can we
model our buildings after nature? Three natural systems are key components to modeling nature:
water, vegetation and energy. The landscapes that we have constructed for cars exemplify the
problems we have ecologically. Cars are major producers of greenhouse gases contributing to
global warming. Highways and parking lots denude the vegetative habitat and lead to excessive
water runoff polluting watersheds. The Park Park project is a mixed use parking facility and
shops which incorporates the natural systems of water, energy and vegetation. Park Park puts the
paradise back into the pavement.
Exploring Decision Making Practices in Sustainable Development Assistance

Organizations: Achieving Environmental Justice in Rural Appalachia, Curt Gervich,
Virginia Tech
Principles of Environmental Justice advocate that stakeholders at grassroots levels must be

included in decision making processes, and have true opportunities to influence decision
outcomes, if justice is to be achieved. Yet, evidence suggests that even within sustainable
development projects lauded for success, grassroots participants are sometimes left out of the
decision making mix. This paper explores the relationships between organic farmers at
grassroots levels and the staff and board members at a sustainable development assistance
organization that aims to support them. In-depth interviews with farmers, staff and board
members illustrate that staff and board members’ attempts to create efficient decision making
processes often result in organizational structures that exclude growers or offer only limited and
symbolic inclusion. The result may be detrimental to participants’ achievement of environmental
and economic success as well as failure to live up to the promise of just sustainable development.
Anthropogenic impacts on ecosystems, ecosystem services and human health along the
urban-rural continuum, Andrew Adam-Bradford, University of Sheffield, UK
Urbanisation and the rapid transition of ‘rural’ to ‘urban’ brings multiple challenges for local
authorities, planners, development practitioners, farmers, and local communities. Some of the
challenges include waste disposal, wastewater treatment, disaster risk reduction (i.e. bushfire,
flood, mudslides), and food security. The risk and severity of these challenges depend not only
on broader geographical location (for example north or south, tropical or temperate, or low,
medium or high income county), but also on the specific location along the urban-rural
continuum. If that continuum is under rapid transition, as in many so called ‘developing
countries’, then such risks and vulnerabilities are likely to be substantially increased.
Anthropogenic impacts to ecosystems, ecosystems services and human health are complex and
multi-dimensional but clear patterns related to industrial location, population distribution,
regional topography, climates, and the type and location of ecosystem services are identifiable.
This paper illustrates a systems planning and design approach for the urban-rural continuum to:
1) Identify health risks and health risk pathways, 2) Develop health risk analysis tools (e.g.
contaminant pathway mapping), and 3) Develop health risk mitigation tools (e.g. land
zoning/crop selection strategies). Data is used from urban and peri-urban case studies including
recent research from China, Ghana, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, Uganda and United Kingdom and
Vietnam, using an interdisciplinary approach. The findings have clear potential for reducing
anthropogenic risk in ecosystems and ecosystem services thus contributing to human health
improvements, reductions in human vulnerability and the building of resilient communities along
the urban-rural continuum.
Economic Development and Flood Reduction in Mobile, Alabama through Mixed-Use Infill
and Sustainable Stormwater Management Practices - - Will Hargrove, Auburn University
This project was a part of an effort to develop ideas for a “Green Streets” campaign in historic,
downtown Mobile, Alabama to reduce the volume of stormwater that reaches the city’s outdated
stormwater infrastructure by implementing sustainable stormwater best management practices, as
well as spur economic development within downtown Mobile. The city’s aging stormwater
system has led to several floods causing monetary damage and making it difficult to navigate
through the city. Several local water bodies have also been listed as contaminated by the EPA.
The particular site I chose to work on is currently being used as a surface parking lot, even
though it is located directly adjacent to a historic park, Bienville Square. The need for an active
use along the edge of the square spurred my decision to reinstate some residential units above
retail establishments including a grocery store, a bookstore, a record store, and a fine dining
restaurant. Also within this site I provided outdoor seating and permeable paving to increase
stormwater infiltration into the soil. To correspond with the three clusters of buildings within the
block, I implemented three rain gardens to capture the first inch of rainfall off of the buildings
(the first inch contains the highest concentration of pollutants). These rain gardens would act as
filters to clean the water before it was released into a storage cistern that city water trucks access
to irrigate existing plantings. The cisterns would have an emergency outflow into existing storm
infrastructure. The process I implored involved a rigorous investigation of existing conditions of
the site and anything adjacent to it. By constructing an existing land use map, I was able to
determine the needs of the mixed-use building and the potential lots available for a parking
garage to eliminate the large amounts of surface lots, reducing the amount of impervious
surfaces in the downtown region. I also illustrated section drawings from existing conditions to
determine spatial qualities for the proposed building and gardens. After a historical investigation
of the sites previous uses, I determined that the successful Cawthon Hotel, was formerly on the
site. This discovery allowed for the placement of a 7-story, multi-story mixed-use retail and
residential building on the corner of the block, across from Bienville Square. In conclusion, this
project used elements of urban design mixed with sustainable stormwater management practices
to provide flood alleviation and spur potentials for economic development. This project is an
example of a site-specific method of addressing stormwater quality and quantity issues, while
providing a livable and pleasant downtown area that enhances the current experience without
taking away from current uses. Through an integration of both ecological and social needs of the
site, I believe that these implementations could have a positive effect on the issues of both
stormwater and downtown activity.
Using Alternative Stormwater Treatment Methods, to Reduce Expenses, Pollution and

Generate Sustainable Practices within Local Municipalities - - Mark H. Curry,
Auburn University
The City of Mobile partnered with Auburn University and Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
Consortium in the fall of 2009 to do a Study of Green Streets within downtown Mobile. From the
study several key problems were identified. One of the major problems was the undersize and
outdated stormwater drainage system. With inadequate revenues and manpower to update the
system to accommodate the surface runoff Auburn Graduate Students in Landscape Architecture
looked for alternative sources to help alleviate the problem. In the study area it was found that
almost all of the surface area was impermeable surface and approximately 65% of that area was
designated to open surface parking lots. In order to identify key locations that would not interfere
with traffic, parades, economic development zones and areas that would allow for maximum
percolation of stormwater, a network analysis model was built in GIS to determine key locations
for design implementations. From the model four key locations was determined, all being open
surface parking lots. After having a design charette with city officials, they oriented our studio
by identifying key areas where they had stormwater issues as well as where they wanted to see
economic development occur in order to help promote tourism. It was also noted that to do this
they wanted to increase local restaurants and bars in the downtown area. In order for this to
happen however, the city needed to reduce its over head in order to make it feasible for local
market business to occur. Through research and design it was determined that in order to help the
city reduce its cost which can in turn reduce the expenses of local business they needed ideas on
how to become more sustainable in their spending. By using ArcGIS, Microsoft Excel and
Google Sketch-up I was able to generate an in depth analysis of ecological, economical and
design techniques to help identify possible solutions to the stormwater problem. From these
techniques the idea of developing Urban Farms to help in the reduction of stormwater runoff was
chosen to explore. The major question is how they could fit into the urban and economic fabric
of the city. The idea behind this is to develop a master plan and design in which the city can
implement community gardens that will allow local restaurants use for produce. This will help
reduce stormwater runoff into the system as well as generate local business for the downtown
district. In order for this idea to come together a historical study of community gardens needs to
be completed. How they work, how they are designed in different climates, and how they can be
economically benefitting to the city and local businesses. In the end the ultimate goal is to
develop a methodology that will allow for municipalities to use Urban Farming to help alleviate
stormwater treatment and increase economic development with local businesses.
Tree inventory and analysis using the UFORE model at a Southeastern U.S. university - -
Nicholas A. Martin, Arthur H. Chappelka, Gary J. Keever, and Edward F. Loewenstein
Auburn University
The UFORE (Urban Forest Effects) model and its methodology have the potential to become the
urban tree inventory standard, presenting a valuable management tool as well as vital and
accurate environmental information. The overall goal of this project was to test the validity of the
model on the Auburn University campus, including validation of certain parameters to examine
its applicability in the southeastern US. A 100 percent tree inventory of the managed areas on the
Auburn University campus was conducted (approximately 571 acres) using an UFORE
compatible inventory. Tree species, height, crown width, percent dieback, and relative health
were recorded for each tree. Preliminary results indicate that there are approximately 7,000 trees
and over 130 species in the managed areas of the Auburn University campus. A 2-person crew
was determined more efficient than a 3-person crew for this type of inventory. The most
common species on campus in descending order were crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia spp.), willow
oak (Quercus phellos), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora),
and overcup oak (Quercus lyrata). The average tree height was 28 feet and the average dbh
(diameter at breast height) was 8.9 inches. Sixty percent of the trees on campus were rated in
good or excellent health. Ongoing analysis is being conducted in cooperation with the USDA
Forest Service-Urban Forestry South in Athens, GA. The inventory is still in progress and should
be completed by June 2010.
Measuring urban forest health and sustainability: Introducing Urban Forest Resources
and Institutions (UFRI), Thurau, Richard G., Sarah K. Mincey, Jacqueline M. Bauer, Tom P.
Evans, Burnell Fischer, and Rinku R. Chowdhury, Indiana University
Understanding the functional properties of complex urban environments requires analysis that
accounts for the dynamic interactions between core subsystems (resource units, resource system,
governance system, and users) of social ecological systems. The Urban Forest Resources and
Institutions (UFRI) framework outlines principles for the systematic accountability of
biophysical, social, and institutional factors, their interactions, and impacts on each other and the
greater spatial extent of an urban forest. The UFRI method uses remotely sensed data,
biophysical sampling, household surveys, and targeted face-to-face interviews to collect holistic
data on urban social ecological systems and resulting urban forest management impacts. This
paper outlines the basic UFRI framework in the context of a pilot study to be conducted in
Bloomington, Indiana, USA. Theoretical underpinnings of this approach, essential research
questions, and methods are introduced here with the goal of receiving feedback and opinions
from the diverse audience usually present within this conference. Ultimately, UFRI provides
guidance through research protocols for measuring variables of urban forest health and
sustainability that are comparable over time and among different locations.
Preferences for trees in residential landscapes in suburban communities, Bin Zheng and
Yaoqi Zhang, Auburn University
This study used visual preference survey (VPS) to explore the public preference to the tree in
single home residential landscape. In total, 365 University students and 191 residents
participated in the evaluation of 14 residential landscapes, which were designed by computer
with various tree characteristics and spatial configuration of trees (the presence of amount of tree
canopy, tree size, shape, amount, location, and neatness) for same home. The participants were
asked to evaluate the scene on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1= least preferred; 5= most preferred).
The results revealed that trees are important in residential landscapes, and people usually prefer
to live in houses with more trees. Large trees with a wide, round canopy also seem to be favored.
Whether the tree is close to the house or far away makes no difference on the preference based
on the results. Although most of our respondents claimed that they love nature and more natural
look residential landscapes, the result suggests that they prefer to live in a clean and well
maintained environment. Different tastes between senior and freshman students are noticed.
Findings also suggest that students majoring in wildlife science prefer more trees than students
majoring in forestry.
Urban forests and carbon flux: Cities as windows into the future, John Hom(1), Nicanor
Saliendra(2), Kenneth Clark(1), Matthew Patterson(1), Nicolas Skowronski(1), Ian Yesilonis(1),
and David Nowak(1), (1) - US Forest Service Northern Research Station, (2) - University of
Maryland, Baltimore County
Carbon flux measurements and carbon dioxide concentrations were taken along an urban to rural
gradient from Baltimore, Maryland, to the New Jersey Pine Barrens. These gradients incorporate
the effects of urban vegetation, CO2 emissions from energy use, the effects of land use, as well
as natural disturbances and forest management in forested lands and in heavily vegetated non-
forest lands. The urban tower in Baltimore is in a mixed deciduous forest, and monitors carbon
flux dynamics and carbon dioxide concentrations in this urban/suburban environment. The three
rural towers in the Pine Barrens have monitored carbon flux under management and disturbance.
Results are presented showing the effects of anthropogenic cycles associated with the work
week, land use, vegetation cover, prescribed burning, defoliation and inter-annual climate
variability. Using an eddy-covariance system, we obtained net ecosystem exchange (NEE)
values stratified according to wind direction from areas of different vegetation cover and land
use composition. Both water flux and carbon flux estimates were closely correlated with the
percent vegetation cover estimated from remote sensing. However, annual net CO2 exchange at
the Baltimore LTER flux site indicated that this urban site was a net source from 2004-2008,
with the largest losses occurring during the winter months, due to high CO2 emissions from
fossil fuel energy use as well as leaf-off conditions of the deciduous tree cover. A seasonal
comparison of the NEE estimates from the urban tower in Baltimore to similar rural forests in the
NJ Pine Barrens, allowed us to estimate the amount contribution from fossil fuel emissions in
comparison to apparent ecosystem respiration. Despite the large emissions signal, the urban
tower showed high C uptake during the growing season due to the high percentage of vegetation
cover surrounding the tower. This research shows the range of C losses that can be expected
across an urban to rural gradient under the influence of anthropogenic emissions, land use, forest
management and natural disturbances. Urban forest benefits and ecological services, primarily
carbon sequestration and energy conservation are discussed.
Increasing canopy cover on single-family residential property in Seattle, Washington - -

Jana Dilley, University of Washington
Across the country, cities are setting goals to increase canopy cover in order to capture the many
environmental, economic and social benefits that urban trees provide. These benefits include
making cities more liveable, reducing the people’s desire to live elsewhere and create sprawl.
Engaging residents to plant trees on single family residential property is critical to meeting
canopy cover goals because single family residential property makes up the largest land use in
most cities. Seattle is no exception – 56% of the city is single family property. Thus the
individual decisions of private landowners have a large influence on urban canopy cover and
health. Urban forestry programs in many cities focus on publically owned parks and right of
ways – zones which in Seattle make up less than 15% of the city. Local governments and
organizations wishing to protect and expand canopy cover need to work closely with
homeowners to foster tree planting and retention. Many cities rely on regulation, which can only
maintain (not increase) single family canopy cover. Little research has been done on how to best
engage homeowners in tree planting and retention through incentive and other non-regulatory
approaches. This research addresses these questions using the community based social marketing
framework. By examining the reasons why homeowners make choices both for and against tree
planting and retention, we can design programs and policies – such as incentive programs and
effective communications strategies – to create and maintain canopy cover on private property.
In a collaborative project between the University of Washington and City of Seattle, 2,400 single
family homeowners were surveyed. Results show that while homeowners are planting trees, they
are planting small trees and not the large trees needed to increase canopy cover and maximize
benefits. Homeowners also intend to plant fewer trees in the future than they have in the past.
Regional differences can be seen in where homeowners are likely to plant in the future. Further
analysis will soon be completed to determine the factors most likely to influence a homeowner’s
decision to plant or retain a tree.
Market for urban forest carbon credits, Neelam C. Poudyal, Jacek P. Siry, and J. M. Bowker,
Warnell School of Forestry, University of Georgia: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research
Station
As rapid urbanization continues, so too are urban forests in the U.S. Urban areas currently
maintain an average tree cover of 27%, and comprise millions of trees along streets and in parks,
riparian buffers, and other public as well as private areas. Studies suggest that there are 4 billion
urban trees and another 70 billion in metropolitan areas nationwide. As urban forest area
continues to grow, trading carbon sequestered in urban trees could offer economic opportunities
for local governments. Similarly, the acquisition of urban forest carbon credits from local cities
can be socially, politically, and environmentally advantageous investments for businesses that
seek to address their own emissions. As little is currently known about how potential buyers and
sellers could engage in trading urban forest carbon credits, this study attempts to fill the gap by
surveying prospective buyers and sellers of carbon credits. Findings indicate that local
governments have interest, and technical as well as managerial capacities to sell carbon credits.
However, they lack essential information regarding market participation. On the other hand,
prospective buyers value carbon credits from urban forestry as more desirable than credits
generated from most other sources. This presentation will discuss perspectives of both the buyers
and the sellers in the context of developing a mechanism for urban forest carbon trading in the
U.S.
RUAF Foundation: The mission and international work of the Resource Centres on Urban
Agriculture and Food Security, The Netherlands - - Andrew Adam-Bradford,
University of Sheffield
The RUAF Foundation is an international network of seven regional resource centres and one
global resource centre on Urban Agriculture and Food Security. In 1996 the international
Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA) took the initiative to set up a Resource Centre on
Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF), in response to the expressed need of
organisations and local governments in the South for effective mechanisms for the
documentation and exchange of research data and practical experiences on urban agriculture. In
the following years RUAF gradually evolved into an international network of regional resource
centres providing training, technical support and policy advice to local and national
governments, producer organizations, NGO’s and other local stakeholders. In March 2005 the
RUAF partners established the RUAF Foundation as their joint administrative body and liaison
office. RUAF focuses its activities mainly in 20 cities, where RUAF closely cooperates with the
local government, producer organisations, NGO’s, universities and private enterprises (source:
www.ruaf.org). RUAF Mission The mission of the RUAF Foundation is “to contribute to urban
poverty reduction, employment generation and food security and to stimulate participatory city
governance and improved urban environmental management, by creating enabling conditions for
empowerment of male and female urban and peri-urban farmers, capacity development of local
authorities and other stakeholders and by facilitating the integration of urban agriculture in
gender-sensitive policies and action programmes of local governments, civic society
organisations and private enterprises with active involvement of the urban farmers, livestock
keepers and other relevant stakeholders” (source: www.ruaf.org). RUAF partners give special
attention to the following themes: • Urban agriculture, local economic development and poverty
alleviation • Urban agriculture, food security and nutrition (also in relation to HIV-AIDS) •
Integration of urban agriculture in land use planning and design • Reuse of urban organic wastes
and wastewater in urban agriculture • Participatory technology development and innovation of
urban farming and marketing systems • Mainstreaming of gender in urban agriculture •
Monitoring of the impacts of urban agriculture policies and programmes (source: www.ruaf.org).
This poster illustrates the work of the RUAF Foundation. In addition, next to the poster is a
selection of RUAF leaflets and literature, including recent book publications and CD films, and
free copies of the international Urban Agriculture Magazine.

Ecological restoration and urban planning: Integrating to end disturbance - - Mary
Roderick, University of Washington
Ecological restoration is a growing field of study designed to holistically assess damage to

ecological integrity, as well as identify scientific, social, economic, and political strategies to
remediate these negative impacts, and reconcile human and broader ecosystem needs. While
significant advancement has been made on the scientific end, other aspects are lagging.
Ecological restoration is promising in its intrinsically inclusive and multi-dimensional approach
to improving environmental quality and providing tangible socio-economic value through
healthy ecosystem services, however for it to truly be effective it must be integrated into
governmental decision-making and action. The poster is a conceptual exploration meant to
inform planners and policy-makers about the relationship of ecosystem health to human
prosperity to drive restoration priorities, about the unavoidable task of ecological restoration and
about how existing planning tools can be used to achieve positive results.
Roof renovations by application of planted material for the purpose of saving energy costs
and storm water recycling, Russ Harrington, College of Architecture, Design and
Construction, Auburn University
The purpose of this project is to introduce a new method of renovation techniques on the
historical buildings on Dauphin Street in Mobile Alabama by retrofitting the roofs of these
buildings by using natural living materials. This also includes the Regions Building parking deck
on St. Joseph’s Street. Mobile, Alabama is city that is in need of updating its stormwater
management practices and is lacking sufficient connections with the city in relation to
viewpoints towards the Bay as well as the rest of the city. This project aims to correct these
problems through stormwater collection, filtration, and reuse as well creating public space on
one of these roofs that generates tax revenue for the city, assembles connections to the city
through viewpoints, as well as with recycling the rain-water for re-use as grey water. This project
is designed to collect and hold rainwater that encounters the roof and filtrate the water with the
plant material. The rainwater would then be drained into a cistern that then pumps the water back
within the building for grey water usage. The implementation of these green roofs also help the
building conserve energy significantly through natural insulation and also help solve certain
ecological problems within the city like urban island heat effect. The green roofs are also
intended to add aesthetic diversity into the urban environment by providing a variety of colors
and textures to the everyday experience of the city’s inhabitants as well as visitors. These
aesthetical attributes are intended to give potential for places of social interaction that can in turn
generate tax revenue back into the city. Green roofs that have been implemented in various areas
within the United States particularly in Seattle, Portland, and Washington D.C. have proved to
conserve energy through the added natural insulation up to approximately 30 – 40%. Through
the reuse of the water that is collected on these roofs, water costs can be reduced up to 90%,
conserving water both through reduced water needs as well as sewer costs. The project at hand
aims to accomplish these same statistics at maximum efficiency while also providing desirable
place for public interaction that can in turn generate income back into the municipality through
tax revenue. Since green roofs are useful in decreasing the urban heat island effect in urban
settings this project aims to decrease the average temperature in the City of Mobile by 5 to 10
degrees. This discussion of green roof renovations on existing historical buildings will outline
necessary elements of green roof construction as well the following benefits of it’s
implementation economically as well as ecologically. The goal of this project is to inform the
city officials from the City of Mobile of the successfulness and the beneficial elements of green
roofs that can hopefully create a template for future development in different urban areas
throughout the United States.
Status report on efforts to manage and eradicate large constrictors in Florida, Christina
Romagosa and Graig Guyer, Auburn University
The live animal trade is an important pathway for the introduction of non-indigenous species.
Over the past 30 years, the use of reptiles and amphibians as companion animals has increased,
and as a consequence, resulted in an increase of introductions into the wild. Of current interest to
government agencies and the public is the establishment of breeding populations of large
constrictor snakes in Florida. While key data have been collected on the Burmese python in the
Everglades, there are still several unanswered question about its habits, and those of other large
constrictor species that have breeding populations and are periodically encountered in both
natural and urban Florida habitats. We review the status of these species and discuss ongoing
early detection, rapid response efforts and future research on the creation of habitat suitability
models.

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PROCEEDINGS

EMERGING ISSUES ALONG URBAN/RURAL

April 11-14, 2010

Auburn University Center for Forest Sustainability

USDA Forest Service

Auburn University Forest Policy Center

Auburn University School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-1

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-2

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- David N. Laband...........................................................................................................2

INTRODUCTION -- B. Graeme Lockaby .................................................................................................................... 3

Pedestrian Street Design, Revitalization of Dauphin Street Downtown, Mobile, Alabama

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-4

Stormwater Management in Dauphin Street Area, Mobile, Alabama --

Southern Appalachia on the Edge -- Ted L. Gragson ................................................................................................ 145

Characterizing Ecosystem Health in Fragmented Northeastern Forests -- Stella J.M. Cousins,

An assessment of Illinois Conservation Opportunity Areas: Stakeholders' Perspectives on Conservation

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-5

Metabolism of Boston -- Lucy Hutyra, Nathan Phillips, et al. .................................................................................. 155

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-6

Riparian Buffer Demonstrations: Promoting Protection of Waterways -- K. Cunningham, C. Stuhlinger,

Regional Governance of Natural Resources: Emerging Rural-Urban Interactions in Newfoundland

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-7

Impact of Urbanization on Water Quality in Northern Georgia -- Jun Tu ................................................................. 187

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-8

Trees are Us -- John Murungi .................................................................................................................................... 191

Exploring Decision Making Practices in Sustainable Development Assistance Organizations: Achieving

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-9

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-10

Introduction Problem Statement

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-11

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-12

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-13

Having ostensibly begun as a private-use

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-14

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-15

Cadenasso, M. L., S. T. A. Pickett, K. C. Kindon, S., R. Pain & M. Kesby. 2007.

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-16

Sznajder, M., L. Przezborska & F. Scrimgeour.

Travis, W. R. 2007. New geographies of the

US Census, B. 2009. State and County Quick

Walker, P. & L. Fortmann (2003) Whose

Walker, P. A. (2003) Reconsidering 'regional'

Woods, M. 2005. Rural geography: processes,

Zimmerer, K. S. & T. J. Bassett. 2003.

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-17

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-18

Using the UFORE model

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-19

City land use zones

Residential’ land use zone contained far more

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-20

greatest land use area, 9961 ha, and only a

Auburn University, the first land-grant

Loblolly pine, sweetgum and water oak are

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-21

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-22

United Nations, Department of Economic

US Census Bureau. 1995. Urban and Rural

The authors gratefully thank James Ransom,

Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces III-23

Ecosystem Decline & Science Response Puget Sound Context