GENERAL PHYSICS REVIEWER

Equilibrium
a condition where an object or system of objects are balanced

Conditions of Equilibrium
1. a.) The algebraic sum of horizontal forces is zero
Fh=0
b.) The algebraic sum of vertical forces is zero
Fv=0
2. The algebraic sum of torque at any point of rotation is zero
=0

1st Condition of Equilibrium

Application of Newton’s Law of Motion

With a box sitting on a flat, frictionless surface, we can see two forces acting on the
box. The downward force being the box’s weight and the upward force is the
reaction to the downward force- the Normal Force (Newton’s Third Law of
Motion).

Weight (W)

Normal Force (N)

With the box on a frictionless inclined plane, the direction of the weight remains
downward but the normal force is always perpendicular to the plane.

Weight (W)

Normal Force (N)

If the box is hung from a ceiling by a rope, the direction of the weight is still
downwards, but this time the reacting force is the Tension from the rope.

Tension (T)

Weight (W)

Sample Problems:
1. A box has a mass of 10 kg and is hung from a ceiling by a rope. What is the
Tension of the rope?

STEP 1: Identify the given variables

 m = 10kg
 g = 9.8m/s2

STEP 2: Draw a free body diagram of the situation

T =?

W = mg

STEP 3: Identify the unknown variable

 T=?

STEP 4: Find the necessary values to solve for the unknown variable

To solve for W, we’ll use the formula W= mg

 W = (10kg)(9.8m/s2)
W = 98kg.m/s2 or 98N
STEP 5: Solve for the unknown variable

Using the First Condition of Equilibrium:

1. b.) The algebraic sum of vertical forces is zero (Fvertical=0)

We can use the equation:

 T–W=0
 T=0+W

Note that Weight (W) is negative in the summation of vertical forces to indicate that
it is a downward force
Substituting the values:

 T = 0 + 98N

FINAL ANSWER: T = 98N

Alternate solution:

Since Tension (T) is the reaction force to Weight (W), using Newton’s Third Law of
Motion, we can conclude that T = W.

Since W = T, and W= 98N, we can conclude that

FINAL ANSWER: T = 98N

2nd Condition of Equilibrium

Formula:

*=0

 Torque () = product of force and lever arm

 Lever Arm = perpendicular distance from the point of rotation to the line
of action of the force

Sample Problems:
1. Two boys of mass 42kg and 28kg are on opposite ends of a 2.1m seesaw.
Where should a 14 kg girl sit to balance the seesaw?
STEP 1: Identify the given variables
 m1 = 42kg
 d1 = 1.05
 m2 = 28kg
 d2 = 1.05
 length (seesaw) = 2.1m
 m3 = 14kg

STEP 2: Draw a free body diagram of the situation

M3 = 14kg
m1 = 42kg M2 = 28kg

Length = 2.1m

STEP 3: Identify the unknown variable

 d3 = ?

STEP 4: Find the necessary values to solve for the unknown variable

To solve for the Torque of each child on the seesaw, we’ll use the formula
= Wd, since Torque is the product of force (in this case the weight) and
the lever arm (in this case the distance of a child from the fulcrum).

First we’ll compute for the weight of each children

 W1 = mg
W1 = (42kg)(9.8m/s2)
W1 = 411.6 N
 W2 = mg
W2 = (28kg)(9.8m/s2)
W2 = 274.4 N
 W3 = mg
W3 = (14kg)(9.8m/s2)
W3 = 137.2 N

Now we’ll compute for the torque of all forces on the fulcrum and equate
their summation to zero as stated by the Second Condition of
Equilibrium.
  = [(W1)(d1)] + [(W2)(d2)] +[(W3)(d3)] + [(Wf)(df)]
= -[(411.6N)(1.05m)] + [(274.4N)(1.05m)] +[(137.2N)(d3)] + [(Wf)(0m)]
0 = -[(411.6N)(1.05m)] + [(274.4N)(1.05m)] +[(137.2N)(d3)] + [(Wf)(0m)]

Note that the fulcrum also applies a force on the seesaw (Normal Force)
but since it is our point of reference, its lever arm is 0m.

Note that in torque, a clockwise rotation in respect to the point of

reference is positive in value while a counterclockwise rotation would be
negative which is why Torque1 (the boy with 42kg mass) has a negative
torque.

STEP 5: Solve for the unknown variable

Using the last equation

 0 = -[(411.6N)(1.05m)] + [(274.4N)(1.05m)] +[(137.2N)(d3)] + [(Wf)(0m)]
0 = -432.18J + 288.12J + (137.2N)(d3) + 0J
432.18J – 288.12J = 137.2N (d3)
144.06J = 137.2N (d3)
d3 = 144.06J/ 137.2N

FINAL ANSWER: d3 = 1.05m

Friction
-the interlocking of two surfaces in contact.

Types of Friction:
1. Kinetic Friction – friction in motion
2. Static Friction – friction at rest

Kinds of Friction:
1. Sliding Friction - friction that acts on bodies when sliding over a surface.
2. Rolling Friction - friction that acts on bodies when rolling over a surface.
3. Fluid Friction - friction that acts on bodies that are moving through a fluid.
A fluid is a substance that can flow and take the shape of its container
(includes liquids and gases).

*Notes*
1. Static Friction is always greater than Kinetic Friction
 2. Frictional Force is proportional to the Normal Force
3. Friction does not depend on the area of the surfaces in contact
4. Friction depends on the kind of the surfaces in contact

Formula:

*f=N
Where:
 f= Force of Friction
 = Coefficient of Friction
 N = Normal Force

Sample Problems:
1. A horizontal force of 21N is applied to a 42kg coffin at rest. If the said
horizontal force is not enough to move the coffin, what is the coefficient of
the static friction?

STEP 1: Identify the given variables

 F= 21N
 m= 42kg
 a= 0m/s2

STEP 2: Draw a free body diagram of the situation

W= mg

F= 21N f=  N
*m= 42kg

STEP 3: Identify the unknown variable

N= W
 = ?

STEP 4: Find the necessary values to solve for the unknown variable

 f=N or =f/N

To solve for N, we must first solve for Weight (W).

Note that W is also a force, hence its formula, according to Newton’s Second
Law of Motion, is F=ma or W=mg where g is acceleration due to gravity
(9.8m/s2).

W= (42kg)(9.8m/s2)
W= 411.6 kg.m/s2 or 411.6N
 According to Newton’s Third Law of Motion every action has an equal and
opposite reaction. With Weight (W) as the action and Normal Force (N) as the
reaction, we can conclude that W=N

N= 411.6N

To solve for f, we need to consider all forces acting on the coffin to compute for
the Net Force (Fnet) and use Newton’s second Law of Motion (F=ma).

 Fnet = ma

Since W and N cancel out each other, the remaining forces on the object are the
21N Force applied and friction which are opposite in directions. Therefore:

 Fnet= Force Applied - friction

Substituting to the first equation, we’ll get:

 Force Applied (F) – friction (f) = ma

Now solve using the given values

 21N – f = (42kg)(0m/s2)
f = 0 – 21N
f = -21N or 21N to the left

Note that the negative sign means that friction is going to the left or opposite to
the direction of the force applied.

STEP 5: Solve for the unknown variable

 =f/N
= 21N/ 411.6N

FINAL ANSWER: = 0.05

2. A box weighing 27N is pulled along a horizontal surface using a string which
is held horizontally. If the coefficient of friction is 0.23 and the box
accelerated 0.28m/s2, What is the tension in the string?

STEP 1: Identify the given variables

 W= 27N
 N= 27N
 = 0.23
 a= 0.28m/s2
STEP 2: Draw a free body diagram of the situation

W= 27N
T=?

f=N

N= 27N

STEP 3: Identify the unknown variable

 T= ?

STEP 4: Find the necessary values to solve for the unknown variable

To solve for T, we need to consider all forces acting on the box to compute for
the Net Force (Fnet) and use Newton’s second Law of Motion (F=ma).

 Fnet = ma

Since W and N cancel out each other, the remaining forces on the object are the
Tension and friction which are opposite in directions. Therefore:

 Fnet= Tension - friction

Substituting to the first equation, we’ll get:

 Tension (T) – friction (f) = ma

To solve for friction (f), we’ll use the formula f=N. Using the given values:

 f = (0.23)(27N)
f = 6.21N

To solve for mass (m), we’ll use the formula W=mg.

 W = mg or m= W/g

Using the given values:

 m = (27 kg.m/s2)/(9.8 m/s2)

m = 2.76 kg

STEP 5: Solve for the unknown variable

 T – f = ma or T= ma + f
 T= (2.76 kg)(0.28m/s2) + 6.21 N

FINAL ANSWER: T= 6.98 N

Work Done
( by a constant Force)

-is the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a
distance by an external force, at least part of which, is applied in the direction of the
displacement.

Formula:

W = Fd.cos

Where:
 W = Work done
 F = Force
 d = displacement
  = angle between displacement and Force

Sample Problems:
3. A 21 kg box slides a 5m distance along a horizontal surface. If the coefficient
of the kinetic friction is 0.42, what is the work done by friction?

STEP 1: Identify the given variables

 d= 5m
 m= 21kg
  = 0.42
  = 180
STEP 2: Draw a free body diagram of the situation

W= mg

d= 5m f=  N
*m= 21kg

N= W

STEP 3: Identify the unknown variable

  Wf = ?

STEP 4: Find the necessary values to solve for the unknown variable

 Wf = fd.cos

To solve for f, we’ll need to find Normal Force (N) and then use the formula
f = N.

 W=N
 W = mg
W = (21kg)(9.8m/s2)
W = 205.8N

N = 205.8N

Now substitute the values

 f = N.
f = (0.42)(205.8N)
f = 86.44N

STEP 5: Solve for the unknown variable

 Wf = fd.cos
 Wf = (86.44N)(5m).cos(180)

Note that  = 180 because the direction of the force of friction is to the left, while
the displacement is to the right, therefore if drawn in a Cartesian Plane as vectors,
the vectors will have a 180 degree angle between them.

FINAL ANSWER: Wf = -432.2 N.m or -432.2 Joules (J)

Kinetic Energy and Work Energy Theorem

Kinetic Energy – energy of an object by virtue of its motion

 
Formula:

*KE = ½ mv2

Where: KE = Kinetic Energy

m = mass
v = velocity

Unit of Enrgy = Joule or Newton-meter (kg.m2/s2)

Energy – is the capacity to do work

Work – Energy Theorem

Formula:

*WT = KE
= KEf - KEi
= ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2

Where:
WT = Total Work done
KE = Change in Kinetic Energy
KEf = final Kinetic Energy
KEi = initial Kinetic Energy
m = mass
vf = final Velocity
vi = initial Velocity

Gravitational Potential Energy

- energy of an object by virtue of its position

Formula:
 *PE = mgh

Where:
PE = Gravitational Potential Energy
m = mass
g = 9.8m/s2
h = vertical distance of an object from a reference mark

Note that Gravitational Potential Energy is positive if the object is above the
reference mark; negative if above it.

The Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies in a

system. The principle of the conservation of mechanical energy states that the total
mechanical energy in a system (i.e., the sum of the potential plus kinetic energies)
remains constant as long as the only forces acting are conservative forces.

PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2

If forces are non-conservative force then the mechanical energy will change in a
system

Power
Power – The rate at which work is done. It’s the work/time ratio.
P=W/t
 Another formula for power is force x velocity.
P = W/t
P= (F * d)/t
P= F * d/t = F * v
P=Fv

The unit of Power is Watt. Sometimes Horsepower is also used as the unit of
power

What is 1 kilowatt – hour in joules?

1kW – hr = 1000W – hr
1000 W – hr * 3600 s/hr
= 3.6 x 106 W – s or 3.6 x 106 J

Momentum
Linear momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity. In
symbol, this is expressed as

p=mv

where: p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity

The SI unit of momentum is kilogram-meters per second (kg-m/s)

Momentum is a vector quantity having the same direction as the velocity.

Like velocity, it can be resolved into rectangular components: px = mvx and py =
mvy. The equation
p = mv expresses the momentum of a single object or particle. For a system more
than one particle, the total momentum of the system is the vector sum of the
momenta (plural of momentum) of the individual particle:
 Ptotal = p1 + p2 + p3 + … + pn

The change in momentum of a particle is equal to the difference between

its momentum before and after colliding to another particle. This is expressed as

∆p = pfinal - pinitial
Illustrative Example 7.1:
A loaded transport truck with a mass of 38,000 kg is travelling at 1.20 m/s.
What will be the velocity of a 1400-kg car if it has the same momentum?

Solution:
Ptruck = (38,000kg) (1.20 m/s)
Ptruck = 45,600 kg-m/s

Pcar = (1,400 kg) vcar

Since the momentum of the car is equal to that of the truck,

45,600 kg-m/s = (1,400 kg) vcar

vcar = 32.57 m/s

Illustrative Example 7.2:

Two balls, 0.20kg and 0.30kg approach each other with speeds 15 m/s and 10
m/s, respectively. What is the total momentum of the system before colliding?

Solution:
PT = p1 + p2 = (0.20 kg) (15m/s) + (0.30kg)(-10m/s)
PT = 0 kg-m/s

Illustrative Example 7.3:

 A 0.50-kg ball hits a wall moving horizontally to the left at 8 m/s and
rebounds horizontally to the right at 5 m/s. What is the change in momentum of the
ball?

Solution:

Just as you learned to do with vectors where signs give directions, (toward right-
positive, left-negative),

∆p = pfinal - pinitial = mvf - mvi

= (0.50 kg) (5 m/s) - (0.50 kg)(-8 m/s)
∆p = 6.5 kg-m/s

1.2 Impulse
What causes an object’s momentum to change? Force must be involved.
Force is needed to stop or start a car. The length of time that the force acts also
affects the change in momentum. These two quantities, the force and the time the
force acts, determine the impulse of the force.

Impulse is the product of the force and the time interval which the force acts
on the object. In symbol, this expressed as,

J = F∆t

where: J = impulse
F = force
∆t = time interval

The SI unit of impulse is Newton-second (N.s), also equivalent to kg.m/s.

1.3 Impulse-Momentum Theorem

When two objects collide, they exert force on each other (an application of
Newton’s Third Law of Motion). So, when a car has a head-on collision with
another vehicle, the car stops almost instantaneously. If the driver has not buckled
up and there are no air bags, he keeps moving until acted on by external force
(Newton’s 1st Law). This force is supplied by steering wheel. To minimize injuries,
air bags and seat belts were invented. Why air bags and seat belts? What is the role
of impulse and momentum in this case? Impulse maybe manipulated to reduce
force. How?

Let us first derive an equation relating the impulse of a force and the change
in momentum of an object on which the force acts. This can be derived from
Newton’s Second Law of Motion (F = ma) and kinematics equations.

F = ma
v v f  v i
From kinematics equation, a  
t t

 v f  vi 
F  ma  m 

 t 

Ft  m v f  v i 
Ft  mv f  mv i

Since p = mv, then the equation becomes

Ft  p f  p i

F∆t = ∆p
F∆t = J

Therefore,
J = ∆p ________ This is the impulse-momentum equation.
 So, how do we manipulate impulse to reduce force? If there is a fixed change
of momentum in a situation, the force can be reduced by making ∆t longer. From
the impulse-momentum equation J = ∆p, and using J = F∆t,

J = ∆p
F∆t = ∆p
Then,
p
F
t

So if ∆t is larger, F becomes smaller.

You can minimize impulse force on some occasions. For example, when
jumping from a height onto a hard surface, you try to land stiff-legged. The abrupt
stop (∆t) would apply a large force to your leg bones and joints and could cause
injury. If you bend your knees as you land, the impulse is the same, but by doing so,
the time interval (∆t) is increased, making the impulse force smaller.

Illustrative Example 7.5:

A force of 30,000 N is exerted for 4.00 s, on a 95,000 kg mass.
a) What is the impulse of the force for this 4.00 s?
b) What is the mass's change in momentum from this impulse?

Solution:
a) J = F∆t = 30,000N(4.00 s) = 120,000N.s
b) J = ∆p
∆p = 120,000 N.s = 120,000kg.m/s

Conservation of Linear Momentum

 For a collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated
system, the total momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to
the total momentum of the two objects after the collision. That is, the
momentum lost by object 1 is equal to the momentum gained by object 2.

Ptinitial = Ptfinal

P = momentum , t = time

 Elastic collisions – Object 1 and object 2 goes in opposite

direction after collision (Momentum is conserved, Velocity is
conserved)
 Inelastic collisions - Object 1 and object 2 goes in same
direction after collision (Momentum is conserved, Velocity is
not conserved)

ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Angular Velocity
∆𝜃 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖
𝜔= =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
Where ϴ is the angular displacement
Instantaneous
𝑑𝜃 Δ𝜃
𝜔 = = lim
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 →0 Δ𝑡
S.I. UNIT for Angular Speed
1 rad/sec.
or
1 rpm (1 rev/ min.)
or
1 rad/min.
or
1 rev/sec.
Angular Acceleration
Δ𝜔 𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
𝛼 = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
Where 𝜔 is the Angular Speed
S.I. UNIT for Angular Acceleration
1 rad / 𝒔𝟐
FORMULAS
1. 𝝎𝒇 = 𝝎𝒊 + 𝜶𝒕
𝟏
2. 𝜽𝒇 = 𝜽𝒊 + 𝝎𝒊 + 𝝎𝒇 𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
3. 𝜽𝒇 = 𝜽𝒊 + 𝝎𝒊 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝜶𝒕
4. 𝝎𝒇 𝟐 = 𝝎𝒊 𝟐 + 𝟐𝜶 (𝜽𝒇 − 𝜽𝒊 )
Torque
The quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause or change a body’s
rotational motion.
𝝉 = 𝒓 ×𝑭
Where F is the force
l is the distance of force from the fixed point of rotation
or
𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋
Where 𝝋 is the angle of the applied force

RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCES (Torque)

𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝒏
Where 𝑹 is the resultant of all forces acting on a rigid body.
𝜏
𝑙 =
𝑅
Where 𝜏 is the summation of Torque acting on the rigid body
𝝉 = 𝒓𝟏 × 𝑭𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 × 𝑭𝟐 + ⋯ + (𝒓𝒏 × 𝑭𝒏 )

STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
First Condition of Equilibrium
For an extended body, the center of mass of the body has zero acceleration if the
vector sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero.
𝐹 =0
Second Condition of Equilibrium
For an extended body to be in equilibrium, the body must have no tendency to
rotate (𝝉 )
𝝉 =0
The sum of torques due to all external forces acting on the body, with respect to
any specified point, must be zero.
COLLISION
1. Elastic Collision
𝐾𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐾𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
2. Inelastic Collision
𝐾𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 > 𝐾𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
3. Perfectly Inelastic Collision
Two objects stick together after the collision. Produce one final velocity.
CENTER OF GRAVITY (cg)
A point where the entire force of gravity (weight) is concentrated.
CENTER OF MASS (cm)
 If 𝑔 has the same value at all points on a body, its center of gravity is identical to
its center of mass.

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)

Restitution – Returning something that is lost
𝑉2′ + 𝑉2
𝑒 =
𝑉1 + 𝑉1′

For bouncing ball:

𝜈′
𝑒 =
𝜈
Or
𝑕′
𝑒 =
𝑕
for
𝜈 = 2𝑔𝑕
Where 𝜈 is the Velocity of the ball
h is the height
g is the gravity constant
e is the Coefficient of Restitution