Driving Safely With Automotive Radar Systems

21/1/2020 Driving Safely with Automotive Radar Systems | Microwaves & RF
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TECHNOLOGIES > SYSTEMS
Driving Safely with Automotive Radar Systems

Radar sensors that detect objects 360 degrees around a vehicle are important
components in increasingly advanced vehicular electronic safety systems.
Jack Browne
OCT 17, 2019
Automotive electronic devices are making driving safer, with or without a hand on the
steering wheel. Application of a technology long associated with the battlefield—radar—
within modern advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) is helping to warn drivers of
potential accidents by electronically looking ahead, behind, and around corners. Thanks
to advanced mixed-signal semiconductors, such automotive radars can be built affordably
and reliably into compact modules, taking advantage of available frequency spectrum at
24 and 77 GHz to become part of safer driving experiences.
https://www.mwrf.com/technologies/systems/article/21849983/driving-safely-with-automotive-radar-systems 1/13
Radar is just one component within ADAS, but an important ingredient in modern
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vehicular electronic safety support solutions. Other such systems include light detection
and ranging (LiDAR) sensors, infrared (IR) sensors for night-vision systems, ultrasonic
sensors for parking assistance and reverse warnings, high-definition (HD) cameras for
lane-departure warnings, and parking-assist cameras.
Within an ADAS, a high-power central processing unit (CPU) or field-programmable gate

array (FPGA) works with the data from the different sensors to provide vehicle-control
corrections, such as collision warning and avoidance to prevent a vehicle from
accelerating into the vehicle ahead of it or a pedestrian in front of it. When equipped with
enough information and a suitable vehicle-control architecture, an ADAS can form the
core of an autonomous “self-driving” vehicle, a much more advanced version of the “cruise
control” systems offered as options in commercial vehicles starting in the early 1960s.
Three types of radar are incorporated within an ADAS-equipped vehicle: short-range

radar (SRR) for detecting objects about 1 to 20 m from a vehicle, including for blind-spot
detection (BSD) and lane-change assistance (LCA); medium-range radar (MRR) for
detection of objects from 1 to 60 m; and long-range radar (LRR) for detecting objects at
distances to 250 m.
Automotive radar sensors are mounted for detection of objects to the front, rear, and sides
of a vehicle (Fig. 1). Both pulse-Doppler and continuous-wave frequency-modulated
continuous-wave (FMCW) radar technologies can serve ADAS applications at 24 or 77
GHz, although 24-GHz systems are being phased out by 2022 in favor of 77-GHz
automotive radar systems. With wavelengths that are one-third the size of 24-GHz
systems, 77-GHz radars make it possible to use smaller antennas and other components
while still achieving greater detection range with higher resolution than 24-GHz systems.
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1. Multiple radar sensors will be part of rapidly advancing vehicular electronic safety
systems, which will also include cameras and optical sensors. (Courtesy of Texas
Instruments)
Pulse-Doppler radar architectures follow a traditional pulsed radar approach, in which a

short pulse with high peak power is transmitted across an area of interest for a short
period of time—the pulse repetition interval (PRI). These are half-duplex systems in which
the receiver is activated after pulses are transmitted and the transmitter is shut off. The
receiver measures the time of arrival (TOA) or the time for pulses reflecting off a target to
return. The delay of these echo pulses provides insight into the distance of the target from
the radar transmitter.
By knowing the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) and coherently measuring the phase
shifts of multiple pulses, it’s possible to determine the relative velocity of an illuminated
object. Pulse-Doppler radars can detect targets over long distances and with high
resolution using a single antenna to transmit and receive. However, they require high
peak transmit power. Because of the “blind zone” in detection that occurs when switching
between transmit and receive modes, pulse-Doppler radars are better suited for long-
range applications (where there’s some recovery time) rather than medium- or short-
range applications.
FMCW Radar
An alternative approach to pulse-Doppler radar is the use of FMCW methods for

automotive radars. Such approaches transmit and receive continuously with signals that
change frequency with time when swept across a portion of frequency bandwidth. The CW
signals emitted by these systems are known as “chirps,” with frequency increasing linearly
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with time. A radar chirp can be characterized by its start frequency, bandwidth, and
duration. The rate at which the chirp increases in frequency is its slope, such as 10 MHz/s.
In an FMCW radar system, separate antennas are used to prevent transmitted signals
from interfering with the radar receiver’s reception of echo signals.
By combining the transmitted chirp with received echo signals in an RF/microwave

frequency mixer, an intermediate-frequency (IF) signal will result that’s the difference
between the transmitted and echo signals. With no change in frequency between the
transmitted and received signals fed to a frequency mixer, the resulting difference or IF
signal would be zero.
But, because the reflected signals exhibit some delays in their time of flight compared to
the emitted chirps, there’s a change in frequency of the reflected chirps. The IF represents
that change in frequency as a function of distance to an object causing the reflection: the
IF increases as the target moves further from the radar transmitter. By processing the IF
signals via a high-speed analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and other digital hardware and
software, it’s possible to determine the distance and velocity of the objects reflecting the
chirps back to the receiver.
The performance of different components within an FMCW radar system contribute to the
overall system performance. The sensitivity of the radar receiver, for example, will
determine the maximum detection range for a given FMCW radar transmit power level,
which is aided by transmit antenna gain. Receive antenna gain will also work with receiver
sensitivity to help determine maximum radar detection range. Since the IF signal’s
frequency is related to maximum detection range, the capability to process higher IFs will
also make possible longer maximum detection ranges. An ADC with high sampling rates
that can process high IFs will support an FMCW radar system with long detection range.
The frequency of an FMCW radar isn’t critical in establishing its target resolution or
capability to differentiate closely located objects. Rather, it’s the bandwidth of a swept-
frequency chirp that determines radar resolution, with wider bandwidths enabling higher
resolution. Since phase is more sensitive than frequency to changes in a target’s position,
the use of phase rather than frequency in the analysis of FMCW radar returns can provide
much higher resolution when differentiating multiple objects or targets. High resolution is
possible by using the cosine of the phase difference between the radiated signal and the
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echo signal to determine target range and position.
Detecting objects moving at high velocities, such as high-speed traffic, requires radar
system measurements made with closely spaced chirps. A frame is a series of multiple,
equally spaced chirps that’s used to measure the velocities of two or more objects at the
same distance from the radar but moving at different speeds. The radar’s capability to
resolve the velocities of the different objects is inversely proportional to the frame time.
Beamwidth is another important radar performance parameter, with signal beams formed
by two or more transmit antennas per radar system. Beamwidth combined with radar
range determines a vehicular radar system’s field of view, or how far and wide it can
detect objects beyond the vehicle.
Measured in angular degrees for each system, the 3-dB beamwidth differs for each type of
radar. LRRs have the narrowest beamwidths while SRRs, detecting objects close to a
vehicle (e.g., parking assistance), have the widest beamwidths, as measured in both
azimuth and elevation. Multiple receive antennas are also important in a vehicular radar
system, for angle-of-arrival (AoA) measurements of detected objects. The spacing between
the antennas determines the maximum field of view for detecting reflected signals, with
the spacing set as a fraction of wavelength, such as ƛ/2 or ƛ/4, and the spacing growing
smaller with increasing frequency. This allows for smaller radar system components at
higher frequencies.
Higher in Frequency
Since bandwidth is a critical requirement for radar systems, and available unlicensed
frequency spectrum is limited at already occupied lower frequencies, vehicular radar
systems are designed for use beyond the traditional 2- to 18-GHz range of military radar
systems at 24 and 77 GHz.
These higher frequencies with their short wavelengths actually suffer less propagation
losses due to rainfall and dust than lower frequencies with their longer wavelengths.
Furthermore, the short wavelengths enable the use of automotive radar components, such
as radar sensors/transceivers and antennas, with smaller dimensions for ease of mounting
and concealment in a vehicle. For vehicular applications, the smaller wavelengths at 77
GHz are also more resistant to the effects of vibration in a moving vehicle than at 24 GHz,
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which helps with detection accuracy.
In need of bandwidth for both narrowband (NB) and ultrawideband (UWB) automotive
radar applications, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the late 1990s and
early 2000s initially denoted frequency spectrum centered around 24 and 77 GHz for
automotive radar systems in the U.S. The 24-GHz band contains a NB segment with 250-
MHz of unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bandwidth from 24.00 to
24.25 GHz; the UWB segment contains 5 GHz of bandwidth from 21.5 to 26.5 GHz.
Still, the need existed for a more unified international vehicular radar frequency operating
range. With international groups such as the European Union (EU) and the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) already targeting 77 GHz for automotive
radar use, the 77-GHz band was also set aside by the FCC for vehicular and other radar
applications, such as fixed and mobile airport radar for foreign object detection (FOD).
Such applications, because of their potential to act as interference for vehicular radars,
were not permitted outside of airport areas, though.
The 77-GHz band actually includes portions of a total 5-GHz bandwidth from 76 to 81
GHz. LRR occupies 600 MHz within the 76- to 77-GHz range, MRR operates within a
600-MHz bandwidth from 77 to 81 GHz, and swept-frequency SRR applications have
access to the total 4-GHz bandwidth from 77 to 81 GHz.
Compared to 24 GHz, vehicular radars at 77 GHz offer longer-range object detection with
high resolution for LRRs, and they have enough bandwidth to support high resolution for
SRRs. An SRR with 1-GHz bandwidth from 76 to 77 GHz provides about 0.5-m resolution
while an SRR with 4-GHz bandwidth from 77 to 81 GHz offers about 0.1-m resolution.
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2. Radar transceivers/sensors are moving to 77 GHz, with devices available from many
suppliers in chip form or as full-featured modules, such as the one shown here. (Courtesy
of NXP Semiconductors)
The availability of such wide bandwidth at 77 GHz, as well as changes being made by
regulatory agencies like the FCC for the use of bandwidth at 24 GHz, have encouraged
vehicular radar component manufacturers to move from 24 GHz to 77 GHz (Fig. 2). The
24-GHz frequency range is not available for UWB (5-GHz bandwidth) radar applications
beyond 2022 as mandated by the FCC for the U.S., only for NB (250-MHz bandwidth
from 24.00 to 24.25 GHz) radar applications such as LRR systems.
The high costs of fabricating miniature components at mmWave frequencies (30 to 300
GHz) has traditionally limited their use to military and aerospace applications. But
improvements in semiconductor and monolithic-microwave-integrated-circuit (MMIC)
technologies, using silicon-germanium (SiGe) substrates for BiCMOS and RFCMOS
processes that enable integration of mixed-signal mmWave and digital-signal-processing
(DSP) components, along with advances in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
devices, have made miniature 77-GHz radar sensors practical enough for use in most new
vehicles (Fig. 3).
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3. This chip-sized radar IC is an example of how miniaturized these systems are

becoming. (Courtesy of NXP Semiconductors)
Simulation Plays a Key Role
Modeling software and mmWave test equipment are important tools in effectively
applying radar sensors within an ADAS vehicular application. Modern electromagnetic
(EM) simulation software provides the means to model antennas, beamforming networks,
and other active and passive components used in all three types of vehicular radars. It also
offers a way to study signal propagation at 24 and 77 GHz under different modeled
operating conditions. Such analysis can be useful in developing the different algorithms
required by a vehicular CPU for “sensor fusion” or combining different data from the
various sensors within an ADAS-equipped automobile.
For example, radar sensors that function as part of a vehicle coordinate system (VCS)
detect the range, speed, and azimuth of other vehicles, relying on the precise alignment of
the radar sensors within the vehicle performing the measurements. By performing an
alignment procedure, any misalignment angle can be calculated based on the radar
sensor’s position on the vehicle, the speed of the vehicle, and the pointing angle of the
radar.
Reducing measurement time as much as possible will be instrumental in bringing

affordable ADAS vehicles to market. In the U.S., radar-equipped vehicles will be subject to
FCC Part 95 rules and regulations for certification, calling for an extensive series of
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measurements on RF/microwave performance and emissions levels. Fortunately,

RF/microwave test equipment, including test signal sources and analyzers, have been
steadily moving higher in frequency over the last several decades. Thus, they now provide
the means to generate and analyze both pulsed and chirped mmWave signals to 81 GHz
and beyond (as might be needed for harmonic and spurious signal detection).
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TECHNOLOGIES > SYSTEMS
What’s the Difference Between RMS and Peak Watts?

Root mean square (RMS) and peak power ratings are basic power-handling terms. If
you’re looking to build a high-performance entertainment system, you should
understand exactly what they represent.
David M. Foster
JAN 17, 2020
In the consumer electronics world, you will often hear about watts, power handling, and
power output. The terms are used interchangeably to refer to two values, that is, root
mean square (RMS) and peak power rating. Power rating is among the essential factors
that contribute to an ideal sound system. It is, therefore, important to know what these
two values refer to whether you’re searching for speakers, amplifiers, or subwoofers.
When looking to build a high-performance entertainment system, most people tend to

shop for audio and sound equipment based on the one that has the highest power rating.
However, this may prove difficult for starters who don't understand the difference
between RMS and peak watts. Also, some may choose to ignore the ratings and go for
brands, but this will affect the final outcome in one way or another.
So, if you’re going to spend your hard cash on a surround-sound speaker, subwoofer, or
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even an amplifier, you'll need to have basic information on power ratings. This
comprehensive guide will help you understand these two values to assist in you
assembling a decent sound system.
RMS Watts Explained
Root mean square or simply RMS watts refers to continuous power handling of a speaker
or a subwoofer or how much continuous power an amplifier can output. RMS values are
usually lower than peak watts ratings, but they represent what a unit is truly capable of
handling. Think of RMS power as the average power that a speaker can handle on a daily
basis without compromising sound quality or experiencing any distortion.
Peak Watts Explained
The peak power handling is the highest power level that a speaker or a subwoofer can
handle in a short burst without blowing. The same holds for amplifiers as the absolute
highest amount of power they can put out before failing or without resulting in distortion.
We can think of peak watts as the number atop of your car's speedometer. For example,
you can drive for maybe 180km/h, but you can't sustain that speed for long without
causing mechanical or thermal damage to the car. In the same way, the peak power level
can only be maintained for a fraction of a second, although there’s no clear definition of
how long.
If the unit is subjected to constant peak power, the wires may overheat, which could
quickly damage the voice coils.
RMS Power vs. Peak Power
When shopping around, you'll notice that some manufacturers rate their products' power-
handling capabilities using either the peak watts rating or RMS rating, while most use
both values. For example, a unit can be rated at 150 W while another brand may be
advertised at 75 W.
At first glance, one might be tempted to think that the former is better because it’s rated at
a higher power level than the latter. However, upon a closer look, you may notice that the
first product is rated for peak watts while the second one is advertising RMS watts.
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Typically, a unit’s peak power handling is double the RMS power handling, which
basically means that the above products are actually rated the same: 150 W peak/75 W
RMS.
Most audio equipment manufacturers, though, prefer to stress more on the peak power
rating to make the products look like they deliver more power than they’re capable of.
While this may sound convincing, utilizing peak power not only disturbs your neighbors,
but also makes your sound equipment depreciate in value, requiring you to replace some
parts or buy a new unit altogether. As such, if you want to your speaker to last for years,
the figure to look out for is the RMS wattage, the power input at which you should be
enjoying your music.
However, when it comes to these technical details, don't get confused by speaker power
ratings and amplifier specifications. Amplifiers generate power in an audio system, which
is not the case with speakers and subwoofers. Therefore, speaker power ratings refer to
the amount of power your speakers can handle from an amplifier. The specifications on
the amp, on the other hand, refer to how much power it can produce for maximum audio
performance.
Conclusion
Both RMS and peak watts play an important role in your sound system, and they’re vital
when comparing your speakers with amplifiers or subwoofers. When matching speakers
or subwoofers to amplifiers, you should compare either two RMS values or two peak
ratings.
Therefore, one should not get confused when comparing peak and RMS ratings. This will
ensure that you'll get the best out of each component. If the power outputs aren’t correctly
matched, the components can overheat and create a couple of other issues. However, it’s
important to stress that you should always use RMS ratings—not peak wattage—when
matching and comparing gear.
David M. Foster is Head of Content at SpeakerChampion.
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21/1/2020 Driving Safely with Automotive Radar Systems | Microwaves & RF

TECHNOLOGIES > SYSTEMS

Driving Safely with Automotive Radar Systems

Within an ADAS, a high-power central processing unit (CPU) or field-programmable gate

Three types of radar are incorporated within an ADAS-equipped vehicle: short-range

Pulse-Doppler radar architectures follow a traditional pulsed radar approach, in which a

An alternative approach to pulse-Doppler radar is the use of FMCW methods for

By combining the transmitted chirp with received echo signals in an RF/microwave

echo signal to determine target range and position.

3. This chip-sized radar IC is an example of how miniaturized these systems are

Simulation Plays a Key Role

Reducing measurement time as much as possible will be instrumental in bringing

measurements on RF/microwave performance and emissions levels. Fortunately,

Low-Power 12-bit ADC for 5G, Radar Boosts Sampling Rate

Algorithms to Antenna: Generating Waveforms for Wireless and Radar Systems

Overcome mmWave Automotive Radar Testing Challenges

Test & Measurement

Sign up for Microwaves & RF eNewsletters

Email address SIGN UP

TECHNOLOGIES > SYSTEMS

What’s the Difference Between RMS and Peak Watts?

When looking to build a high-performance entertainment system, most people tend to

RMS Watts Explained

Peak Watts Explained

RMS Power vs. Peak Power

David M. Foster is Head of Content at SpeakerChampion.

Algorithms to Antenna: Classifying Radar Micro-Doppler Signatures

Taking a Closer Look at MIMO Radio Systems

Demystify Integrated-Phase-Deviation Results In Phase-Noise Measurements

Test & Measurement - analyzers

Load More Content

About Us Contact Us Advertise Privacy & Cookie Policy Terms of Service

© 2020 Endeavor Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved.

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