Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the review of the related literature and studies from

books, unpublished studies, journals and websites which are relevant to the

present study and considered as a frame of reference. Articles and these related

to the area of investigations here in present in order to give clear and concise

understanding of the nature of this study,

According to Jamie, A., (2016), as water molecules pass through the

membrane, the difference in solute concentrations in the water will cause

molecules from the “fresh water” side to pass rapidly to the salt water side,

increasing the pressure turns the turbines of a generator and produces electricity.

The Difference in salinity between freshwater and saltwater holds promise as a

large source of renewable energy. Energy is required to desalinate water, and

running the process in reverse can generate energy. Now a novel approach

based on a conventional battery design that uses nanomaterials could provide a

way to harvest that energy economically. Mckenna, P. (2011). According to

Perles, K., (2011), This Science project will explore the components of a battery,

specifically how the conductivity of the solution in the battery affects how much

electricity it generates. Make a saltwater solution by mixing a small jar of water

with a teaspoon of salt. If you’d like, you can make a line graph showing the

relationship between the amount of salt in the water and the current that flows

between the two electrodes. In the research of David, I., (2017). Pure water is not

very conductive and only a tiny bit of current can move through the water. When
salt or sodium chloride (NaCl) is dissolved in it, however, the salt molecules split

into two pieces, a sodium ion and a chlorine ion. The sodium ion is missing an

electron, which gives it a positive charge. The chlorine ion has an n extra

electron, giving it a negative charge. According to Shakhashiri, B., (2020). Pure

water does not conduct electricity very well. However, when certain substances

are dissolved in water, the solution does conduct electricity. You can make a

simple device that shows how well a solution conducts electricity. This device

uses a flashlight bulb to indicate how well the solution conducts electricity. The

better the solution conducts electricity, the brighter the bulb will glow.

Toppr (2019), stated that “a galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell. It is

used to supply electric current by making the transfer of electrons through a

redox reaction”. According to Ori (2017), “saltwater strengthens water ability to

conduct electricity. When a electromagnet is placed, near saltwater is conductive

properties. The saltwater then create an opposing magnetic field that creates

turbulence. Water is diamagnetic, which means that it exerts a weak magnetic

field, and repels other magnetic field. If a magnet is suspended over water, the

water’s diamagnetism will repel the magnet, it weakens the water’s magnetic field

further, so that it ceased to have any significant effect on other magnetic fields.

However, saltwater conducts electricity better than non-saltwater, so magnet

placed near that can cause significant turbulence in the water. The addition of

salt lessens water’s diamagnetic properties. In addition, salt raises the freezing

point and lower the boiling point of water. Salt also strengthens the waters ability

to conduct electricity. Due to these effects, magnets do not affect saltwater the
same way that they do regular water”. A physicist named Mike,W. (2014), stated

that “there's no real contradiction between the tendency of water to be attracted

by electric fields and (weakly) repelled by magnetic fields. Think of the two

physical situations. The electric field may come from some unbalanced charge in

some region. The magnetic field may come from a completely neutral region in

which the positive and negative charges are moving opposite ways. There's no

logical reason why these different physical situations should have to produce the

same effect on the water. Still, even viewed by itself, the diamagnetism is

interesting. If you were to picture water as made up of little magnetic dipoles (sort

of like how you can picture water as made up of little molecular electric dipoles)

then you'd expect it to be attracted to magnetic fields just by analogy to how it's

attracted to electric fields. That analogy would be good even if electricity and

magnetism had nothing to do with each other. So that tells us that a classical

picture of water as made up of fixed magnetic dipoles has problems. In fact, the

diamagnetism is a purely quantum mechanical effect, not describable in these

classical terms”. Bear (2017) claimed that “saltwater is made up of sodium

chloride (NaCl) and water. When salt added to water, the sodium and chloride

ions float freely in the water. Since ion has an electric charge, it can carry

electricity through water. If a circuit is created with an electricity source and a

light bulb, it is possible to light the bulb using saltwater as a conductor”. In

research of Ramirez,J. et al. (2010), his students build a saltwater circuit, which

is an electrical circuit that uses saltwater as part of the circuit. His students

investigate the conductivity of saltwater, and developed an understanding of how

the amount of saltwater in a solution impact, how much electrical current flows

through the circuit. He concluded that the saltwater is a good conductor of

electricity because it is an electrolyte solution. Substances such as salt, acids

and hydroxides that also are electrolyte; it can also conduct electric current.

Saltwater is a mixture that consists of water and sodium Chloride. A study

conducted from Stanford University in 2019 publicized that “salt is power” which

salty water and fresh water mingle could provide a massive source of renewable

power. A researcher named Fukuzumi (2016) found out that the negativity

charged chlorine in saltwater is mainly responsible for enhancing the photo

catalytic activity and yielding the higher concentration. Overall, the system has a

total solar to electricity efficiency of 0.28%.Seawater into hydrogen peroxide,

which can then be used in fuel cells to generate electricity. It is the first photo

catalytic method of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production that achieves a high

enough efficiency so that the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be used in a fuel

cell. “Saltwater batteries are making a splash in the world right now or rather,

since they are completely sealed, they haven’t splashed at all. But the good news

is if they made did splash you it would not be a problem, as the liquid inside is

simply saltwater. They are almost certainly the safest battery around. Although

their low toxicity does not make them the most environmentally friendly battery”

claimed by Brakels (2016). One article stated that “saltwater molecules are made

of sodium ions and chlorine ions. When you put salt in water, the water

molecules pull the sodium and chlorine ions apart so they are floating freely.

Those ions are what carry electricity through water. Just like in solar distillation
projects, to get fresh water out of saltwater and them use saltwater circuit to test

the water that distilled. Fresh water won’t conduct electricity as well as saltwater”.

An article written by Groms,H. (2018) accentuated that the salt containing

electrolyte has to be liquid, but at the same time it is has to be so highly

concentrated experiments, there were two researchers who used the special salt

sodium (FSI). This salt is extremely soluble in water: 7g of sodium FSI and 1g of

water can produce a clean saline solution. With this liquid, all water molecules

are grouped around the positively charged sodium cations in a hydrate shell.

Hardly any unbound water molecules are present. Gear,N. (2018), illustrated that

there is a free energy 100% from saltwater, free energy light bulb using saltwater

and magnets simple free energetically experiment using saltwater and magnet

that produce electricity. He demonstrated how to make a free energy light bulbs

by using saltwater with magnets. Blueford,J. et al. (2013), emphasized that when

a salt, like sodium chloride (table salt) is dissolved in water, the sodium and

chloride separate temporarily. The sodium atom will become a negatively

charged ion. An ion is an atom or group of atoms that that has a negative or

positive electric charged. A professor in Maryland University, Borghino,D. (2015)

asserted that “ scientist at the University of Maryland and US Army Research

Laboratory have used high concentration of salt in water to create safe, green

batteries that could find use in anything from large-scale grid storage to

spaceships and peace markets. The scientists started from the idea of a

saltwater batteries but, using carefully selected Lithium salts, took the concept to

the extreme and built a water based electrolyte with a salt to water ratio of six to
one. The high concentration of salt, near saturation level, meant that an SEI

could form, raising the maximum voltage for such a battery from 1.23V to 3V”. In

article written by Lavares,N, (2015) reported that there is a Filipina named Aisa

Mijeno came up the idea for salt after spending time with the native Filipino

Tribes relying on Kerosene lamps to perform everyday tasks after dark. She is

looking to replace this hazardous light source with something the archipelago of

the Philippines has in abundance: saltwater. The salt LED lamp relies on

galvanic cell battery, in which the electrolyte solution consists purely of saltwater.

With many experiments conducted Walker,K. (2015), concluded that the lamp’s

electrode can last for up to a year depending on how many hours a day the lamp

is used. The natural elements that power the lamp mean that it’s a completely

safe alternative to oil lamps, which are often the cause of household fires in the

Philippines. For the Philippines, the salt lamp is a reliable light source in the third

most natural disaster prone country in the world. His idea for the salt lamp

occurred to him when he spent time with Butbut Tribes in the Philippines, who

were in need of a sustainable and eco-friendly lamp for people living without

access to electricity. Larvas,N. (2015), claimed that the electrodes that carry the

charge won’t last forever. The lamp can be used for eight hours a day for around

six months before the anode needs replacing. Professor of Environmental

Engineering Logan,B. (2012), he implied that (RED) -- which produces electricity

directly from the salinity gradient between salty and fresh water. RED stacks

extract energy from the ionic difference between fresh water and salt water. A

stack consists of alternating ion exchange membranes -- positive and negative --

with each RED membrane pair contributing additively to the electrical output.

Unfortunately, using only RED stacks to produce electricity is difficult because a

large number of membranes is required when using water at the electrodes, due

to the need for water electrolysis. One article from Lumen Candela (2013)

claimed that there are two commonly used methods of electrolysis involve molten

sodium chloride and aqueous sodium chloride. When an electrolysis cell for

molten sodium chloride occur a commercial electrolysis cell for the production of

metallic sodium and chlorine gas from molten NaCl. Liquid sodium floats to the

top of the melt above the cathode and is drained off into a storage tank. Chlorine

gas bubbles out of the melt above the anode. Then the sodium ions migrate to

the cathode, where electrons enter the melt and are reduced to sodium metal,

followed by chloride ions migrate the other way, toward the anode. They give up

their electrons to the anode and are oxidized to chlorine gas. The overall reaction

is the breakdown of sodium chloride into its elements. University of Milan-

Bicocca physicist Brogioli,D. (2009), introduced to the world a device that gleans

usable energy from the mixing of salty and fresh waters. Extracting clean, fresh

water from salty water requires energy. The reverse process mixing fresh water

and salty water releases energy. He began exploring the idea of extracting

energy from mixing fresh and salty waters, a process known as salination. He

developed a new approach to salination, a prototype cell that relies on two

chunks of activated carbon, a porous carbon commonly used for water and air

filtration. Once he jump starts the cell with electric power, all that is required to

produce electricity are sources of fresh and salty water and a pump to keep the
water flowing. When the separate streams of salty and fresh water mix, energy is

released. A typical cell would require about of activated carbon, and, given a

steady flow of water, the cell could produce enough electricity to meet the needs

of a small house. It's the equivalent, in hydroelectric power, of running your

appliances from a personal 100 meter (338 feet) high waterfall. Salination would

be an ideal technique for places where fresh and salty waters naturally mix, such

as estuaries, according to him. He said that a coastal community of about a

hundred houses could set up a plant with minimal damage to the ecosystem. "A

salinity difference plant will be much smaller than a solar plant," he said. The only

waste product is slightly brackish water that can be poured directly into the sea

or, he suggested, into ponds that support estuary-friendly flora and fauna.

Instead of using fresh water, an increasingly scarce global resource, “a salinity

power plant could use water that is polluted or slightly contaminated with salt,

giving new life to unusable water”, he said. Seawater could also be mixed with

high-salinity water, obtained by evaporating seawater perfect for a desert

community with little fresh water but sunshine to spare. He maintains that his

salinity cell could be ramped up faster than other salination approaches and

could be made as affordable as solar power in a decade or so. He argues that

any new renewable energy source is worth looking into, even if it is only a partial

solution to our energy and environmental problems. Roland,D. et al. (2012)

admitted that a reverse electro dialysis allows for the capture of energy from

salinity gradients between salt and fresh waters, but potential applications are

currently limited to coastal areas and the need for a large number of membrane
pairs. Using salt solutions that could be continuously regenerated with waste

heat (≥40°C) and conventional technologies would allow much wider applications

of salinity-gradient power production. They used reverse electro dialysis ion-

exchange membrane stacks in microbial reverse-electro dialysis cells to

efficiently capture salinity-gradient energy from ammonium bicarbonate salt

solutions. The maximum power density using acetate reached 5.6 watts per

square meter of cathode surface area, which was five times that produced

without the dialysis stack, and 3.0 ± 0.05 watts per square meter with domestic

wastewater. Maximum energy recovery with acetate reached 30 ± 0.5%.

Jesus,C. (2016) a researcher who believed that instead of harvesting hydrogen

from pure water, turns seawater into hydrogen peroxide. Gaseous hydrogen

production from pure water has a lower solar energy conversion and is much

harder to store, whereas he noted, then found out that H2O2 can be produced as

an aqueous solution from water and O2 in the air.

An article wrote by Luveva,M. (2015) reported that Salt LED lamp can provide

light in the most remote places using only a glass of salt water. Salt (Sustainable

Alternative Lighting) lamp, which runs on water and salt (or saltwater from the

sea). Developed by the enthusiastic engineer and Greenpeace volunteer- Aisa

Mijeno, Salt is particularly designed to help people in remote areas, where deadly

kerosene lamps burn all night long. Salt LED lamp relies on a galvanic cell

battery, which contains salty water, and two electrodes. Because of the simplicity

of the gadget, it can provide only up to eight hours of light, and the anodes will
need to be replaced every six months. It all might seem like a relatively short

time-spam, however in remote areas, it will save lives.

The researcher De Jesus,G. (2019), discovered that if a coated anode with

layers that were rich in negative charges, the layers repelled chloride and slowed

down the decay of the underlying metal. A layered nickel-iron hydroxide on top of

nickel sulfide, which covers a nickel foam core. The nickel foam acts as a

conductor – transporting electricity from the power source – and the nickel-iron

hydroxide sparks the electrolysis, separating water into oxygen and hydrogen.

During electrolysis, the nickel sulfide evolves into a negatively charged layer that

protects the anode. Just as the negative ends of two magnets push against one

another, the negatively charged layer repels chloride and prevents it from

reaching the core metal.

According to Raphael (2015) the saltwater powered lamp is earned the salt lamp.

The salt or (sustainable alternative lighting) company put up by the siblings to

pursue the mass production of the lamp and the development of saltwater power

generation technology.

the idea behind the Salt lamp is the chemical conversion of energy. It utilizes the

scientific process behind the Galvanic cell, but instead of electrolytes, the Salt

lamp uses saline solution, making it harmless and non-toxic. Compared with

kerosene lamp, the Salt lamp is also a lot safer, these organizations aid in the

purchase and distribution of the Salt lamps to remote communities where

electricity is scarce, or worse, not available.

According to Chenkman (2009) Brogioli has developed a new approach to

salination, a prototype cell that relies on two chunks of activated carbon, a

porous carbon commonly used for water and air filtration. Once he jump starts

the cell with electric power, all that is required to produce electricity are sources

of fresh and salty water and a pump to keep the water flowing. When the

separate streams of salty and fresh water mix, energy is released.

A device that gleans usable energy from the mixing of salty and fresh waters has

been developed by University of Milan-Bicocca physicist Doriano Brogioli. If

scaled up, the technology could potentially power coastal homes, though some

scientists caution that such an idea might not be realistic. Extracting clean, fresh

water from salty water requires energy. The reverse process—mixing fresh water

and salty water—releases energy. Physicists began exploring the idea of

extracting energy from mixing fresh and salty waters, a process known as

salination, in the 1970s. They found that the energy released by the world’s

freshwater rivers as they flowed into salty oceans was comparable to "each river

in the world ending at its mouth in a waterfall 225 meters [739 feet] high,"

according to a 1974 research paper in the journal Science. But those who have

chased the salination dream have collided with technological barriers.

According to Srinkanth (2011) By adding ordinary table salt to distilled water, it

becomes an electrolyte solution that can conduct electricity.

They believe that saltwater could be the best economical energy source for

homes and factories. “We could build saltwater power plants alongside our
nation’s long coastlines to produce electricity with much less harm to the

environment,” they emphasized.

They explained the details of the experiment. “The electrolysis method was used

to produce the electricity from saltwater. Water is comprised of two elements –

hydrogen and oxygen. Distilled water is pure and free of salts; thus it is a very

poor conductor of electricity. By adding ordinary table salt to distilled water, it

becomes an electrolyte solution that can conduct electricity.”

According to Balter (2018) Saltwater can serve as the electrolyte in a battery,

generating electricity. A battery has three parts: an electrolyte and two

electrodes, electrolyte is a one of various substances in the fluid of your body

that control how your body processes waste and absorbs vitamins, minerals, etc.,

which are made of different materials, often metals.

Therefore, According to Boneta (2020) If a machine is constructed to rotate a

magnetic field around a set of stationary wire coils with the turning of a shalf, AC

voltage or Alternating current will be produced across the wire coils as the

rotated in accordance with FARADAY's Law of electromagnetic induction. That

law is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will

interact with an electronic circuit to produced an electromotive force a

phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction.

According to Edinformatics (1999) Moving a coil across a magnetic field will

produced a current. That's why it is called electromagnetic induction. The

direction of the current depends on how the coil is moved. And the current

produced is called the induced current. Induced current is the current produced
by change in magnetic flux. According to Faraday's Law, when there is change in

magnetic flux over wire, then a current is produced in the wire, such current is

called induced current or producing current by induction.

According to Sparknotes (2019) The key to gathering the electron flow is to

separate the oxidation and reduction half’s reactions, oxidation means the

process or result of oxidizing or being oxidized, while reduction is the act of

making something smaller in size, amount, number, etc., the act of reducing

something, connecting by a wire so that electrons must flow through that wire.

Revision Science said in (NA) That the process a chemical change and make

new chemicals.

According to Shyam (2010) Electrolysis method was used to produce the

electricity from saltwater, water comprised of two elements - hydrogen and

oxygen. Hydrogen is a chemical element that has no color or smell and that is

the simplest, ligates, and most common element. And also oxygen is a chemical

that is found in the air, that has no color, taste, or smell and that is necessary for

life, Therefore, distilled water is pure and free of salt: thus is a very poor conduct

electricity. By adding ordinary table salt to distilled water, it becomes a electrolyte

solution that conduct electricity.

In the Research of Vis, P. (2018), a light-dependent resistor (LDR) provides a

switching signal to a transistor to control a load. Simple transistor circuits with

LDR are very common and used in many applications such as a night light and

emergency lighting. The transistor may directly control power to an LED or bulb,
or may drive a relay. There many useful applications for transistor circuits with

LDR. You can make a night switch where the light automatically switches ON

when it gets dark, alternatively, an independent emergency light system that

automatically switches ON when the main lights fail.

An article wrote by Agarwal, T.,(2014), Light Activated Switch is a simple

electrical project circuit by which we can switch on and off the electrical load

appliances like lights, fans, coolers, air conditioners, street lights, etc.,

automatically based on the day-light intensity instead of manually operating the

switches. By using this method, manpower can be reduced to a great extent. In

case of the street lights erected on highways it is not an easy task to manually

control them, but, if uncontrolled, the chances of power wastage would increase.

To get rid of this situation, the implementation of automatic light switch by using a

light sensor that switches lights automatically on and off is the best option.

According to Storr, W., (2020), A Light Sensor generates an output signal

indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that exists in a

very narrow range of frequencies basically called “light”, and which ranges in

frequency from “Infra-red” to “Visible” up to “Ultraviolet” light spectrum. The light

sensor is a passive devices that convert this “light energy” whether visible or in

the infra-red parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors

are more commonly known as “Photoelectric Devices” or “Photo Sensors”

because the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).

Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which

generate electricity when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives

etc, and those which change their electrical properties in some way such as

Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors. This leads to the following classification of

devices.

In the Article Poole, I., (2020), of it is relatively easy to understand the basics of

how an LDR works without delving into complicated explanations. It is first

necessary to understand that an electrical current consists of the movement of

electrons within a material. Good conductors have a large number of free

electrons that can drift in a given direction under the action of a potential

difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and

therefore it is hard to make the them move and hence a current to flow. An LDR

or photoresistor is made any semiconductor material with a high resistance. It

has a high resistance because there are very few electrons that are free and able

to move - the vast majority of the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and

unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance. As light

falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor

lattice and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some

of them sufficient energy to break free from the crystal lattice so that they can

then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering of the resistance of the

semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance. The process is

progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more

electrons are released to conduct electricity and the resistance falls further. LDRs

are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their light

sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one popular material for
these photoresistors is cadmium sulphide, CdS, although the use of these cells is

now restricted in Europe because of environmental issues with the use of

cadmium. Similarly cadmium CdSe is also restricted. Other materials that can be

used include lead sulphide, PbS and indium antimonide, InSb.

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