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Introduction
I will overview first the different purification techniques and their principles of
operation. In the subsequent part some more detail in each purification work on all
three types of the drugs will be discussed. After that I will conclude with ideal and
suitable limits in purity degree.
Purification strategies
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Table1:
Working on reaction volumes of between 2-5 liters usually requires the use of
pilot-plant equipment. Many purification techniques are not practical when dealing
with large quantities of material. In general the most useful methods of purification
that can be applied to large quantities of material are recrystallization for solids,
and distillation or steam distillation for liquids. Chromatography should be avoided
if possible since it becomes a very expensive operation on large scale, but if it is
necessary, then medium pressure liquid chromatography (mplc) is the method of
choice.
The usual technique is to pass the solution, cold or hot, through a fluted filter
paper in a conical glass funnel. It is used to remove particulate impurities from liquids
or to collect insoluble or crystalline solids, which crystallize, from solution. When the
solid particles are too fine to be collected on a filter funnel because filtration is
extremely slow, separation by centrifugation should be used.
The separation may simply be regarded as due to the different amount of time
different solute stay within the liquid phase that is entrapped by the matrix. This time
is of course related to the fraction of the pores that is accessible to the solute. The
interpretation of this fraction in terms of pore dimension and gel structure, together
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with various expressions for solute size, results in slightly different equations for
relating the distribution coefficient to the size of the solute.
Table 2 :
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There are often times when quite difficult separations need to be performed on
a fairly large scale. Even if the mixture will separate by flash chromatography, it may
be prohibitively expensive, especially if it is a step, which needs to be carried out
routinely. This is one occasion when mplc is very useful. The resolution of mplc is
somewhat better than flash chromatography, but another important feature is that the
columns are reused many times, thus avoiding the expense of throwing away large
quantities of silica.8
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20 um silica is more effective for difficult separations but there is a lot to be said for
sticking for only one, or perhaps two types of silica and becoming familiar with their
characteristics. In most cases getting a good separation is simply a matter of choosing
the appropriate size of column and the correct solvent. Other solid phases can also be
used on a mplc system alumina, ion exchange resin, Sephadex.8
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The basis for the IEC process is the competitive binding of ions of one kind, in
our case proteins, for ions of another kind, for example other proteins or salt ions of
the same charge, to an oppositely charged chromatographic medium, the ion
exchanger. The interaction between the proteins and the ion exchanger depends on
several factors: net charge and surface charge distribution of the protein; the ionic
strength and the nature of the particular ions in the solvent; pH, or strictly speaking in
the proton activity; and other additives to the solvent, such as organic solvents etc. It
is clear that the more highly charged a protein is, the more strongly it will bind to a
given, oppositely charged ion exchanger. Similarly, more highly charged ion
exchangers, i.e. those with a higher degree of substitution with charged groups, bind
proteins more effectively than weakly charged ones. Conditions, for example pH,
which alter the effective charge on either the protein or the ion exchanger will affect
their interaction and may be used to influence the ion exchange process. The term
strong and weak ion exchanger derive from the pKa’s of their charged groups and do
not say anything about the strength with which they bind proteins. At pH’s far from
the pKa, binding will be equally strong to either a weak or a strong ion exchanger.
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substances, that promote the dissociation of the complex without destroying the active
compound at the same time.
Table 3 :
Ligand Counterligand
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The most commonly used procedure for the purification of a solid material by
crystallization from a solution involves the following steps: 6
(a) The impure material is dissolved in a suitable solvent, by shaking or vigorous
stirring, at or near the boiling point, to form a near-saturated solution.
(b) The hot solution is filtered to remove any insoluble particles.
(c) It is then allowed to cool so that the dissolved substance crystallizes out. The rate
of cooling has to be controlled to obtain the crystal size desired. Fast cooling will
cause the generation of many nuclei, producing a large number of small crystals
rather than the growth in size of those already formed. Also, fast cooling will
cause inclusion of by-products in the crystals.7
(d) The crystals are separated from the mother liquor, either by centrifuging or by
filtering, under suction, etc. Usually, centrifuging is much to be preferred because
of the much greater ease and efficiency of separating crystals and mother liquor,
and also because of the saving of time and effort, particularly when very small
crystals are formed or when there is entrainment of solvent.7
(e) They are washed free of mother liquor with a little fresh cold solvent, then dried.
Crystallization for purification should be carried out only as a last step. The
crystallization process gives a yield of about 90% at best. A 10% yield loss is quite
high. Of course, the material in the mother liquor can be purified with additional
processing which are much more quantitative such as extraction or chromatography. 7
During the cultivation process, the cells either secrete the desired protein into
the culture medium or the product accumulates in the cells. In either case, the first
step of the purification procedure is the separation of cells and cell debris. This is
achieved by centrifugation or microfiltration techniques. The efficacy of this step is
influenced by the viability of the cells and by the medium composition. The product-
containing fraction (either by culture broth or a crude cell extract) is then concentrated
by ultrafiltration or diafiltration, precipitation, high-affinity absorption or extraction
steps, which reduce the volume and prepare the material for the chromatographic
steps used for the final product purification.3 This diagram overviews a generalized
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Fermentation
freeze-drying
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silica gel
+
chromatography
2-aminoaldehyde diols (white solid) bromoacetate (white solid)
precipitation
/ filtration
silica gel
chromatography filtration
diamine (white solid) compound X (white solid) epoxide (white solid)
distillation
silica gel
chromatography
resin compound compound XXXIIIa Ritonavir
Hydrophobic distillation
Interaction chromatography
Affinity chromatography
filtration
RITONAVIR
(final product)
CRYSTALLIZATION
The purification steps presented in the above plant scale synthesis are designed
in a modulate fashion, but the full processes are listed in the section of designing plant
(Kanathip’s report). In the full processes, informations from the patent 10 number
5846987 and simulation of superpro program are documented. In general, however,
industry tends to avoid hydrophobic and affinity chromatography even they are
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conceptually the best method to specify and separate Ritonavir from other organic
molecules which has the same molecular property. (Affinity chromatography will use
protease enzyme to coat in the column, then pass the solution through, if it contains
Ritonavir after eluting you will get it and use mass spectroscopy to define again, MW
is approximately 720). Because both are very expensive and complicated, it is not
practical in making protease enzyme in the plant scale level.
To elute out the product from chromatography, we adjust pH, change ionic
strength (isocratic or gradient), use another more potent hydrophobic interaction or
other potent substrate analogue.
Figure 1 shows result of the simulation on Superpro designer for base case of
308 kg/batch. Noted that the reaction 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 contribute to less than 10% but
the reaction 3, 6, 8 and 9 contribute to more than 90% of total equipment cost for
purification in base case as seen in Figure 1.
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18000000
16000000
14000000
12000000 77 kg/batch
154 kg/batch
10000000
308 kg/batch
8000000
618 kg/batch
6000000 928 kg/batch
4000000
2000000
0
rxn3 rxn6 rxn8 rxn9
reaction
When we compare the equipment cost for purification to the total capital cost
you can obviously see from Figure 3 that when the throughput increases, the
equipment cost for purification and total fixed cost also increase. But the rate of
increase of both costs is not the same, as the total fixed cost is increasing sharper than
purification cost suggesting that the higher throughput, the less equipment cost for
purification you have to invest compared to the total equipment cost.
70000000
60000000
50000000
40000000
30000000
20000000
10000000
0
77 kg/batch 154 kg/batch 308 kg/batch 618kg/batch 928 kg/batch
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Conclusion
Things that should be looked into more detail are the time necessary to carry
out each purification step and the variation of product yield. For example, the cost of
operating the plant will go up if each step takes a long time. Reaction 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7
contribute to less than 10% whereas reaction 3, 6, 8 and 9 contribute to more than
90% of total equipment cost for purification. Sensitivity analysis states that reaction 3
and 6 dramatically increase in total equipment cost for purification when throughput
increases. But the reaction 8 and 9 are not too much sensitive when throughput
increase. In case of different throughput , it can be suggested that the more you
produce, the less you invest for purification operation.
References
6. Perrin DD., Armarego WLF. and Perrin DR. Purification of laboratory Chemicals.
2nd ed. : Pergamon Press. 1980.
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7. White HL. Introduction to industrial chemistry : John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1986.
8. Leonard J., Lygo B. and Procter G. Advanced practical organic chemistry. 2 nd ed.
Blackie academic & Professional. 1996.
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