Elimination of DC and Harmonic Components to

Enhance Reliability of Transformer Differential and

Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Ivo Saputra Nur Wahyu Dhinianto

ivo.saputra@pln.co.id nur.wahyu@pln.co.id

PT PLN (Persero) UIP3B Sumatera PT PLN (Persero) UIP3B Sumatera

Indonesia Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Current Transformers (CTs) have limited performance in transforming primary current during fault or
transient condition. This limitation induces errors on the secondary side and yields false current. On the
other hand, the relay’s measurement technique fallacy in estimating the current phasor/value also
contributes to the false current and surely affects relay’s performance. This paper provides a
comprehensive comparison of numeric differential and restricted earth fault (REF) relay current
measurement technique. Methods compared are measurement without elimination of DC and harmonic
components (true RMS) and the one with the elimination of DC and harmonic components (full-cycle
DFT and full-cycle cosine filter). Simulation is conducted by utilizing real-case fault records from sites
with software analysis. Simulation results have indicated that the elimination of DC and harmonic
component significantly enhanced the reliability of differential protection during external fault and REF
protection during an event of inrush.

Keywords: DC Component, Differential Protection, Harmonics, REF Protection, DFT, Cosine filter, True
RMS.

I. INTRODUCTION
Differential and REF protections are commonly used as main protection of transformer windings. As we
know, these protections only cover the area within the CT measurement points which connected into
relay inputs and will operate instantaneously when fault occurs at their coverage zone. In addition,
differential and REF protections also required to be reliable, in other words no room for maloperation.
Currently, numerical differential relays are widely used not only to improve reliability but also to ease
protection engineers during installation, maintenance, and in analysing relay’s performance. However,
the dynamics of power systems, the CT’s limited performance during transient condition, and the
precise measurement technique still become a huge challenge in maintaining reliability of differential
and REF protections. Lack performance of these protections can impact into unnecessary outages and
surely causing financial loss to the company.

II. NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY OPERATING PRINCIPLE

2.1 Differential Protection
Two-winding transformer equipped with CTs at each side, the current flows through the transformer at
winding 1 and 2 respectively denoted as Ip_W1, Ip_W2 and CTs transform each of them into secondary
value, Is_W1 and Is_W2 respectively. Differential protection principle obeys Kirchhoff current law, it
compares current entering the transformer, Is_W1, to current leaving the transformer, Is_W2. However,
Is_W1 and Is_W2 have different in magnitude and phase angle due to transformer ratio, vector group
of the windings, as well as different CT ratio at each side, so they need to be compensated in order to
match the measured currents before performing differential current calculation. An advantage of
numerical differential relays is that the relay can internally solve all factor above, so no additional
matching CT is required. Fig. 1 shows the differential current calculation process flow of a numerical
differential relay for two-winding transformer. In addition, numerical differential relays also calculate the
restrained current to restrain differential protection operation as the through current increased.
Calculation of differential and restrained current follow Eq. (1) to (3). Eq. (3) shows one common

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restrained current equation, however some relay manufacturers may use different equation for
restrained factor.

The differential current for each phase, ID_L1, ID_L2, and ID_L3 can be calculated as following
equation,

𝐼𝐷_𝐿1 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿1 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿1

𝐼𝐷_𝐿2 = 𝑀1 ∗ 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿2 ∗ 𝑘1 + 𝑀2 ∗ 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿2 ∗ 𝑘2 (1)
𝐼𝐷_𝐿3 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿3 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿3
where M1, M2 correspond to phase shift and zero seq. compensation matrices of winding 1 and 2
respectively, details can be found in [9], then k1, k2 correspond to matching factor of winding 1 and 2
respectively. k1and k2 convert the secondary current value into per unit quantity where 𝑘1 = √3 ∗ 𝑈𝑛1 ∗
𝐶𝑇1/𝑆 and 𝑘2 = √3 ∗ 𝑈𝑛2 ∗ 𝐶𝑇2/𝑆. Un1, Un2 are rated voltage of winding 1 and 2 respectively, CT1
and CT2 are CT ratio at winding 1 and 2 respectively, as well as S is transformer rated power. Finally,
the magnitude of differential current for each phase can be obtained as follow,

𝐼𝐷_𝐿1 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿1′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿1′

𝐼𝐷_𝐿2 = 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿2′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿2′ (2)
𝐼𝐷_𝐿3 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿3′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿3′

and the magnitude of restrained current for each phase IR_L1, IR_L2, and IR_L3 can be obtained as
follow,

𝐼𝑅_𝐿1 1 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿1′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿1′

𝐼𝑅_𝐿2 = ∗ 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿2′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿2′ (3)
2
𝐼𝑅_𝐿3 𝐼𝑠_𝑊1_𝐿3′ + 𝐼𝑠_𝑊2_𝐿3′

where Is_W1_L1’, Is_W1_L2’, and Is_W1_L3 are respectively winding 1 phase L1, L2, and L3 current
in per unit quantity, as well as Is_W2_L1’, Is_W2_L2’, and Is_W2_L3’ correspond to winding 2 phase
L1, L2, and L3 current in per unit quantity respectively.
Ip_W1 Ip_W2

Is_W1 Is_W2

Numerical Differential Relay

Phase shift Phase shift
compensation & compensation &
zero seq. current zero seq. current
elimination (M1) elimination (M2)

Matching factor Matching factor

(k1) (k2)

Is_W1' Is_W2'

Differential and restrained current calculation

Fig. 1. Differential protection scheme and calculation process flow of two-winding transformer

2.2 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection

REF protection is intended to protect transformer from phase-to-ground fault near to neutral point of
windings. Grounded neutral transformers usually equipped with a ground CT which may be used as
ground current input into REF protection. Still comply with Kirchhoff current law, the relay compares this
ground current (IG) to derived zero sequence current (3I0_calc) from phase CTs. Fig. 2 shows the REF
current process flow and REF protection scheme as well. The matching factor kP and kG are used to

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compensate the CT ratio difference amongst phase and ground CTs. The magnitude of REF current,
ID_REF, can be calculated as follow,
𝐼𝐷_𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑃 ∗ 3𝐼0_𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 + 𝑘𝐺 ∗ 𝐼𝐺 (4)

Mostly in REF protection, ground CT is chosen as reference CT, so to match the CT ratio amongst
phase and ground CT the matching factors should follow 𝑘𝑃 = 𝐶𝑇𝑃/𝐶𝑇𝐺 and 𝑘𝐺 = 1. CTP and CTG
are CT ratios of phase and ground CTs respectively. Then, the magnitude of REF restrained current,
IR_REF, can be obtained as follow,
1
𝐼𝑅_𝑅𝐸𝐹 = ∗ ( 𝑘𝑃 ∗ 3𝐼0_𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 + 𝑘𝐺 ∗ 𝐼𝐺 ) (5)
2

and again, some relay manufacturers may have different philosophy in determining REF restrained
current.
Winding 1

3I0_calc

Numerical Relay
Macthing
Factor (kP)

REF
calculation
IG
Macthing
Factor (kG)

Fig. 2. REF protection scheme for grounded transformers

III. FALSE DIFFERENTIAL CURRENTS

Imagine an ideal CT with unlimited performance, in other words the primary waveform is exactly
transformed into the secondary one, only different in magnitude due to CT ratio, and then imagine to
use sets of this CT for differential and REF protection scheme as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, we could
expect that for no internal fault we would get zero phase differential current and zero REF current as
well. However, in sites, CTs have limited performance, they have different characteristic for different
type of CTs, different burden as well, and for sure will produce measurement errors, these errors later
will yield false differential current. But, CT’s errors are not the only cause, another factor i.e. vary
operation of transformer tap changers may also contribute to false differential current.
Performance of differential and REF protection really depend on CT’s performance, and CT’s
performance is varied during different condition of the systems. Ziegler [1] explained the philosophy of
differential protection operating characteristics meeting all factors that brings out false differential
current (see Fig.3). Some factors are linear and some are not. Appropriate settings need to be taken to
deal with these problems.
Diff. Current (Idiff/In)

i stic
c ter
ara
ch
ti ng ΔIF = Total false current
p era
la yo
Re ΔIF-CT = CT false current

ΔIAF = Mismacth false current

(CT ratio, tap changer)

ΔIWF = Transf. magnetising current

Restrained Current (Irest/In)

Fig.3. Differential protection operating characteristic

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As for REF protection, we can eliminate the tap changers factor, since REF protection only measures
currents at one side of transformers which windings connection is grounded.
False differential current could also exist due to relay’s algorithm fallacy in estimating the current
phasors of the waveforms, especially when transient condition happens, and this false current will be
escalating if the CTs start to saturate. Transient condition that often happens is when external fault
occurs and also in energization of power transformers. In these conditions the differential and REF
protections reliability are being tested.

IV. RELAY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE

4.1 Full-cycle Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) filter

One of the most popular measurement technique is full-cycle DFT filter [2]. According to [3] and [4] full-
cycle DFT eliminates odd and even harmonics but has bad response against DC component. Full-cycle
DFT first extract the fundamental phasors from a full cycle discrete sampling value and then differential
and restrained current can be calculated following Eq.1 to Eq.3. This paper uses non-recursive full-
cycle DFT to estimate current phasors from real-case differential relay records and then evaluate the
differential and REF current magnitude with respect to their setting characteristic. The DFT filter
calculation of the fundamental components can be defined by the following equations,

𝑁
2 2𝜋𝑘
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ∗ 𝑆𝑘 ∗ sin⁡
( ) (6)
𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=1

𝑁
2 2𝜋𝑘 (7)
𝐼𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑔 = ∗ 𝑆𝑘 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡
( )
𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=1

Ireal and Iimag are the real and imaginary part of the current phasor, N is number of samples in one full-
cycle discrete data, and Sk is the value of k-th sample.

The RMS value of current phasors, Irms can be obtained as follow,

2
(𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 2 + 𝐼𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔 (8)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

and the phase angle of current phasors, Ɵ, can be defined by the following equation,

𝐼𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔 (9)
𝜃 = arctan⁡
( )
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙

4.2 Full-cycle cosine filter

Another technique to estimate phasors is cosine filter [5]. According to [2] and [3] full-cycle cosine filter
satisfyingly eliminates odd and even harmonics and has good response against DC component. The
real-case differential relay records also will be utilized by using this technique, and then we will evaluate
the differential and REF current calculation results. The cosine filter calculation of fundamental
components can be defined by the following equations,
𝑁
2 2𝜋𝑘
𝐼𝑘 = ∗ 𝑆𝑘 ∗ cos⁡
( ) (10)
𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=1

Where Ik is the cosine filter output of k-th sample, The RMS value of current phasors, Irms can be
obtained as follow,

4
 (𝐼𝑘 )2 + (𝐼𝑘 − 𝑁 )2 (11)
4
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Where Ik-N/4 is the cosine filter output a quarter-cycle lagged from Ik. Finally, the phase angle of current
phasors, Ɵ, can be defined by the following equation,

𝐼𝑘−𝑁/4
𝜃 = arctan⁡ (12)
𝐼𝑘

4.3 True RMS measurement

One of the simplest measurement technique is true rms measurement. It does not filter any DC and
harmonic components since it directly calculates RMS value of one data window of the real waveform.
Applying this into differential and REF protection, first we should calculate the differential and restrained
current according to Fig.1 and Fig.2 by using the discrete instantaneous data of the current inputs. The
true RMS value of the current can be obtained as follow,

𝑋1 2 + 𝑋2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑁 2 (13)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑁

Where N is the number of instantaneous data in one data window, and XN is the N-th instantaneous
value of waveform.

V. SIMULATION OF REAL-CASE FAULT RECORDS

As we know, the differential and REF protection should not trip if there is no internal fault. We will utilize
two real-case fault records which were recorded by mal operated numerical differential relay. First case
was transient condition due to external fault on HV side of transformer which was followed by differential
protection trip. Second case was transient condition due to transformer energization, such inrush
current occurred and made REF protection operated.
These two real-case fault records can be used to observed which measurement technique will give the
most satisfying output regarding differential and REF current. Since the real-case records are not
internal faults, the lowest differential and REF current amongst all measurement technique means the
most reliable one. We will also observe the locus of each measurement on the relay operating
characteristics plane.

5.1 Case-1: Transformer differential protection during external fault.

Two-windings generator transformer (GT) was equipped with 3 sets of CTs. One set at HV side (150kV)
and two sets at LV side (11kV), the LV side had branches, one connected to generator terminal and the
other one to unit auxiliary transformer. The differential protection scheme of this GT (87GT-A and B)
described in Fig.4. CT1, CT2, and CT3 ratio are 600/1, 1000/1, and 1000/1 respectively.
87GT-A

87GT-B

CT3

CT1 CT2

GT, 125MVA
150/11kV
YND1

Fig.4 Case-1, 87GT protection scheme

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Generally, the fault current not only has a fundamental component but also harmonics and a decaying
dc component [6]. A phase-to-phase-to-ground (A-B to ground) fault happened at the transmission lines
near to the substation. From the relay record, the measured currents obviously contained DC and
harmonic components during the fault (see Tab.1). We use this record data to perform differential and
restrained current calculation following the process in Fig.1 by using all three-measurement technique
as narrated at section IV.

Harmonics
Current Inputs DC
2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Phase A 70.10% 4.20% 1.30% 1.20% 0.90%
CT1 Phase B 104.80% 5.50% 4.60% 2.70% 1.90%
Phase C 53.90% 7.30% 4.20% 3.80% 2.70%
Phase A 57.40% 3.30% 1.40% 0.70% 0.50%
CT2 Phase B 110% 5.50% 2.90% 2.00% 1.30%
Phase C 121.10% 5.30% 3.60% 2.80% 1.90%
Phase A 92.10% 6.80% 5.20% 3.00% 2.50%
CT3 Phase B 84% 10.60% 4.80% 3.60% 2.00%
Phase C 65.90% 10.90% 3.30% 2.50% 1.70%

Table.1 DC and harmonic content of case-1 fault currents

Since power systems are basically designed to operate at their fundamental value, we expect by only
extracting the fundamental component of the measured current could reduce the false differential
current calculated by the relay, so it would make differential protection more reliable during external
fault. The lower the differential current, the more reliable. The full-cycle DFT and full-cycle cosine filter
as said in [2] and [3] are satisfyingly eliminates harmonics but have different response against DC
component. We will investigate which one is better to be applied in numerical differential relay from the
magnitude of false differential current point of view. The true RMS measurement is also conducted to
investigate whether the DC and harmonic components affect the false differential current magnitude.

(a)

6
 (b)

(c)

Fig.4. Locus of differential current for each measurement technique

The simulation results are showed in Fig.4. Since the fault is A-B to ground fault, we get phase A and
B restrained current much higher than phase C (see Fig.4.a and Fig.4.b), and as described in section
III, the higher the through current, the higher the false differential current due to CT transformation
errors. It is clear that the harmonic filtered measurements (full-cycle DFT and full-cycle cosine filter)
yield much better performance than true RMS measurement.

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 (a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.5. RMS value of phase differential current for harmonic filtered measurement

8
As illustrated in Fig.5 full-cycle cosine filter gives better results since it gives lower false differential
currents for the faulted phases. However, each filter does not completely eliminate the false current so
the appropriate setting value of differential protection still need to be well considered [8].

5.2 Case-2: REF protection during energization of a power transformer

A power transformer was energized from its HV side as illustrated in Fig.6, suddenly inrush current
occurred and followed by REF protection trip. As explained in [6] and [7] inrush current during
energization of transformer contains severe DC and harmonics component, indeed case-2 record data
shows these components (see Tab.2). For differential protection, second harmonic blocking or restraint
is commonly used to avoid differential operation due to inrush current condition, however, it is rarely
used to block the REF protection. By applying each measurement technique to the record data, we get
the result as illustrated in Fig. 7. The phase and ground CT ratios are both 300/5 P class.

42 MVA, 150/20kV

87 REF

Fig.6. Case-2 REF protection scheme

Fig.7 Locus of REF protection current for each measurement technique

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 Fig.8. RMS value of REF differential current for harmonic filtered measurement

Harmonics
Current DC
2nd 3rd 4th 5th
HV - IA 115.90% 29.40% 23.20% 12.00% 5.10%
HV - IB 79.20% 45.40% 10.10% 20.70% 6.70%
HV - IC 86.10% 32.20% 14.00% 4.10% 5.60%
HV - IG 143.10% 44.20% 13.00% 13.00% 8.90%

Table.2 DC and harmonic content of case-2 transformer inrush currents

Still similar to previous case results, the full-cycle DFT and full-cycle cosine filter give much better result
compare to true RMS measurement. It is clear that eliminating DC and harmonic component makes
REF protection more reliable during energization of a transformer since the magnitude of false REF
differential current calculated by the relay reduce significantly (see Fig.7). Compared to full-cycle DFT,
as illustrated in Fig.8, full-cycle cosine filter yields lower false current which means offer more reliable
performance during inrush current. However, the appropriate setting value of REF still need to be well
considered [8].

VI. CONCLUSIONS
1. Eliminating DC and harmonic components by using full-cycle DFT or full-cycle cosine filter gives
much lower false differential current output for both differential and REF protection compare to
not eliminate DC dan harmonic components (true RMS measurement). Simulation with more
similar case data is recommended to strengthen the conclusion.
2. Comparing full-cycle DFT to full-cycle cosine filter, cosine filter gives lower false differential
current which means provide more reliability for differential and REF protection under transient
conditions that have been described in the simulation.
3. From the simulation results, applying true RMS measurement for differential and REF
protection tends to cause false tripping during external fault and in event of inrush because the
results yield high false currents and current trajectory enters relay’s operating characteristic.
4. Another factor that need to be considered is the appropriate settings for differential and REF
protection characteristics, as well as the formula for determining restrained factor. Performing
relay testing with real-case transient simulation could help to ensure the appropriate settings
have been implemented and also could verify the relay performance under several system
conditions.

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REFERENCES
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[5] Y. S. Cho, C. K. Lee, G. Jang. “An Innovative Decaying DC Component Estimation Algorithm for
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[6] J. Arrilaga, B. C. Smith, N. R. Watson, A. R. Wood, “Power System Harmonic Analysis”. John
Wiley & Sons. 2000.
[7] A. Hargrave, M. J. Thompson, B. Heilman. ”Beyond the Knee Point: A Practical Guide to CT
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Sweden, 2007

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