Marine Engineering Manual As of 18 Feb 2013 Printed Final

Marine Engineering s.
2012
DEFINITION OF MARINE ENGINEERING
Marine Engineering involves the design, construction, installation, operation and

support of the systems and equipment which propel and control marine vehicles, and of
the systems which make a vehicle or structure habitable for crew, passengers and cargo.
THEORY AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Diesel engine has been applied to any use since it was developed. Especially, in
the marine market, diesel engine has been employed in most of the merchant ships
because of its strong advantages. The strongest advantage of diesel engine is
extremely high thermal efficiency. For instance, the thermal efficiency of two cycle low
Speed diesel engine has reached about 52% in recent years. This value is remarkably
higher than that of another heat engines
INTRO TO DIESEL ENGINE
• Rudolf Diesel developed the idea for the diesel engine and obtained the German
patent for it in 1892.
• His goal was to create an engine with high efficiency.
• Gasoline engines had been invented in 1876 and, especially at that time, were not
very efficient
• Both the gasoline and diesel engine utilize the process of internal combustion
for power
The diesel engine: first patented in 1892
• The Diesel engine was initially intended to run on coal dust.

• This engine was fueled by peanut oil - the "original" biodiesel.
• The first Diesel race car placed 13th in the Indianapolis 500, because it never
stopped to refuel
• In 1973 and 1978, OPEC reduced the supply of oil and raised the price
• The American public looked to diesel fuel which was more efficient and
economical and they began buying diesel-powered automobiles.
• This surge of diesel sales in American ended in the 1980's.
One of the places where diesel engines play an important role is the shipping
industry. Diesel engines are known by the name of compression ignition engines due to
technical reasons which we will study later on in these articles. There are several ways
of classification of diesel engines based on various parameters and some of these
classifications are as follows.
Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 1

Marine Engineering s.2012
 Speed – high speed, medium speed, slow speed

 Usage – automotive engines, locomotive engines, marine engines
 Operation – 2-stroke, 4-stroke, single acting, double acting
 Cylinder arrangement – horizontal, vertical, radial
Steam Turbine Engine
Gas Turbine Engine
Diesel engine has such a strong advantage. Therefore, marine engineers have to
make use of this advantage by proper operation and proper maintenance of the engine.

In this case, it is essential for marine engineers to understand concerning the engine
performance.
Determination of Engine Output
For the actual examination of the engine performance, the three items of the
engine condition should be measured. They are
 Engine revolution
 Fuel consumption
 Engine output.
In these items, engine revolution and fuel consumption are easily measured by
some techniques.
Regarding the engine output,
Indicated horsepower (IHP)

Brake horsepower (BHP)
Are essential to examine the engine performance. Indicated horsepower can be

measured by indicator method which is based on the obtained indicator diagram of the
engine. Brake horsepower can be measured by dynamometer at the power shaft of the
engine.
Prony Brake
The Prony brake was invented in 1821 by French engineer Gaspard Prony
(1755—1839). A Prony brake, shown below, provides a means for applying an
adjustable load torque to the output shaft of a prime mover (e.g., IC engine, electric
motor, etc.).
The power output is dissipated as heat in the braking material. By adjusting

the ―brake force‖, the torque level can be changed. By combining the measurement of
this torque with a speed measurement, the power output can also be measured and this
is a common combination in a dynamometer setup.

Mechanical Efficiency
Brake horsepower which is obtained at the power shaft of the engine is smaller
than the indicated horsepower because of the mechanical loss as shown below:
1) Friction between piston rings and cylinder liner

2) Friction at bearings
3) Driving power of cam shaft
4) Driving power of pumps (essential pumps for engine operation)
Mechanical efficiency is defined as BHP/IHP.
Output at crankshaft
Output at cylinders
Actually, mechanical loss is almost constant regardless of the engine output.

Therefore, the mechanical efficiency becomes lower with reduction of the engine output.
Heat Balance
Heat balance is the determination of the energy distribution of the engine. That is,
a part of the supplied heat is converted to effective output and the other part should be
distributed to cooling loss, mechanical loss, and exhaust heat and so on. This heat
balance can be expressed as a heat balance. Heat balance will vary according to engine
type, engine scale and operating conditions of the engine.
Super-Charging
Super-charging is the best way to get higher engine output. Super-charging

means that pressure charging of the intake air and turbo-chargers are usually uses to
compress the intake air. Turbo-charger is driven by the energy of exhaust gases of the
engine. Consequently, turbo-charger will recover the waste heat of the engine and helps
fuel saving of the engine Super-charging methods with turbo-charger are classified into
two types, namely
(1) Dynamic system

(2) Static system.

Typical turbo-charger is shown in an above.
Cross Section of Typical T/C
Axial Flow Type T/C
Axial Flow Type T/C Exam Sketch
Radial Flow Type T/C

Radial Flow Type T/C Exam Sketch
The kind of turbo charger
Classification by driving method
 Machine drive system ( Supercharger )

 Exhaust gas turbine drive system ( Turbo charger )
Classification by compressor
 Reciprocated type
 Roots type
 Centrifugal type
 Axial flow type

Exhaust Gas Turbine Drive System
1. Dynamic system
In dynamic system, the turbine of turbo-charger is driven by mainly pulse energy

of exhaust gas which is blown down from each cylinder. The next page figure shows the
conception of this system. The exhaust energy loss before the turbine nozzle should be
minimized in this system. Therefore, the exhaust pipes between cylinder outlet and
turbine inlets should be short.
Moreover, the exhaust pipes are usually separated into some groups according to
the firing order to avoid the interference of discharged exhaust gases. In this case, the
nozzle casing should be also separated. Total efficiency of this system at normal service
output of the engine is lower than that of static system because of its inferior turbine
efficiency.
2. Static system
In the static system, exhaust gases from each cylinder are collected in a exhaust
manifold which has suitable volume to convert the blow-down energy of the exhaust into
static energy. Thus, the turbine is driven under constant condition and the turbine
efficiency is higher than that of dynamic system. This gives higher total efficiency at
normal service output of the engine. Almost all of two stroke large size engines employ
this system in recent years
Inspection and maintenance of turbocharger
Turbine Rotor
 Check a bend of a shaft. When exceed an allowable value, it must be exchanged

 Measure outside diameter of bearing. When exceed an abrasion limit, it must be
exchanged
 Check a bend, a deformation, a defection and a crack of turbine blade. When see
these damages it must be exchanged
 Check a condition of a surface, an outer and a back face of a turbine blade. When
see the sever corrosion it must be exchanged
Compressor wheel (Blower Blade)
 When see a bend, a deformation a defection and a crack of blade it must be

exchanged
 Check a condition of a outer and a back face of a wheel. When see the damage
by being touched, it must be exchanged

Floating Metal, Thrust Metal, Ball Bearing
 Measure inside and outside diameter of floating metal. When exceed a service
limit of size, it must be exchanged
 When exceed an abrasion limit of thrust metal, it must be exchanged
 When exceed a service limit of inside diameter of a bearing housing due to
abrasion, it must be exchange
 Check the ball condition, discoloration of an inner and outer race of a ball bearing
and smoothness of rotation
Seal Ring and O-Ring
 When exceed a service limit of a seal ring free gap, it must be exchanged
 Consumable parts like a O-ring, metal washer must be exchanged
Water Cooling Turbine Casing
 Check the condition of fouling and corrosion in a water jacket. When see the
abnormal condition, it must be exchanged
 Check the corrosive damage of gas and water side in the turbine case. When see
the corrosive damage, it must be exchanged
 Check the wear volume of corrosive protection zinc. When see the volume below
half, it must be exchanged
Auxiliary Blowers
With a two stroke diesel engine, electrically-driven auxiliary blowers are provided
for engine starting and to supplement the scavenge air delivery when engines are
operating below 30 percent load. This is necessary because, at such low engine loads
and speeds, the turbochargers cannot deliver the necessary air for the gas flow process
of the two-stroke cycle.

Turbo-charging increases the density of the air by compressing it, allowing a

greater mass of air to be introduced into the cylinder during scavenging on a 2 stroke or
induction on a 4 stroke. （Scavenge air pressure must be greater than the exhaust blow
down pressure on a 2 stroke to ensure positive scavenging. The greater the mass of air
in the cylinder, the greater the mass of oxygen, thus the greater the mass of fuel which
can be burnt. By increasing the mass of fuel burnt, the power output of the engine is
increased.
When air is compressed it gets hot. （Polytrophic compression when air is

heated it expands and thus its density is reduced. This reduction in density means
that the mass of air available for combustion is less, meaning a reduction in power
output. Modern turbochargers with their high pressure ratios mean that the combustion
air is raised to a temperature （200℃） which would increase the engine working
temperatures to unacceptable levels （ burning oil off liners, heat stresses on piston,
high exhaust temperatures etc.）
Charge air cooling has a double effect on engine performance:
• By increasing the charge air density, it thereby increases the weight of air flowing
into the cylinders, resulting in increased power and an improvement in fuel
economy.
• By lowering the air temperature it reduces the maximum cylinder temperature, the
exhaust temperature and the engine thermal loading.
Following this argument it may seem logical to cool the air down as far as
possible. This is not the case, however, because:
• Air at low temperatures will cause thermal shock when in contact with hot liners
and pistons.
• If the air is under-cooled (i.e. below its dew point at the corresponding pressure),
excessive condensation will occur in the cooler. The water entrained in the air is
then carried into the cylinder, destroying lubrication and causing corrosion. This
condition is most likely to be met when the air is warm and humid, and the sea
water is cool it is not usual to allow the inlet/scavenge air to fall below 40℃.Air
coolers are fitted with drains, and on large engines a water catcher is fitted after
the air cooler. This works by simply changing the direction of the air, so that the
denser water is ‗thrown out‘.
On modern engines the air temperature will be controlled by automatic valves

which by-pass the flow of water through the cooler when the temperature of the air falls.
(Engine construction) Stuffing Box
It is made for the piston rod to pass through the plate without oil from the
crankcase being carried upwards, or used cylinder oil contaminated from products of
combustion being carried downwards. It is also highly undesirable to allow the
pressurized air in the scavenge space to leak into the crankcase

Crank Shaft & Main Bearing
Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2%and 2.5% of the journal
diameter. The steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to support the cast-on
white metal alone. The bearing must therefore be supported rigidly over its full length to
prevent fretting between shell and housing and failure of the bearing material. The
bearing is manufactured with a circumferential over-length (crush/nip) which,when the
shells are mounted and tightened up, will produce the required radial pressure between
the shell and the bearing housing.
Main Bearing Shells

Plain bearings are manufactured as steel shells with a bearing surface of white
metal or tin aluminum. The bearing surface is furnished with a centrally placed oil supply
groove and other design features such as tangential run-outs and bore reliefs. The
tangential run-out prevents an oil scraping effect and reduces the resistance to the flow
of oil towards the loaded area of the bearing. The bore relief is to compensate for
misalignments which could result in a protruding edge of the lower shell's mating face to
that of the upper shell. Such a protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil
starvation.
The lower bearing shell rests in bedplate transverse girder, the upper bearing
shell is held down by the bearing cover. Shoulders on each end prevent axial shifting.
Location of the bearing shell is provided by screws in the transverse girder or by a
locating pin in the bearing cover. The lubrication of the bearings is through the oil
connection on the bearing cover. The oil is distributed to the whole diameter by a radial
groove in the bearing cover, reaches the bearing through bores in the bearing shells and
lubricates bearing & journal.
Fuel Injection Pump

The Bosch scroll pump consists of a plunger running in a barrel. The plunger is
shaped as per the diagram and is rotated in the barrel by the fuel rack.
Bosch scroll pump spill
1. Position one: The plunger is travelling down the barrel and the suction and spill
ports are uncovered. A charge of oil enters the chamber.
2. Position two: The suction and spill ports are covered and the plunger is
travelling up the barrel. Pressure builds up until the fuel valve opens and injection
commences.
3. Position three: The spill port is uncovered; pressure above the plunger rapidly
drops as the oil spills out. End of injection it can be seen that by rotating the plunger the
bottom edge uncovering the spill port can be moved. In this way the amount of fuel
delivered is varied. On this only the end of injection timing is varied. Start of injection is
constant.

Variable Injection Timing (VIT) Control
In this fuel injection pump, the barrel can be moved vertically by the jackscrew
which is attached on the bottom end of the barrel. This type is used in the MAN-B&W
engines. As well as having the normal fuel quantity control (i.e a rack which rotates the
plunger in the barrel), the fuel pump is fitted with an adjustable barrel which has a large
pitch thread machined on the bottom. The threaded barrel is located in a threaded sleeve

which is rotated by a second rack. As the sleeve cannot move axially, and the
barrel is prevented from rotating, then as the sleeve rotates, the barrel movesup and
down, thus altering the position of the spill ports relative to the plunger, and varying the
start of injection.
Reason for Using VIT
The reason for using VIT is to achieve greater fuel economy. This is achieved by
advancing the injection timing so that maximum combustion pressure (pmax) is achieved
at about 85% MCR (maximum continuous rating).The system is set up so that there is no
change in injection timing at low loads (40%MCR). This is to avoid frequent changes of
pump lead during maneuvering.
As the engine load is increased above 40%, the start of injection advances. When
the engine has reached approximately 85% MCR at which the engine is designed to
have reached pmax, the servos retard the injection timing so that the maximum
combustion pressure is kept constant between 85% and 100%MCR.At 90% MCR a fuel
saving of 4-5g/h.p.hour is claimed to be achieved.
NOTE: Fuel pumps mounted on the smaller MC engine are not fitted with Variable
Injection Timing
How Variable Injection Timings is achieved
Low pressure air is fed to the pressure control valve, the output of which is fed to
the VIT servos on the fuel pump. A link from the governor output (or fuel pump control
hand wheel) moves a pivoted bar, the position of which determines the output of the
pressure control valve. The position of the control valve is adjustable which can be used
to allow for fuels of varying ignition qualities and changes in the camshaft timing due to
chain elongation. The pivots are also adjustable for initial setting up of the VIT and
adjustment of breakpoint position.

Fuel Injection Valve
This figure shows typical fuel injection valves used in large size engine. There are
some or several nozzle holes on the atomizer tip and their arrangement is decided in
consideration of the shape of injected spray jet. Cooled nozzle has been generally used,
but now-a-days, non cooled nozzle is used in large size engine as shown in the figure.
In this case, nozzles are cooled by the bore cooling water of the cylinder head.
The Period of Fuel Injection Typical fuel pressure curve at outlet from pump
A- Pump spill closes (approx. 8゜)

B- Fuel injector opens (approx. -4゜)
C- Spill opens (approx. 12゜)
D- Fuel injector closes (approx. 16゜)
E- Reflected pressure wave
F- Period of partial equilibrium

i.e. the rate of delivery from the rising plunger in the barrel equals the flow out of
the injector, therefore no pressure rise. Instability of the wave form can indicate too
low viscosity fuel supplied.
G- Injection period (approx. 20゜)
Viscosity Control
For efficient and complete combustion, residual fuel must be heated before it is
burnt. For correct atomization in the cylinder, the fuel must be at the correct viscosity. If
the viscosity is too high, the fuel droplets will tend to be too large and will take too long to
absorb the heat energy from the compressed air before they start to burn. This will lead
to late and incomplete combustion, lack of power, afterburning and damage or fouling to
liner, piston crown, exhaust valve and turbo-charger. If the viscosity is too low, then the
droplets will be too small and combustion will tend to be early and incomplete because
the fuel droplets will not have penetrated far enough into the cylinder to find sufficient
oxygen to burn completely. This again will cause damage and fouling. Because residual
fuel is a complex blend of heavy asphaltenes blended with lighter distillates, and will vary
in its makeup, to ensure that the fuel is maintained at the correct viscosity for injection,
an inline device is used to measure the viscosity and maintain it at the correct set point
by controlling the Fuel heating source.
Marine Engineers often refer to this device as a viscotherm, although this is a

trade name for a particular make of viscosity controller.
The Viscomaster

Chain Drives
It is very important that the fuel pump and valves operate at exactly the right time,
so the camshaft is driven from the crankshaft. Two methods are used, a geared drive
and a chain drive.
MAN B&W use chain drives on their two stroke crosshead engine. Some medium
speed engines also use a chain drive to drive the camshaft.
Chains will be mounted in pairs or even in threes on larger two stroke engines.
Medium speed engines also employ multiple chains. The chain runs through guide bars
and is lubricated by means of oil sprayers fed from the main LO system which direct a
continuous stream of lubricating oil into the chain bearings.
This oil will lubricate and cool the bearings and will cushion fluctuating forces.
Advantages of Chain over Gear Drive
 Flexible: The camshaft can be placed high on the engine, position not dictated by
number and position of gear wheels.
 Relatively light in weight.
 Small friction loss.
 Narrow in width - adds little extra length to the engine.
 Can incorporate wheels driving moment compensators, and subsidiary drive for
engine lubricators, governors etc.
Disadvantages of Chain over Gear Drive
Due to wear, chain will lengthen in use which will affect camshaft timing. Chain
and camshaft timing must be adjusted to compensate. Limit of elongation is 1%. The
reason for placing a limit on its elongation is that as the chain gets longer the pitch

increases and is not matched to the wheel teeth, and continued use would result in
excessive wear. Limited life, even if limit of elongation is not reached (15 years).
Replacement necessary if fatigue failure to be avoided. If not correctly adjusted,
excessive wear and vibration can occur.
Gearwheel Drives
Sulzer and Mitsubishi two stroke crosshead engines use a gear train to drive the
camshaft three wheel drive, although more economical, places the camshaft lower down
the engine. This means the high pressure fuel pipes to injectors and the hydraulic pipes
to the exhaust valves must be longer. This leads to a delay in the timing as the pressure
pulses take longer to reach the valves, and the longer pipe expands more. This
‗‗hydraulic delay‖ is accounted for when the timing of the exhaust and injection valves is
calculated. Gear train drives for camshafts are used extensively in medium speed four
stroke engines. However because the camshaft on a four stroke engine runs at half
crankshaft speed, the gear drive is a 2:1 ratio.
Explanation of Control Air & L.O Flow
30 bar control air from the engine starting system is directed by the starting
controls to one side or the other of a reversing shuttle valve, depending on the direction
required. Oil from the crosshead supply pumps at about 12 bars can then flow to the
appropriate ports on the fuel pump cam servomotors.

Governor
Watt type Governor
Probably the most widely used governor in the early days; it is named the Watt
governor because James Watt applied it to his early beam engines.

The governor assembly is directly driven from the engine. Fly weights are rotated and act
to draw the slide up the drive shaft due to centrifugal force pushing them out.
The water wheel is running at constant speed driving a load. The load is
increased, so the water wheel starts to decrease in speed. Because they are rotating
more slowly the fly weights move inwards due to the decrease in centrifugal force, thus
lowering the collar and opening the gate increasing the flow of water to the wheel. In this
simple example the governor has proportional action only. In a proportional controller a
change to the output is made that is proportional to the current error value or to put it
another way the control effort is proportional to the error. Proportional control will always
have an offset, which means that after the load change the governor will return the
engine (or in this case the water wheel)to a steady speed which is not the speed it
originally was turning before the load change.

The difference between the two speeds is the offset, or droop.
If the pivot point is moved closer to the collar, then a small change in load (and
heel speed) will lead to a large change in the position of the gate, i.e. output. This is
known in control theory as increasing the proportional band. By moving the pivot too
close to the collar the governor will become unstable and will begin to hunt, opening and
closing the gate. In the worst possible scenario the control will become on-off : either
gate fully open or gate fully closed Conversely, if the pivot point is moved towards the
gate then the gate will only open a small amount for a large change in load (wheel
speed). This will make the governor sluggish in response and will increase the offset
(droop).
Governor System
The engine speed varies according to the hull resistance of the ship. This hull
resistance depends on fouling of the hull, wind, sea condition etc. In these cases, the
engine should be controlled by governor system to maintain the required ship‘s speed.
Governor should have the function that when the engine revolution speed changes, it
adjusts the fuel control system accordingly.

The governor system consists of three main parts. They are speed detector,
transmission device and fuel adjustment device. The next page figure shows an example
of governor. Fly weight has been used in the speed detector.
The balance between the speeder spring tension and the centrifugal force which
is produced by the engine rotation is kept when the engine speed is constant But, if the
engine speed changes, this balance will be broken and the speeder rod will move to
upward or down ward according to the change of the engine speed. This move will be
transmitted to the fuel adjustment device through the transmission device. Hydraulic
transmission device has been used in recent ships. Lastly, the fuel adjustment namely
fuel quantity control should be carried out by the fuel adjustment device.
Hydraulic Governors
A simple mechanical governor must overcome friction in the linkages and exert a
controlling force. These forces act in different directions depending upon whether the
load is increasing or decreasing. The effect of this friction is to create a dead-band. In
hydraulic governors this effect is negated by having oil pressure act as the controlling
force. This simple system has inherent stability due to the on/off nature of oil being
supplied to the system control due to the control land just covering the outlet ports. Over-
sizing the land would create stability but at the expense of reintroducing a dead-band.
Servo System with Feedback
An alternative is to lead the outlet oil to a servo system. The servo piston can be
either spring return
Governor Oil Pump / Accumulator
Oil pump is located in the base of the governor. The inner rotor of the pump is
driven by a pin in the drive shaft, and carries the outer rotor around in mesh, pumping oil
to the accumulator piston.

Accumulator:
A single accumulator, consisting of a piston and spring, acts as a relief valve for
the oil pump and provides a reservoir of high pressure oil for quick servo movement. Oil
is pumped to the accumulator by the governor pump, with pressure increasing as the
accumulator spring is compressed. When the pressure builds to the predetermined level,
oil is released back to sump through relief ports in the piston wall.
The power piston is attached to the output shaft by a link and lever assembly. The
power piston is designed with a large area on the bottom and a small area on top
(differential piston). A small pressure increase on the large area of the piston will move
the piston up, causing the output shaft to rotate in the ―increase‖ direction. The piston
can move down only when oil under the piston is released to sump. Oil to or from the
bottom of the power piston is regulated by the ball-head pilot valve and ball-head pilot
valve bushing.

Electric Governors
Electric governors have become in favor due to their compact size, rapid
response and high reliability allied to low maintenance costs. The main part of the
governor is the controller and signal amplifier.
This receives a D.C. signal proportional to the engine speed and compares it to a
speed set signal. The difference between the measured value (engine speed) and the
set value is the offset; this offset value is passed to the output circuit which produces an
appropriate output signal. In this case, a signal which raises or lowers the fuel rack by an
amount dependent on the degree of offset.
This system is inherently stable due to the feedback layout.

A magnetic pickup transmits a signal representing engine speed. This signal is

compared to the signal given for the set value. The difference between the signals (error)
is amplified and sent to the actuator, which may be an electro hydraulic servo valve
which converts the signal into a mechanical movement of the fuel racks. Can be
programmed to avoid running in a barred speed range and to increase the load slowly
during build up to full revolutions. Can incorporate load sharing, synchronizing, power
sensing etc.
Explanation of Camshaft-less Engine
The two major manufacturers of two stroke crosshead engines have both
introduced a camshaft-less engine. Sulzer call theirs the RT Flex engine and Man B&W
call theirs the ME intelligent engine
Sulzer RT-flex Engine
Both engines use electrical and engine driven axial piston pumps to pressurize
servo oil rails to 200 bar which are then used for fuel injection and exhaust valve
operation. In addition MAN B&W use the servo oil to drive the cylinder lubricator
units(Alpha system). Although they both work without a camshaft and use computers to
control, fuel injection, exhaust valve operation and air starting, the method of fuel
injection is different.
Sulzer use a pressurized fuel rail using a set of jerk type pumps driven by a three
lobe cam geared to the camshaft. The pumps are variable delivery, based on the ZA40
fuel pump, controlled by an electrically driven fuel pump shaft linked to the engine
computer. The engine computer system known as the Wartsila Engine Control System
(WECS) controls the delivery from the common rail to the individual cylinders via the
volumetric injection control system which uses finely filtered engine LO pressurized by
electric pumps to 200 bars. Unlike the Sulzer RT-flex engine the MAN B&W ME engine

does not operate the fuel injection on a common rail system. Instead a solenoid operated
proportioning valve (the FIVA valve － Fuel Injection Valve Activation) allows the
pressurized servo oil under a hydraulic piston. This then moves the fuel pump piston
upwards, raising the fuel pressure and opening the injection valves. A nitrogen filled
accumulator maintains the hydraulic servo oil pressure during the operation of the pump.
The exhaust valve actuator replaces the cam operated exhaust valve hydraulic
pump on both make of camshaft-less engines. Both working on a similar principle, servo
oil at 200 bars is used to operate a piston which operates the exhaust valve ―hydraulic
push rod‖. The oil for operating the ―hydraulic push rod‖ comes from the main engine LO
supply via a non return valve.
The air start system is similar to that on a conventional engine except there is no
need for a mechanically driven distributor to open the air start valves at the correct time.
Instead of a camshaft driven, reversing air start distributor, each air start valve is opened
at the correct time by the engine computers sending a signal to a solenoid controlled NC
(Normally Closed) valve. The computer knows when to send the signal because it is
receiving information as to the crankshaft position from the angle encoders which
measure crankshaft position and RPM. When the engine has reached firing speed the
computers shut off the air and introduce the fuel.
Analyzing of Diesel Combustion
Fuel oil is a hydrocarbon consisting of hydrogen and carbon, together with other
elements most of which are unwanted. Hydrogen has a higher calorific value than
carbon; therefore, more heat may be obtained from fuels containing higher
Hydrogen/Carbon ratios. The lower specific gravity of hydrogen than carbon allows a
rough rule of thumb to be; the higher the Specific Gravity, the lower the Calorific Value
(and quality) of the fuel. The presence of impurities clouds the issue slightly. For efficient
combustion a ignition source and sufficient oxygen need be present to completely
oxidize the hydrogen to water vapor and the carbon to carbon-dioxide.
Five Essential Requirements for Combustion
1. Correct Air/Fuel ratio
There must be sufficient oxygen to burn not only the hydrogen and oxygen
present but also any other combustibles, such as sulphur. To be effective and efficient
all the fuel must be burnt in the cylinder. To be maintained the scavenge system
including turbocharger suction filters.
2. Atomization
To ensure that the fuel breaks down into its constituent elements as quickly as
possible it is atomized, which means it is injected into the cylinder under pressure
through a small orifice. (High surface area/volume ratio allowing rapid oxidation ).
For good combustion the oil droplet size in the combustion space should be at a
minimum, and so have a maximum surface area to volume ratio. This ensures rapid
heating and an increase in the percentage of fuel molecules in contact with the
combustion air.
3. Mixing
Atomized fuel made up of fine droplets does not penetrate well into the cylinder
combustion space, mixing with the air is promoted by giving the swirling motion.
4. Injection
If the injection is too late, the piston is travelling down the liner. The pressure
wave created by ignition moves rapidly down to meet the piston causes excessive shock
loading on the top of the crown (this is the characteristic 'Diesel knock' of engines when
started from cold). If the injection is too early then very high temperatures and high peak
pressures can be generated caused by the rapid combustion period occurring when the
space available is very small.
5. Compression temperature
The diesel engine is a compression ignition engine. Temperatures generated by

the compression of the combustion air.
Compression Ratio
The compression ratio is set at the design stage to give the correct temperature.
However, loss of compression, say by a leaky exhaust valve or piston rings can lead to a
late timing of ignition.

Heating of residual fuel
When burning residual fuel heating is required in order to reduce the viscosity at
the injectors to approximately that of diesel oil. This ensures good atomization and brings
the temperature of the fuel closer to the ignition point.
DIESEL MARINE ENGINE
It can be seen from the above classification that marine engines are those which
are used in marine vehicles namely boats, ships, submarines and so forth. Both 2-stroke
as well as 4-stroke engines are used in the marine industry. The engines used for the
main propulsion or turning the propeller/s of the normal ships are usually slow speed 2-
stroke engines while those used for providing auxiliary power are usually 4-stroke high
speed diesel engines.
TERMS THAT RELATE TO ENGINE DESIGN, IT‘S POWER AND SIZE
– Laws of Mechanics
– Power Output
– Engine Efficiency
Laws of Mechanics
• Friction – resistance to motion between two surfaces in contact with each other.
Friction produces heat. Too much heat causes abnormal wears and component
damage
• Inertia – state of a body; the tendency of a body at rest to stay at rest or a body in
motion to stay in motion
• Force – push or pull that starts, stops or changes the motion of a body. In order to
overcome inertia and friction, the engine uses force.
• Pressure – measurement of force exerted over an area
Power Output
• Heat – a form of energy produced by combustion. Heat is converted into

mechanical energy by the piston and other engine components in order to
produce power suitable for work.
• Temperature – measure of the relative warmth or coolness of an object
• Horsepower – amount of work output by an engine in a given time, or

alternatively it is the rate of doing work

• Torque – engine power. The turning or twisting effect of a force combined with
inertial forces which resist movement. Measurement of the load carrying capacity
of the engine
• Torque rise – increase in torque in a heavy pulling application or the legibility of

the engine
Engine Efficiency
• Bore – interior diameter of the cylinder. This determines the volume of air
available for combustion shown in fig 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Engine efficiency, Bore
• Stroke – the distance the piston moves in the cylinder from its highest point to its
lowest point. A longer stroke pulls more air into the cylinder shown in fig 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Engine efficiency, Stroke
• BDC – Bottom Dead Center – the lowest point in the cylinder the piston could
touch shown in fig 1.3.
• TDC – Top Dead Center – the highest point in the cylinder the piston could reach.

Fig. 1.3 Engine efficiency, BDC
• Displacement – total volume of air the piston displaces as it moves from BDC to
TDC
•
• Displacement – horsepower ratio – engine displacement divided by the flywheel
hp. The higher the ratio the better for the engine.
• Compression ratio – how much the air is compressed. Comparison of the total
volume of air when piston is at BDC and when it is at TDC
• Fuel Efficiency – relationship between fuel consumption & productivity. It is a

measurement of the engine‘s efficiency to convert heat energy from fuel to a
usable power.
Engine Operation
• Engines operate on the principle of energy conversion.
• Heat energy produced by combustion is converted into mechanical energy by

pistons and crankshaft shown in fig 1.4.
Fig. 1.4 Engine Operation

HEAT ENGINE
Heat Engine is machines for continually converting heat energy into mechanical energy
Working fluid
Fossil fuels Heat energy Mechanical energy (power)
nuclear fuel
Cyclic process
Heat energy (rejection
Concept of a heat engine
Classification of Heat Engine
How does the engine working fluid receive heat?
 Directly heated Internal combustion engine

 Indirectly heated External combustion engine
How does the working fluid generate mechanical energy?
 By the piston and crank Reciprocating engines

 By the nozzle and blades Turbo engines
DEMAND FOR ENGINES
 POWER
– High power output

– Power range to meet requirements
 EFFICIENCY
– Fuel economy
– Choice of fuel
– Maintenance fee
– Space for engine system

 SAFETY
– Reliability
– Redundancy
 ENVIRONMENT
– Environmental friendly
– Suitability to international regulation
Measures for power and efficiency
Output (w)
W = m.h
w: output (w=j/s)
m: flow rate (kg/s)
h: specific enthalpy (j/kg)
Thermal efficiency (%)
Nth= 1- QL/QH=1- TL/TH
Q: Heat (w)
T: Temperature (K)
Subscript
H: Heat source (high)

L: Heat source (low)
ENGINE COMPONENT, TYPE, DESIGN AND OPERATION OF ENGINE
Engine in terms of combustion
What is Internal Combustion?
In an internal combustion engine such as the gasoline or diesel engine the fuel in
the form of light oil is burned directly inside the cylinder of the engine. The energy
derived from the heat of the burning oil pushes the piston downward and through a
mechanical hook-up revolves the crankshaft which in turn spins the propeller. This
method of supplying heat to the engine is known as internal combustion.
What is External Combustion?

In steam engines the heat is developed by the burning of the fuel in a boiler,
separate from the engine.
The boiler is a closed steel vessel partially filled with water. To illustrate the
principle, assume that the boiler is like a steel barrel in a horizontal position. Fuel is
burned just below the boiler and the heat given off radiates against the outside of the
boiler, and is conducted through the steel walls into the water. The heat then circulates
throughout the boiler by convection currents until such time as the water has absorbed
so much of the heat that it begins to boil and a vapor called steam is given off. Some of
the heat from the fire is now in the steam, which is led to the cylinder of the engine
through a pipe line. The heat in the steam produces in the cylinder the energy that
pushes the piston downward and through a mechanical hook-up revolves the crankshaft
in the same manner as the internal combustion engine. This method of supplying heat is
known as external combustion.
A. Engines in terms of Combustion
1. Internal Combustion Engines
Fuel is burned directly within the working cylinder.
a. Gas engines
A gas engine means an engine running on a gas, such as coal gas, producer
gas biogas, landfill gas, or natural gas. such an engine might also be called a gaseous
fueled engine, spark ignited engine, or natural gas engine shown in fig 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 Gas Engine, ICE
b. Diesel engines
An internal-combustion engine that uses the heat of highly compressed air to

ignite a spray of fuel introduced after the start of the compression stroke shown in fig 2.2.

Main Engine
Note: When engine has started

check all pressure, seawater
pressure to stertubes and seawater
flow overboard, inspect the engine
for leaks and listen for unusual
noises
Fig. 2.2 Diesel Engine, ICE
2. External Combustion Engines
a. Steam Engine
A marine steam engine is a reciprocating steam engine that is used to power a

ship or boat. Steam turbines and diesel engines largely replaced reciprocating steam
engines in marine applications during the 20th century Shown in Fig. 3.3, so this article
describes the more common types of marine steam engine in use from their inception in
the early 19th century to their last years of large-scale manufacture during World War II
Fig. 2.3 Steam Engine, ICE

B. Classification of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
1. As to power motion
a. Reciprocating
An engine whose crankshaft is turned by pistons moving up and down in a

cylinder
An engine that converts the chemical energy in the fuel plus air into mechanical
energy by providing reciprocating movement to the pistons shown in fig. 2.4 . This
movement is further converted into rotary motion by the connecting rods and crankshaft.
A reciprocating engine is usually a four-stroke engine
Fig 2.4 Reciprocating, ICE
b. Rotary
An engine, such as a turbine, in which power is supplied directly to vanes or other

rotary parts
Rotary engine, internal-combustion engine whose cycle is similar to that of a

piston engine, but which produces rotary motion directly without any conversion from
reciprocating motion shown in fig. 2.4 . A major problem associated with engines of this
type is preventing the leakage of combustion gases. The only type of rotary engine
currently considered to be of practical value is the Wankel engine (see internal-
combustion engine) shown in fig. 2.5.
Although the gas turbine produces rotary motion directly, it is not generally
considered a rotary engine because it functions differently.

Fig. 2.5 Rotary, ICE
2. As to cycle used
a. Otto
This engine that uses four cycles in its creation of power. It is known now as
the Otto Cycle engine shown in fig. 2.6.
Otto engines were used primarily for stationary uses, as Otto had no interest in
transportation. Other makers such as Daimler perfected the Otto Engine for
transportation use
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle which describes the functioning of a

typical reciprocating piston engine. This is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly
found in automobile engine
The Otto cycle is constructed out of:

TOP and BOTTOM of the loop: a pair of quasi-parallel adiabatic processes
LEFT and RIGHT sides of the loop: a pair of parallel isochoric processes
Fig. 2.6 Otto Cycle, ICE

c. Diesel
The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates

the pressure and volume of the combustion chamber of the Diesel engine, invented
by Rudolph Diesel in 1897. It is assumed to have constant pressure during the first part
of the combustion
This is an idealized mathematical model real physical Diesels do have an

increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle.
The idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates constant volume during that
phase
The Diesel Cycle is a positive displacement, 4 stroke, internal combustion, compression

ignition, open cycle shown in fig 2.7.
Fig 2.7 Diesel Cycle, ICE
d. Brayton
The Brayton cycle, with its high inherent thermal efficiency, requires the maximum
volume of gas flow for a given power output. The Otto and diesel cycles require much
lower gas flow rates, but have the disadvantage of higher peak pressures and
temperatures. These conflicting elements led to many designs, all attempting to achieve
practical compromises.

With the development of fluid acceleration devices for the compression and
expansion of gases, the Brayton cycle found mechanisms which could economically
handle the large volumes of working fluid. This is perfected in the gas turbine power
plant shown in fig 2.8.
A name given to the thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine engine to provide

thrust. This is varying the volume constant pressure cycle of events and is commonly
called the constant pressure cycle. It is also called a continuous combustion
cycle because of four constant and continuous events (i.e intake, compression,
expansion including power and exhaust).
Fig 2.8 Brayton cycle, ICE
3. As to method of charging
a. Two-stroke
b. Four-stroke
4. As to ignition
a. Spark-ignition (Gasoline engines)

b. Compression ignition (Diesel Engines)
5. As to general design
a. Single acting
Acting in one direction only, as a single-acting plunger, or a single-

acting engine shown in fig 2.9 (admitting the working fluid on one side of
the piston only)

Fig 2.9 General Design of Single Acting ,ICE
b. Double acting
Acting in two directions, as with a reciprocating piston in a cylinder with a working

chamber at each end shown in fig 2.10.
Fig 2.10 General Design of Double Acting, ICE

6. As to cylinder arrangement
a. in line
A multiple-cylinder engine with cylinders aligned in a row shown in

fig 2.11.
Fig 2.11 Cylinder in Line, ICE
b. V-line
Two cylinders, two stage single acting 90˚ V-configuration machine,

with a single throw overhung crankshaft shown in fig 2.12.
Fig 2.12 Cylinder V Line , ICE
c. x-type
An X engine is a piston engine comprising twinned V-block engines

horizontally-opposed to each other. Thus, the cylinders are arranged in four
banks, driving a common crankshaft. Viewed head-on, this would appear as an X
shown in fig 2.13. X engines were often coupled engines derived from existing
power plants. This configuration is extremely uncommon, primarily due its weight
and complexity as compared to a radial engine. However, it was more compact
(per number of cylinders) than a V-engine. Most examples of X engines are from
the World War II era, and were designed for large military aircraft.

Fig 2.13 Cylinder X type, ICE
d. radial
The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion

engine configuration in which the cylinders point outward from a central crankshaft
like the spokes on a wheel shown in fig 2.14. This configuration was very
commonly used in large aircraft engines before most large aircraft started using
turbine engines
This type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged in a circle
around a centrally-located crankcase. Each row must have an odd number of
cylinders in order to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only one
crank throw per row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a favorable
power to weight ratio. Because the cylinder arrangement exposes a large amount
of the engine's heat radiating surfaces to the air and tends to cancel reciprocating
forces, radials tend to cool evenly and run smoothly
Fig 2.14 Radial Type of cylinder

e. barrel type
Therefore some cylinder designs have a screwed or flanged connection

from the cylinder end cap to the barrel shown in fig 2.15 below. In this type the
barrel can be disassembled and repaired in future.
The next method used for loading and unloading cartridge revolvers was
the top break design. In a top break revolver, the frame is hinged at the bottom
front of the cylinder. Releasing the lock and pushing the barrel down brings the
cylinder up - this exposes the rear of the cylinder for reloading
Fig 2.15 Radial Type Cylinder, ICE
7. As to method of cooling
a. Liquid-cooling
Four cylinder engines (except the EN series) are a horizontally opposed

Boxer Four-stroke cycle design 3- main bearings, Liquid Cooled. Fig 2.16
Fig 2.16 Liquid cooling of cylinder, ICE

c. air-cooling
Air cooled engine is one of the most widely used and versatile internal
combustion engines in the world
Most modern internal combustion engines are cooled by a closed circuit

carrying liquid coolant through channels in the engine block, where the coolant
absorbs heat, to a heat exchanger or radiator where the coolant releases heat into
the air shown in fig 2.17. Thus, while they are ultimately cooled by air, because of
the liquid-coolant circuit they are known as water-cooled. In contrast, heat
generated by an air-cooled engine is released directly into the air
Fig 2.17 Air Cooling Cylinder, ICE
8. As to method of supplying air
a. naturally aspirated
A naturally aspirated engine is one common type of reciprocating

piston internal combustion engine that depends solely on atmospheric pressure to
counter the partial vacuum in the induction tract to draw in combustion air. This is
in contrast to a forced induction engine, in which a mechanically
driven supercharger, or an exhaust-driven turbocharger is employed to facilitate in
increasing the mass of intake air beyond what could be produced by atmospheric
pressure alone see below in fig 2.18.

Fig 2.18 Naturally Aspirated, ICE
b. supercharged
A reciprocating engine that uses an air compressor to increase the

pressure of the air before it enters the engine cylinders
A blower or compressor, usually driven by the engine, for supplying air

under high pressure to the cylinders of an internal-combustion engine.
A supercharger is an air compressor used for forced induction of an

internal combustion engine. Power for the unit can come mechanically by a belt,
gear, shaft, or chain connected to the engine's crankshaft. One disadvantage is
that the compressor unit is always running no matter at what speed the engine is
operating, and the mechanical load present by the compressor uses up a portion
of the horsepower the engine is producing shown in fig 2.19. Often, an intercooler
unit is used to cool the incoming air, thereby increasing its' density, since the
physical compression performed by the compressor adds heat energy
Fig 2.19 Supercharged, ICE

d. Scavenging
A system for removing used oil and waste gases from a cylinder of an
internal combustion engine in which the exhaust ports are located above the intake
ports on the same side of the cylinder, so that gases circulate in a loop, leaving a dead
spot in the center of the loop in fig 2.20.
Fig 2.20 Scavenged, ICE
C. Four-Stroke Cycle of Diesel Engines

1. Intake Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power Stroke
4. Exhaust Stroke
Fig 2.21 The Four- Stroke Cycle of Diesel Engine

D. Two-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

1. One stroke compresses air in the cylinder to ignite the fuel oil
2.The other stroke is produced by the burning gases. It is the power stroke.
Fig 2.22 Two-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
E. Combustion & Combustion Process
• Combustion is the ignition of air & fuel mixture. To be useful it must be in an

orderly and controlled manner.
• The process of combustion is simple
– Intake of sufficient volume of air
– Compression of air
– Injection of fuel
– Then combustion occurs
4 – stroke cycle
– Intake
– Compression
– Power
– Exhaust
• Intake Stroke - intake valves open allowing air into the combustion chamber. The
piston moves to bottom dead center (BDC), its lowest point; the crankshaft then
turns 180. At this point the exhaust valve is closed shown in fig 3.1.

Fig 3.1 Intake stroke, Four Stroke Cycle
• Compression Stroke - both intake and exhaust valves close in order to seal the
combustion chamber. The piston moves to its highest point called the top dead
center (TDC). The crankshaft turns another 180. The piston motion compresses
the air in the cylinder Shown in fig 3.2.
•
Fig 3.2 Compression Stroke, Four Stroke Cycle
• Power Stroke - diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at the near
end of the compression stroke, combustion then occurs. The rapidly expanding
gases force the piston down turning the crankshaft a 180. Both valves are close
sealing the combustion chamber so that force is exerted on the piston Shown in
fig 3.3.

Fig 3.3 Power Stroke, Four Stroke Cycle
• Exhaust Stroke - the piston moves up and the exhaust valves open to remove
combustion gases. The connecting rod turns the crankshaft a final 180. When the
piston reaches the TDC, exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens again
shown in fig in fig 3.4.
Fig 3.4 Exhaust Stroke, Four Stroke Cycle
• Combustion Chamber is made up of the following:

– Cylinder head
– Valves
– Cylinder liner
– Piston

F. Basic Engine Parts
Fig 4.1 Diesel Engine, ICE

CRANKCASE CHAMBER
Fig 4.1.1 Fig 4.1.2
Fig 4.1.3 Fig 4.1.4
Fig 4.1.5

GEAR Train & Other Parts
Fig 4.1.6
Fig 4.1.7

G. Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from

pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion.
It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the
turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator – about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the
steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process shown in fig 5.1
, 5.2.
Characteristics of steam turbine plant
Advantages
Low maintenance cost (high reliability)
Low cost for lubricating oil
Ability to burn HFO and BoG in any proportion
Disadvantage
Low efficiency (30%)
Excessive CO2 emissions
Large engine room space
Limited propulsion redundancy
Fig 5.1 Marine Steam Turbine Fig 5.2Turbine Rotor

H. Gas Turbine
Internal combustion and Turbo Type

A gas turbine shown in fig 6.1, also called a combustion turbine, is a type
of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed
with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of
the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the
turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through
a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor
and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the
turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.
Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or thrust or
any combination of these and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, or
even tanks.
Fig 6.1 Marine Gas Turbine

I. Thermodynamics basis of steam turbine
Form of energy
Chemical energy ⇒ thermal energy ⇒ kinetic energy ⇒ potential energy
h=3000 (m)
B
E A
Work done by gas
Enthalpy

Convenience of first and second basic formula
Classification 1
Impulse turbine Reaction turbine Compounded turbine
The expansion of steam There are several types

The steam is expanded in
happens only in a nozzle. The of turbine on the same
both guide blades (fixed
thermal energy which steam rotor shaft, usually,
blades) and moving blades. It
has is transformed into kinetic impulse turbine for the
gets reactionary force by
energy, and high-speed steam first stage and impulse
pressure drop (expansion) of
gives impulse power to a turbine or reaction
steam in moving blades.
turbine for after stage
moving blade, and obtains Impulse force is also used.
utilizing the advantage
torque. There is no pressure
of each type.
drop in a moving blade.
Reaction force is also used
since the direction of the steam
flow inside the moving blade is
changed then the reactionary
force is generated.

Classification 2 by arrangement of turbine
Classification 3 by steam flow direction
Axial-flow turbine Radial-flow turbine
Steam expands along

Steam expands along
the rotor direction. It is
the radial direction.
most general for
Ljungstrom turbine.
marine and power
electric station.。

Classification 4 by usage of steam
Condensing turbine Back pressure turbine Regenerative turbine Reheating turbine
Equipped with a Steam is expands to the A part of the steam is A whole steam is
condenser that atmospheric pressure extracted from the extracted from the
and remained energy is middle of turbine and turbine and sent to the
condenses exhausted
used for another heating used for heating feed re-heater of boiler and
steam from turbine.
such as feed water water to the boiler. It its temperature is
The steam is expanded
heating. can get a good thermal increased before
until the high vacuum entering turbine again.
pressure and generates efficiency.
It can decrease the
big power. degree of wetness at
the low pressure stage.
Superheated steam
Saturated steam turbine
turbine
Saturated steam is Super-heated steam is
used. PWR used. It is general for
(Pressurized water marine and land
reactor) nuclear power turbines.
site uses this turbine.
Basic type of steam turbine ( simple impulse turbine)
steam
pressure
velocity

Velocity-compounded impulse turbine (Curtis turbine)
ノズル
steam
pressure
velocity
Pressure-compounded impulse turbine (Rateau turbine)
steam
pressure
velocity
Axial-flow reaction turbine (Parsons turbine)
Ahead:
Ahead: Parsons turbine Curtis
turbine
steam
Astern:
Curtis
turbine
pressure
velocity

Radial flow reaction turbine (Ljungstrom turbine)
steam steam
To condenser
pressure
velocity

COMPONENT ENGINE SYSTEMS
• Cooling System
• Lubrication System
• Air Intake & Exhaust System
• Fuel System
• Starting System
Cooling System
Lubrication System
Air Intake & Exhaust System

Starting System
FUEL OIL SYSTEM
Major causes of fuel system trouble are clogged line, interfusion of water or air.
a. Gasoline engine
Fuel tank ⇒ Fuel valve ⇒ Fuel filter ⇒ Fuel pump ⇒ Carburetor ⇒ Cylinder.
b. Diesel engine
Fuel tank ⇒ Fuel valve ⇒ Water separator ⇒ Fuel pump ⇒ Fuel filter ⇒ Injection pump
⇒ Injection Valve (nozzle) ⇒ cylinder.

Two (2) Parts in FO System
1. Fuel Supply
2. Fuel Injection
Fuel Oil Supply for a Two-Stroke Diesel
 Usually arranged to operate continuously on Heavy Oil Fuel.
FO Supply System (Heavy Oil)
1. Oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from which it is pumped to a settling tank
and heated.
2. After passing through the centrifuges the cleaned heated oil is pumped to a service
tank.
3. The oil is pumped through a heater and a *viscosity regulator.
Controls the FO temperature in order to provide oil of the correct viscosity for
combustion.
4. FO passes to a fine filter before being supplied to the injection system.

5. Pressure regulating valve ensures a constant pressure at the fuel main.
6. The Buffer or balance tank collects the recirculated oil.
Fig 7.1 Fuel Oil Supply System Flow Diagram

Fuel Oil System (Diesel Oil)
1. Uses a transfer pump to draw oil from the double bottom tanks.
2 The oil is then purified and stored in a settling tank. (Pumped into a service
tank)
3. The Diesel oil enters the system through a three way valve which permits the
supply of only one type of oil to the system.
Fuel Injection System
 The function of the fuel injection system is to provide the right amount of fuel at
the right moment and in a suitable condition for the combustion process.
 Forms:
1. Measurement of fuel supply
2. Delivery timing
3. Atomisation of the fuel
Two (2) Basic Systems of Fuel Injection
1. Jerk Pump System – a separate injector pump exist for each cylinder.
2. Common Rail System – has one high pressure multiple plunger fuel pump.
THE BASIC FUEL OIL SYSTEM
Marine diesel engines are designed to burn heavy residual fuel. This is made up
to the residues after the lighter and more costly fuel and gases have been taken out of
the crude oil at the refinery. The graphic below illustrates the process

The design below shows a Fuel oil system for a large 2 stroke crosshead engine.
However the set up is typical of any fuel system for a marine diesel engine operating on
heavy residual fuel.
For an explanation of each of the component
Fuel oil separator system
 Identify main circuit

breaker and separator
ON/OFF switch
 Identify feed pump starter
ON/OFF switch
 Identify oil inlet
(unprocessed)
 Identify displacement
pump
 Identify separator unit
 Identify oil separator
starter
 Identify pressure switch
and gauge
 Identify manually
controlled clean oil back
pressure regulating valve
 Identify manually
controlled water seal
valve
 Identify system
monitoring unit
 Identify clean and
unprocessed oil collecting
tank
Note: Ensure power available to

system, check those valves are
open on suction and delivery
side, and ensure pump filled with
oil before starting (Running the
pump dry will damage rotating
parts and shaft seal)
Fig 7.2 Fuel Oil System Diagram

After the heater and before finally

going to the main engine inlet rail
the fuel passes through a final set
of filter to ensure that it is free
of abrasive contaminants which
could damage the fuel pumps,
injector and cylinder liner.
Fig 7.2.1 Fuel oil system filter
From the main engine inlet rail the

fuel enter each fuel pump (one per
cylinder). The fuel pump delivers the
fuel at higher pressure (250bar plus
to the fuel injector(s)
The lower connection on the fuel on

the fuel pump is the fuel return. More
than the required fuel is delivered to
the pump. The excess is recirculated
back to the buffer (mixing) tank.
The fuel injector delivers the

atomized fuel to the cylinder. When
not injecting fuel, the injector
recirculate back to the fuel return.

Fig 7.2.2. Fuel oil system, engine fuel pump and injector
To maintain the fuel oil pressure

at the required setting (on this
system about 8 bar) there is a
backpressure control valve fitted
on the return line
Fig 7.2.3. Fuel oil system, pressure control valve

The fuel then pressure to mixing column or buffer tank where it mixes with fuel
returned from the engine.
The mixing column is fitted with a relief valve and an air release (see bellow and
the outlets from these are led via a sight glass to the fuel oil drain tank
Fig.7.2.4 Fuel oil system FO buffer tank or mixing column
The oil is heated by steam (although thermal oil or electric heaters are used on
the other systems). The temperature of the oil is controlled by a viscosity measuring
device. The viscosity must be maintained at the correct level for injection. On this
particular system it is set at 16 centistokes.
Fig 7.2.5 Fuel oil system, Heater and Viscosity control

The viscosity controller in this particular case is an electronic device. It measures

the dumping of the vibration signal. The more viscous the fuel the less the vibration is
damped.
The output from this signal is sent to the heater control valve
Fig 7.2.6 Fuel oil system, Heater and Viscosity control
From the buffer tank fuel oil circulating pumps pressurize the fuel to about 8 bar
through the heater and to the engine
Fig 7.2.7 Fuel oil

system, Fuel oil
circulating pumps

The fuel is pumped via a meter so that the quantity of fuel used can be monitored
and the specific fuel consumption of the engine calculated.
In the case that the meter has to be bypass, then the fuel is led across a pressure
retaining valve.
Fig 7.2.8 Fuel oil system, Fuel meter
From the supply pumps the fuel passes to a set of back flushing filters (25
micron). The pods contain the filter elements. When the filters start to clog up, a
differential pressure sensor initiates a back flushing routine so that the filters clean
themselves. The back flushing oil with the sediment from the filter drains to the fuel oil
drain tank from which it can be recovered and purified.
The filter can be taken off line for cleaning, when a mesh type filter is put into
operation.
Fig 7.2.9 Fuel oil

system, Back flushing
filters

FUEL OIL SYSTEM

SUNCTION FILTERS, SUPPLY PUMPS AND PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
Before the fuel enters the supply pumps a suction filter removes any particles
which could cause damage. There are two filters, one for each pump. Made from a fire
metal gauge, they can be cleared as necessary and reused.
Fig 7.2.10 Fuel oil system
The supply pumps raise the pressure to about 7 bar. To keep the discharge
pressure constant, a pressure regulating valve is used
Fig 7.2.11 Fuel oil system
There is also a manual bypass which can be used should the regulating valve
develop a fault.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM
There are 2 lubrication oils
Engine oil for lubricate engine

Gear oil for lubricate gear (clutch and others)
Gear Oil does not circulate

2-stroke engine oil burns together with fuel.
Lubrication line (Engine oil)
Oil sump ⇒ Oil pump ⇒ oil filter ⇒ oil cooler ⇒ inside engine ⇒ Oil sump
Lubrication
 Provides a supply of lubricating oil to the various moving parts in an engine.
Main Functions:
1. Enable the formation of a film of oil between the moving parts, which reduces
friction and wear.
2. Used as a cleaner and in some engines as a coolant.
The LO System
 LO for an engine is stored in the bottom of the crankcase, known as the sump, or
in a drain tank located beneath the engine.
1. The oil is drawn from this tank through a strainer, one of a pair of pumps, into
one of a pair of fine filters.
2. Passed to a cooler before entering the engine.
3. Being distributed to the various branch pipes.
 The branch pipe for a particular cylinder may feed the main bearing.
 Some of this oil will pass along a drilled passage in the crankshaft to the bottom
end bearing and then up a drilled passage in the connecting rod to the gudgeon
pin or crosshead bearing.
 An alarm at the end of the distribution pipe ensures that adequate pressure is
maintained in the pump.
 Pumps are arranged In duplicate with one as standby.
4. After use in the engine the lubricating oil drains back to the sump or drain tank
for reuse.
 a level gauge gives a local read-out of the drain tank contents.

Fig 8.1 LO System Flow Diagram
 A centrifuge is arranged for cleaning the lubricating oil in the system and clean oil
can be provided from a storage tank.
 Oil cooler is circulated by sea water, which is at lower pressure than the oil.
 Any leak in the cooler will mean a loss of oil and not contamination of the oil by
sea water.
Cylinder Lubrication
 Large slow speed diesel engines are provided with a separate lubrication system
for cylinder liners.
 Oil is injected between the liner and the piston by mechanical lubricators which
supply their individual cylinder.
 A special type of oil is used which is not recovered.
 Forms a gas seal and cleans the cylinder liners (additives)
LUBRICATING (OIL) SYSTEM COMPONENTS
It must be remembered that the lubricating system is actually an integral part of

the engine and the operation of one depends upon the operation of the other.
Thus the lubricating system, in actual practice, cannot be considered as a separate and
independent system; it is part of the engine. The lubricating system basically consists of
the following:
 Oil Pan- reservoir or storage area for engine oil.

 Oil Level Gauge- checks the amount in the oil pan.
 Oil Pump- forces oil throughout the system.

 Oil Pickup and Strainers- carries oil to the pump and removes large
particles.
 Oil Filters- strains out impurities in the oil.
 Oil Galleries- oil passages through the engine.
 Oil Pressure Indicator- warns the operator of low oil pressure.
 Oil Pressure Gauge- registers actual oil pressure in the engine.
 Oil Temperature Regulator- controls engine oil temperature on diesel
engines.
The oil is taken from the drain tank usually underneath the engine by a screw type
pump. It is cooled, filtered and supplied to the engine via the oil inlet pipe or inlet rail at a
pressure of about 4 bar. On a medium speed 4 stroke engine the oil is supplied to the
main bearing through drillings in the engine frame to the crankshaft main bearings.
Drilling in the crankshaft then take the oil to the crankpin or bottom end bearings. The oil
is then led up the connecting rod to the piston or gudgeon pin and from there to the
piston cooling before returning to the crankcase in fig 8.2.
Fig 8.2 Oil Cooled
Oil is also supplied to lubricate the rocker gear operating the inlet and exhaust
valve, and to the crankshaft and camshaft drive.
The oil then drains from the crankcase into the drain tank or sump.
The oil in the drain tank is being constantly circulated through a centrifugal
purifier. This is to remove any water and product s of combustion plus any foreign
particles which may be in the oil.
The cylinder liner must be lubricated as well. This is so there will be a film of oil
between the piston rings and the liner so that any acid produced by combustion of the
fuel is neutralized by the oil and does not cause corrosion. Some of this lubrication will
be supplied by so called ―splash lubrication‖ which is the oil splashed up into the liner by

the rotating crankshaft. However larger medium speed marine diesel engines also use
separate pumps to supply oil under pressure to the cylinder liner. The oil is led through
drillings onto the liner surface where grooves distributed it circumferentially around the
liner, and the piston rings spread it up and down the surface of the liner.
A pre lube pump is sometimes fitted especially to engines where the main pump is
engine driven. The pump is electrically driven and circulates oil around the engine prior
starting.
Lub Oil System
 Identify clean oil tank and hand pump

 Identify tank vent and sounding tube
 Identify upper deck filling point
 Identify waste oil tank
 Identify waste oil tank suction valve
 Identify waste oil pump and isolating
valve
 Identify upper deck discharge point
 Identify daily service tank sludge
pump
 Identify main engine/gearbox suction
cocks
 Identify alternator engine suction
cocks
 Identify all filter drain valve
•
Note: Line up system, operators manual the rig
and check shore discharge hose and also carry
out daily user checks
On a two stroke crosshead engine lubricating oil is supplies to the main bearing
and camshaft and camshaft drive. A separate supply is led via a swinging arm or a
telescopic pipe to the crosshead where some of it is diverted to cool the piston (travelling
up and back through the piston rod), whilst some is used to lubricate the crosshead and
guides, and the rest led down a drilling in the connecting rod to the bottom end or
crankpin bearing. Oil is also used to operate the hydraulic exhaust valves.
On some engines, the oil supply to the crosshead bearing is boosted in pressure
to about 12 bar by a second set of pump. This oil is also used to operate the hydraulic
reversing gear for the engines

The cylinder liners on two stroke engines are lubricated using separate injection
pump which use a different specification of oil. He oil which is led to drillings in the liner is
able to deal with the acids produced by the burning of high sulphur fuels.
COOLING SYSTEM

2 type of cooling systems
Both systems are taking in outside water then cool down engine
a. Direct cooling system
Sea water intake ⇒ Water filter ⇒ Cooling water pump ⇒ Oil cooler ⇒ Thermostat
⇒ circulation pump ⇒ Engine cooling line ⇒ Thermostat ⇒ Discharge.
b. Indirect cooling system
1. Sea water :
Sea water intake ⇒ Water filter ⇒ Water pump ⇒ Oil cooler ⇒

Condenser ⇒ Discharge.
2. Fresh water : HEAT EXCHANGE
Cooling water tank ⇒ Condenser ⇒ Thermostat ⇒ Circulation pump ⇒ Engine

cooling line ⇒ Thermostat ⇒ Cooling water tank.
The basics how the engine is cooled
Although there is an abundance of free sea water available, marine diesel engines
do not use it directly to keep the hottest parts of the engine cool. This is because of the
corrosion which would be caused in the cooling water spaces, and the salts which would
be deposited on the cooling surfaces interfering with the heat flow.
Instead, the water circulating around the engine is fresh water ( or better still,
distilled water) which is then itself cooled using sea water. This fresh water is treated
with chemicals to keep it slightly alkaline ( to prevent corrosion ) and to prevent scale
formation of course, if distilled water, which some ships can make from sea water
evaporators, is used then there is a reduced risk of scale formation.
The cooling water pump, which may be engine driven or be a separated

electrically driven pump, pushes the water around the circuit. After passing through the
engine, where it removes the heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust
valves and sometimes the turbocharger, it is cooled by seawater and then returns to the
engine. The temperature for the cooling water is closely controlled using a three way
control valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then it cause thermal shocking which
may lead to component failure and will also allow water and acids to condense on the
cylinder bores washing away the lubricating film and casing corrosion. If it gets too hot
then it will not remove the heat effectively causing excessive wear and there is a greater
danger of scale formation. For this reason the cooling water outlet temperature is usually
maintained at about 78-82 ˚C. Because it is at a higher temperature than the cooling
water used for the other purposes (known as the LT cooling), the water for cooling the
engine is known as the HT (High Temperature) cooling water.
Cooling can be achieved, by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing in some of the

water from the LT cooling circuit. The LT cooling water is then cooled in the water
coolers. The temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors both the
inlet and outlet temperature from the engine. This allows a fast to any change in
temperature due to a change in engine load.
System are also led to this header tank to allow for any expansion in the system
and to get rid of any air (if you are familiar with a domestic central heating system then
you will see the similarities). The heater tank is relatively small and usually placed high in
the engine room. It is deliberately made to be manually replenished, and is fitted with a
low level alarm. This is so that any major leak would be noticed immediately. Under
normal conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then
the amount logged.
The system will also contain a heater, which is to keep the cooling water hot when
the engine is stopped, or to allow the temperature to be raised to a suitable level prior to
starting. Some ships use a central cooling system, whereby the engines which are
stopped are kept warm ready for immediate starting by the engines which are running.
A fresh Water Generator (FWG), which is used to produce fresh water from sea
water, is also incorporated.
A drain tank has been included. This is for when the engine is drained down for
maintenance purposes. Because of the quantities of water involved and the chemical
treatment, it is not economically viable or environmentally responsible to dump the
treated water overboard each time. This way the water can be re used.

Photo and Description of component
Fig 9.1. HT Cooling Water System
HT Cooling Water System
There are two HT cooling

pumps fitted. These are
centrifugal pump which
maintain the cooling water
circulating pressure at about 4
bar
Fig 9.1.1 Cooling Water Pump,HT

To keep the system hot when the ship is in

port a steam heater is used. The water is
pumped through the heater using a small
circ pump
Fig 9.1.2 Cooling Water Pump, HT
The fresh water generator (or

evaporator uses the heat
from the main engines in the
cooling water to produce
fresh water from sea water.
The pressure in the
evaporator is below
atmosphere (i.e. a vacuum)
so that the water boils at
lower temperature (about
65˚C). On large passage
vessel the evaporator can
produce 500 tons/day. This
version is for a container ship
and can produce 30
tons/day.
Fig 9.1.3 Fresh Water Generator, Cooling water
The temperature of the cooling water is controlled automatically by a 3 way valve.

If no cooling is required (when the engine is stopped) then the valve allows water to
circulate through the valve back to the pumps.
If cooling is required, then water is divided to the Low Temperature (LT) system
and replaced with cool water from the LT system. The LT water is cooled using sea
water in plate coolers.

Fig 9.1.4 Valve , Cooling water , HT
Any air is removed in the dearation

vessel before the water is led to
the HT pump
Fig 9.1.5 Tank, Cooling Water
To make up for any leaks in the system there is header tank, which automatically
makes up any deficiency. Vents from the system are also led to this header tank to allow
for any system and to get rid of any air. The heater tank is relatively small, and usually
placed high in the engine room. It is deliberately made to be manually replenished, and
is fitted with a low level alarm. This is so that any major leak would be noticed
immediately. Under normal conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and normal
conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then the
amount logged.

Fig 9.1.6 Header Tank , Cooling water
This system a typical cooling water circuit for a single medium speed engine with
an engine with an engine driven main pump and an electrically driven auxiliary pump and
heater for keeping the engine warm when stooped shown fig 9.2.
Fig 9.2 Fresh Water Circuit

In this diagram fig 9.3 a simple circulation system for an engine. It is similar to the
main diagram, but this time a dedicated HT cooler is used
Fig 9.3 Circulating System, Cooling water
STARTING AIR SYSTEM
The Starting Air System
Diesel engines are started by supplying compressed air into the cylinders in the
appropriate sequence for the required direction.
A supply of air is stored in air reservoir or ―bottles‖ ready for immediate use. Up to
12 starts are possible.
The starting air system usually has interlocks to prevent starting if everything is
not in order.

The System
1. Compressed air is supplied by air compressor to the air receivers.
2. The compressed air is then supplied by a large bore pipe to a remote operating
non-return or automatic valve and then to the cylinder air start valve.
3. Opening of the cylinder air start valve will admit compressed air into the cylinder.
4. Opening of the cylinder valve and the remote operating valve is controlled by a
pilot air system.
5. The pilot air is drawn from the large pipe and passes to a pilot air control valve
which is operated by the engine start lever. (when the air start lever is operated, a supply
of pilot air enables the remote valve to open).
6. Pilot air for the appropriate direction of operation is also supplied to an air
distributor. Air distributor is usually driven by the engine camshaft and supplies pilot air to
the control cylinders of the cylinder air start valves.
7. The pilot air is then supplied in the appropriate sequence for the direction of
operation required.
8. The cylinder air start valves are held closed by springs when not in used and
opened by the pilot air enabling the compressed air direct from the receivers to enter the
engine cylinders.
9. An interlock in the operating valve line which stops the valve opening when the
engine turning gear is engaged. (Remote operating valve prevents the return of air which
has been further compressed by the engine into the system). To reduce the effects of an
explosion, flame traps, relief valves and bursting caps or disc are fitted in the pipelines.
Use of a high temperature alarm or a fusible plug to guard against loss of

Cooling water from an air compressor.

Fig 10.1 Starting Air System
The basic Starting Air System (simplified)
Large marine diesel engines use high pressure compressed air to start them. The air
flows into the cylinder when the piston is moving down the cylinder on the power stroke.
The minimize the risk of an air explosion; fuel is not injected into the cylinder whilst the
air is being admitted.
Air start system vary in their design and can be quite complex. These will be a means to
start the engine locally as well as from a remote location (The Bridge or the engine
control room). This system is not representative of one type of engine but is simplified to
give a basic understanding in diagram shown in fig 10.2.

Fig. 10.2 Starting Air System (Simplified)
The air distributor normally consist of a series of pilot valves, one for each cylinder
arranged radially around a cam, Timed to the engine and driven from the camshaft, the
distributor opens the main air start valves in the correct sequence shown in fig 10.2.1.
Fig 10.2.1. Air start system,

the air star distributor

The air start valve is located

in the cylinder head.
When it is opened by the
air signal from the distributor,
compressed air at 30 bar
flows into the cylinder,
forcing the piston down fig 10.2.2
Fig 10.2.2. Air start system, the air start valve
The automatic valve is only open whilst an air is taking place. It incorporates a
non return valve to prevent any explosion in the air start system getting back to the air
receives. A slow turn valve is incorporated in the smaller bore pipe work to the side of
the valve shown in fig 10.2.3. This is used to turn the engine slowly before starting, to
prevent damage which could be caused if liquid had found its way into the cylinder.
Fig 10.2.3. Air start system, the automatic valve

Two air start compressor are normally supplied which must be capable of
charging the air receivers from empty to full in one hour.
They are usually two stage reciprocating with inter and after stage cooling. Relief
valve will be fitted to each stage which will limit the pressure rise to 10% of design
pressure, and a high temperature cut out or fusible plug to limit the HP discharge to 121
˚C.
Intercoolers are also fitted with bursting disks or relief valve on the water side
shown in fig 10.2.4.
Fig 10.2.4 Air start system, air compressor

Two air receivers are fitted. The total capacity of the receivers must be sufficient
to start the engine 12 times alternating between ahead and astern without recharging the
receivers. In the case of a unidirectional engine, then the capacity must be sufficient for 6
starts.
The air receiver will be fitted with a relief valve to limit the pressure rise to 10% of
design pressure. A pressure gauge and a drain must also be fitted. A manhole gives
access to the receiver for inspection purposes shown in fig 10.2.5.
Starting Air Compressor
 Identify main power panel and circuit

breaker
 Locate and identify the main unit
including:
• Safety valve
• Output valves
• Temperature and monitor
gauge
• Stop/start control
• Manual drains
Note: Start, oil level in sight glass will drop when

machine is running unloaded/bleed valve will
close automatically. When compressor is running
listen for any unusual noises
Running load, these machine will normally be

under automatic stop/start control unless engine
driven, when control is more usual
Stop, If the compressor stands idle for some time

Fig 10.2.5. Air start system, the air receiver turn the machine over by hand before starting to
ensure it turn freely

Air Compressor
 a mechanical device that compresses taken in air/ gasses - at atmospheric

pressure and delivers it at a higher pressure.
Production of compressed air under pressure greater than the atmosphere.

Uses:
1. Diesel Engine Starting
2. Air Pressure for the ship‘s Horn
3. Cleaning of machineries
ENGINE DESCRIPTION
Engine Parts
This type valve is used in nearly all marine reciprocating engines.
With engines having more than one cylinder, each cylinder has its own steam
chest and valve. The valves must be kept in proper adjustment; otherwise one cylinder
would be doing more work than the other resulting in loss of power and fuel wasted.
CYLINDERS
Cylinders are made of cast iron, the top head being readily removable. The
cylinders are supported in position by the columns. Steam engines may have one or
more cylinders, a popular size installed in cargo vessels having three in fig 11.1.
Fig 11.1 Cylinder

PISTONS
A piston is made of cast iron and acts as a sliding round plug inside of the
cylinder. It is secured to the piston rod by a nut shown in fig 11.2.
Fig 11.2 Piston
PISTON RINGS
To prevent the steam from flowing through the clearance between the piston and
cylinder walls piston rings are installed. They are constructed of fine grade cast iron and
have a sliding fit in a groove around the outside of the piston shown in fig 11.3. The plain
snap type piston ring is made oversize and is held out tight against the cylinder wall by
the tension in the ring, set up by its having to be compressed when installed. Improved
piston rings of several different designs are used in practically all main engines today
especially in high pressure cylinders. These employ a separate spring to provide the
tension for holding the piston ring out against the cylinder wall. By adjusting the tension
of the spring the tightness of the ring is determined. If the rings are not kept properly
adjusted steam will blow by the piston, resulting in loss of power and steam wasted. This
can usually be detected by the readings of the cylinder pressure gages.
Lubrication must be provided between the piston rings and cylinder wall.
Fig 11.3 Piston Rings

PISTON ROD
The piston rod is round, made of steel, the top end is secured to the piston, the
bottom end to the crosshead shown in fig 11.4. To prevent steam from blowing out of the
cylinder around the rod, metallic type packing is installed around the rod in the stuffing
box.
Fig 11.4 Piston Rod
METALLIC PACKING
The cut-away view of a set of one type of metallic packing in place on a piston rod
shows that the two metal rings (6) are the only parts in contact with the rod. The metal
used in this type packing is relatively soft, being a form of babbitt. The coil springs (10)
provide the tension to hold the rings tight around the rod shown in fig 115. The piston rod
sliding through the metal rings must be lubricated otherwise the friction will cause
overheating.
Fig 11.5 Mettalic Packing

CROSSHEAD
A crosshead is a square steel block rigidly fastened to the bottom end of the
piston rod. On the forward and after side of the block is a round steel pin known as the
crosshead pin, around which the crosshead bearings fit shown in fig 11.6. These
bearings are rigidly fastened to the top of the connecting rod fork and in operation the
bearings revolve back and forth around the pins and must be lubricated.
To the back side of the crosshead a slipper is attached.
Fig 11.6 Crosshead

SLIPPER
A slipper is made of cast iron with the flat bearing face being coated with babbitt
metal. Some engines have one slipper and some two depending on whether it is a single
or double guide engine. The great proportion of engines being built today being of single
guide construction, the text will deal with that type shown in fig 11.7.
Fig 11.7 Slipper

GUIDES
The ahead guide is a flat face made of cast iron and bolted against the column.
The astern guide consists of two cast iron side bars which fit around the outside of the
slipper preventing it from being pulled away from the guide when the engine is turning in
the astern motion shown in fig 11.8. Lubrication must be provided between the sliding
metal faces of the slipper and guides.
Guides are usually cooled by sea water passing through a core in the back of the
ahead guide face.
Fig 11.8 Guides

CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod is made of steel, the top end usually being forked in large
engines and attached to the crosshead with bearings so that the crankpin is free to turn
as the crank goes around. The crankpin bearing must be lubricated also shown in fig
11.9.
Fig 11.9 Connecting Rod

CRANK
The crank is constructed of steel and consists of the following parts. Webs which
are the two side pieces connecting the crankshaft with the crankpin. Crankpin which is a
round steel pin between the outer ends of the crank webs, around which the crankpin
bearing is fitted shown in fig
Fig 11.10 Crank
CRANKSHAFT
The crankshaft is a large round steel shaft to which the cranks are attached.
Those portions of the shaft which revolve in the main bearings are known as journals.
Mounted on the shaft are the eccentrics shown in fig 11.11.
Fig 11.11 Crankshaft
ECCENTRICS
The eccentrics which move the engine valves up and down are merely an off
center or eccentric wheel secured around and keyed to the outside of the crankshaft
shown in fig 11.12. Two are required for each valve, one being for ahead motion and one
for astern. The motion of the moving eccentric is transmitted to the eccentric rod by the
eccentric strap which extends entirely around the outside of the eccentric, the eccentric
turning inside of it. The inside surface of the strap which bears on the eccentric is either

lined with abbitt metal or bronze. Lubrication must be provided between the strap and
eccentric.
Fig 11.12 Eccentrics
COLUMNS
The columns are made of hollow cast iron shown in fig , box construction and are
used to hold the cylinders and steam chests in position, two columns supporting each
cylinder and chest. The columns stand on and are11.13 bolted to the bedplate.
Fig 11.13 Columns
BEDPLATE
The bedplate is securely fastened to the ship's hull forming a true surface for the
main bearings and columns shown in fig 11.14. In assembling, the bedplate must be true
and ridged, otherwise the engine will be thrown out of line.
Fig 11.14 Bedplate

MAIN BEARINGS
The main bearings support the crankshaft, one being required on each side of
every crank.
The bottom halves are fitted into a recess in the bedplate, all bearings being in direct
alignment. When the crankshaft is lowered into place, the top half of the bearings are put
on and adjusted for clearance after which they are secured with bolts which extend
through the bedplate.
The inside surface of the bearings is lined with babbitt metal requiring lubrication.
This is supplied through oil holes leading from the top of the bearings through to the
shaft. Oil grooves cut in the face of the babbitt metal enable the oil to spread evenly the
length of the bearings. The revolving shaft carries the oil entirely around the bearing
providing an unbroken film which keeps the metal of the bearing from coming in contact
with the journal. This principle of lubrication applies to all bearings shown in fig 11.15.
The lower half of main bearings on larger engines is usually cooled by sea water flowing
through a core in the bearing shell.
Fig 11.15 Main Bearings
CRANKPIN BEARING
The crankpin bearing is bolted to the bottom end of connecting rod and of same
general construction as main bearings. Lubricated from oil cups on the crosshead, the oil
passing down oil lines on the forward and after side of the connecting rod shown in fig
11.16 .

Fig 11.17 Crankpin Bearing
CROSSHEAD BEARINGS
The crosshead bearings are bolted to the top end of the connecting rod and may
be constructed of brass or with a babbitt lining. Lubricated through an oil cup on top of
the bearing shown in fig 11.18..
Fig 11.18 Crosshead Bearing
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR
The D-type slide valve is held on its seat by the steam pressure pushing against
the back of it. This sets up considerable friction which requires a great deal of power to
move the valve when high steam pressures are used 11.19 shown in fig . For this
reason, another type of valve is used to a great extent on marine engines. This is known

as a piston valve, and is, in fact, a flat slide valve developed into the form of a cylinder,
presenting no flat surfaces upon which the
Fig 11.19 Valve and Valve Gear
Engine terms
Air Cock. A valve placed on the highest point of a boiler. Opened to allow air to escape
from boiler when filling or getting up steam. Also opened to allow air to enter boiler when
draining.
Air Compressor. A power-driven pump by which air is placed under pressure and
usually delivered to a storage tank.

Air Ejector. The unit by which air and uncondensed gases are removed from the
condenser, leaving a vacuum. Generally operated by a steam jet. Usually used with
power plants having turbine-type engines.
Air Register. A part of an oil burner. By adjusting the air register the amount of air
entering the furnace to mix with the oil is controlled.
Appurtenance. (Boiler)-Any equipment used with or attached to a boiler.

Auxiliary. (Auxiliary feed-auxiliary steam lines)-A duplicate, generally of smaller

capacity, which can be used as a substitute or used to assist.
Atmosphere Valve. A valve by which the auxiliary exhaust steam can be released to the
atmosphere instead of going to the condenser. Used in the event the condenser is
inoperative such as when the ship is in drydock.
Alley Well (Tunnel Well). A deep recess at the after end of the shaft tunnel where water
trickling through the stern tube collects to be pumped out by the bilge pump.

Back Pressure. The pressure of the auxiliary exhaust steam. Usually about 15 lbs. per
square inch.
Auxiliary Steam Stop Valve. A stop valve placed directly on top of each boiler to cut off
the flow of steam from that boiler through the auxiliary steam line.
Baffle, Gas Passage. A wall or partition of heat-resisting material between the boiler
tubes to conduct the flow of gases along a definite path among the boiler tubes from the
furnace to the stack.

Baffle, Water. A steel plate placed in the water and steam drum of boilers to direct and
improve water circulation and prevent water splashing over into the dry pipe.
Ballast Pump. A large pump located in the engine room to transfer water ballast either
from one tank to another tank, or from one tank overboard. Ballast tanks are usually filled
by flooding from the sea.
Boiler. A pressure vessel used to convert water to steam by applying heat. General
types: Fire-tube or Scotch boiler in which water surrounds tubes and firebox. Water tube
in which water is carried in tubes which are surrounded by hot gases.

Blowdown. The difference, in lbs. per square inch, between the pressure at which a
safety valve opens and the pressure at which the valve reseats, generally expressed as
a percentage of the lifting pressure.
Blowdown Ring. A notched ring held in place by a setscrew which extends through the
safety valve body. The amount of blowdown can be adjusted by this ring:
– turn ring right-raises it and shortens blow-down.

– turn ring left-lowers it and lengthens blow-down.
Blow Valves. Used to remove sludge, scum, and to reduce salinity.
Bottom blow-A valve used for blowing sludge, mud, scale etc. from the lowest
portion of the boiler.
Surface blow-(Not required where pressure exceeds 350 lbs. per square inch.)
Attached at normal water level of boiler to a pipe or pan which collects scum,
grease etc. Used for blowing scum or grease from surface of water.

Blower. A power-driven fan by which air is supplied, under a slight pressure, to a

furnace.
Bulkhead. A wall or partition on a ship; may or may not be watertight.
Bulkhead Deck. The deck which connects to any watertight bulkhead forming a
watertight compartment.

Brickwork. The brick lining of a furnace made up of firebrick, refractory and insulating
material forming walls which add to the efficiency of furnace operation.
Bulkhead Stop Valve. A valve located on the engine room side of the bulkhead
separating engine and fireroom. Used to control flow of steam in main line.
Bilge. That portion of a ship's compartment between hull plates and floor plates or
between tank tops and floor plates.

Bilge Pump. Any pump having the necessary connections to bilges and water bottoms
(suction strainer, pipes, mud boxes, basket strainers, manifold etc.) may be attached
directly to air pump beam of the main engine or may be an independently powered pump
such as the sanitary, ballast, general service or fire pump.
Circulating Pump, Condenser. A pump of large capacity used for the purpose of
pumping sea water through the tubes of the condenser, thus cooling the tubes so that
the exhaust steam will be condensed. This sudden reduction of volume creates a
vacuum which reduces back pressure.
Combustion Chamber. A large space provided in a boiler to allow room for complete
combustion to take place. Generally found in Scotch boilers, as the furnace in a water
tube boiler is usually large enough to allow for complete combustion.

Condensate. This is the name given to condensed exhaust steam; it is distilled water.
Condenser, Steam. A unit in which the exhaust steam from the power plant is condensed
into water so as to perform two purposes: First, it reduces the back pressure on the
machinery, and second, it makes possible the use of the water over again as feed water.
Crown Sheet, Boiler. The top sheet of the combustion chamber. Usually found in
marine installations using Scotch boilers.
Dampers, Uptake. A pivoted metal plate placed in the uptake or stack of a boiler for
regulating draft or closing the stack or uptake. In boilers using oil for fuel, dampers are
secured in the open position while the boilers are in use.

Desuperheaters, Steam. A unit by which the superheat is removed from the steam,
generally consisting of a series of pipes submerged in the water in the boiler drum
through which the superheated steam passes. Desuperheaters are used to protect super
heaters by maintaining circulation. Also to supply steam to auxiliaries.
Draft, Stack. The flow of the hot gases from the boiler and the flow of air into the
furnaces.
NATURAL DRAFT is the natural flow of the cooler air into the furnaces without the aid of
any mechanism;

FORCED DRAFT is when the air is forced into the furnaces under a slight pressure; and
INDUCED DRAFT is when the pressure in the stack is reduced to speed up the flow of
air.
Dry Pipe. A perforated pipe running lengthwise in the top of the steam space of the
boiler through which the steam must pass before leaving the boiler. The steam in
passing through the small holes in the pipe loses most of its moisture particles which
otherwise would be carried over from the boiler.

Economizer, Boiler. A feed water heater located in the boiler uptake which receives its
heat from the waste gases from the boiler as they pass on their way to the stack.
Evaporators. Units in which sea water is evaporated so as to obtain distilled water or

fresh water for boiler feeding, etc.
Feed and Filter Tank. Generally referred to as the Hot well. A tank into which the
condensate pump discharges the condensate and in which the feed water passes
through filtering material to remove oil and grease. The filtering material generally is
made up of loaf a sponges.

Feed water Heaters. A heater through which the feed water passes between the feed
pump and the boiler in which the feed water is heated by the heat contained in the
auxiliary exhaust steam. Some of the auxiliary exhaust steam instead of flowing to the
condenser is led to the heater.
Back pressure is the pressure of this exhaust steam in the feed water heater, and is the
pressure against which the auxiliary machinery must operate. The BACK pressure
valve is a valve which admits the auxiliary exhaust steam to the condenser, and is the
valve by which the BACK PRESSURE can be regulated.
Feed Pumps. Pumps which take suction from the feed and filter tank or the reserve feed
tanks and discharge the feedwater into the boilers under pressure above boiler pressure.
Generally a vertical, simplex, double-acting, reciprocating steam pumps, although some
vessels now use centrifugal pumps, or electric driven triplex pumps.
Feedwater, Boiler. Water which is used to make steam in the boilers. Between the feed
tank and the boiler, the water is known as feedwater; between the boiler and the
machinery as live steam; between the machinery and the condenser as exhaust steam;
and between the condenser and the feed tank as condensate.

Feedline check valves. Valves placed in the feedwater line just before the boiler
through which the water may pass in one direction only-toward the boiler. Any flow from
the boiler causes the valve to close.
Feedline Stop Valve. A valve placed between the feed check valve and the boiler,
attached directly to the boiler shell to out off the flow of water in either direction. Both the
feed stop and the feed check valves are required by law.
Fire Pump. A pump of large capacity for supplying sea water to the fire mains. Also has,
as a rule, a bilge suction connection and a ballast suction connection.

Flareback, Furnace. A dangerous explosion in a boiler furnace due to the ignition of

accumulated gases from the fuel. Caused by lighting fires without a torch, leaky burners,
etc. Can cause extensive damage to the boiler and result in the death of the fire room
personnel.
Floor Plates. Steel plates which form the decking of the engine room and fireroom.
Foaming, Boiler. The creation of bubbles or froth on the surface of boiler water, caused
generally by impurities in the boiler water. Causes water to be carried over from the
boiler into the steam lines.
Fresh Water Pump. A pump by which fresh water is delivered from the tanks to wash
bowls, showers, etc., for washing purposes.

Furnace, External. A place in which the fuel is burned to produce the heat necessary to
evaporate water into steam in the boiler. External furnaces are outside of the boiler shell
and generally form part of the boiler setting. Most water tube boilers have external
furnaces.
Furnace, Internal. A space within the boiler shell in which the fuel is burned to produce
the heat necessary to evaporate water into steam in the boiler.

Fusible Plug. A safety device used in a boiler to warn the operator of dangerously low
water. The plug has a hole which tapers to a small diameter and the water side taper is
filled with banca tin 99.3% pure. This tin melts before low water harms the boiler. There
are two types-waterside and fireside and they are named because of the way they go in.
Example: Waterside plug goes in from the waterside of crown sheet or tube.
Gag, Safety Valve. A horseshoe shaped clamp for locking a safety valve closed. Used
during annual Hydrostatic test, often referred to as a clamp.
Generators, Electric. Machines which generate electricity for use on shipboard, driven
by some type of power unit.

Governor, Speed Control. A device by which the speed of a piece of machinery is

regulated.
Hand holes. Openings for cleaning boiler. When large enough to permit passage of a
man are referred to as manholes. Special plates are used to seal these holes and great
care must be used when closing and tightening.
Hotwell. The name sometimes given to the feed and filter tank. It is also the name given
to the reservoir at the bottom of the condenser from which the condensate pump takes
its suction.

Hydrostatic Test. A test put on a boiler with water under a pressure from 11/4 to 11/2
times the safe allowable working pressure of the boiler. Put on by the boiler inspectors,
and, while under this pressure, the boiler is inspected for ruptures and leaks.
Ice Machine. The name given to the compressor in the refrigerating system. Driven by
some type of power unit.
Injector, Boiler Feedwater. A jet pump by which a jet of steam is used to force
feedwater to the boiler. Simple in design, delicate in construction, the injector has been
replaced by other types of pumps.

Lance, Hand, Air or Steam. A unit by which a jet of air or steam is directed into tubes of
a boiler for removing soot. Operated by hand. Several safety precautions must be
observed when using steam lance.
Manifold, Valve. A casting into which a number of pipe lines are led, each pipe opening
controlled by a valve.
Main Steam Stop Valve. A valve connected directly to the top of the boiler shell which
controls the flow of the steam from the boiler to the main steam line, which supplies only
the steam to operate the main engines.

Manhole, Boiler. Generally an elliptical hole to allow the passage of a man's body so
that the boiler can be entered for inspection, overhaul, or repairs. Covered from the
inside with a plate known as a manhole cover, which is secured from the outside by
dogs.
Mud drum, Boiler. A small drum or header located at the lowest point of the boiler into
which sediment, sludge, and other impurities of the boiler water precipitate, and from
which they are removed by the bottom blow down valve.
Pressure Gauge, Boiler. A gage by which the steam pressure in the boiler is registered.
The pipe which connects this gage to the steam space of the boiler is fitted with a valve
directly connected to the boiler shell.

Priming, Boiler. An action taking place in a boiler which causes water to be carried over
into the steam lines.
Propeller, Screw. A device which, when rotated, causes a vessel to move through the
water. Often referred to as the wheel or screw.
Reduction Gears, Speed. Due to the fact that some main engines, such as turbines, are
most efficient at high speeds, and that the propeller is most efficient at fairly low speeds,
the use of gears to reduce speed of screw is necessary.
Refractory, Furnace. Plastic and molded heat-retarding and insulating material used
mostly for furnace linings.

Reducing Valve. A valve by which a varying high steam pressure can be automatically
reduced to a constant low pressure.
Retarders. Flat, twisted strips of steel usually found in the tubes of fire tube boilers, feed
heaters, etc. to slow down the flow of the heating agent, so that there is time for more
heat to pass through the tube.
Safety Valves, Boiler. Spring loaded valves which are set to open at the safe working
pressure of the boiler. Used to relieve excess pressure in the boiler so that the boiler will
not explode.

Salinometer Cock. A small cock or valve by which a sample of boiler water can be
taken from the boiler for test as to acidity, alkalinity, or salinity.
Sanitary Pump. A pump which delivers sea water to the "heads" for sanitary purposes.
Saturated Steam. See Steam.
Scale, Incrustation. Formations on the plates and tubes of boilers due to the impurities
in the boiler water.

Skin Valve, Sea Cock. A valve at the skin or side of the vessel; generally refers to the
one on the blow down lines used to prevent sea water from backing up to the boilers.
Soot Blowers. Mechanical devices attached to the boiler casing through which a steam
jet is directed against the surface for removing soot deposits.
Spring Bearings, Main Line Bearings. Those bearings which support the weight of the
main propeller shaft between the thrust bearing and the stern tube. They also tend to
maintain the alignment of the shaft.

Stay bolts, Boiler. Solid and drilled stays which are used to support the combustion
chambers in boilers.
Steam. Steam is an invisible vapor produced by the rapid evaporation of water when
heat is applied. saturated steam is steam in direct contact with the water from which it
was formed and has the same temperature as the water. It may contain a light amount of
moisture in which case it is known as wet saturated steam, or it may be 100% dry in
which case it is known as dry saturated steam. If this steam is led to a separate unit
known as a superheater, which is placed in the path of the hot gases, its temperature
isincreased above that of the water from which it is formed, and it is then called
superheated steam.
Steam Generators. Steam generators is the name given to the combination of the
boiler, superheaters, economizers, air preheaters, de-superheaters etc.
Steering Engine. Due to its large area, it is impracticable to move the rudder by hand;
instead, the rudder is turned by a power-driven unit which is known as the steering
engine. Stern Gland. The stern gland is a packing gland at the inside end of the stern
tube which prevents excessive flow of sea water in through the stern tube. This gland

should never be tightened so much that there is no trickle of water through the stern to
be, except in port, because this water trickle supplies lubrication to the stern tube.
Stern Tube. The tube or bearing through which that part of the propeller shaft (tail shaft)
which contains the propeller passes through the stern of the vessel, generally lined with
lignum vitae.
Super heaters, Steam. Units generally consisting of a number of tubes through which
saturated steam passes, and over which the hot gases of combustion of the boiler pass
so that the steam may be heated to a higher temperature.

Superheated Steam. See Steam.
Surface Blow. See Blow down Valves.
Tail Shaft. The last portion of the propeller shaft, which passes through the stern tube,
and onto which the propeller is fastened.
Telltale Holes, Stay bolt. Small holes drilled in the ends of stay bolts so that if the stay
bolt breaks or cracks, the steam and water will escape through the hole to the outside of
the supported space to give warning of the break.
Throttle Valve, Main Engine. The valve by which the speed of the engine may be
regulated by controlling the supply of steam flowing to the engine.

Thrust Bearing, Main Shaft. A bearing on the main shaft to prevent endwise movement
of the shaft, so that the thrust of the propeller is transmitted along the shaft to the thrust
bearing which transfers the thrust to the hull of the vessel.
Trap, Steam. A unit for allowing passage of condensate but preventing passage of
steam.
Try Cocks, Boiler Water Level. Three small valves or cocks connected directly to the
boiler shell at the water level so that the accuracy of the gage glass can be checked.
One is located above, one at, and the other below the normal steaming water level
(approximately).

Turning Gear, Jacking Gear. A unit which when engaged may be used for slow turning
of the engine or preventing the engine from rolling over accidentally. Never engaged
while steam is on main engine.
Uptakes, Furnace. Passages through which the gases of combustion, on leaving the
boiler, are led to the stack.
Water Level Gauge. A means by which the water level in the boiler is visible to the
operating personnel, generally consisting of a glass tube for low pressure boilers, and a
special nonshatterable glass gage for high pressure boilers.

Wet Air Pump. When the condensate and the air are both removed from the condenser
by the same pump, the pump is known as a wet air pump. This system does not maintain
as high a vacuum in the condenser as when the two pumps are used.
Hydraulic system
Note: Only one (1)

pump/motor needs to be on
service the other remains as
a backup in case of a system
failure
Ensure boat/docking capstan

brakes are functional and
capstan revolves in both
direction

MAIN ENGINE
Space shuttle main engine burns a combination of liquid oxygen and

liquid hydrogen fed from the space shuttle external tank. The combustion process takes
place in two steps, firstly the fuel is burnt at high pressure and low temperature and then
it is burned completely at high pressure and high temperature.
Due to this staged burning of fuel, amount of fuel required would be comparatively
less and hence, SSME's efficiency to produce thrust is about 99%. The space shuttle
main engines are controlled during flight by digital computer systems mounted on each
engine.
These operate in conjunction with engine sensors, valve actuators and spark
igniters. These devices help in monitoring engine control, checkout and status of the
combustion process of fuel.
Each SSME has one main engine controller consisting of two digital computers and their
related electronics.
The last part of shuttle is orbiter
 Combustion of liquid hydrogen + liquid oxygen

 Combustion takes place in 2 steps
1. High temperature low pressure
2. High temperature high pressure
An internal combustion engine is any engine that operates by burning its fuel
inside the engine. In contrast a steam engine burns its fuel outside the engine. The most
common internal combustion engine type is gasoline powered. Others include those
fueled by diesel, hydrogen, methane, propane, etc. Engines typically can only run on one
type of fuel and require adaptations to adjust the air/fuel ratio or mix to use other fuels.
In a gasoline engine, a mixture of gasoline and air is sprayed into a cylinder. This
is compressed by a piston and at optimal point in the compression stroke; a spark plug
creates an electrical spark that ignites the fuel. The combustion of the fuel results in the
generation of heat, and the hot gases that are in the cylinder are then at a higher
pressure than the fuel-air mixture and so drive the piston back down. These combustion
gases are vented and the fuel-air mixture reintroduced to run a second stroke. The
outward linear motion of the piston is ordinarily harnessed by a crankshaft to produce
circular motion. Valves control the intake of air-fuel mixture and allow exhaust gasses to
exit at the appropriate times
Main Propulsion Engine
Is a machine which uses steam or internal combustion to propel or drive the

propeller of a ship or watercraft. From then, the propeller will provide thrust for the ship.
Fig 12.1 Main Propulsion Engine

Low-speed crosshead engine
10
19
16
23
15
23
22 24
12
21
5
18 17

Fuel oil 1. Cylinder

Lubricating oil 2. Piston
Exhaust gas 3. Exhaust valve
Jacket water 4. Crosshead bearing
Seawater/Low temperature fresh 5. Crankpin bearing
Starting air 6. Crankshaft
Scavenge air 7. Flywheel
8. Crankcase door
9. Crankcase bed 17. Sump
10. Exhaust gas receiver 18. Foundation bolt
11. Piston rod 19. Fuel pump
12. Connecting rod 20. Camshaft
13. Turning gear 21. A-frame
14. Cylinder cover 22. Cooling water (air cooler)
15. Air receiver 23. Lub. Oil lines
16. Turbo-charger 24. Tie rod
10
14
3
1 2
11
4
8 12
5 6
9
13 7
18
Engine Type
A ship 's diesel engines can be two-stroke or four-stroke Two-stroke means that
it takes two movements of the piston, down and up, to complete one combustion
process. With four-stroke engines, it takes four strokes.
Two stroke engines are always line engines. Four stroke engines can be line
engines or V-engines.

Line engine -the cylinders are placed in line next to each other.
V-engine -the cylinders are placed opposite to each other at an angle of 45 till 90
degrees from the vertical (like a V).
A 12-cylinder V-engine is the length of a 6cylinder engine. A 12-cylinder V-engine

is cheaper than two 6-cylinder line engines. Line engines have a maximum of 12
cylinders, V-engines up to 20.
Furthermore, ship's engines can be characterized by their speed:
– High-speed four-stroke engines -RPMs above 960.

– Medium-speed four-stroke engines -RPMs ranging from 240-960
– Low-speed two -stroke engines -RPMs below 240.
The high-speed and medium-speed engines drive the propeller after being reduced in
speed in a reduction gear box. The low-speed engine is directly coupled to the propeller.
1. Crankshaft with counter weights

2. Connecting rod
3. Stepped piston
4. Cylinder liner
5. Fire ring with jet cooling
6. Cylinder head
7. Individual cylinder jacket
8. Cylinder crankcase
9. Crankshaft-bearing cover
10. Lateral crankshaft-bearing bolt
11. Crankshaft-bearing bolt
12. Cylinder-head bolt
13. Camshaft fuel injection
14. Fuel pump
15. Fuel injection pipe
16. Push rod
17. Camshaft valve control
18. Rocker ann
19. Exhaust valve with propeller
20. Inlet valve
21. Starting valve
22. Injection nozzle
23. Charging air pipe
24. Exhaust gas pipe
25. Cooling water pipes
26. Charging air cooler
27. Exhaust gas turbocharger
28. Adjusting device for injection timing
29. Adjusting device tor valve timing

30. Governor actuator
27
24
18 6
19
12
25 30
20
23 22 21 16 5 7
26 15
17
4
14
29
3 28
13 2
11 28
1
9
10
Medium-speed V-Engine

PROCEDURES FOR REMOVING PISTON
Engine overhauling
Preparation works for engine overhaul
1. To confirm maneuvering position in the machine side (local)

2. Engine starting handle is made into a stop position
3. Engage turning gear
4. To confirm shut off stop valves for cooling water, fuel, lubricating oil, and a staring air
5. Drain out cylinder jacket cooling water
6. To stamp the matching mark before overhauling and removal
Procedure for engine overhaul
1. Remove pipes fitting around cylinder cover

 Air and exhaust manifolds
 Fuel oil high pressure pipe
 Cooling oil pipe
 Cooling water pipe
 Starting air pipe
2. Remove valve gearing

3. Loosen and remove nuts for cylinder cover by specialized tool
4. Remove cylinder cover by specialized lifting tool
5. Turn the crank in the position which is easy to loosen crank pin bolts
6. Crank pin bolts are removed using an specialized tool. Keep in mind that it may fall
out although the bolt is a taper
7. Piston is put into a top position by turning, and fit the piston with specialized lifting tool
and draw out
Disassembly for cylinder head accessories
1. Detach the bonnet, and remove the various piping in the neighborhood of cylinder
head
(Do not forget to remove also the starting air pipe, the rocket arm oil pipe and return pipe
that are hidden from sight)
2. Detach the fuel injection pipe and fuel injection valve

3. Remove the suction and exhaust valve rocker arms
4. The rocker arm support
5. Take off the suction manifold and exhaust manifold (when full overhauling is not to be
done, unscrew only bolts of that cylinder)
6. Detach the indicator cock
7. Take off the push rod

8. Detach the exhaust thermometer
Disassembly cylinder head
Because a crank might take place on cylinder head due to thermal load during
operation if carbon accumulated on the surface of cylinder head exposed to combustion
gas, or if scale adhered to cooling water line, impeding the cooling effect it is necessary
to overhaul clean the cylinder head periodically
The cylinder head is made of cast iron and is mounted with studs to the cylinder
together with cylinder liner
Packing is used to maintain air-tightness between the cylinder liner and cylinder
head
The fuel valve is mounted in the center of the cylinder head, and intake and
exhaust valves are mounted on both sides
Also mounted on the cylinder head are the starting valve and pressure indicator
valve
Cylinder head disassembly
1. Remove nuts using the proper spanner

2. Mount eye-bolts for hoisting on to the cylinder head, and hoist vertically using a wire
rope as shown in the diagram below. Be careful not to damage threads of cylinder head
mounting bolts
3. Remove the cylinder head packing
Inspection after disassembly
1. Check for deposition of carbon on the combustion surface

2. Check that there is no evidence of gas leakage from the mounting surface
3. Check for deposition of lubricant and carbon in the intake/exhaust air path way
4. Remove the blank cap and check for scaling and corrosion in the water path way
5. Check that there is no evidence of gas leakage from the various valve mounting seats
Cylinders cover lifting

Disassembly of Exhaust Valve
Exhaust valve is the casing type, and an extremely soft steel packing is used
between the cylinder head and valve seat to prevent leakage of gas from the combustion
chamber
The exhaust valve is the water cooled type, part of the cooling water from the
cylinder head is used to cool the valve
To improve durability, the seating area between the valve seats is treated with
satellite and the top of the valve is equipped with a valve rotator to enable turning of the
valve. Also, the intake valve seating area is treated with satellite
1. Remove mounting nuts with the proper spanner

2. Evenly jack-up and lift the valve casing with the removal tool
3. Mount the valve spring tool vertically, without any tilt
4. Screw in the compression shaft further and remove the valve retainer
5. Loosen the compression shaft until the valve spring is fully extended, and then remove
the valve spring tool
6. Remove the valve spring holder, spring, valve and valve seat, in the given order
Exhaust valve and valve rotator
Valve Rotator disassembly
If the valve rotator shows a rotation defect, disassembly at the earlier possible
opportunity, and replace the defective rotator. Disassembly can be easily done by
removing the rotators stop ring. When reassembling, mount balls and springs in the
direction indicated by the mark
Inspection after disassembly
1. Check contact and wear at the seating surface between the valve and valve seat, and
reface if necessary

Standard thickness of the satellite coating is about 2mm for both the valve and
valve seat
If wear is greater than 70% of this thickness (1.4 mm) retreat with satellite or
replace with new parts. If the valve and valve seat show evidence of blow-by area has
suffered high temperature fatigue and lacks durability
So it is best to replace with new parts
Stellite coating for valve and valve seat
2. Check for wear and corrosion of the valve stem and valve casing guide
If there are signs of corrosion on the guide, this may caused by sulphuric acid due
to over cooling. Be careful to control cooling water temperature
3. Check contact between the valve casing and valve seat, and reface if necessary.
Refacing of valve and valve seat
4. Check for gas leakage between the valve seat and cylinder head mount surface
Long term use may damage the cylinder head mounting surface

Reface if necessary
Do not machine the valve seat side any more than necessary
5. Check for contact between the valve retainer and valve stem
Crank pin bolt removal
Before disassembly, measure and record crankpin metal clearance
1. Remove carbon deposit at the top of the cylinder interior

2. Remove the whirl stop wires of the bolts which mount the connecting rod and
crankpin, and loosen and remove the bolts with the proper spanner
3. Place the piston at the top dead center, mount the piston lifting tool, and gradually
remove the piston
PRECAUTIONS
a) When drawing out of the piston, there is only a little space between the piston
rod and cylinder liner, so until the piston rod is completely out, be careful not to let is
touch the inside of the cylinder liner
b) When drawing out the piston and turning the crank shaft with the crank pin
bearing mounted, be careful that the crank pin bearing does not hit the crank case of bed
plate
c) After removing the piston, beware of auto-rotation of the crank shaft due to the
weight imbalance
Piston drawing up and inserting tool

Disassembly Piston
Works after drawing out piston
1. Check the carbon attaches condition to the piston top part and rings, and ring lands.
And also check the lubricating oil condition to a piston trunk part
2. Check the contact condition on the surface of the piston and rings
3. Measure the size of rings and judge necessity of replacement
4. Check the contact condition on the surface of the piston pin and the piston pin metal
5. Measure the gap of the piston pin and the piston pin metal
6. Check the carbon attach condition to the inside of the cooling chamber and the
lubrication hole of the piston
Invert of the piston and connecting rod
Piston ring nomenclature

Measurement point of the side clearance
Normal clearance between ring and groove

Check and record of piston condition
Metal contact of the piston and skirt
Part names of micrometer

Sample of micrometer scale reading
Reassembly
Procedures for reassembly work
Basically, it carries out in reverse of overhauling work procedures
1. When piston rings are installed, change position of the ring gaps (do not lined up)
2. When piston is installed, apply sufficient lubricating oil to cylinder liner and rings
3. Set a piston insertion guide and insert the piston slowly
4. Tighten crank pin bolts without uneven clamping. Tightening torque and retightening
angle are followed the instruction book

5. When installed a cylinder cover checks being certainly equipped with cover packing
and cooling water O-rings
6. Tighten cylinder cover nuts without uneven clamping. Tightening torque and
retightening angle are followed the instruction book
7. Fix up pipes fitting around cylinder cover
8. Check that there is no leak in cooling water, fuel oil, lubricating oil, and an air system
Main bolts tightening criteria
Precautions for main bolts tightening
1. The tightening angle is the angle through which to tightened no further after hand
tightening
2. The hand tightening position is where the bolt can be tightening no further, without a
pipe or violent wrenching, by an ordinary person using the correct spanner
3. Matching marks are stamped on at shipment from the factory. Therefore tightening
can be done by aligning these marks so long as bolts or nuts have not been replaced
4. When tightening after the crank pin bolt has been replaced, use bolt elongation rather
than fastening torque as a guideline
5. Be careful not to over tighten exhaust valve mounting bolts, because fastening stress
will increase during operation
Angular retightening

Insertion piston
Reconnecting piston and connecting rod
1. Put the connecting rod into the piston and insert the piston pin
2. Security set the piston pin side covers, which keep the piston pin from falling out
Beware of the P-S direction of the piston and connecting rod
Insertion piston
1. Lift the piston using the piston lifting tool, as shown in the diagram below, and
move it to above the cylinder
Be sure to thoroughly clean the piston and connecting rod before insertion
2. Place the piston insertion tool on top of the cylinder liner

3. Mount rings. At this time, be sure to mount piston rings and the oil scraper ring
in their appropriate positions
Make sure that ring gaps are staggered from each other and not lined up
Installation of piston rings
4. Apply a sufficient amount of oil to the piston body and rings and check that
each ring move slightly
5. Lower the piston until the seal between the connecting rod lower surface and
the bearing housing upper surface is completed
PRECAUTION
a) Remove any foreign matter from contact surfaces

b) Be careful not to damage the threads of the crankpin bolt
6. Gently tighten the nuts of the crank pin bolts
Fastening Crank Pin Bolt
1. Hand tighten nuts for crank pin bolts using the crank pin bolt fastening spanner
2. Tighten to match marks (For details on fastening criteria)
PRECAUTION
a) Do not tighten a single crank pin bolt all at one time, rather tighten uniformly by
alternating at least twice
b) If you tighten a bolt too much, always loosen it and tighten to the match mark from the
tightening direction

c) Always use new split pins and be sure to bend them
Cylinder head Reassembly
Check that there is no foreign matter in cylinder head air and gas path way or on
top of the piston
1. After mounting the various valves on the cylinder head, hoist the cylinder head just as
in disassembly and place it on the cylinder
PRECAUTIONS
Do not forget to put packing on the mounting surface. Also, it is recommend

changing packing each time
2. Mount nuts on cylinder head studs, and tighten with the appropriate spanner
PRECAUTION
a. When reassembly, tighten to a tightening angle of 35 Celsius

b. Apply an anti burning agent (i.e. Molly coat) to the cylinder head mounting bolt
threads
c. Apply an anti burning agent (i.e Molly Coat) to the exhaust manifold mounting
bolt threads
Cylinder Cover Bolting Order
Inspection and Adjustment before trial run
1. Check the tappet clearance of suction and exhaust valve. Adjust, if necessary
Tappet Clearance Adjustment
Measuring fuel injection start timing (Beginning of Delivery)

When the fuel pump has been replaced, measure the injection start time
(beginning of delivery), and check whether the valve is the same as that given in the
adjustment table
1. Place the fuel handle at the stop position

2. Turn the crank shaft forward to about 20 Celsius before compression stroke top dead
center (B.T.D.C)
3. Next, slowly turn the crank shaft and read of the fly wheel gradation when etched line
on the fuel pump plunger barrel coincides with the bottom etched line on the pump body
side window
Adjustment of fuel injection start timing
The fuel injection start timing is set to the proper value by operator, and that value
is given in the adjustment table
So do not indiscriminately adjust the injection start timing

Adjustment of fuel Injection Start Timing
1. Turn the fly-wheel to the injection start position given the adjustment table
2. Loosen the tappet screw lock nut
3. Adjust the tappet screw so the plunger guide etched line is aligned with the etched line
on the lower of the pump body window hold so the lines do not shift, and tighten the lock
nut
4. When adjustment of the fuel injection timing is finished, always be sure to check the
upper and lower stroke clearance for the fuel pump plunger
Plunger Lower Stroke Clearance
When the roller is on the cam base circle, there must always be some clearance,
no matter how slight, between the stop ring and the lower of the plunger barrel guide
Plunger Upper Stroke Clearance
When at maximum cam lift, there must always be some clearance between the
upper of the plunger and the lower edge of the delivery valve
If there is no plunger upper clearance, this may damage the pump or cam case,
so exercise the utmost care

Upper and lower clearance for plunger stroke
Measuring method of crank deflection

Dial gauge for deflection measurement
BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF ENGINE OPERATION
The composition and the role of Main system
The characteristics of Boat Engine
a. Use frequency is small.

b. It is being exposed in the humidity which always contains salt.
c. A great shock and a vibration are always received.
d. The engine is forced the operation by high load.
The Combustion Theory of Gasoline Engine and Diesel Engine
– Gasoline engine uses gasoline fuel. The ignition plug sparks electric spark to air-
fuel mixture
– Diesel engine uses diesel fuel. It is made to have nature ignition with the heart of
compression, and made to burn by the fuel sprays into compressed air.
Difference of 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engine
2-stroke engine
1. One (1) reciprocating motion of piston has one (1) ignition cycle.
2. Simple structure.
3. Unit developed power by engine weight is bigger.
4. Large fuel consumption.
5. Toxic substances content is bigger

6. Engine noise is bigger.
4-stroke engine
1. 2 reciprocating motion of piston has 1 ignition cycle.

2. Handling is troublesome maintenance takes much time.
3. Unit developed power by engine weight is smaller.
4. Less fuel consumption.
5. Toxic substances content is smaller.
6. Engine noise is smaller.
Basic Operation Engine
Starting Operation
a. Confirm opening of water intake valve if there is.

b. Confirm if there are no obstacles around engine and propeller. Turn the engine.
c. Confirm neutral position of control lever. Open throttle a little if necessary.
d. Start engine by turned starter key or pushed starter button.
e. Diesel engine use pre-heater, Gasoline engine use choke if necessary.
After starting confirmation Main Propulsion
a. Circulation of cooling water.

b. Is there an abnormal noise?  Identify main power source and
c. Is there an abnormal vibration? associated breaker
d. Exhaust temperature and color.  Located and identify all units that make
e. Pointing of all indicators. up the system:
 Propelled with blades

Warming Operation
 Shaft, coupling, moving oil pipes
 Stern tube bearing
Warming-up operation with confirming
 Stern tube forward and aft seal
a cooling water temperature meter
 Oil distribution box
 Hydraulic power equipment
How long ? – Alarm signal
– Header tank
more or less 3minutes – Oil cooler
until indicator lamp is tuned off – Hydraulic pump/motor
 Engine room and bridge control
Stopping operation pa
a. Move clutch lever to neutral. Note: It is always possible to return control to

b. Do cooling down operation by idling the engine control room with main switch in
operating the propulsion system and also the
condition. emergency switch should function
c. Confirm all indicators if there are no
abnormal pointing turn off engine key then engine is stopped.
Monitoring of indicators or meters
a. Cooling water thermometer

b. Oil pressure gauge
c. Ampere meter (current meter)
d. Volt meter
e. Fuel gauge
f. Tachometer (revolution meter)
Regular maintenance items
• must check every use, every day
a. Fuel system - Quantity, Fuel pipe, hose (damage, leakage), Water separator, Filter
b. Lubrication system- Quantity (engine & gear oil), Condition, Mixing of the foreign
substance
c. Cooling system- Quantity of cooling water (indirect), Water intake, Stuffing, Pump V-
belt, (damage, loose, etc.,),
d. Electric system- Battery water (level, condition), V-belt of alternator ( damage, loose,
etc.,)
e. Engine- Smoothness, Stability of idling, synchronization between throttle and
revolution.
MARINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Introduction to Marine Auxiliary Systems
We have been talking about various aspects of ships including main engines or
the propulsion plant. In this section we will learn about marine auxiliary systems. As the
name itself suggests, auxiliary systems are there to fulfill several other requirements on
board marine vessels apart from propulsion, which is of course the main function.
Despite the importance of the main ship diesel engines, it does not require much
intuition to realize that only providing motive power for the ship is not sufficient. The
marine vessels have lots of other requirements which make them a complete self
sustaining unit in the middle of the sea. Some of these requirements include electric
power.
Power is required for lighting purposes in the accommodation and other areas,
and also to operate the various machineries on deck and in the ship‘s engine room.

The term ―marine auxiliary systems‖ mainly refers to the auxiliary engines or generators
which are relatively smaller 4-stroke engines that generate electrical energy for
consumption on board. However the term is also used in the broader sense to denote
other equally important machineries and equipment, without which the ship will not be in
a position to operate normally shown in fig 12.1.
These could include some of the following

 Motors & pumps
 Boiler
 Inert Gas plant
 Deck cranes Auxiliary Generator Set
 Turbochargers
 Mooring Winches and Windlass  Located and identify all items which
 Simple Centrifuges for Oil Purification make up the auxiliary generator set
 Identify the following front panel
controls:
 Panel light
 Governor switch GS or PS
speed potentiometer
 Starting aid switch
 Engine control switch
 Alarm module or
synchronizing light module
 Voltage adjust rheostat
 Emergency stop push button
 Generator set control display
 Panel light switch
Note: Verify fuel, oil and coolant level are

correct(if water separator fitted, drain
water) in air pressure open close the
drain valve on the of the air tank to drain
condensation then verify the supply
pressure to normal air pressure, check oil
level in lubricator level
Fig 12.1 Auxiliary System

EMERGENCY GENERATOR SYSTEM
Emergency power systems were used as early as World War II on naval ships. In
combat, a ship may lose the function of its steam engines, which power the steam
driven turbines for the generator. In such a case, one or more diesel engine(s) are used
to drive back-up generators shown in fig 13.1. Early transfer switches relied on manual
operation; two switches would be placed horizontally, in line and the "on" position facing
each other. a rod is placed in between. In order to operate the switch one source must
be turned off, the rod moved to the other side and the other source turned on.
You have read about a few basics of marine electrical

systems including generators, motors and switchboards. As you now find yourself
enlightened with the brief gist of the crucial elements of the ship‘s electrical system, you
decide to take a quick coffee break and munch on a bar of snickers, simultaneously
trying to recollect and imbibe whatever you have learnt so far:
The generator is the heart of the ship. To control and use the generator we use
motors, motor controls and main switch boards. Now, these elements constitute the
basic requirement of the electrical system of any kind of ship. But that doesn‘t mean that
the ship can run solely on them. There are few other elements and parameters that need
to be taken into consideration for the continuous supply of electrical power and also to
ensure safety and redundancy. Let‘s learn a bit more about them.
Black out‖ is a condition considered similar to a ―dead ship‖ condition. It is a

condition under which the main propulsion plant, boilers and auxiliaries are not in
operation and also there is no stored energy available to restore them. This is the time
for the emergency generator to take over. The emergency generator has its own prime
mover and fuel supply.
As the ship‘s emergency generator takes over the battle functions as soon as the
main power fails, utmost care should be taken at the time of installation. It‘s of extreme
importance that load on the generator is at the top of the priority list while considering the
factors affecting. This is because when there is a sudden transfer of load from the main
generators to the emergency generator there is a high chance of the later getting
overloaded. Thus the emergency generators should be of the capacity same as the main
generators capacity. To equalize the capacity requirement of the emergency generator to

the main generator generally more then one emergency generator should be made
available.
Panel Board term

PL- Panel light
GS- Governor Switch
SP- Speed potentiometer
SAS- Starting air switch
ECS- Engine control switch
ALM- Alarm module
SLM- Synchronising light
VAR- Voltage adjust rheostat
ESPB- Emergency stop push button
GSC- Generator set control
PLS- Panel light switch
Emergency Generator Set
 Located and identify all items which make up

the emergency generator generator set
 Identify the following front panel controls:
 Instrument Panel
 Fuel pump and filter
 Governor controls
 Start/stop switch
 Generator
 Air cleaner
 Oil filter and guage
 Oil filter and radiator caps
Note: Verify fuel, oil and coolant level are correct(if

water separator fitted, drain water) perform all
prestart check and open main electrical circuit
breaker then turn the manual speed potentiometer
fully clockwise then turn the starter switch to start
position to start engine to stop remove the load the
cool the engine cool down stop or operator
Fig 13.1 Emergency Generator controlled

Diesel generator
1. Diesel motor
2. Generator
Marine Diesel Electric Generators
Is an internal combustion
engine being the prime mover
transforms mechanical energy to
electrical energy through the use
of motor
For many years American ships have been equipped with electric lights. Prior to
that, oil lamps were used for running lights and illumination in crew's quarters, engine
and fire rooms. Electricity for these lights and to operate electric motors is produced in
an electric generator which is driven by a steam engine, either reciprocating or turbine.
Generators Electricity is generated by the cutting of magnetic lines of force by wires in

a closed circuit. The magnetic lines of force are created by field poles, which are really
electro-magnets. An electro-magnet consists of an iron core with a coil of wire around it,
electricity passing through the wires of the coil.
PROPER METHOD OF CHANGING OVER GENERATORS
Generators are ordinarily started and stopped by the engineer but it is well for the
oiler and water tender to understand the procedure. They may be called upon to assist at
any time.
When a ship has two generators, one is in service while the other stands by. At
regular intervals, probably once a week, the stand-by is started up and the in-service one
shut down for a week. This is known as changing over the generators.
To start a generator the following procedure should be followed:
1. Make sure circuit breaker and main switch on the switchboard are in the open
position.
2. Make sure generator is clear by revolving it one revolution by hand.
3. Check commutator to make sure brushes are in place.
4. Check lubricating oil level in engine.
5. Open cylinder and steam chest drains.
6. Open exhaust valve.
7. Crack steam valve, allowing engine to run slowly until warmed up.
8. Check lubrication.
9. When engine is warmed sufficiently, bring up to full speed.
10. Close drains.

11. Adjust rheostat to bring voltage up to a few volts above the bus voltage.
12. Throw in circuit breaker.
13. Throw in main switch.
The following procedure should be followed when shutting down a generator:

1. Take most of the load off the machine.
2. Trip the circuit breaker.
3. Pull out the main switch.
4. Close steam valve to engine.
5. When machine stops close exhaust.
6. Open drains.
STEERING ENGINE
A gear that couples the steering wheel to the steering linkage of a motor vehicle
What is steering gear?
In an automobile, a steering wheel manages the directional movement of a

vehicle. This wheel is connected to a special rod, which uses a steering gear to turn the
axles in the car. When the steering wheel is turned, the rod rotates the gear, which then
pulls or pushes the axle in the required direction.
The steering gear design was first created with the Ackermann steering
geometry, which forces the wheels to turn based on a rod and gear design Shown in fig
14.2. This design is necessary to ensure that both wheels are turned simultaneously at
an equal distance. The gear, which resides in the gear box, moves the axle rod
horizontally based on the rotation of the steering wheel.
There are many forms of steering available in automobiles today. These include
rack-and-pinion steering, manual steering, and power steering. Each form
of steering requires a steering gear to manage the directional changes of the automobile.
This gear is typically enclosed within a gear box that provides lubricant for the steering
arm area in steering room shown in fig 14.1.

Fig 14.1 Steering Room
Steering System
 Identify the hydraulic power

packs
 Identify the reservoir
 Identify the orbitrol wheel unit
 Identify the joystick solenoid
valve
 Identify the ram bypass valve
 Identify the rudder angle
indicator in Engine Room
 Identify the electrical rudder
angle indicator in and wheel
house
 Identify the electrical supply
breaker
 Identify the joystick or wheel
change over switch
 Identify the rope block and d-
ring

Note: Operate one pump on line in
wheel house and operate the orbitrol
wheel on loss of hydraulic pressure
Fig 14.2 Steering gear

Double-acting cylinders in a ram steering gear of a small vessel

General
To alter course, the automatic pilot or the helm is used to activate the steering
engine, which, in turn, rotates the rudder stock and the rudder. The rudder carrier
supports the rudder stock and the rudder. The rudder carrier also functions as a bearing
around the rudder stock and seals the rudder trunk to prevent seawater from entering the
ship by a gland.
SOLAS demands that every steering engine be equipped with 2 sets of pumps
with separate power supplies, and, consequently, also 2 servo sets, serving the hydraulic
pumps. Both the ram and rotary vane steering engines operate by hydraulic power. Both
types of steering gear are equally common in shipping. The magnitude of the steering or
rudder moment is expressed in kNm (kilo-Newton meter). In general the greatest rudder
moment occurs at 30°-35°.
Ram Steering gear
In ram steering gear, the rudder stock is rotated by a tiller that, in its turn, is
controlled by rams. A ram consists of a cylinder and a piston, the piston being moved by
hydraulic pressure. The tiller and the rudder stock are often linked by a conical
connection.
Ram steering gear can have 1 ram, 2 rams or 4 rams. If, in the case of one or two
rams the cylinders are double acting, the steering engine can still operate through one of
the cylinders when the other one fails. A 4-ram system can be split in two and two for the
same reason. This is a requirement of SOLAS.

What is Emergency steering?
A ship consists of electromechanical steering gear unit which steers the vessel
from one port to other. Normally steering gear unit is 2 or 4 ram electro-hydraulically
operated unit with two or more hydraulic motor for the ram movement.
A situation can occur in which the remote control operation may fail to work and
their can be a sudden loss of steering control from the bridge. This can be due to sudden
power failure, any electrical fault in the system or the control system which includes
faulty tele-motor or servo motor which is used for transferring the signal from bridge to
the steering unit.
To have control the steering of the ship at such emergency situation with manual
measure from within the steering gear room, an emergency steering system is used.
The construction parts
Tiller – The solid type tiller is of cast steel of adequate strength and fixed to rudder
stock with key. The end to tiller slide in the universal bearing of ram-pin with which they
are connected
Hydraulic cylinder and ram – The steering have two pairs of opposing hydraulic
cylinders, which are of nodular cast iron, and a ram. Each pair of cylinder is tied together
axially by a guide bar, and adjacent cylinders are held together by distance pieces. The
ram is of carbon steel and machined accurately. The special packing is fitted for oil seal
between hydraulic cylinder and ram. The ram is so constructed as to touch the
mechanical stopper on cylinder bottom at 37.5 for 35 maximum working rudder angles.
Ram-pin – Which is of special steel, is inserted in the middle of ram and ram pin
push is provided between it and the fork part of tiller arm. Thrust force of ram is
transmitted to the tiller arm through ram-pin and its bush. The ram-pin bush has no need
of oiling except initial lubricant, because solid lubricants are embedded into the special
copper alloy of bush.
Hydraulic Pump – Used is a servo controlled variable stroke pump which is called
the Mitsubishi janney pump, and equipped with the hydraulic units for the steering gear.
The hydraulic pump, consists of the Mitsubishi janney pump, an auxiliary gear pump, all
valves incorporated in the end plate of janney pump (relief valve for pilot, relief valve for
boost and check valve) a servo controller a hydraulic by pass valve and a filter.
Auxiliary pump – A trochoidal gear pump is intended for supplying the oil under
pilot pressure to the servo controller, the transfer valve the oil under boost pressure to
the main hydraulic pump suction and so on

Hydraulic by-pass valve – The valve which is located on the pilot oil piping after
passing the filter consists of the valve body the orifice, spool, the return spring, the push
rod and so on
Oil supply tank – One oil supply tank is provided for each of No. 1 and No. 2
hydraulic pumps, and these oil supply tanks are connected by communicating piping
which is laid at about the same level as the normal tank oil
Expositive name plate - Which is installed in the steering engine room, shows the
working method of steering gear such as how to use pumps and motors, how to control
valves, how to change remote control from bridge into mechanical handle control in
steering engine room, etc
The marine rudder
The Mariner rudder is used on large ships like container ships, bulk carriers,
tankers and passenger liners. The rudder horn is integrated in the ship's construction
and the mariner rudder is attached to the stern post with the ability to rotate. This results
in a robust rudder. Disadvantages of this construction are that there is a larger risk of
cavitation at the suspension points and that the cast construction is more expensive.

PIPING SYSTEM
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to

convey fluids (liquids and gases) from one location to another. The engineering discipline
of piping design studies the efficient transport of fluid Industrial process piping (and
accompanying in line components) can be manufactured
from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum, plastic, copper, and concrete.
The in-line components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically
sense and control the pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and
usually are included in the field of Piping Design (or Piping Engineering). Piping systems
are documented in piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can
be cleaned by the tube cleaning process shown in fig 15.1.
A ship machinery space contains hundreds of meters of piping and fittings that are
arranged to carry may different liquids at a various temperatures and pressure.
COLOR CODE of PIPING ABOARD SHIP
BROWN – Fuel Line

YELLOW – Oil
BLUE – Fresh Water
GREEN – Salt Water
BLACK – Bilge
SILVER – Steam
SILVER with STRIPE – AIR
RED – Fire/Hydrant
Fig 15.1 Piping System

Piping System and pipes
PIPES
 Made up of assorted straight lengths and bends joined flanges with an appropriate
gasket or joint between.
 Very small piping may use compression coupling.
 Piping material will be chosen to suit the liquid carried and the system condition.
 Pipes are supported and held in place by hangers or pipe clips in such a way to
minimize vibration.
 Piping materials: Table

Valves
To regulate or stop the liquid flow
In addition to the standard valve products mentioned below, many valve

manufacturers produce custom-designed valves and actuators for specific applications.
Valves are available in a broad spectrum of sizes and materials. Each design has its own
advantages, and selection of the proper valve for particular application is critical. The
factors generally considered in the selection of a valve include:
 The substance to be handles and the required flow rate.

 The requirement that the valve control and/or shut of the flow in the manner
demanded by the service conditions.
 The ability of the valve to withstand the maximum working pressure and
temperature.
 The ability of the valve to resist attack by corrosion or or erosion.
 Actuator requirements, if any.
 Maintenance and repair requirements.
Valve
Cock
 Used in small bore pipe work and is joined to adjacent pipe work by a
compression coupling.
 Restrict or close an internal passage by moving a central plug, usually by an
external lever.
Cock

Globe Valve
 Has a spherical body enclosing the valve seat and valve disc.
 Liquid flow is always arranged to come from below the valve seat so that the
upper chamber is not pressurized when the valve is closed.
 Non return valve or check valves are arranged in various pipelines to prevent
reverse flow
The globe valve effects closure by a plug with a flat or convex bottom lowered onto a
matching horizontal seat located in the center of the valve. Raising the plug opens the
valve, allowing fluid flow. The globe valve is used for on--off service and handles
throttling applications.
Globe valve
Non-return Valve
The check valve is designed to prevent backflow. Fluid flow in the desired
direction opens the valve, while backflow forces the valve closed.
Non-return Valve
Gate Valves
 Should be fully open or closed; it is not suitable for flow control.

 The gate valve is a general service valve used primarily for on--off, non-throttling
service. The valve is closed by a flat face, vertical disc, or gate that slides down
through the valve to block the flow.
Gate Valve
Relief Valves
 Use to avoid excess pressure in the pipe system.
The pressure relief valve is designed to provide protection from over-pressure in

steam, gas, air and liquid lines. The valve "lets off steam" when safe pressures are
exceeded, then closed again when pressure drops to a preset level.
Relief valves

Quick Closing Valves
 Oil tank suction valves are arranged for rapid closing from a remote point .
 Collapsing of the ―bridge‖ results in the valve closing quickly under the combined
effects of gravity and an internal spring.
 A manually operated wire or a hydraulic cylinder can be used to collapse the
bridge.
Quick Closing Valves
Valve Chest
 A series of valves all built into a single block or manifold.

 Change-over chest
Change-over Chest

Valve Chest
Mud Boxes
 Fitted into the machinery space bilge suction piping.

 It is a coarse strainer with a straight tailpipe down the bilge.
Mud Box
Mud Box Straight Mud Box Angle Type

PIPEFITTING AND SHIPBOARD PIPING SYSTEM
Introduction
The systems and subsystems related to the three major shipboard propulsion
systems used in the U.S Coast Guard have been discussed. However, to fully
understand the entire engineering plant, one has to gain familiarity with all the piping
systems on board a ship and learn how they inter relate systems components. Each
piping system on board a ship is required to be marked color-coded to indicate the name
of the service, end destination (where feasible), and direction of flow. Additionally, piping
system hand wheels and operating levers are provided with a standardized color code
for ease of identification, training, and casualty control.
Piping System
Main stream (designated MS, color-coded white). This system is applicable to

fossil-fuel powered or nuclear-powered steamships and is usually the shortest and
simplest of all major engineering piping systems. The main stream system carries steam
at full boiler pressure and temperature from the generation unit to the propulsion turbines
and the turbo generators (and, if so equipped, to the boiler‘s soot blowers and some
other auxiliary turbines). In addition, on aircraft carriers, main stream is used to supply
the steam catapult system.
Auxiliary Steam (designated AS, color-coded white). This system supplies steam
at various pressures and temperatures below full boiler pressure and temperature to
places where it is needed for the operation of many systems and units of machinery.
Both inside and outside the engineering spaces, including hotel services, air ejectors,
forced draft blowers, and a wide variety of pumps, in general, the increased use of

electrically driven (rather that turbine driven) auxiliaries has led to a simplification of the
auxiliary steam systems in the newer ships and submarines.
Auxiliary Exhaust (designated AE, color-coded white). This steam system

receives exhaust steam from the auxiliary turbines, which do not exhaust directly to a
condenser. The pressure in the auxiliary exhaust system is maintained at about 15 psig.
If the pressure becomes too high, automatic unloading valves, relief valves will allow the
steam to escape to the atmosphere. If the pressure in the auxiliary exhaust system drops
too low, make up steam is supplied from the auxiliary steam system through augmenting
valves. The auxiliary exhaust system, which is not considered an auxiliary steam system,
must be clearly distinguished from the various auxiliary steam systems.
Gland-Sealing Steam (designated GS, color-coded white). This is the low

pressure (0.5 to 2psig) steam system used to supply steam to the shaft glands of the
propulsion turbines and turbo generators to seal them against air leakage into the turbine
casings. On board most ships, glands-sealing steam is supplied from the auxiliary
exhaust system, although in some ships it is supplied from the auxiliary or main steam
systems. In either case the steam is supplied from to the glands of the operating turbine
via reducing valves or reducing stations.
High and low pressure drains (designated HPD/LPD, color-coded white). The
high pressure drain system collects the fresh water that condenses in the super heater
headers, throttle valves, main and auxiliary steam lines, steam catapults (on carriers),
and other steam equipments or systems that operate at pressures above 150 psig. This
drains are then routed to the deaerating feed tank (DFT). The low pressure drain system
collects the fresh water drain from those systems, machinery, or equipment that operate
at steam pressures of less than 150psig. These drains usually go directly to the fresh
water collecting tank.
Lubricating Oil (designated LOS, color-coded yellow). This piping system is

found on all ships. Its primary purpose is to provide lube oil to machinery, bearings, and
other moving parts for lubrications and cooling.
Lubricating oil Purification (designated LO, color-coded black and yellow

stripes). This piping system is used to purify the lubricating oil from the main engine and
the turbo generators. The lube oil purified by either the batch method or the continuous
method.
Fuel-oil Filling and transfer (designated FT, color-coded yellow). This system is
used for receiving fuel oil to fill the fuel oil storage tanks and then transferring it to fill the
fuel oil service tanks. This system can also discharge fuel in order to transfer it to other
ships.
Fuel Oil Service (designated FS, color-coded yellow). This system located in the
engineering spaces. Is used to provide ―immediate use‖ fuel oil service tanks, to the
ship‘s boilers, diesels or gas turbines.

JP-5 (designated JPS, color coded, purple). This system is normally found on
aircraft. It is used to provide aviation fuel to the aircrafts carriers and other ships that
carry some type of aircraft. It is used to provide aviation fuel to the aircraft. However, in
case of emergency, this system can be connected to the fuel oil system to allow JP-5 to
be used propulsion fuel.
High Pressure Air (designated AHP, color-coded dark grey). This system used to
provide compressed air between 1000 psig and 5000 psig for charging scuba tanks,
water deballasting, emergency starting of diesel engines and torpedo ejection. It the
compressed air pressure required for a service is less that the system pressure, a
reducing valve is employed.
Medium Pressure Air (designated AMP, color coded tan). Medium pressure
compressed air is between 150 psig and 1000 psig. On most ships it is used to start
emergency diesel generators, to control weapons and cargo elevators, and to activate
the ship‘s whistle.
Low Pressure Air (designated ALP, color coded tan). This system is often called
the ship‘s service compressed air at pressures of about 150 psig. Low pressure
compressed air is used throughout the ship to operate pneumatic tools and cleaning
equipment and to perform a variety of other uses.
Potable Water (designated PW, color coded dark blue). This system provides
drinkable (potable) fresh water for all the ship‘s requirements, including sinks,
scuttlebutts, showers, scullery, and galleys.
Feedwater (designated FM, color coded light blue). This system originates at the
output of the distilling plant. Fresh water produced by the distilling units can be directed
to either the potable or feed water system. The feedwater system provides makeup
water in steam propulsion plants.
Firemain (designated FM, color coded dark green). The firemain system
distributes seawater throughout the ship under pressure for use in fire plugs (color coded
red), sprinkling systems, flushing systems, auxiliary machinery, cooling-water systems,
and water wash down systems.
Sanitary Flushing (designated CHT, color coded gold). The sanitary flushing
system is supplied with seawater from the firemain, at a reduced pressure. The system
provides seawater for flushing systems, auxiliary machinery, cooling water systems, and
water wash down systems.
Plumbing (designated WD, color coded gold). The drainage system aboard ship
is divided into two parts: (1) the main and secondary system and (2) the plumbing and
deck drain. Between them these systems collect and dispose overboard or to holding
tanks all shipboard waste fluids.
Hydraulic (designated VH, color-coded orange). Hydraulic system are used on

board ship to supply hydraulic oil to the steering gear, anchor windlass, elevators,
remote control valves, and hydraulic presses.
Chill Water (designated CW, color coded blue). This freshwater system is used to
provide cooling water for the electronic equipment‘s heat exchangers and air-
conditioning heat exchangers in order to remove heat.
This had been prepared as ready references to the students for the basic facts
concerning Piping System of fire.
A. Piping System and Function
1. Ballasting System
 For controlled flooding designated tanks for stability control

 Sea water from fire main or directly from sea
 Used for drainage system also
2. Compressed Air System
 H.P. Air System – 600 to 5,000 psi for charging air banks missile and diesel
engine starting and control torpedo charging
 M P System – 600 psi diesel engine starting control
 Low Pressure Air System (Ship SVC System) – 100 psi tender repair ships
125 psi
 Aircraft Starting-Cooling Air System – supply air at temperature 50 deg -
500 deg F at 48 psi to 62 psi
 Combustion Control Air System (Boiler Control System) – for pneumatic
units in automatic control
 Air Deballasting System – 20 psi (7500 emf) – for deballasting
3. Drainage System
 Main-serves main machinery spaces and other few spaces

 Secondary – independence from main drainage pump or educators
 Plumbing and Deck Drains
o Soil Drain – convey fluids from urinals and spaces

o Waste Drains – convey fluids from all plumbing fixture and deck drains
4. Fire Main System
 Receives water from the sea

 Supply air flugs, flushing auxiliary cooling wash down sprinkling and etc
except hydraulic compressed and air system
 Not less than 100 psi
 Types:
o Simple Main
o Horizontal loop
o Vertical loop
5. Flushing System
 Supplied from fire main for bigger ship, separate sanitary and flushing
pump for small ship
 Operates at pressure of 35 psi
 For flushing urinals and closets
6. Fresh water System
 To provide constant water for ship‘s service requirements

 Pressurize by pump and pressure tank or continuously operating pump
 Supplies scuttle butts, sinks, showers, scullery, galley fresh water cooling
system
7. Fuel oil System
 Fuel Oil Tanks
o Storage tank – integral part of the ship

o Service tanks – where fuel oil for immediate use in stored
o Contaminated tanks – to hold contaminated fuel oil
 Fuel oil filling and transfer system
o Receive fuel oil and for storage tanks

o Filling service tanks
o Transfer oil between tanks or fueling other ship
 Fuel oil tank stripping system
o Clear F.O. storage and service tanks of sludge and water

o Connected to bilge pump-stripping pumps
 Fuel oil service system
o Delivers fuel oil to the engines, boilers and other
8. Hydraulic System
 Operates on [principle that liquids are non-compressible

 Medium used – petroleum based product (hydraulic oil) or pure phosphate

ester fluid
 Operates anchor windlass, steering gear, hydraulic presses, elevators, etc.
9. Lubricating Oil System
 Filling and transfer system

 Purifying system
 Service system
10. Sprinkling System
 Installed magazine rooms and spaces when flammable materials are

stowed
 Supplied from the fire main
 Manual-hydraulically operated, local or remotes
11. Wash down System
 Purpose of removing radioactive contamination from the top side surface of

a ship
 Supplied from fire main
B. Piping System Markings
1. Identification markings
 Black letter on white background for all system except oxygen white letters
on black background
 Functional name
 Direction of flow
 Not required on unmanned spaces
 Label plates on weather decks
Refrigeration

Gas compression refrigerating machines consist of the four important parts of

compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator. One cycle is complete with the
following four stages and refrigeration is accomplished, adiabatic compression,
Isothermal condensation, adiabatic expansion, Isothermal evaporation and also mollier
chart.


Types and properties of refrigerants
2. Freon (R-22, CHClF2)
1) Merit
• Odorless and harmless

• No combustibility
• No explosibility
• Corrosiveness to metals is low
2) Demerit
• Ozone-depleting Substances
• High cost
Classification by compression systems
Construction of gas compression refrigeration machines
Compressors – depending on the features of the gas compressors are classified
 Reciprocating compressors
 Rotary compressors
 Turbo compressor

Reciprocating compressor – similar to air compressors but with the characteristics of a

refrigerating machine as stated below;
 Cylinder - is made of special cast iron and is structured so as to prevent

overheating
 Safety head – Volumetric efficiency of compressors can be improved by
minimizing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder cover
 Suction valve and delivery valve – feather valves lead valves and ring
valves are used as suction and delivery valves
Rotary compressor - Are classified as rotasco compressor and screw rotor compressors,
its piston fixed with the rotary piston shaft is eccentric to the shaft center
 Oil separator – A sizeable amount of oil is mixed in with the refrigerant

delivered out of the compressor
 Condenser – The high temperature and high pressure gases are delivered
out of the compressor to the condenser
 Expansion valve – is for reducing the pressure to such an extent that the
high pressure refrigerant liquefied in the condenser can be easily
evaporated in the evaporator
 Evaporator – An evaporator is where the low temperature and low
pressure refrigerant already constructed in the expansion valve makes a
refrigeration work by evaporating itself in the evaporator and absorbing the
necessary latent heat of evaporator from the other substances
3-cylinder reciprocating compressor

Troubles and their causes
1) Excessive discharge pressures
• Cooling water is too hot or of insufficient quantity

• Too much air mixed in the refrigerant
• Part of the refrigerant system is clogged
• Too much refrigerant
2) Excessively low discharge pressure
• Leaking from the discharge valve of the compressor

• Insufficient quantity of refrigerant

3) Excessive suction pressure
• Leaking from the discharge valve

• Too much opening of the expansion valve
• Suction valve, valve seat, piston ring, etc., broken
• Lack of performance of the refrigerator
4) Insufficient suction pressures
• Lack of opening of the expansion valve

• Expansion valve clogged with ice
• Too much lubricant in the refrigerant system
• Lack of refrigerant
• Part of piping clogged
5) Inadequate refrigerating performance
• Water, ice, salt, rust, etc., attaching to the evaporator

• Air and oil mixed in the refrigerant
• Refrigerant quantity is excessive or insufficient
• Piping of the condenser being dirty
• Trouble in suction pipe or delivery pipe clogged, In this case, suction
pressures are low and delivery pressures are high
• Refrigerant has difficult equalizing flowing into its receiver
• Lack of opening of the expansion valve
• Decrease in performance of compressor this is caused by wearing of the
piston rings and cylinders and trouble with the suction valve, delivery valve,
safety valve, etc
6) Frequent start/stop repetition of the compressor
• Thick frost attaching to the refrigerator (evaporator)

• Leak from the discharge valve or safety valve
• Overly low setting on the low pressure of DPS
• Leak inside the heat exchanger
• Leak of the refrigerant inside the heat-sensing cylinder of the thermal
expansion valve
7) Continuous running of the compressor
• Lack of refrigerant
• Leak from the discharge valve or suction valve
• Electromagnetic valve not shut completely
• Leak gas from the piston ring
8) Compressor noises

• Vibrations due to loosened bolts on the bed

• Belts or a fly wheel loosened
• Liquid hammering due to the liquid refrigerant being sucked in
• Knocking due to there being too much lubricant in the system
9) Lubricant not returning to the crankcase
• oil return pipes from the oil separator clogged

• malfunction of the oil return valve
10) Decrease of oil lubricant in the crankcase
• piston rings or cylinders worn
11) Non starting of the compressor
• fuse burnt out

• source switch don‘t turn ON
• point of contact of DPS open
• Overload relay functioning
• OPS(oil protection switch) not reset Leaking from the cylinder cover packing
• oil hammering or liquid hammering
13) Stopping of the motor immediately after starting
• trouble of OPS
• lubricant quantity in the compressor is too little
• stop valve from the outlet of refrigerant receiver
BILGE AND BALLAST SYSTEM
BILGE SYSTEM
 Arranged to drain any watertight compartment other than ballast, oil or water
tanks and to discharge the contents overboard.
 Consist of Pumps, strainers, mud boxes, pipes, bilge injection valves.
The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent flooding of the
ship. An emergency bilge pumps in required for passengers ships.
HOW DOES BILGE SYSTEM WORK?
 A bilge system's function is to remove water from the hull of a boat.

 The systems consist of pumps, motors to run the pumps, piping, and control.

 The pumps are normally centrifugal type pumps, though any could be used as
long as the pressure and flow rate are sufficient to drain the hull.
 Motors are normally electric driven off of a battery or alternator from the main
engine, and can be controlled automatically in the event of an emergency or
manually.
Typical Bilge System

Ballast system
Arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank or the sea and
discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim of the vessel.
Ships when at sea require stability to sail safely. For this reason sea water is
taken into the bottom of the ship in specially made compartments. This water used for
ship's stability is known as ballast water. Find out more about ballast water and ballast
water tanks in the article inside.
Ballast Water
A ship at sea is a massive structure which though floatable, requires stability to

sail through the waters. As water is easily and abundantly available, it is used for
providing the required stability and trim to the ship. This water is known as ballast water
and process of taking ballast water into the ship is known as ―ballasting‖. The tanks on
ships wherein the ballast water is filled are known as ballast tanks.
Also, all the ships are supplied with a system that can take-in and discharge
ballast water. Ships have a dedicated ballast water system and tanks for this purpose.
The ballast tanks are located at the lowermost region of the ship and below the
machinery room. Ballasting is important for ship‘s own safety and thus special attention
is given to this process. When the ship is loaded with cargo, it already has weight and
thus ballasting is not very important. However, when the ship discharges cargo and is
not carrying any weight, it easily gets affected by the sea condition. It is then that the
ship requires ballasting the most.

Ballast Tank
Ballast tanks provided in the ship‘s lower-most region hold the ballast water. The
number of ballast tanks in a ship depends on the ship‘s size, design, and requirement.
For e.g. a ship might have one large single ballast tank at the center or multiple tanks on
either side. Moreover, larger the ship, more the number of ballast tanks.
A typical large vessel will have several ballast tanks, along with the double
bottom tanks, wing tanks, and fore-aft peak tanks.
Particular ballast tank on a ship is filled depending on the position of the cargo
loaded on the ship. This means that that if more of cargo is loaded on the starboard side
than the ort side of the ship, then the port side ballast tanks will be more filled with more
ballast water to balance the cargo weight and gain overall stability of the ship. The filling
of ballast tanks also depends on various other factors such as the draft required by
vessel, depth at ports, capacity of ballast tanks etc.

How is Ballasting Done?
Ballasting on a ship is done through openings provided at the lower most portion
of the ship‘s hull. The openings are connected to a ballast system through piping. Ship
ballast system has dedicated ballast pumps for the ballasting process. For safety
purpose, non return valves are provided in the pipelines near the openings to prevent
sea water from entering the ship and vice-verse. The Ship‘s ballast system, along with
the pumps, is located at the lower most regions of the engine room and below the sea-
water line, to provide the necessary suction head to the ballast pumps. Various factors
such as ship‘s external and interior layout, loading capacity, ballast tanks capacity, time
taken for ballasting and de-ballasting etc are taken into account before starting the
ballasting process. Continuous watch is also kept on all ballast tank levels through the
ship‘s automation system until the whole process is over.
Without proper ballasting of all tanks, no ship can sail safely. Good ballasting not
only helps in providing adequate stability and trims to the ship but also reduces stresses
on hull, helps in smooth maneuvering process, and reduces rolling and pitching.
The ballasting and de-ballasting process generally occurs at the ports before the
cargo is loaded onto the ships. The process takes place simultaneously with the cargo
loading or unloading process. However, ballasting and de-ballasting can also occur while
the ship is in transit, especially during rough sea, change in wind conditions, and several
internal factors.
Bilge System
 Identify the bilge pump

 Identify bilge pump starting button
 Identify the pump interlock valves
 Identify the overboard discharge valve
 Identify the bilge manifold Identify the E.R.
direct suction valve
 Identify the hand bilge pump
Ballast tank Note: Verify and check the exercise bilge pump
failure put the general service pump on the bilge
system the interlock valve and restore system to
normal line up then carry out daily user checks

Domestic Water Systems
 Usually comprise a fresh water system for washing and drinking and a salt
water system sanitary purposes
Domestic Water Systems
Domestic Water Treatment

Pumps and Pumping System
Introduction
 In a ship‘s machinery space there will be a considerable variety of liquids on the

move.
 Each system can be considered comprised of pumps, piping valves and fittings.
 Various systems perform functions such as cooling, heating, cleaning, and
lubrication.
Pumps
 A machine use to raise liquids from a low point to a high point.

 May simply provide the liquid with an increase in energy enabling it to flow or to
build up a pressure.
 A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries.
 A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into
three major groups: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.
Pump create vacuum on the suction side and liquid is sucked in by atmospheric
pressure on the liquid‘s steam pressure acting on the sucked water. According to the
means of producing vacuum, pumps can be classified as follows
Pumps
- lube oil pump
-fuel oil pump
-sea water pump
-fresh water pump
-sewage pump
-bilge pump

Pumping System consists of:
o Suction piping
o Pump
o Discharge
 The system is arranged to provide a positive pressure or head at some point and
discharge the liquid.
 The pump provides the energy to develop the head and overcome any losses in
the system.
 Losses are mainly due to friction within the pipes and the difference between the
initial and final liquids.
Pump Types
 Main classes of pump in marine use:
o Displacement
o Axial Flow
o Centrifugal
1. Displacement Pumps
 An action is achieved by the reduction or increase in volume of a space causing

the liquid (or gas) to be physically moved.
Positive Displacement Pumps
A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount

of it then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe
A positive displacement pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses.
The volume is constant given each cycle of operation
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the

mechanism used to move the fluid shown in fig 16.1.
– Rotary Type - liquid ring vacuum pumps

– Reciprocating Type - example, piston or diaphragm pumps.

Fig 16.1 Positive Displacement Pumps
Method employed:
– Piston in a cylinder using reciprocating motion.

– Rotating unit using vanes, gears or screws.
The pump is double acting, that is liquid is admitted to either side of the piston
where it is alternatively drawn in and discharged. As the piston moves upwards, suction
takes place below the piston and liquid is drawn in, the valve arrangement ensuring that
the discharge valve cannot open during suction stroke. Above the piston, liquid is
discharged and the suction valve remains closed. As the piston travels down, the
operations of suction and discharge occur now on opposite sides shown in fig 16.2.
Fig 16.2 Reciprocating Displacement Pump

Two toothed wheels shown mesh together and are a close fit in casing. Initially
the air or gas is trapped between each pair of consecutive teeth and the same is
dragged along the casing from suction to discharge side till no more air is left on the
suction side. Liquid from the tank will thus rise up into suction line under atmospheric
pressure, subsequently this liquid will now be trapped between each pair of two
consecutive teeth and dragged along the casing into the discharge side and pumping of
liquid will commence. The working principle just explained is what makes the pump a self
priming pump. Further if liquid level on suction side is at a higher level, the liquid will flow
into the suction side on its own at first instant itself shown in fig 16.3.
Fig 16.3 Rotary displacement Pump

Screw pumps are fitted with hardened and ground timing gears and locating
bearings. This ensures there is no contact between the screws. The ratio between
outside and root diameters is designed to provide maximum shaft stiffness which
eliminates body bore wear shown in fig 16.4.
Screw Displacement Pump
Rotary pump/gear, create suction at the inlet and force a water stream out of the
discharge. The gears' teeth move away from each other at the inlet port. This action
causes a partial vacuum and the water in the suction pipe rises. In the pump, the water is
carried between the gear teeth and around both sides of the pump case. At the outlet,
the teeth moving together and meshing causes a positive pressure that forces the water
into the discharge line shown in fig 16.4.

Pumping System
 Identify the line up bilge water pump and

bilge pump
 Identify bilge pump starting button
 Identify and sketch a line diagram of the
fuel oil bunker system
 Identify the transfer of fuel from bunker
tanks to service tanks
 Identify and check the record book
 Identify the start and operate purifier
 Identify the water oil separator and oil
discharge monitor
Fig 16.4 Gear Type Rotary Pump  Check the open up units, clean all parts
and drain water/sludge from settling tank
Note: Ensure that all pollution prevention

regulation and are observed, observing all
safety and ship stability
Vane pumps
Characteristic
① Low fluctuate of delivery pressure
② In case of sliding vane are worn, discharge
pressure not decline
③ Compact size for capacity
④ A few components and simple construction
⑤ A few trouble and easily maintenance

2. Axial Flow Pump
 Uses a screw propeller to axially accelerate the liquid.

 The outlet passage and guide vanes are arranged to convert the velocity increase
of the liquid into a pressure.
 Used where large quantities of water at a low head are required.
Axial flow pumps differ from radial flow in that the fluid enters and exits along the
same direction parallel to the rotating shaft. The fluid is not accelerated but instead
"lifted" by the action of the impeller. They may be likened to a propeller spinning in a
length of tube. Axial flow pumps operate at much lower pressures and higher flow rates
than radial flow pumps shown in fig 16.5.
Ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒ
① Axial Flow
② Fit for Low head
③ Fit for large capacity
④ Adjust flow rate by shaft r.p.m
⑤ Open suction and Discharge valve before start

Fig 16.6 Axial Flow Pump
Mixed flow pump
Medium property between Volute pump and axial flow pump
3. Centrifugal Pump
 Liquids enter the centre or eye of the impeller and flows radially out between the
vanes, its velocity being increased by the impeller rotation.
 A diffuser or volute is used to convert most of the kinetic energy into pressure.
These are variable displacement pumps in which water flows by the centrifugal
force transmitted to the pump in designed channels of a rotating impeller. A closed case,
with a discharge opening, surrounds the impeller. The case has a spiral-shaped channel
for the water. The channel gradually widens towards the outlet opening. As water flows
through the channel, speed decreases and pressure increases. The hydraulic
characteristics of the pump depend on the dimensions and shape of the water passages
of the impeller and the case shown in fig 16.7.
Ii a cylindrical vessel filled with water is rotated, the water is subjected to a

centrifugal force, thus generating a centrifugal head, and the water in the center falls and
its periphery rises

Fig 16.7 Centrifugal pump

Centrifugal Pumps
(Construction of Centrifugal Pumps)
A vertical, single stage, single entry, centrifugal pump for general marine duties is
shown in Figure here. The main frame and casing, together with a motor support
bracket, house the pumping element assembly. The pumping element is made up of a
top cover, a pump shaft, an impeller, a bearing bush and a sealing arrangement around
the shaft. The sealing arrangement may be a packed gland or a mechanical seal and the
bearing lubrication system will vary according to the type of seal. Replaceable wear rings
are fitted to the impeller and the casing. The motor support bracket has two large
apertures to provide access to the pumping element, and a coupling spacer is fitted
between the motor and pump shaft to enable the removal of the pumping element
without disturbing the motor shown in fig 16.8.
Fig 16.8 Single entry centrifugal pump

Classification by Stage
Multistage Pump Single Stage Pump
KINDS OF IMPELLER
How to start and stop centrifugal pump, and adjust flow rate
（１） start and stop

① Shut delivery valve.
② filling up pump casing by the priming unit.
③ Gradually open delivery valve after pump start
④ Before stopping, shut delivery valve.
（２） Adjust Flow rate

① Adjust delivery valve opening
② Adjust pump revolution

Pump uses
Lube Oil Pump
Fuel Oil Pump

Sea Water Pump

Fresh water pump

Sewage Pump
Bilge Pump
OIL WATER SEPARATOR
Operating principles
The operation of the coalescence type separator is based on the use of relatively
close tolerance (1/4" to 3/4" or larger spacing) surface areas that reduce the distance an
oil droplet must travel before it reaches a collection surface. The coalescence plates are
constructed of materials that are hydrophobic (water repelling) and oleophilic (oil
attracting). When the oil droplet comes in contact with the plate, it reaches a zone of zero
velocity and adheres to the surface. The coalescence surfaces multiply the effectiveness
of the natural action of oil and water to separate.

As the media plates become coated with continuously agglomerating oil, the oil
begins to form droplets. These droplets then coalesce or migrate upward. The media
plates are set at steep angles with respect to horizontal. This creates a condition that
accelerates the vertical movement of the oil. The oil coating the media surface
accumulates at the top edge of the media where it detaches as a droplet and floats to the
surface of the separation chamber. Once it breaks away from the media, the oil then
resides on the surface of the water. There are now two zones of liquid in the separator –
oil and water.
The oil that has separated overflows a fixed weir into a collection chamber for
subsequent removal. The clear water underflows the oil and is discharged from the
system on a continuous basis shown in fig 17.1.
Simultaneously with the oil/water separation, solids settle out through the spacing
of the media pack matrix. They are collected in a hopper-bottomed sludge chamber
below the coalescence media pack. The settled solids are stored here for disposal.
Fig 17.1 Oil Water Separator
Fig 17.1 Oil Water Separator

Sewage treatment or domestic wastewater treatment
is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage.

It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical
and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an environmentally-safe fluid
waste stream and a solid waste suitable for disposal or reuse shown in 18.1
Two types of Sewage Treatment
o Chemical Sewage treatment

o Biological Sewage Treatment
Fig 18.1 Sewage Treatment
Is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, both runoff (effluents)

and domestic. It includes physical, chemical and biological processes to remove
physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce a waste
stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse
back into the environment. This material is often inadvertently contaminated with
many toxic organic and inorganic compounds.

Sewage is created by residences, institutions, hospitals and commercial and

industrial establishments. It can be treated close to where it is created (in septic
tanks, biofilters or aerobic treatment systems), or collected and transported via a network
of pipes and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant (see sewerage and pipes and
infrastructure). Sewage collection and treatment is typically subject to local, state and
federal regulations and standards. Industrial sources of wastewater often require
specialized treatment processes (see Industrial wastewater treatment).
The sewage treatment involves three stages,

called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment. First, the solids are separated from the
wastewater stream. Then dissolved biological matter is progressively converted into a
solid mass by using indigenous, water-borne microorganisms. Finally, the biological
solids are neutralized then disposed of or re-used, and the treated water may be
disinfected chemically or physically (for example by lagoons and micro-filtration). The
final effluent can be discharged into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be
used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can
also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.
Sewage System
 Identify the sewage tank

 Identify high level alarm switch
 Identify pump control switches
 Identify tank side suction valve
 Identify pump control panel
 Identify sewage pump
 Identify overboard discharge valve
 Identify upper deck discharge point
 Identify backflush connection
 Identify sanitary seawater pump
 Identify sanitary seawater pump water supply valve
Note: Line up system to discharge sewage to shore/sea, backflush sewage pump

restore system to normal line up and carry out daily user check

BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Manual water level control
A manual water level control the desired water level in a tank is 50%
How is the water level maintained at 50 %?
By eyes to detect the water level in a tank

By brain to compare the water level on water level gauge and the desired water
level 50%
By hands to control the valve-opening area (water level)
Automatic water level control
Handle-valve – Solenoid valve to control the flow rate

Brain – Micro switch (ON-OFF) to compare the actual water level and the desired
water level 50%
Water level gauge – Float to detect the water level
What is automatic control?
 Feed back control

 Sequential control – Clothes washing machine
The control action in controller
 ON/OFF control action

 Proportional control action: P action
 Integral control action: I action
 Derivative control action: D action
 PI control action: PI action
 PD control action: PD action
 PID control action: PID action
ON / OFF control action
Differential – the temperature between the ON and OFF point

If there is no differential – Damage on electric devices
ON/OFF control result
 The water level of a water tank is expected to be somewhere between

points A and B

 But actual water level may increase beyond set point A and decrease
below set point B (Over shoot)
 Dead time - The water in the pipe from solenoid valve to outlet flow in the
tank
- The flowing water in the tank have the delay by the pipe from
solenoid valve to outlet
 Cycling and hunting (large cycling)
Actual ON/OFF control
 Differential narrow – ON/OFF cycling repeat

- Better control result
 Differential too narrow – Shorten the life of electric switch
_ Shorten the life of solenoid valve
 Differential should be set wide
Proportional control
 From ON-OFF switch to pneumatic type proportional controller

 From solenoid valve to diaphragm valve
 MV is linearly changed from 0 to 100% in proportional to CV (water
level)
Proportional Band
 The PB is the width of the CV in which change between ) 0 and

100%
 Set point must be set at the center of proportional band
 The PB narrow – MV greatly change by a small change of the CV
- Sensitivity is increased on system, stability is
decreased
 The PB is extremely narrow – The control will be similar to an
ON/OFF control
 The PB wide – MV slightly change by a small change of the CV
- Sensitivity is decreased on system, stability is
improved
- The width PB must be adjusted to get optimum results
Direct and reverse operation
 Direct operation - The MV increases in proportion to the increase in

the CV
 Reverse operation – The MV decreases in proportion to the increase
in the CV

Proportional control in actual application – The water level reaches the each
saturation water level when the degree of opening of a diaphragm valve gradually
increase at 10% increments
Load and control characteristic – The controller water level is stable at the
intersection of the load characteristics line and control characteristic line
Offset – is the difference between the set point the CV in the normal condition
- Continuously a constant value exists
- Occurs by the load change or the intrinsic characteristic of the equipments
To eliminate the offset – PB is set narrow sensitivity is increase on system, stability is

decreased
- I (integration) action should be added P action: using PI action
Integral action (I action or reset action)
- Temperature controller control the temperature in combustion

furnace
- An offset occurs
- I action have the function to eliminate the offset
Conclusion:
- ON/OFF control cannot obtain a stable control
- P control can obtain a stable control, but an offset occur
- For eliminating the off set, I action is added to execute PI action
- For improving the dynamic characteristics of a system, D action is
added to execute PD action
Pneumatic type automatic control apparatus
Automatic PID controller
 Specifications – Control air pressure 0.02 – 0.1 Mpa

- Supply air pressure 0.14Mpa
- PB 10-250%
- Reset time 0.1-20min
- Rate time 0.05-10min
P action – If CV becomes higher than SV
- Proportion lever shift to the right

- The flapper approaches to the nozzle
- The back pressure of nozzle charged upon the pilot relay
- Pilot valve opens and supply pressure flows into control side
- This pressure charged proportion bellows

- Lifts up proportion lever and flapper is detected from nozzle

- Control pressure is set in proportion to the deflection
PI action – If CV becomes higher than SV
- P action immediately take place

- The control pressure flows into the reset bellows though reset
throttle valve
- Proportion lever comes down again
- The flapper approaches to the nozzle again
- P action take place again
- This resetting effect continues until deviation becomes zero
PID action – Rate throttle valve are connected in parallel the pilot relay and P bellows
- The control pressure becomes large or smaller than the internal
pressure change of P bellows
Filter regulator
Function – Remove the dust, the moisture, and the oil

- Regulate the secondary out air pressure
BOILER
Is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized
fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications
Boilers can be classified into the following configurations
Fire tube boiler- Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left
above to accommodate the steam (steam space). This is the type of boiler used in nearly
all steam locomotives. The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept
permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating
surface just below boiling point shown in fig 19.1. The furnace can be situated at one end
of a fire-tube which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating
surface which can be further increased by making the gases reverse direction through a
second parallel tube or a bundle of multiple tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler);
alternatively the gases may be taken along the sides and then beneath the boiler through
flues (3-pass boiler). In the case of a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel extends from
the firebox and the hot gases pass through a bundle of fire tubes inside the barrel which
greatly increase the heating surface compared to a single tube and further improve heat
transfer. Fire-tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam production, but
high steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are readily
adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety.

Fig 19.1 Fire Tube Bolier
Water-tube boiler- In this type, the water tubes are arranged inside a
furnace in a number of possible configurations: often the water tubes connect
large drums, the lower ones containing water and the upper ones, steam and
water; in other cases, such as a monotube boiler, water is circulated by a pump
through a succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production
rates, but less storage capacity than the above. Water tube boilers can be
designed to exploit any heat source and are generally preferred in high pressure
applications since the high pressure water/steam is contained within small
diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall shown in fig
20.1.
Fig 20.1 Water Tube Boiler

Water-tube boiler- specialized type of water-tube boiler.
Safety of Boiler Explosion
Historically, boilers were a source of many serious injuries and property

destruction due to poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle metal shells
can rupture, while poorly welded or riveted seams could open up, leading to a violent
eruption of the pressurized steam. Collapsed or dislodged boiler tubes could also spray
scalding-hot steam and smoke out of the air intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen
who loaded coal into the fire chamber. Extremely large boilers providing hundreds of
horsepower to operate factories could demolish entire buildings.
A boiler that has a loss of feed water and is permitted to boil dry can be extremely
dangerous. If feed water is then sent into the empty boiler, the small cascade of
incoming water instantly boils on contact with the superheated metal shell and leads to a
violent explosion that cannot be controlled even by safety steam valves. Draining of the
boiler could also occur if a leak occurred in the steam supply lines that were larger than
the make-up water supply could replace. The Hartford Loop was invented in 1919 by the
Hartford Steam Boiler and Insurance Company as a method to help prevent this
condition from occurring, and thereby reduce their insurance claims.
Boiler fittings and accessories
 Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler.
 Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, also
known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column is provided.
 Bottom blowdown valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates
that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is
usually located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use
the pressure in the boiler to push these particulates out.
 Continuous blowdown valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape
continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with
dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be
carried over with the steam are a condition known as priming. Blowdown is also
often used to monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.
 Flash Tank: High pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash'
safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the
ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.
 Automatic Blowdown/Continuous Heat Recovery System: This system allows the
boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby
transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the makeup
water. No flash tank is generally needed as the blowdown discharged is close to the
temperature of the makeup water.
 Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.
 Steam drums internals: series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
 Low- water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to
turn off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the
water goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it
can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.
 Surface blowdown line: It provides a means for removing foam or other lightweight
non-condensible substances that tend to float on top of the water inside the boiler.
 Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has
expelled some of its heat.
 Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in
the feedwater line. This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water
level, or to the top of the boiler.
 Top feed: A check valve (clack valve) in the feedwater line, mounted on top of the
boiler. It is intended to reduce the nuisance of limescale. It does not prevent
limescale formation but causes the limescale to be precipitated in a powdery form
which is easily washed out of the boiler.
 Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the water
drum or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam. Thus is to supply
auxiliary equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.
 Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feedwater pH.

Steam accessories
 Main steam stop valve:

 Steam traps:
 Main steam stop/Check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
 Fuel oil system:

 Gas system:
 Coal system:
 Soot blower
Other essential items
 Pressure gauges:
 Feed pumps:
 Fusible plug:
 Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
 Name plate:
 Registration plate:

Side view Scotch Marine boiler
Marine boiler
CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER
In a ship, purification is required for fuel oil and lubricating oil in order to remove
contamination and to clarify. Three methods are usually used for purification.
First method is to stock oil in the settling tank for a period and to separate
contamination from oil by using the gravity

Second method is to use the filter. The filter element catches some size of
particles which are contained in oil
Third method is purifying oil by using the centrifugal force. The centrifugal
purification is to separate solid particles emulsified in oil and small drops of water
diffuser in oil by the centrifugal force
Is a piece of equipment, generally driven by an electric that puts an object in

rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis.
Classification of Purifiers for Petrol Aboard ships
– HFO Purifiers – used for bunker fuels

– MDO Purifiers – used for marine diesel oils
– LO Purifiers – used for lube oil
Purification Methods
1. Settling of Solid Impurities
 Two pipes which act as entry and exit points to oil which is being fed
at slow speed in a continuous fashion. The heights of these two points are same
so in this process as the oil takes some time to flow to entry to exit point, the force
of gravity separates the major components of Impure Oil = pure oil + water + solid
impurities shown in fig 21.1.
Fig 21.1 Settling of Solid Impurities
2. Simple Centrifuge
 The diagram shows how it speeds up the the arrangement has

been turned upside down shown in fig 21.2

Fig 21.2 Simple Centrifuge
3. Actual Simple Centrifuge
 Instead of being fed fed from bottom it is fed from top itself in the
center and it takes a U turn and passes out through a set of discs which
separate the wheat from the chaff (pure oil from impurities) see below in fig
21.3.
Fig 21.3 Actual Simple Centrifuge

Marine Purifiers

Marine Purifier
PURIFIER OPERATION
Centrifugal force is the fundamental operating principle used in the

purification of fluid. Centrifugal force is that force exerted on a body or substance by
rotation. Centrifugal force impels the body or substance out ward from the axis of
rotation. Essentially, a centrifugal purifier is a container rotated at high speed. As it
rotates, contaminated lube oil is forced through, and rotates with, the container. Only
materials that are in the lube oil are separated by centrifugal force. For example, water
is separated from lube oil because water and lube oil are immiscible, which means
they are incapable of being mixed. Also, there must be a difference in the specific
gravities of the materials before they can be separated by centrifugal force. You cannot
use a centrifugal purifier to separate JP-5 or naval distillate from lube oil because
it is capable of being mixed; likewise, you cannot remove salt from seawater by
centrifugal force. When a mixture of lube oil, water, and sediment stands undisturbed,
gravity tends to form an upper layer of lube oil, an intermediate layer of water, and a
lower layer of sediment. The layers form because of the specific gravities of the
materials in the mixture. If the lube oil, water, and sediment are placed in a container
that is revolving rapidly around a vertical axis, the effect of gravity is negligible in
comparison with that of the centrifugal force. Since centrifugal force acts at right angles
to the axis of rotation of the container, the sediment with its greater specific gravity
assumes the outermost position, forming a layer on the inner surface of the container.
Water, being heavier than lube oil, forms an intermediate layer between the layer of
sediment and the lube oil, which forms the innermost layer. The separated water is
discharged as waste.

Distilling and Purification Plants
Fresh Water Uses
• Steam Plant
• Electronics Cooling
• Hotel Services
• Cooking/Drinking
• Laundry
• (Showers)
• Freshwater Wash down
Important Concepts
• Distillation: seawater freshwater

• Evaporation
• Condensation
• Feed (seawater @ 35,000 ppm Cl-)
• Distillate (<0.1 ppm Cl-)
• Brine (>35,000 ppm Cl-)
• Salinity (salt concentration in H20)
Distillation Process
Distilling Plant Types
• Flash-Type
• Vertical Basket
• Vapor-Compression
• Reverse-Osmosis
Flash Type
• Most combatants
• High capacity (12,000 –50,000 GPD)
• Distillate (<.065 ppm)
• 150# Auxiliary Steam
• Vacuum operation

• More efficient
• (-) soluble salts
Flash Type
Vertical Basket
• Submarines
• Similar to Flash type
• Med. capacity (8,000 - 10,000 GPD)
• Low Pressure (Auxiliary) Steam

Vertical Basket
Vapor-Compression
• Ships without STEAM propulsion

• Diesels and submarines (as backup)
• Low capacity (4000 GPD)
• Compresses generated steam using electricity
Vapor-Compression

Reverse-Osmosis
• Distillate is <50 ppm

 good enough to drink
 but not for engineering plant feedwater
• H2O migrates through semi-permeable membrane (salt is blocked)

• High pressure req‘s (400+ psia)
• Multi-stage units preferred
Reverse-Osmosis
Salinity Monitoring
- Salinity cells
 Strategic placement throughout plant

 Continuous remote monitoring of fresh water
 Auto flow shutoff using solenoid valves

Salinity Monitoring
Water Conservation
 Limited resource
 Standard ―shower‖
 Water hours
Restrictions
 Chemical Additives
 Volatile Content
 Geographic Restrictions
HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat is produced in various places and must be disposed of. On the other hand,
liquids and air must be heated. Therefore, a number of heat exchangers are found in
every engine room:
 Fresh cooling water coolers for cooling water

 Fresh cooling water heaters for pre-warming of diesels
-Lubricating-oil coolers
 one for each auxiliary diesel engine, attached to the engine, two for the main
engine
- Air coolers

 for combustion air -Air heaters

 for general heating, air conditioning
- Oil heaters for fuel
Types of coolers
– Straight-tube coolers,
– U-tube coolers,
– Plate coolers
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one
medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never
mix, or they may be in direct contact. They are widely used in space
heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical
plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment. One
common example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which the heat source,
being a hot engine-cooling fluid, water, transfers heat to air flowing through the radiator
(i.e. the heat transfer medium).
Type of Heat Exchanger
a. Shell and tube heat exchanger
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes
contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the
tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the
heat required shown in fig 22.1. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be
made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat
exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater than
30 bar and temperatures greater than 260°C)
Fig 22.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

b. Plate heat exchanger
Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. One is composed of
multiple, thin, slightly-separated plates that have very large surface areas and fluid flow
passages for heat transfer. This stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a
given space, than the shell and tube heat exchanger shown in fig 22.2.
Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat
exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this
type are called plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are
normally of the gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection.
There are many types of permanently-bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-
brazed and vacuum-brazed plate varieties, and they are often specified for closed-loop
applications such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates
that are used, and in the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped
with "chevron" or other patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves.
Fig 22.2 Plate Heat exchanger
c. Plate fin heat exchanger
This type of heat exchanger uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins to

increase the affectivity of the unit. The designs include cross flow and counterblow
coupled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins.
Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloys which provide
higher heat transfer efficiency shown in fig 22.3. The material enables the system to
operate at a lower temperature and reduce the weight of the equipment. Plate and fin
heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as natural
gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and transport industries
such as motor and aircraft engines.

Fig 22.3 Plate Fin Heat Exchanger
Surface condenser, is the commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and tube
heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power
stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous
to its liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in
short supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-cooled condenser is however
significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust
pressure as water cooled surface condenser.
Surface condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the
condensing of steam turbine exhaust in power plants shown in fig 22.4.
Fig 22.4 Surface Condenser

THE STEAM AND WATER CYCLE
The flow of the steam and water through the various pieces of machinery that
make up the main engine power plant is known as the steam and water cycle.
The operation of a steam power plant depends upon water for conversion into
steam by applying heat. A simple method would be to assume
SIMPLE CYCLE-USING SEA WATER
In the first figure, that the boiler is filled with sea water to its proper level. As the
fuel burns beneath the boiler, the water inside is heated until it boils and gives off steam
which accumulates in the upper part of the boiler. The steam leaves the boiler at the top
through the main stop valve and then flows through the main steam line to the throttle
valve on the engine. When the throttle valve is opened the steam flows into the cylinders
of the engine, causing it to do work. When the steam has done its work in the engine it
must exhaust from the cylinders to make room for more live steam to enter. In this
particular cycle the steam exhausts to the atmosphere and is lost. As the water in the
boiler is changed into steam, it must be replaced or the boiler will run dry. This is done by
means of a feed pump, which is a mechanical device
Having the ability to force water into the boiler against the boiler pressure. In this
particular cycle the pump takes its suction from the water surrounding the ship. This
would not do for ocean-going power plants due to the impurities in sea water which
would damage the boiler. Where this cycle can be used, it has the advantage of requiring
a minimum amount of machinery.
In the next figure, it can be seen that a fresh water storage tank has been added
to the cycle. With this hook-up the feed pump is pumping nothing but fresh water into the

boiler to replace the water being boiled away. This cycle is an improvement over the first,
however, it has certain disadvantages which make it unfit for ocean-going vessels. As
fresh water is being continually pumped into the boiler, a enormous supply of fresh water
would be required aboard the ship when starting on a long journey. Otherwise, it would
be necessary to make fresh water from sea water, which is a very costly process and
usually only resorted to in an emergency. Also, raw fresh water contains various solids in
varying degree which accumulate in the boiler when the water is boiled off, and in time
will harm the boiler unless carefully treated and cleaned. Small craft, such as Harbor
Towboats, quite often use this type of system because they never venture far from shore
and can refill their fresh water storage tanks at frequent intervals
Simple Cycle-using Fresh Water with Condenser
CO2 SYSTEM
Low pressure CO2 systems are intended for use where large machinery and
cargo spaces require protection with carbon dioxide. The advantage of the low pressure
system is that one single tank replaces a large number of CO2 cylinders with an
approximate saving of 50% in weight. The tank, main valves, distribution valves,
refrigerators, and associated controls are supplied pre-wired and ready assembled on a
common steel frame.
The quantity of carbon dioxide is shown directly by an electronic gauge indicating

the actual tons of CO2 in the tank. The gauge unit is fitted with alarm contacts for

warning at low CO2 contents in the tank. Recharging after use is made directly from a
truck. For large vessels the installation cost of a low pressure CO2 system is
considerably lower compared to the installation costs of a high pressure CO2 system.
The system is designed to meet the requirements of the appropriate classification

societies to which the vessel is being built.
Tank. The tank is constructed as a steel pressure vessel in accordance with the
classification society requirements. The tank is equipped with two safety valves, which
are fitted to a three way change-over valve, thus one safety valve is connected to the
vessel if the other one is out of operation. The tank unit is supplied complete and
ready for use, installed on a rectangular steel framework and held in position by
thermally insulated supports. The tank is insulated with non-flammable polyurethane
foam protected by an aluminium cover.
Refrigeration Units. The refrigeration units are installed at the end of the tank on
the support frame and are completely duplicated both mechanically and electrically. The
refrigerant is environmentally friendly and the cooling circuits on the compressors and
condensers are suitable for seawater, fresh water or air-cooling. The tank is maintained
at a temperature of –18°C, which is equivalent to a CO2 storage pressure of 2.1 MPa.
CO2 Level Indicator. An electrical capacitance type liquid gauge is fitted and the
meter is calibrated from zero tank contents to tank full. The indicator has an accuracy of
+/- 2% and is fitted with an alarm switch indicating minimum filling level. To meet rule
requirements an overfill valve and a level sight tube with isolation valve is fitted.
Controls. A pre-wired operating panel is installed at the end of the tank on the
support frame, at which are grouped all controls and overload relays for the refrigerators,
tank pressure, level indicators, and various indicators and warning lamps. The panel is
completely watertight and fitted with cable glands.
Valves and Filling Connections. The automatically operated main stop valve
and distribution valves are ball valves fitted with manual override. The valves are sized

so that the appropriate quantity of carbon dioxide will be discharged in accordance with
the rule requirements. To prevent ice formation on the valves the main outlet pipe from
the tank is located at the top of the tank as a continuation of the tank dip tube. The tank
is filled by a truck through twin filling and balancing lines led from the tank to deck level
port and/or starboard. Isolation valves and hose connections are fitted to these lines.
Release System. Remote release of the required quantity of gas to a particular

space is made from master control boxes located as required. The release system
utilizes the CO2 pressure from the tank to actuate the main stop valve and the
distribution valve via pressure operated control valve, and these valves are arranged for
remote operation from the master control box. When the appropriate quantity of carbon
dioxide has been discharged, the distribution valve is closed automatically by means of a
solenoid operated control valve actuated by the electronic timer.
Distribution System. The distribution valve is connected to a computer

calculated piping system within the protected space and to which the CO2 nozzles are
connected. The piping is dimensioned so that the required quantity of gas will be
discharged within the prescribed time and at no point in the piping system will the
pressure fall below 1.05 MPa which would cause freezing at the nozzles.
Portable Extinguishers
Two types of portable fire extinguishers are used by the coast guard: carbon
dioxide and dry chemical. Each is effective in fighting both class B and class C fires.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used mainly for putting out electrical fires, but
they are effective on any small fire, including burning oil, gasoline, paint, and trash. The
carbon dioxide, being heavier than air, forms a smothering blanket over the fire.

Maximum range of the extinguisher is 5 feet the horn.
To use the extinguisher, the operator removes the locking pin from the valve,
grasps the insulated handle of the horn with one hand, and squeezes the grip with the
other. If in the open, the fire should be approach from the windward side, the operator
directs the discharge at the base of the flames, sweeping the horn back and forth. The
valve may be opened and closed as necessary. For continuous operation a D-ring is
provided that slips over the operating handle.
When Carbon Dioxide is released from the container, it expands rapidly to 450
times its stored volume. This rapid expansion causes the gases temperature to drop to
110 degrees F, and forms carbon dioxide ―snow.‖ If the snow comes in contact with the
skin, it causes painful blisters.
Dry chemical extinguishers are provided primarily for use on class B fires. The
chemical used is potassium bicarbonate (similar to baking soda), called purple K powder,
or simply PKP. It is nontoxic and is four times as powerful as carbon dioxide for
extinguishing fuel fires. PKP is also effective on class C fires, but it should not be used
on internal fires in electronic equipment, gas turbines, or jet engines, because it leaves a
residue that cannot be completely removed without disassembly of the equipment or
engines.
The dry chemical extinguisher is of the 18 pound size and uses carbon dioxide as
the excellent gas. The extinguisher shell is not pressurized until it is to be used.
Operating procedures are as follows:
– The locking pin is pulled from the seal-cutter assembly.

– The puncture lever is struck sharply to cut the gas cartridge seal. This charges
the extinguisher, which is now ready for use.
– The operator discharges the chemical in shorts burst by squeezing the grip on
the nozzle. He aims the discharge at the base of the flames and sweeps it
rapidly from side to side. It he fire‘s heat is intense; a short burst powder into
the air will provide a heat shield.

– When finished, the operator inverts the cylinder, squeezes the discharge lever,
and taps the nozzle on the deck. This action releases all pressure and clears
the hose and nozzle of powder. If not cleared, the PKP could cake and cause
difficulty the next time the extinguisher is used.
Portable dry chemical extinguisher
Dry chemical is an excellent firefighting agent, but its effect is temporary. It has no
cooling effect and provides no protection against re flash of the fire. Therefore, it should
always be backed up by light water in the case of class Alfa and Bravo fires. In confined
spaces PKP should be used no more than is necessary visibility, render breathing
difficult, and induce coughing.
Fixed fire extinguisher installations are provided in several locations, such as

machinery spaces and hangar decks. Some have already been discussed, such as the
sprinkler system. Here carbon dioxide and light water installations are discussed.
Carbon dioxide. Fixed installations of carbon-dioxide extinguishers provide a

dependable, ready means of flooding spaces that present a fire hazard greater than
ordinary. Cylinders of the system have a 50-pound capacity and are mounted either
singly or in banks of two or more. Install CO2 extinguishers are either the hose and reel
type for machinery spaces, or the flooding system for spaces not continually occupied by
personnel, such as paint lockers.
The hose and reel installation consists of two or more cylinders connected by
leads from their valve outlets to a manifold. Fixed piping extends from the manifold to
various parts of the space to be flooded. Cables runs from the valve controls mechanism
to pull boxes located outside of the space containing the cylinders. To release the CO2
the firefighter breaks the glass in the front of the pull box, reaches in, and pulls the
handle. Most of these systems are equipped with visible and audible alarms to warn
personnel that the release valve has been opened and the protected compartments is
flooding with, or has been flooded with, CO2.
Caution: the very qualities that make CO2 a valuable fixed extinguishing agent
also make it dangerous to life. If there is insufficient oxygen in a compartment to sustain

a fire, there is not enough to sustain breathing. No one should enter a CO2-flooded
compartment without protection unless the ventilation system has been operating for at
least 15 minutes.
A CO2-flooded compartment may be entered with an approved naval oxygen

breathing apparatus or hose (air-line) mask. Otherwise it should not be entered until a
safety lamp placed in the compartment burns without interruption. A canister-type gas
mask is no substitute for an oxygen breathing apparatus, because it merely filters the air
without adding to it the needed oxygen.
Light Water. PKP cannot prevent reflash of a fire, because it has no vapor-
suppression capability. Neither can PKP be used with protein foam. As it causes the
foam to break down. It is fully compatible, however, with a flour-chemical agent known as
aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF), commonly called light water.
A combination of light water and PKP will extinguish a fuel fire 1 ½ to 3 times
faster than either agent alone. The dry chemical is used to beat down the fire, and light
water prevents its reflash.
Aircraft carriers have a portable system combining light water and PKP mounted
on a truck (figure 26-11), known as a twinned-agent unit (TAU). The TAU has a sphere
containing 200 pounds of PKP and cylinder containing 80 gallons of light water
concentrate. Nitrogen is used for pressurization. Discharge hoses are 1 inch for light
water and ¾ inch for PKP. They are joined together near their nozzles and may be
operated independently by one man.
There are at least two fixed twinned-agent stations in each station in each
shipboard machinery space, each station consisting of 50 feet of twinned AFFF and PKP
hoses mounted on reels, and one 125-pounds PKP cylinder. As with the TAU on the
aircraft carrier, one man can operate the unit. On the damage control for mixing light
water with water from the fire main
Oxygen breathing apparatus
Fires almost invariably produce a lot of smoke, so the firefighter must have some
means of protection from smoke inhalation when he enters a burning compartment. Air in
the immediate vicinity of a fire may also contain toxic fumes or insufficient oxygen for
breathing purposes.
The device used to permit the firefighter to breathe is the oxygen breathing
apparatus, or OBA as it is usually called. Unlike a gas mask, which only filters outside air
and therefore cannot be used for firefighting, the OBA generates its own oxygen and
circulates it through a closed system.
Essential components of the OBA are an airtight faceplate with eyepieces and a
speaking diaphragm, exhalation and inhalation tubes, oxygen producing canister, and a
breathing bag. Exhaled air flows through the exhalation tube to the bottom of the canister
(where it loses carbon dioxide and moisture and gains oxygen), into the breathing bag,
and then into the lungs through the inhalation tube.
FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENT
Water
A liquid between the temperature of 0 degree centigrade to 100 degrees

centigrade. Excellent cooling agent. It has a great penetration in high velocity fog.
The best extinguishing agent for the class ―A‖ fire
Foam
An aggression of small bubbles of lower specific gravity than oil and water which
flows across the surface of the burning substance and forms a cohesive smothering
blanket. The best extinguishing agent for class ―B‖ fire
 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
Normally a gas, but it may liquify or solidify under pressure at -43 degrees
centigrade it exists as a solid cake – dry ice and non electrical conductor. Dilutes the
fire surrounding until the oxygen content is too low to support combustion. Best
agent for class ―C‖ fire

Dry Chemical
A chemical in powder form, it extinguish fire by cooling, smoothing, shielding the

radiant heat, and by breaking the chain reaction
Powder
Is the only agent that can extinguish metal fire without causing any violent
reaction. It is compose of graphite.
Methods of Extinguishment
Cooling – reduce the temperature below its ignition temperature. This is a direct
attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.
Smoothening – reduce the amount of oxygen below the needed amount sustain
combustion. This is an attack to the oxygen side of the tetrahedron.

Oxygen Dilution – reduce the amount of oxygen below the needed amount to sustain
combustion. This is an attack to the oxygen side of the tetrahedron.
Chain Breaking – disrupt chemical process that sustains the fire. This is considered
an attack on the chain reaction side of the tetrahedron.
GASOLINE VERSUS DIESEL
Spark ignition:
• Gasoline engines use spark plugs to ignite fuel/ air mixture

• Compression ignition:
• Diesel engines uses the heat of compressed air to ignite the fuel
(intakes air, compresses it, then injects fuel)
Spark ignition

Fuel injection: Gasoline uses port fuel injection or carburetion;
• Diesel uses direct fuel injection or pre combustion chambers (indirect

injection)
Fuel Injection
Glow plugs:
• electrically heated wire that helps heat pre combustion chambers fuel
when the engine is cold
• when a diesel engine is cold, compression may not raise air to
temperature needed for fuel ignition
Glow plugs
Diesel Fuel System
 Fuel filter
• Fuel pumps : Injection pump and/ or Lift/Transfer pump
• Fuel Injectors

TANK
Storage Tanks
Storage tanks are located in the ship's double-bottoms beneath the cargo holds
and wing tanks on the ship's side. Several pieces of equipment are required to be fitted
to the tanks.
For filling the tanks a filling line which branches off to each tank is installed from
topside. The branch lines are equipped with shutoff valves to control the flow of oil to
each tank. The filling line enters the top of the tanks and must extend downward to
discharge within 6 inches of the bottom of the tank or be equipped with a gooseneck to
discharge the oil upward. When taking fuel aboard constant vigilance must be
maintained to prevent one or more of the tanks from being overflowed. Besides wasting
the fuel, it is difficult to clean up. If fuel oil should spill into the harbor the ship may be
heavily fined by the port authorities.
A vent pipe leading from the top of the tank is required to permit air and any
inflammable vapors to escape to a safe point above the ship. The discharge end of the
vent pipe is provided with a gooseneck and must be covered with a flame screen. The
flame screen is made of wire gauze and its purpose is to prevent flame from burning
vapors on the outside traveling down the vent into the tank. The screen must be kept in
good condition, never painted and always in place.
Steam heating coils are necessary along the bottom of the tank so that the heavy
oil may be heated to lower its viscosity so that it may be pumped. This is especially
necessary when the ship is in cold water. The fuel in the tanks should never be heated
higher than 150° F. To go above this may cause inflammable vapors to be given off.
Entering the top of each tank is a fire smothering pipe line equipped with control valve.
CO2(carbon dioxide) is the most popular agent used on modern ships for fighting fire.
Previously live steam was used. In the event of fire in the tank the smothering valve is
opened allowing the CO2to flow into the storage tank and extinguish the fire.
A manhole is provided in the top of each tank to permit entrance for cleaning and
repairs. A fuel oil tank should never be entered until it has been gas freed and tested for
sufficient oxygen. Never enter without a safety line attached and someone tending it on
the outside. Men have lost their lives by being careless in this respect. The breathing of
oil vapors or the lack of sufficient oxygen will cause a man to be overcome very quickly.
Fuel oil is sold by volume, making it necessary to consider the temperature when
purchasing.
Storage tanks are not filled more than 90% full, allowing room for expansion in the
event the oil should become warmer after being stored.

Settling Tanks
Settling tanks are located in the fire room, usually one on each side. Here any
water that may have come aboard in the oil is allowed to settle to the bottom. Also there
is always the possibility of sea water entering the storage tanks through leaks in the
ship's hull.
If water reaches the burners in any quantity the fires will go out. A slight amount
will cause the fires to sputter.
The water that accumulates on the bottom of the settling tanks is pumped out
through the low suction valve and discharged either overboard or into a disposal tank
while the oil for the fires is usually removed through the high suction.
It will, be noted that internal gate type shutoff valves with extension control rods to
topside are provided at the high and low suctions. This is required by Rules and
Regulations, to prevent flooding of the fire room with fuel oil in the event of an
emergency, such as a fire in the fire room.
Settling tanks are provided with internal filling line, heating coils, vent pipe, and a
smothering system the same as the storage tanks. After the oil passes through the
external high or low suction shutoff valves it passes through the duplex suction strainers
Transfer Pump
Transfer pump removes the oil from the storage tanks through the suction valve
and line, and discharges it through the discharge line into the settling tanks
SOUNDING TAPE
Sounding Procedure
Spread a thin coating of water-indicating paste from the tip of the plumb bob to
about the 2-foot mark on the tape shown in fig 23.1. Lower the plumb bob
through the sounding tube until, it touches the striker plate. The tape must be kept taut
because slack would cause an inaccurate reading. Slowly withdraw the tape. The
highest level where the JP-5 ―wets‖ the tape is reading feet and inches. If the ―wet‖ mark
is difficult to see, use fuel-indicating paste. Dry the tape and spread thin coating of
the fuel-indicating paste in the approximate area of the first ―wet‖ mark. When the
tape is removed, note the line of color change on the fuel-indicating paste. This reading
is then converted to gallons by use of a tank capacity chart. When the plumb bob is
removed, note the line of color change other water-indicating paste. The normal color,
when applied, is gray. This level, in feet and inches, is converted to gallons and
subtracted from the JP-5reading to determine the quantity of JP-5 in the tank.

Fig 23.1 Sounding Tape
The water-indicating and fuel-indicating pastes are different colors. They

also change in to different colors. They are NOT interchangeable. To obtain a sample
from the very bottom of the tank, remove the plumb bob and attach the type-
Sampler shown in figure 4-50. Lower the sampler into the sounding tube. (The distance
from the sounding tube cap to the striker plate will have been determined
during sounding operations.) As the tip of the valve disk guide touches the striker plate, it
will be depressed by the weight of the sampler, raising both upper and lower disks
off their seat. After retaining this position momentarily, retract the sampler
and dump the contents into a clean jar. If water droplets or discoloration are noted on the
sounding tape during the sounding and bottom sampling procedure, it is an indication of
entrained or free shown in fig 23.2.
Fig 23.2 Water Indicating and Fuel Indicating

Why to sound the tanks?
To be clearer let us take the case of ―bunker‖ tanks. As we are aware, bunker
tanks are used to carry the entire volume of fuel required for the safe sea passage.
When a ship sails from a port to other, the fuel is getting consumed everyday and
subsequent transfer which has to be done from various fuel oil bunker tanks to ships
settling & service tanks for the use of propulsion. So, it is always necessary to take
―sounding‖ of the bunker tanks to know the exact quantity of the fuel available on board
shown in fig 23.3. Also during bunkering operation, the quantity of fuel oil pumped on
board is to be monitored continuously
so that the bunker tank doesnot
overflow. it overflows, it may cause
a ―marinepollution‖, and as per
―marpol‖, spillage of oil into sea is
prohibited.
So what is a ―sounding pipe?‖ Fig 23.3 Sounding Tank
A ships tank must have a pipe extending from bottom of the tank to a level which
is safe to ―sound‖ the contents of the tank. A sounding pipe is a simple steel pipe, which
is open at the bottom so that the liquid in the tank gets filled up to the same level as in
the tank. As the level in the tank rises, the liquid level in the sounding pipe also
increases, thus upon taking sounding, the quantity of liquid can be known shown in fig
23.4.
Fig 23.4 Sounding Pipe

Sounding table
Within the sounding pipe, a steel flexible measuring tape, with a bob attached at
the end is lowered till it strikes the bottom of the tank. When it strikes the bottom of the
tank, the level of liquid in the tank, makes an impression on the ―sounding tape‖ so that if
we coil up the tape, the impression of content of the tank is seen and the readings are
noted. The noted reading indicates the height of the liquid in the tank. ―Sounding table‖ is
available onboard which is calibrated in consideration with the shape of the tank,
and trim of the ship.
The volume of liquid in the tank is calculated from the sounding table shown in fig 23.5.
Fig 23.5 Sounding Table

PROPELLER AND SHAFTING
General-Propellers used on modern submarines are of the four-blade solid

construction type. There are two propellers on each ship, referred to as the starboard
screw and the port screw. Knowledge of the design of the propeller is not important from
the viewpoint of submarine operating personnel. It is enough to say that the designer has
adequately designed the propeller to give optimum operating characteristics under all
conditions of submarine operation, both surface and submerged. It is necessary,
however, that submarine personnel have knowledge of the terms used in describing a
propeller so as to be able to discuss the subject of propeller operation more intelligibly.
More important still, they should have some knowledge of the upkeep and maintenance
of propellers, so as to keep them in the best possible operating condition.
Propeller shafting
The stern tube contains the bearings in which the propeller shaft is rotates.
Usually, there are two bearings, the one most aft being the longer. Close to this aft
bearing is the sealing system that keeps the seawater out of the stem tube and the oil
inside.
The front side of the stem tube is welded to the aft peak bulkhead, the aft part to
the stem or propeller post. After welding, the tube ends are machined in situ, in
accordance with the alignment of the shafting in relation to the main engine.
The sealing system must be able to withstand extreme conditions such as:
– circumferential speeds up to 5 m/s
– water pressure up to 3 bar
– axial and radial propeller shaft displacements of approximately 1 millimeter
– the ship‘s vibration
– 7000 hours of rotation-time per year, over 5 years
Shaft alignment can be complex. In small ships it is usually a straight line, but in large
ships with heavy shafting systems, the alignment is calculated and bored in accordance
with the flexible line of the installed and coupled shafting.

The lubricating agent between the propeller shaft and the shafting can be
o water
o oil
Water. As a lubricant when water is the lubricant for the propeller shaft, the
bearings is made of rubber or synthetics. Water lubrication can be achieved with both
open and closed systems. In the open system, there must be flow, usually generated by
a pump, through the stem bush from forward to aft, thus preventing seawater from
entering the ship. In the closed system, the water is pumped round the shaft, from fore to
aft. This means that the water inside the stern tube always has a slight overpressure as
compared to the outside seawater. The Navy prefers water lubrication because seals, in
use with oil lubrication are vulnerable to pressure shocks from, for instance, depth
charges. The seals are then blown inwards, and the sealing properties are lost.
In some countries water lubrication is compulsory for local shipping to protect the
environment.
Shafting
 Manufactured from solid forged ingot steel with integral flanged couplings.
 Shafting section is joined by solid forged steel fitted bolts.
Bearing: that part of a machine in which a rotating part rests

I. Propeller
2. Tail shaft
3. Shaft bearing (Rubber, lignum,vitae, tufnol)
4. Stem tube

1. Stem
2. Rudder
3. Propeller cap
4. Propeller
5. Skeg
6. Aft stem tube seals
7. Shafting
8. Forward stem tube seals
9. Intermediate shaft bearings
10. Propeller shaft
Oil. Lubricated Shafting is approximately 70% of all ships use oil as a lubricant for
the propeller shaft. In that case, the bearing is usually made of white metal, and
sometimes of synthetic material. White metal is superior.
The disadvantage of synthetic materials is that they transmit the frictional heat
between bearings and shaft poorly. The oil-filled tube, with the shaft in center, has
sophisticated seals at both sides to keep the oil in the tube and the water (aft) out.
The sealing system at the backside consists of a sealing case and mostly three
sealing rings. These sealing rings are made of synthetic rubber. The space between the
two bearings is completely filled with lubricant. The aft seal prevents oil from leaking to
the outside.

1. Propeller boss
2. Propeller shaft
3. Chrome steel liner
4. Seawater sea
5. Oil seal
6. Stem frame
7. Aft bearing
8. Stem tube
9. Clamped ring
10. Stem tube bearing
11. Fastening at stem tube
12. Fastening at stem tube, where meeting the aft peak bulkhead

The lubricant pressure is only slightly higher than the water pressure. So if
seawater should somehow enter the two water seals, the higher lubricant pressures
prevent it from reaching the propeller shaft. Seawater could seriously damage the
unprotected propeller shaft. The higher lubricant pressure is maintained by a small
pressure tank (A), which is placed a few meters above the loadline.
The A is part of the main lubricating system, tank B contains lubricating oil for the
seawater sealing rings. The oil in the main lubricating is self-circulating due to the fact
that warmer oil rises upwards. Tank C is both the drainage tank and the storage tank.
If oil leakage should somehow occur, it is usually limited to small amounts. If not, dry
docking is necessary. A chrome steel bush is fitted around both the propeller shaft aft
near the propeller and forward at the aft peak bulkhead. The space between the bush
and the tube contains lubricant.
The aft chrome steel liner is attached to the propeller boss with bolts, the chrome
steel liner of the forward bush is attached to the propeller shaft via a clamped ring.
Around both bushes, are non-rotating housings, bolted to the stern tube, with the
sealing rings fitted inside.
During dry docking, the position of the shaft, relative to the stern tube, has to be
measured, to ensure that the shaft is more or less within a few tenths of a mm, in the
same vertical position as when built. This is indicative of the wear of the aft bearing. A
special depth gauge, the so-called ‗poker gauge‘, is designed to measure the position
of the shaft. Normally there is no sagging

Water jet propulsion
Water jet propulsion is based on the reaction force of high-velocity water jet at the
stern of a (light displacement) ship, blown in aft direction.
The main principles of the water jet are:
 The impeller(propeller) draws in seawater through an inlet, usually in the

(flat) bottom
 The same impeller boost the water pressure for the water flow
 The water is pushed through a nozzle
 The nozzle converts the water pressure into a high-speed jet
 The acceleration of the water flow generates a thrust force that gives the
ship its speed
 For sailing astern, the water flow existing from the nozzle can be reversed
in the forward direction with reversing plate(s)
 The same principle of the water jet is

applied in an aircraft jet engine, but here air
is the medium instead of water. The
principle is based on Newton’s law F=m x a,
Where:
F, is a force in Newton
M, the mass of the water and
A, is the acceleration of the water
Efficiency depends on the flow field of the propeller, which depends on:
 the shape of the ship's underwater body

 the power delivered to the propeller
 the number of blades
 rotations per minute
 the maximum possible propeller diameter
 the blade surface area and moothness of the blade
 the ship's speed

1. Engine
2. Engine shaft and flexible coupling
3. Reduction gear box -reduces the number of revolutions of the engine (e.g.l000 rpm) to
an acceptable rotation rate of the propeller (e.g. 200 rpm) the reduction is 5:1.
4. Shaft generator; this supplies the ship with electricity when the engine is running
5. Stem tube with bearing
6. Propeller shaft
7. Propeller
The propeller shaft system (structure)
1. thrust shaft (thrust bearing)

2. intermediate shaft (intermediate shaft bearing, plumber block)
3. tail shaft or propeller shaft (stern tube shaft)
Function of shafting
a. Connect main engine and propeller and transmit power of main engine
b. Transmit thrust from propeller to hull
c. Support the weight of shaft and propeller
d. Watertight
Heating Ingot Steel
1. Thrust Shaft
 Made of forged steel, has one or two collars and is installed between the crank
shaft and intermediate shaft.
 In medium speed engines it is installed in the reduction gear.
 It is installed in the reducing gear box located in the aft part of an engine
Thrust bearing –m Are designed to take loads applied in the same direction as the axis
of the shaft and prevent free endwise movement. These bearing are used for supporting
axial loads as those produced by the propeller of a vessel
Effect of a worn-out thrust bearing – wrong alignment of the thrust shaft system, a too
small space between the thrust flange and its bearing, or shortage oil in the quantity may
cause a heaving to heat up and wear out
Thrust Shaft
Intermediate Shaft
 Connects the thrust and the propeller shaft.

 There is a type in which the shaft and the flange coupling are integrated
Intermediate Shaft
Propeller Shaft
 Connected to the intermediate shaft through a shaft coupling installed at its fore
end while its aft end is tapered and installed with a propeller.
Propeller Shaft

This shaft is supported by the:
 Thrust block (bearing)

 Intermediate bearings
 Stern tube bearing
 Sealing arrangement
 Propeller
 Cone
Thrust Block (Bearing)
 Transfer the thrust from the propeller to the hull of the ship.
 Solidly constructed and mounted onto a rigid setting or framework to support axial
loads from the propeller.
Thrust Block (Bearing)

2. Intermediate Bearing
 Supports the main propulsion line shafting, and are located inside the hull.
Intermediate Bearing

Two (2) Types
1. After most Intermediate (tunnel) bearing – has a top and bottom bearing shell
because it must counteract the propeller mass and take a vertical upward thrust.
2. Other shaft bearing – only support the shaft weight, have only lower half bearing
shells.
Stern Tube and its bearing
1. Supports the weight of the propeller shaft, the propeller and the stern tube
bearing.
2. An integral system to prevent sea water from entering the ship‘s hull.
Stern Tube Bearing
1. Supports the Propeller shaft (tail shaft) and a considerable proportion of the
propeller weight.
2. Act as a gland to prevent the entry of sea water to the machinery space.
Stern Tube Lubrication
1. Water Lubricating Type Stern Tube

2. Materials for water lubricating stern tube – Lignumvitae and synthetic rubber

Uses Lignum Vitae, Rubber (chloroplane and nitril ) bearing.
 Advantages of rubber:
 Lesser friction coefficient.
 Greater abrasion resistance.
 Embedded deeper against object.
 Create noise reduction and resist vibration.
 Two to four times the operating life of lignum vitae.

Water Lubricating Type Stern tube
3. Oil Lubricating Type Stern Tube
Made of Cast iron or steel, others are prefabricated.
Advantage:
a. Allowable load is higher.
b. Length of their bearing is shorter.
c. No bearing sleeve is necessary.
d. Structure is simple.
Oil Lubricating Type ST


ST Bearing Lubricating Oil System
The advantage of rubber bearing

- Lesser friction coefficient in water
- Greater abrasion resistance
- Create noise reduction and resists vibration
- Tendency to become embedded deeper against a foreign object
- Two to four times the opening life of lignumvitae bearing


Example of stern tube piping system
Propeller
In order for a ship to obtain a certain constant speed, a force needs to be exerted
on the ship. The magnitude of this force depends on the ship's resistance applicable to
that particular speed. If the ship is moving through the water at a constant speed the
force exerted on the ship equals the resistance of the ship. The force that moves the ship
can come from an outside source like a towing line or the wind, but generally the force is
generated by a power source (engine) on the ship itself. The propulsion system usually
consists of an engine or turbine, reduction gearing and if applicable, a propeller shaft and
propeller. The efficiency of a propeller holds an important place in the design of the
propulsion because its efficiency and the ship's fuel consumption are directly related.

Terminology
1. Diameter – the diameter of the circle described by the tip of the blades.
2. Pitch – The distance the propeller would advance during one revolution if the
water were a solid (without slippage).
3. Pitch ratio - the ratio of the pitch of the propeller to the diameter of the propeller.
4. Blade face - the after surface (driving face or thrust face) of a propeller blade
which acts on the water to drive the vessel forward.
5. Blade back – the forward side of the propeller
The Propeller
 A multithreaded screw which rotates in water to produce motion in a vessel.

 Rotate with the axis parallel to the direction of the vessel motion.
 Acts like a screw advancing through the water.
 Subject to losses or drag while working in a fluid and no more than 75% on the
average.
 Consist of a boss with several blades of helicoidal form.
 When rotated it ―screws‖ or thrust its way through the water by giving momentum
to the column of water passing through it.
 Thrust is transmitted along the shafting to the thrust block and finally to the ship‘s
structure

Types of Propeller
As to action:
A. Lift Type
1. Screw Propeller – 3 or more blades

Solid Type
Built-up Type
Controllable Pitch Propeller
Solid Type Propeller

 Blades and hub are formed from a single integral casting and may have either
constant or variable pitch.
 Pitches vary with increasing radius from the boss.
 Turns clockwise when viewed from the aft, considered as right handed.
 Most single screw ship have right handed propellers.
 Twin screw ship usually have a right handed starboard propeller and a left handed
port propeller
Built-up Type
 Blades and hub are cast separately and may be different material. Blades are
fastened to the hub by means of studs and nuts.

Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)
 Provided with hydraulically operated mechanisms to change the pitch of the

blades in order to attain any desired speed without change in direction of rotation
of the prime mover or propeller shaft.
Main components:
o Propeller Body
o Oil pressure pump
o Servomotor
 Made up of a boss with a separate blades mounted into it.

 An internal mechanism enables the blades to be moved simultaneously through
an arc to change the pitch angle and therefore the pitch.

Pitch Control

B. Reaction Type
2. Water Jet Propeller – using high jet of sea water to produce ship thrust.
3. Vertical Axis Propellers
 Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the line of thrust, consist of long airfoil-

sectioned blades that projects downward from the bottom of the vessel.
 Varying the pitch of the blades, thrust can be exerted in any horizontal
direction.

Propeller Mounting
 Propeller is fitted onto a taper on the tail shaft and a key may be inserted between
the two.
 Keyless propeller – a large nut is fastened and locked in place on the end of the
tail shaft, a cone is then bolted over the end of the tail shaft to provide a smooth
flow of water from the propeller.
 Pilgrim nut – a patented device which provides a predetermined frictional grip
between the propeller and its shaft.
Pilgrim Nut Operation
Cavitation

 The forming and bursting of vapor filled cavities or bubbles, occurs a result of
pressure variations on the back of a propeller blade.
The result are:
1. Loss of thrust
2. Erosion of the blade surface
3. Vibrations in the after body of the ship
4. Noise
Propeller Maintenance
1. Careful examination on the blade edges for sign of cracks.

2. Edge cracks should be welded up with suitable electrodes.
3. Bent blades, except for slight deformation the application of heat is required.
4. Surface roughness caused by slight pitting can be lightly ground out and the area
polished.

5. More serious damage should be made good by welding and subsequent heat
treatment.
6. A temporary repair for deep pits or holes could be done with suitable resin filler.
Factor affecting efficiency
Both directly as the propeller efficiency and indirectly as affect the other
component of propulsive efficiency, can be outlined in the current state of the art as
follows
Diameter – The propeller diameter and associated pitch ratio is the most
important single factor affecting efficiency. As is well understood, for a given speed,
power and revolution, there is an optimum propeller diameter and pitch
Blade number – The number of propeller blades is normally chosen, not on the
basis of maximizing efficiency, but mainly from consideration of vibration. Whilst
recognizing this, it is an important fact that, for given revolution, the lower the number of
blades the greater the propeller efficiency
Surface area – The blade surface area of a propeller and its distribution has a
direct effect upon the efficiency, which is associated with the surface friction caused by
the propeller in action
Blade section thickness – Within normal thickness requirement for blade strength
purposes, blade thickness should have little significant direct effect upon propeller
efficiency. There is some evidence to suggest, however, from model experiments, that‘s
the increased in thickness associated with the requirements for heavy ice class may
reduce the propeller efficiency.
Boss – The size of the propeller boss will directly affect the propeller efficiency.
This is only really important when comparing significantly different boss sizes, e.g. for
controllable pitch propeller where the higher boss ratio leads to an inherent efficiency
difference of about 2 percent in comparison with the equivalent fixed pitch propeller
Section profiles – Aerofoil – type section were introduced into marine propeller
many years ago, as a result of which the various profiles as adapted for marine use by
propeller designers are considered to be very similar in terms of efficiency
Rake – Rake in itself has no direct effect upon the propeller efficiency. However,
the interaction effect between propeller and hull indicates that the position of the
propeller in the aperture can prove significant
Skew – Application of skew in considered having no direct effect upon the

propeller efficiency. Indirectly, however, it has been argued that because skew reduces
the impulses on the adjacent hull a larger diameter can be adopted with lower
revolutions without increasing vibration levels, and thereby increases the efficiency
Clearance – The propeller blade clearances are important indirectly as they will
affect the propeller / hull interaction. As clearances reduce the thrust deduction increase,
thereby decreasing the hull efficiency. It follows therefore that propeller blade clearance
should be as large as possible.
Surface condition – The frictional drag of a propeller in action is clearly dependent

upon the surface condition of the blades, and the absorbed torque is a function of the
drug. Therefore, with increasing blade roughness associated with fouling, damage or
erosion, the propeller efficiency will reduce. Whilst this is difficult to quantity in practice,
this aspect is discussed more fully in later section.
MARINE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
A ship consumes considerable electrical power -steering gear, lighting,

ventilation, pumps, compressors, air conditioning, etc. Diesel generators supply the
power.
At least two diesel generators are needed. When one fails, the other mean take
over. To allow proper maintenance of one diesel generator when the ship is in normal
operation, a third diesel generator is often used. All three are identical, and each is
capable of meeting the total electrical power demand at sea.
The electricity produced is normally 3-phase current. When more than one
generator is running the electric output can be connected through a circuit breaker to the
bus-bars of the main switchboard in parallel mode.
A synchronizer panel is installed in the switchboard, only allowing the circuit

breaker to be closed when the generator which is to be switched on, is in phase with the
other generator(s) already running. Together, they feed one system.
The diesel output power is controlled by a governor on each diesel engine that
regulates the fuel quantity while keeping the RPM constant. Big ships usually have
generators that produce 440 volt and 60 Hertz (3-phase). A shaft-driven generator or PT
a-generator (Power-Take-Off) is becoming popular, usually in combination with a
controllable pitch propeller to ensure a constant RPM. The main engine produces the
rotating energy, burning cheap heavy fuel instead of expensive diesel oil. Parallel
running between the diesel generators and the shaft generator is normally only possible
for a short period, i.e. the time to take over the load. To ensure electric power for
essential . functions (navigation lights, steering gear, bridge equipment, lighting in engine
room and accommodation, etc.) in case of a total electric power failure, a so-called
black-out, ships are equipped with an emergency generator.
This generator feeds the emergency switchboard. It switches on automatically

when this switchboard no longer receives power from the main switchboard. Large main
engines produce so much heat, that steam can be produced in an exhaust gas boiler to
the extent that a steam turbine generator can supply the necessary -electricity. A steam
turbine then drives the alternator through a reduction gear box. This saves using a diesel
generator and the necessary fuel.
Such a system involves a complicated steam system of high quality, with the
necessary safety devices, a condenser, circulating pumps, cooling water pumps, feed
water and condensate pumps and accurate water treatment. Electrical consumers are
divided into two groups -essential and non-essential. In case of a power failure, the non-
essential users are automatically switched off. Essential users, such as steering gear,
main engine lube oil, fuel and cooling water pumps, navigation lighting and bridge
equipment, remain operational as long as possible.
Three phase A.C (Alternating current) generator
1. Characteristics of coil
1. Current flows in the coil, magnet flux occurs inside the coil, then coil becomes the
electromagnet (magnetic field by current)
2. Magnet is moved in the coil, voltage occurs (Dimensions of magnetic flux changes in
the coil, voltage occur) (electromagnetic induction)
3. Dimension of current flowing in the coil changes voltages, voltage occurs in the coil
(self-induction)

2. Structure and of the three phase A.C. generator (Brushless generator)
 A.C Generator consists of the generator and exciter.

 Output current of the exciter changes to D.C exciting current by the rectifier, then
the D.C exciting current excites the revolving field of the generator.
 Auto voltage regulator detects the voltage of the generator, then auto voltage
regulator adjusts D.C exciting current of the exciter, and keeps the voltage of the
generator constant.
Characteristics of three phase A.C generator
 The D.C. exciting current is kept constant, and the voltage of the
generator is kept constant, then load current (electric power) is
increasing
1. Delayed power factor (The phase of current delays than voltage of source)
The voltage of the generator is decreasing
2. Gained power factor (The phase of current gains than voltage of source)
The voltage of the generator is increasing
3. Power factor is 100% (The phase of current is as same as the phase of voltage
of source)
The voltage of the generator doesn‘t change very much
 The voltage of the generator is changing by the power factor and

load current (electric power) so auto voltage regulator keeps the
voltage of the generator constant

The exciting current and voltage
 Action of auto voltage regulator
2. Electric power of A.C. (Alternating current) circuit
1. Single phase A.C circuit
 The power factor of the load is the cosine (cos) of the phase different
between voltage and current. The power factor of the load shows the ratio of
electric energy that that is used affectivity all of inputting into the electric
apparatus
3. A.C (Alternating current) motor (Induction motor)
Principle of A.C motor
1. Stator winding is supplied 3-pase A.C voltage

2. Rotating magnetic field happens in the stator winding

3. By the electromagnetic induction between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor,
secondary current flows on the rotor
4. By the action of the secondary current and the rotating magnetic field, the rotor turns.
Starting of A.C. motor
1. DIRECT-on LINE STRATING
When the output of the motor is small, the voltage of the source is directly
supplied stator winding of the motor
2. STAR-DELTA STRATING
In case of the motor having the large output, when it is started by direct-on line
starting, it is overheated by starting current. So, the motor started by star winding, the
voltage of the source is decreased (about 60% of the source). After increasing the
revolution of the motor, star winding is changed to the delta winding.
3. STARTING-COMPENSATOR
By using starting transformer, the voltage of the source is decreased (About 40%
to 80% decreasing). After increasing the revolution of the motor, the starting transformer
is cut off, and the voltage of the source is supplied stator windings of the motor.
4. STARTING-REACTOR
By using starting reactor (coil with core), the voltage of the source is decreased.
After increasing the revolution of the motor, the starting reactor is cut off, and the voltage
of the source is supplied stator windings of the motor
Storage Battery
Structure

Theory of charging and discharging
 The solution with the dilute sulfuric acid is installed in the electric bath, and the
anode plate and the cathode plate are arranged alternately. Between the anode plate
and the cathode plate, the separator is set for preventing from short-circuit of the both
plate
 Cell: one unit of the anode plate and the cathode, and the separator
 The materials of anode (+pole): PbO2
 The materials of cathode (-pole): Lead(Pb)
 Solution: Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Density: 1.2~1.3
 Voltage: about 2V per one cell
Maintenance of the lead storage battery
The lead storage battery has self-discharging, so the lead storage battery is
needed to check the quantity of the solution and the density of the dilute sulfuric once a
month
1. Checking the quantity of the solution
 In case of decreasing the quantity of the solution, the density of the dilute sulfuric
is increasing, so the distilled water is supplied in the solution
2. Measuring the density of dilute sulfuric acid and charging
 As the voltage is decreasing, the density of the dilute sulfuric acid is decreasing.
 The density of the dilute sulfuric acid is measured. When the density of the dilute
sulfuric acid becomes 1.1 (at the temperature of 20 Celsius), the charging of the
lead storage battery is started, then the density of the dilute sulfuric acid becomes
1.28 (at the temperature of 20 Celsius), the charging of the lead storage battery is
stopped
 The density is charging by temperature, so temperature is measured, and the
density is needed to revise (the density at the temperature of 20 Celsius)
Electronics
What's the difference?
Electronics, Use electrical phenomena to move information audible, visual, and so

on. This is channeled through an electric current basis of changes in its
characteristics which are coded, they can be amperage, voltage, frequency,
phase, and so on. When the amperage or voltage is altered in a controlled way to
drive some information in code form are called signals. While Electricity, This
takes the phenomenon for energy or electrical power with which we can "move"
any electrical appliance.
Electricity
Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of

electricity
Electricity (from the New Latin ēlectricus,

"amber-like") is a general term that
encompasses a variety of phenomena resulting
from the presence and flow of electric charge.
These include many easily recognizable
phenomena such as lightning and static electricity, but in addition, less familiar concepts
such as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction.
In general usage, the word 'electricity' is adequate to refer to a number of physical

effects. However, in scientific usage, the term is vague, and these related, but distinct,
concepts are better identified by more precise terms:
 Electric charge – a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their

electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and
produces, electromagnetic fields.
 Electric current – a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically
measured in amperes.
 Electric field – an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its
vicinity.

 Electric potential – the capacity of an electric field to do work on a electric charge,

typically measured in volts.
 Electromagnetism – a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the
presence and motion of an electric charge.
 Current - is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or electron-
deficient atoms. The common symbol for current is the uppercase letter I. The
standard unit is the ampere, symbolized by A.
Electric current can be either direct or alternating. Direct current (DC) flows
in the same direction at all points in time, although the instantaneous magnitude
of the current might vary. In an alternating current (AC), the flow of charge carriers
reverses direction periodically. The number of complete AC cycles per second is
the frequency, which is measured in hertz. An example of pure DC is the current
produced by an electrochemical cell. The output of a power-supply rectifier, prior
to filtering, is an example of pulsating DC. The output of common utility outlets is
AC.
Properties of Electricity
Electricity
It is well known that one of the subatomic particles

of an atom is the electron. Atoms can and usually do have
a number of electrons circling its nucleus. The electrons
carry a negative electrostatic charge and under certain
conditions can move from atom to atom. The direction of
movement between atoms is random unless a force
causes the electrons to move in one direction. This
directional movement of electrons due to some imbalance
of force is what is known as electricity.
Amperage
The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An
amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons, having
one coulomb of charge, move past a given point in one second. A coulomb is the
charge carried by 6.25 x 1018 electrons or 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
Electromotive Force
The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is

called the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to
think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force that
makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There
are many sources of EMF, the most common being batteries and

electrical generators.
The Volt
The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic
difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of
charge from one point to the other. A joule is the amount of energy that is being
consumed when one watt of power works for one second. This is also known as a watt-
second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of energy is a very, very
small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light bulb consumes about 60
joules of energy each second it is on.
Resistance
Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical

current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms
of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low
resistance are good conductors of electricity. Materials with high resistance are good
insulators.
Current Flow and Ohm's Law
Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the relationship
between the three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage, and resistance.
When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive elements (i.e. no coils),
current flows according to Ohm's Law, which is shown below.
I=V/R
Where:
Electrical Current
I=
(Amperes)
V= Voltage (Voltage)
R= Resistance (Ohms)
Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is proportional to the
voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). Therefore, if the voltage is
increased, the current will increase provided the resistance of the circuit does not

change. Similarly, increasing the resistance of the circuit will lower the current flow if the
voltage is not changed. The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can
easily be seen for all of the three variables.
Basic Electric Term
Volt - the unit of electromotive force, the measure of electrical pressure, is

abbreviated v or V, and voltage is represented by I. The voltage (of a circuit) is the
effective (greatest root-mean-square) difference of potential between any two conductors
of the circuit concerned. Some systems, such as 3-phase 4-wire and single-phase 3-wire
may have multiple circuits of differing voltages. The Nominal Voltage is the value
assigned to a circuit to conveniently designate its voltage class (e.g. 120 volts, 240 volts,
480 volts). The actual voltage of the circuit can vary.
Amp - or Ampere, the unit of intensity of electrical current (the measure of

electrical flow), is abbreviated a or A.
Watt - the unit of power or rate of work represented by a current of one ampere
under a pressure of one volt (abbreviated w or W). The English horsepower is
approximately equal to 846 watts. Wattage ratings of lamps actually measure the power
consumption not the illuminating capability.
Service - the conductors and equipment for delivering electrical energy from the
supply system (e.g. the electric power utility) to the wiring system of the premises
served.
Ohm - the unit of electrical resistance and impedance, abbreviated with the
symbol omega, W. Resistance is the opposition offered by a substance to the passage of
electrical current. Impedance is the apparent resistance in a circuit to the flow of
alternating current.
Kilowatt-hour - Work done at the steady rate equivalent to 1000 watts in one hour.
Power utility companies base their billing upon the number of kilowatt-hours (KWH)
consumed.
Ohm's Law - A statement of the relationship, discovered by the German scientist

G. S. Ohm, between the voltage, amperage and resistance of a circuit. It states the
voltage of a circuit in volts is equal to the product of the amperage in amperes and the
resistance in ohms.
E=IR
Transformer - An apparatus for converting an alternating electrical current from a

high to a low potential (voltage) or vice versa. Uses of transformers include but are not
limited to the conversion of utility transmission voltage to the voltage of the premises
wiring system and conversion of of voltage for use with chimes, alarm systems and low-

voltage lighting. Transformers can also be used to compensate for minor variations
equipment voltage requirements. Transformers only change voltage and amperage.
GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) - A device intended for the protection of
personnel that de-energizes a circuit or portion of a circuit when the current to ground
exceeds a preset value. "Ground Fault" is the name applied to this undesired circuit
condition. In dwelling units (e.g. houses, apartments), GFCI protection is currently
required in bathrooms, garages, outdoors, unfinished basements, kitchens and wet bar
sinks. Other specific installations and/or areas may also necessitate the need for
protection
Single Phase - a system of alternating current power where the phase relationship
between ungrounded conductors is either 0 or 10 degrees.
Three Phase - a system of alternating current power where the phase relationship
between ungrounded conductors is either 0 or 120 degrees.
NEC (National Electrical Code) - a document produced by the National Fire

Protection Association for the purpose of the practical safeguarding of persons and
property from hazards arising from the use of electricity. Authorities having legal
jurisdiction over electrical installations adopt the code for mandatory application ( i.e.
incorporate the code into law).
Circuit Breaker - A device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic

means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined over current without
damaging itself when operated according to its rating.
Fuse - An over current protective device with a circuit opening part that is heated
and broken by the passage of an over current through it..
Circuit - A complete path from the energy source through conducting bodies and
back to the energy source. For example:
Conductor - a substance
or body capable of
transmitting electricity.
Bare - A conductor having no covering or electrical insulation whatsoever.

Covered - A conductor encased within material of composition or thickness that is not
recognized by the NEC as electrical insulation.
Insulated - A conductor encased within material of composition or thickness that is
recognized by the NEC as electrical insulation.

Equipment - A general term including material, fittings, devices, alliances, fixtures,

apparatus , and similar items used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical
installation.
Lamp - A general term for various devices for artificially producing light including
commonly called items such as light bulbs and fluorescent tubes.
AC and DC - Abbreviations for alternating current and direct current respectively.
Current - a movement of electricity analogous to the flow of a stream of water.

Direct Current - An electric current flowing in one direction only (i.e. current produced
using a battery).
Alternating Current - a periodic electric current that reverses its direction at regular
intervals.
Phase
the point or stage in the period to which the rotation, oscillation, or variation has
advanced relative to a standard position or starting point.
electrically, one of the voltage sources of an alternating current electrical system
whose voltage state is measured relative to a standard point.
Electric Circuit
What is electricity?
Electricity is the flow of charge around a circuit

carrying energy from the battery (or power supply) to
components such as lamps and motors.
Electricity can flow only if there is a complete

circuit from the battery through wires to components and
back to the battery again.
The diagram shows a simple circuit of a battery,

wires, a switch and a lamp. The switch works by breaking
the circuit.
With the switch open the circuit is broken - so electricity cannot flow and the lamp
is off.
With the switch closed the circuit is complete - allowing electricity to flow and the
lamp is on. The electricity is carrying energy from the battery to the lamp.

We can see, hear or feel the effects of electricity flowing such as a lamp lighting, a bell
ringing, or a motor turning - but we cannot see the electricity itself, so which way is it
flowing?
Which way does electricity flow?
We say that electricity flows from the positive (+)

terminal of a battery to the negative (-) terminal of the
battery. We can imagine particles with positive electric
charge flowing in this direction around the circuit, like the red
dots in the diagram.
This flow of electric charge is called conventional

current. Imaginary positive particles
moving in the direction of
This direction of flow is used throughout electronics the conventional current
and it is the one you should remember and use to
understand the operation of circuits.
However this is not the whole answer because the particles that move in fact have
negative charge! And they flow in the opposite direction! Please read on.
Circuit Symbols
Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is
connected together. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from
the circuit diagram. To build a circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of
the parts on stripboard or printed circuit board.
Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of

Wire
a circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are

connected (joined), but it is sometimes
Wires joined omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered slightly to form two T-
junctions, as shown on the right.

In complex diagrams it is often necessary to

draw wires crossing even though they are
not connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol
Wires not joined shown on the right because the simple
crossing on the left may be misread as a
join where you have forgotten to add a
'blob'!
Power Supplies
Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
Cell A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined
together.
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more

Battery than one cell.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).

DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.

AC supply AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the

Fuse current flowing through it exceeds a specified
value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.

Transformers are used to step up (increase)
Transformer and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Energy is transferred between the coils by the
magnetic field in the core. There is no

electrical connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic

circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power
Earth
supply, but for mains electricity and some
(Ground)
radio circuits it really means the earth. It is
also known as ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to light. This symbol is used for a
Lamp (lighting)
lamp providing illumination, for example a
car headlamp or torch bulb.

energy to light. This symbol is used for a
Lamp (indicator)
lamp which is an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.

Heater
energy to heat.

Motor
energy to kinetic energy (motion).

Bell
energy to sound.

Buzzer
energy to sound.
Inductor A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

(Coil, Solenoid) when current passes through it. It may have

an iron core inside the coil. It can be used
as a transducer converting electrical energy
to mechanical energy by pulling on
something.
Switches
Push Switch A push switch allows current to flow only

(push-to- when the button is pressed. This is the
make) switch used to operate a doorbell.
This type of push switch is normally

Push-to-Break
closed (on), it is open (off) only when the
Switch
button is pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.

On-Off Switch
An on-off switch allows current to flow
(SPST)
only when it is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.

A 2-way changeover switch directs the
2-way Switch flow of current to one of two routes
(SPDT) according to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off position and
are described as 'on-off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.

Dual On-Off A dual on-off switch which is often used to
Switch switch mains electricity because it can
(DPST) isolate both the live and neutral
connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

Reversing
This switch can be wired up as a
Switch
reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT
(DPDT)
switches have a central off position.
An electrically operated switch, for

example a 9V battery circuit connected to
the coil can switch a 230V AC mains
Relay
circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Resistors
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for

example to limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor is used with a
Resistor
capacitor in a timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor
symbol:
This type of variable resistor with 2

contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to
Variable Resistor control current. Examples include:
(Rheostat) adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 3

contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used
Variable Resistor to control voltage. It can be used like this
(Potentiometer) as a transducer converting position (angle
of the control spindle) to an electrical
signal.

This type of variable resistor (a preset) is

operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set when
Variable Resistor
the circuit is made and then left without
(Preset)
further adjustment. Presets are cheaper
than normal variable resistors so they are
often used in projects to reduce the cost.
Capacitors
A capacitor stores electric charge. A

capacitor is used with a resistor in a
Capacitor timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This

type must be connected the correct way
Capacitor, round. A capacitor is used with a resistor
polarised in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.
A variable capacitor is used in a radio

Variable Capacitor
tuner.
This type of variable capacitor (a

trimmer) is operated with a small
Trimmer Capacitor screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed
to be set when the circuit is made and
then left without further adjustment.
Diodes

A device which only allows current to

Diode
flow in one direction.
LED A transducer which converts electrical

Light Emitting Diode energy to light.
A special diode which is used to

Zener Diode maintain a fixed voltage across its
terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.
Transistors
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with

Transistor NPN other components to make an amplifier or switching
circuit.
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with

Transistor PNP other components to make an amplifier or switching
circuit.
Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.
Audio and Radio Devices


A transducer which converts sound to electrical

Microphone
energy.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Earphone
sound.

Loudspeaker
sound.

Piezo Transducer
sound.
An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a

Amplifier
block diagram symbol because it represents a
(general symbol)
circuit rather than just one component.
A device which is designed to receive or

Aerial
transmit radio signals. It is also known as an
(Antenna)
antenna.
Meters and Oscilloscope

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

The proper name for voltage is 'potential
Voltmeter
difference', but most people prefer to say
voltage!

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter

Galvanometer which is used to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance.

Ohmmeter
Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape

Oscilloscope of electrical signals and it can be used to
measure their voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)

A transducer which converts brightness (light)

LDR to resistance (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
A transducer which converts temperature

Thermistor
(heat) to resistance (an electrical property).
Electrical System
 Located and identify main power and associated circuit breakers

 Locate and identify the following units/controls
 Main generator and circuit breakers
 Woodward auto synchronizer
 Woodward loadsharing/speed controller
 Shore power connection
 Main/emergency switchboard
Note: Once generator run-up time has expired (approx. 15 sec.) turn shore supply off (the close
Coast Guard
available Education
lamp should beand
on) Training
and ensureCommand Page
that not morethan loaded supply of electricity to avoid fire289
or
accident and to ensure generator are sharing power equally to operate a safety limit
ENGINE SHOPS AND TOOLS
Machine Shop
"Machine shop" redirects here. For the record label, see Machine Shop Recordings.
New Guinea in 1943. Mobile Machine Shop truck of the US Army with machinists
working on automotive parts.
Conventional machining is a collection of material-working processes in which

power-driven machine tools shown in figure above, such as saws, lathes, milling
machines, and in drill presses, are used with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the
material to achieve the desired geometry. Machining is a part of the manufacture of
almost all metal products, and it is common for other materials, such as wood and
plastic, to be machined. A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist. A
room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of
modern day machining is controlled by computers using computer numerical
control (CNC) machining. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or both.
The precise meaning of the term "machining" has evolved over the past 1.5
centuries as technology has advanced. During the Machine Age, it referred to (what we

today might call) the "traditional" machining processes, such

asturning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming,
and tapping, or sometimes to grinding. Since the advent of new technologies such
as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam
machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining,
theretronym "conventional machining" can be used to differentiate the classic
technologies from the newer ones. The term "machining" without qualification usually
implies conventional machining. Since the rise of additive manufacturing (most especially
since the 2000s), material-adding techniques have begun to fulfill some of the same part-
creation needs that were traditionally filled with machining (which is about material
removal). Therefore, in recent years material-removing processes (traditional machining
and the newer types) are often being retronymously classified, in thought and language,
as subtractive manufacturing methods. In narrow contexts, additive and subtractive
methods may compete with each other. In the broad context of entire industries, their
relationship is complementary.
Machine tool that rotates a circular tool with numerous cutting edges arranged
symmetrically about its axis, called a milling cutter. The metal work piece is usually held
in a vise clamped to a table that can move in three perpendicular directions. Cutters of
many shapes and sizes are available for a wide variety of milling operations. Milling
machines cut flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, inclined surfaces, dovetails, and T-slots.
Various form-tooth cutters are used for cutting concave forms and convex grooves, for
rounding corners, and for cutting gear teeth.
LATHES
What is turning?
Turning is the machining operation that produces cylindrical parts. In its basic form, it can
be defined as the machining of an external surface:
 with the work piece rotating,

 with a single-point cutting tool, and
 with the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of the workpiece and at a distance
that will remove the outer surface of the work.
Taper turning is practically the same, except that the cutter path is at an angle to the
work axis. Similarly, in contour turning, the distance of the cutter from the work axis is
varied to produce the desired shape.
Even though a single-point tool is specified, this does not exclude multiple-tool setups,
which are often employed in turning. In such setups, each tool operates independently
as a single-point cutter.

View a typical turning operation in fig 1. This movie is from the MIT-NMIS Machine Shop
Tutorial.
Fig 1Turning and the adjustable parameter
Adjustable cutting factors in turning
The three primary factors in any basic turning operation are speed, feed, and
depth of cut. Other factors such as kind of material and type of tool have a large
influence, of course, but these three are the ones the operator can change by adjusting
the controls, right at the machine.
Speed, always refers to the spindle and the work piece. When it is stated in revolutions
per minute(rpm) it tells their rotating speed.
Feed, always refers to the cutting tool, and it is the rate at which the tool advances along
its cutting path. On most power-fed lathes, the feed rate is directly related to the spindle
speed and is expressed in inches (of tool advance) per revolution ( of the spindle), or ipr.
The figure, by the way, is usually much less than an inch and is shown as decimal
amount.
Depth of Cut is practically self explanatory. It is the thickness of the layer being removed
from the work piece or the distance from the uncut surface of the work to the cut surface,
expressed in inches.
LATHE RELATED OPERATIONS
The lathe, of course, is the basic turning machine. Apart from turning, several other
operations can also be performed on a lathe.
Boring. Boring always involves the enlarging of an existing hole, which may have been
made by a drill or may be the result of a core in a casting. Boring is essentially internal
turning while feeding the tool parallel to the rotation axis of the work piece shown in fig
1.1.
Fig 1.1 Boring
Facing. Facing is the producing of a flat surface as the result of a tool's being fed across
the end of the rotating work piece. Unless the work is held on a mandrel, if both ends of
the work are to be faced, it must be turned end for end after the first end is completed
and the facing operation repeated shown in fig 1.2.
Fig 1.2
Parting - is the operation by which one section of a work piece is severed from the
remainder by means of a cut-off tool shown in fig 1.3. Because cutting tools are quite thin
and must have considerable overhang, this process is less accurate and more difficult.

Fig 1.3 Parting
Threading. Lathe provided the first method for cutting threads by machines. Although
most threads are now produced by other methods, lathes still provide the most versatile
and fundamentally simple method shown in fig 1.4. The second by requirement is that
the tool must move longitudinally in a specific relationship to the rotation of the work
piece, because this determines the lead of the thread.
Fig 1.4 Threading
CUTTING TOOLS FOR LATHES
Tool Geometry. For cutting tools, geometry depends mainly on the properties of the tool
material and the work material. The standard terminology is shown in the following figure

1.5. For single point tools, the most important angles are the rake angles and the end
and side relief angles.
Fig 1.5 Tool Geometry
TURNING MACHINES
The turning machines are, of course, every kind of lathes. Lathes used in
manufacturing see in fig 1.6 can be classified as engine, turret, automatics, and
numerical control etc.
Fig 1.6 turning machine
Turret Lathes. In a turret lathe, a longitudinally feedable, hexagon turret replaces the
tailstock. The turret, on which six tools can be mounted, can be rotated about a vertical

axis to bring each tool into operating position, and the entire unit can be moved
longitudinally, either annually or by power, to provide feed for the tools shown in fig 1.7.
Fig 1.7 Turret lathes
Single-Spindle Automatic Screw Machines
There are two common types of single-spindle screw machines, One, an American
development and commonly called the turret type (Brown & Sharp), is shown in the
figure 1.8.
Fig 1.8
CNC Machine. Nowadays, more and more Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC)
machines are being used in every kinds of manufacturing processes. In a CNC machine,
functions like program storage, tool offset and tool compensation, program-editing
capability, various degree of computation, and the ability to send and receive data from a

variety of sources, including remote locations can be easily realized through on board
computer.
Here is a picture of the actuator in operation. The material being cut is an

aluminum alloy. The actuator/flexor system is mounted to the tool holder turret of MTU's
CNC lathe. We hope to have a video soon....better wear your safety glasses!!
Milling Machine
Milling machine is a machine tool used to machine solid materials shown in figure
2. Milling machines are often classed in two basic forms, horizontal and vertical, which
refers to the orientation of the main spindle. Both types range in size from small, bench-
mounted devices to room-sized machines.
Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, from simple (e.g., slot and
keyway cutting, planing, drilling) to complex (e.g., contouring, diesinking). Cutting fluid is
often pumped to the cutting site to cool and lubricate the cut and to wash away the

resulting swarf
Fig 2 Milling Machine part terminology. Note that newer lathes now have an improved,
more positive locking lever on the Z-axis leadscrew that replaces the Headstock Friction
Adjusting Screw shown in this older diagram.
DRILL PRESSES
Definition
A drill press is a wood cutting machine that uses a multiple-cutting-edged rotating

tool to remove wood and produce a hole in the stock. Normally, drilling machines are
vertically arranged with the tools having variable speeds and feeds. They may also have
multiple spindles for gang drilling. The most commonly used drilling machine is a single-
spindle, floor-mounted, belt-driven machine for non-production drilling. Belt-driven
spindles may require manual belt shifting for spindle speed changes. Feed rates are also
adjustable and may be manual or automatic.
Operator Involvement
The drilling machine operator may or may not be a skilled worker. The common
drill press is used often by anybody in the shop and injuries can occur because of
carelessness. The operator must position the stock, install the drill, operate and observe,
and maintain housekeeping. The operator also must change speeds and feeds when
required.
With a drill press, the operator must be protected from the rotating chuck and
swarf that is produced by the drill bit shown in figure 3. Specially designed shields can be
attached to the quill and used to protect this area. A telescoping portion of the shield can
retract as the drill bit comes down into the piece-part. On larger gang or radial drills, a
more universal-type shield is usually applied
Universal knee type milling machine
Fig. 3 Drill presses

ENGINE TOOLS
Good tools are essential if a mechanic is to do his best work quickly, properly and
accurately. Without the proper tools and the knowledge of how to use them, time is
wasted, efficiency is reduced, and the person doing the work may injure himself.
Good tools are carefully made, and must be handled properly if they are to work and last
as intended. They cannot take rough usage. This is especially important aboard ship
where it may be .impossible to procure a replacement when needed.
In general, every tool should be given. its own place on a tool rack or tool board, or in a
tool box. Some tools should be kept close by the machine for which they are designed
and on which they are used. Other tools must be stored in the tool room. Tools should be
cleaned after being used, should be oiled, in some cases, to prevent rust, and should
then be returned to their respective places important, especially in an emergency. It is
also possible to check more readily to see whether any tools are missing, and, if so,
which ones they are.
The way in which tools are handled, and the care given to them, indicates the
quality of workmanship and the kind of engineering to be expected in your department
Hammers.- The hammer is a very simple striking tool, being just a weighted head and
a handle to direct its course. Several types of hammer are shown below

Different type of Hammers
Sledges- Sledges, or sledge hammers, are used for heavy work. They can be
procured in both single-face and double-face types, a double-face sledge being shown
below, and vary in weight from 4 to 20 pounds. The handles vary in length up to 36
inches
SLEDGE HAMMERS
Screwdrivers- Screwdrivers have three main parts: the handle, which is gripped by
the user; the shank, which is the steel portion extending from the handle; and the blade,
which is the end that fits into the slot of the screw. Several types of screwdrivers are
shown below
SCREWDRIVERS
The standard screwdriver is used for most ordinary work and comes in a variety of
sizes. The blade must have sharp corners and fit the slot in the screw closely; otherwise
it is likely to slip and damage the slot
The offset screwdriver makes work possible in tight corners where the straight type will
not enter. It has one blade forged in line with the shank, and the other blade at right
angles to the shank
The ratchet screwdriver is used to drive or remove small screws rapidly
SPECIAL SCREWDRIVERS
Pliers.-Several commonly used types of pliers are shown below hinge for gripping large
diameters. They are used principally for holding and bending flat or round stock. The
various lengths and shapes of flat-nose, round-nose, and needle-nose or long-nose
pliers make it possible to bend or form metal into a variety of shapes, to hold objects in
tight spots, and to make delicate adjustments

Diagonal-cutting pliers have short jaws with blades at a slight angle, as shown below.
This tool is valuable when removing and replacing cotter pins, and can be used not only
to cut the
DIAGONAL-CUTTING PLIERS
Nippers.-Nippers resemble pliers, but are used only for cutting, not for holding. Various
types can be used for cutting wire, rod, nails, rivets, and bolts. For light work on soft
metals the nippers shown below, would be used. They must not be overstrained,
however, as their thin cutting edges are easily nicked and dented. For heavier work, the
nippers shown at B are used. This type has replaceable blades, a strong joint, and a
short fulcrum that provides plenty of leverage. Nippers should not be used to cut such
material as drill rod or piano wire
NIPPERS
shears and snips.-hand shears, or snips, are used for cutting sheet metal of various
kinds and thicknesses. several commonly used types of these tools are shown below
straight snips have blades that are flat and straight on the inside surfaces. they are
designed for straight cutting but can also be used on large outside curves circular snips,
with their curved blades, will handle all except the smallest curves. they are available for
either right-hand or left-hand use trojan snips are slender-bladed snips used for straight
or curved cutting. the blades are small enough to permit sharp turns, and will also cut
outside and inside curves

SHEARS AND SNIPS
Bolt Cutters- For heavy-duty cutting jobs, a bolt cutter, shown below, is used.
These tools are made in several sizes, from 18 to 36 inches in length, the larger ones
being used to cut mild steel bolts and rods up to 1/2 inch in diameter
Bolt Cutter
Punches- Several types of punches are shown below. These tools may be used for a
variety of jobs, but the correct punch for the job should always be selected
PUNCHES

center punch is used to make a starting mark for a drill when holes are to be drilled in
metal. If the center punch mark is not made, the drill will wander or "walk away" from the
desired center
Prick punches are generally used for marking centers and lines in layout work
Starting punches, sometimes called drifts, have a long taper from the tip to the body.
They are made that way to withstand the shock of heavy blows
Pin punch can then be used, as it is designed to follow through the hole without
jamming. Both starting punches and pin punches must have flat ends, never edged or
rounded ones alining, or lining up, punch is used to line up corresponding holes in
adjacent parts, for example when working on engines that have pans and cover plates
Vises- Two types of vises usually found aboard ship are shown in Fig. 13.
The machinist's vise is a heavy-duty holding tool with parallel jaws and either a fixed or
swivel base. It should be used only for holding material when hack sawing, filing, drilling,
tapping, reaming, etc. It should not be used as an anvil utility vise for general work. It
has a small anvil and anvil horn as part of the back jaw
Vises
Clamps - When a vise is not available, a clamp can be used to hold pieces of material
together while they are being worked on. Clamps of this type are shown below. A
different kind of clamp is often used to make a temporary fastening in the engine room
when it is desired to lift or take a strain on some object
Wrenches- Fundamentally, the wrench is a tool for exerting a twisting strain, as in

turning bolts and nuts. As the majority of nuts and bolt heads are hexagonal, or 6-sided,
many wrenches are specially designed to fit hex-heads and hex-nuts
Open-end Wrenches- Solid, nonadjustable wrenches with openings in one or both

ends are called open-end wrenches. A set of these tools is shown below. Open-end
wrenches with small openings are usually shorter than wrenches with large openings,
thus proportioning the lever advantage of the wrench to the size of the work and helping
to prevent breakage of the wrench or damage to the bolt or stud
Set Of Open-End Wrenches
Open-End Wrenches
Adjustable Wrenches- a handy all-round wrench for light work is the adjustable open-
end wrench, such as shown below. One jaw of this wrench is fixed; the other jaw is
moved along a slide by a screw adjustment, the angle between the jaw openings.

Adjustable open-end wrench
Monkey wrenches- one of which is shown below, are useful in many instances, when
tightening or loosening pipe unions, for example, or where the exact size of open-end
wrench is not available. When using monkey wrenches, take the same precautions as
with adjustable wrenches. Always have the jaws point in the direction of the pull
Monkey wrench
Box-end Wrenches- Some box-end wrenches have 6 inside faces, or notches, but most
of them have 12 notches, as shown below, this wrench being known as a 12-
point or double-hex box wrench.
Box-end wrench
Offset box-end and combination wrenches

Socket Wrenches- Two typical one-piece socket wrenches are shown below. These are
heavy-duty wrenches, made with 4 inside faces for square nuts or with 6 inside faces for
hex-nuts. This type of socket wrench, however, does not have the wide.
One-piece socket wrenches
Socket wrenches
Torque Wrenches- One type of torque wrench is shown below. This tool is used as a
socket wrench handle in order to exert the desired amount of strain when tightening nuts
and bolts. As the torque wrench is pulled, the scale or dial of the tool indicates how great
a twist, or torque, is exerted, and the pull is continued until the desired reading is
reached.
Spanner Wrenches- Several types of spanner wrenches are shown below. The hook
spanner works on a round nut which has a series of notches cut in its outer surface. The
hook, or lug, is placed in one of the notches and the handle turned to loosen or tighten
the nut. An adjustable spanner is designed to fit nuts of various diameters

SPANNER WRENCHES
Special Wrenches- Several special wrenches are shown below. The Allen-type wrench
has a 6-sided shaft that fits into the hex-shaped recess of set screws and cap screws
SPECIAL WRENCHES
Hacksaws- The hacksaw is a tool used to saw metal, and consists of a handle, frame
and blade. The pistol-grip type, shown below is adjustable to take various blade lengths.
The straight-handled hacksaw shown in the illustration is not adjustable, although it may
be constructed with the adjustable feature
Hacksaws

Chisels- One of the most valuable tools aboard ship is the flat cold chisel. These
chisels are usually made of octagonal tool-steel bar stock, carefully hardened and
tempered, and are used for cutting purposes where snips or a hacksaw cannot be used.
They are also used to shear off rivets, to smooth castings, to split rusted nuts from bolts,
etc. As shown below, the cutting edge is ground slightly convex
Flat cold chisel
Special Cold Chisels- If it is necessary to cut keyways or slots, the cape chisel can
be used. This chisel is like a flat chisel except that the cutting edge is very narrow. It has
the same point angle, and is held and used in the same manner
Files- Files are hardened steel tools for cutting, smoothing, or polishing metal. They
vary in length, in shape, and in arrangement, or cut, of teeth, so as to provide files for
various uses. The terms commonly used to describe a file are given

File terminology
Single-cut file
Double-cut file
Shapes of files
Drills and Drilling- There are many occasions when it is necessary to drill holes in
metal, using a twist drill, a tool that does its work by slicing metal away as it rotates. With
holes up to 1/4 inch in diameter, the drilling may be done by hand, using a hand
drill or breast drill to hold and turn the drills. A brace is ordinarily used when drilling holes
in wood
Hand drilling tools

Twist drill shanks
Twist drill terminology
Drill Press- A small drill press, such as might be used aboard ship, is shown below.
This drill press has a separate motor which drives the drill spindle and chuck by means
of a V-belt.

Bench Grinder.-An ordinary bench grinder mounts two wheels of the same size, shape,
and bore. . Usually one wheel is coarse for rough grinding, the other fine for tool
sharpening and finish grinding.
Bench Grinder and Wheel Mounting
Machine Screws.-The term "machine screw" is generally used to designate the small
screws that are used in tapped holes for the assembly of metal parts. The types of
machine screws that are ordinarily encountered are shown below. Most of these screws
are made of steel or brass, some being plated to resist corrosion. They are also made of
stainless steel
Machine screws

Special Machine Screws
Sheet-Metal Screws- are used to hold together sections of sheet metal, fiber, plastic,
etc., and are known as sheet-metal screws. They are especially useful aboard ship when
applying sheet-metal covering over insulation. Type A has a sharp point and resembles a
wood screw, except that the threads extend to the head of the screw. Type Z screws
have blunt points and may be used with heavier material. A special "self-tapping" sheet-
metal screw has a tap end that cuts threads as the screw is inserted
SHEET-METAL SCREWS

Machine Bolts- Machine bolts, are made in a variety of diameters, lengths, thread
pitches, and head shapes
Common types of bolts
Nuts- Several kinds of nuts are shown below. These must always be used with some
kind of bolt or stud, so that the two pieces, nut and bolt or nut and stud, exert holding
force by the strength of their threads. The combination is suited to assemblies that may
have to be removed or taken apart.
Nuts
Pipe Fittings- Aboard ship it is often necessary to cut, thread, bend and fit together
various lengths of pipes. It is therefore important to be thoroughly familiar with the
commonly used fittings, examples of which are shown below

Pipe Fittings
Pipe Wrenches-Threaded joints should be screwed together by hand and then tightened
with a pipe wrench, often called a "Stinson." The pipe should be held in a pipe vise
during assembly, if possible, but if it is not feasible to use a vise, the pipe may be held
with another pipe wrench. A pipe wrench is shown below.
Pipe Wrench
Screw-Geared Chain Hoist- Where the higher

speed of a spur-geared hoist is not required, the
screw-geared hoist, is recommended. It is
well adapted for portable use, and though light, is
powerful and durable. It holds the load securely,
and will not lower except as the hand chain
is pulled. This is an excellent hoist for temporary
and occasional service, as it may be moved
readily to meet an emergency. It is also
adaptable for horizontal work. The worm Screw-Geared Chain Hoist

gear makes this hoist compact for lifting loads in cramped places and close up to the
overhead.
Calipers- are used for measuring diameters and distances or for comparing distances
and sizes. Several types of calipers are shown below
Calipers
Feeler Gauge- is used to measure the distance between two surfaces, for example,
when determining bearing clearances, valve tappet clearances, etc
A feeler, or thickness, gage, shown below, resembles a pocket knife with a number of
blades. All of the blades have the same shape, but each blade is accurately ground to a
definite thickness, which is stamped on the blade.
Feeler Gauge
Micrometers- is the most commonly used adjustable gauge and is important that its
mechanical principles, construction, use and care, be thoroughly understood. A 1-inch
outside micrometer, with its various parts indicated, is shown below.
Basic Welding
Definitions of welding
At one time, the simple definition of welding was "joining metals through heating
them to a molten state and fusing them together." As technical progress in welding
processes has advanced, the definition has had to change. There are now two basic
forms of welding: fusion and non-fusion.
The former is the most common, and it involves the actual melting of the parent
metals being joined. Not all welding today involves melting.
Non-fusion welding is most commonly represented by soldering and brazing, two

processes of joining metals where the parent metal is heated, but not melted, and a
second or "filler" metal is melted between them, forming a strong bond when all are
cooled. Pressure and friction alone can weld metals together, such as when a machinist
turns down a piece of metal in a lathe. Often, pieces of the metal chips can become
welded to the cutting.
How it works?
The most basic principle of the welding process is joining two pieces of metal
together (or at least two edges of the same piece, in the case of repairing a crack). This

is generally accomplished by heating the metals to be joined until they become liquid or
molten and the two edges fuse together. Most often, the complete joining of the two
metal edges is accomplished by melting new metal into the joint at the same time. The
new metal added to form a fused welding joint is called filler metal, while the original
pieces being joined are called the parent metal. Together they form a welded "bead" of
filler and parent metal that is usually thicker than the parent metal. Depending on the skill
of the weld or and the type of welding, two pieces of metal can be joined in such a way
that with a little filing or sanding of the bead, the joint is virtually undetectable, a
particularly important aspect when making automotive body repairs. The first time you
may have observed a professional weld or working, the process may have seemed like
a sorcerer doing alchemy with a magic wand. With the proper equipment and practice,
you can do a little magic yourself, a magic that can give tremendous personal
satisfaction, as well as save you considerable expense compared to having the same
work done at a professional fabrication shop.
Types of Welding
1. Plasma Arc Welding And Cutting is another welding/cutting process that has
developed in the recent past that was once considered exotic, yet is now filtering
down to lower price levels in the welding marketplace. The nomenclature refers to the
plasma state of a gaseous material, in which the material is heated so much that the
gas conducts electricity. What makes PAW (Plasma Arc Welding) so different is that
the flow of superheated gas actually makes the welding arc, with the metal electrode
safely hidden way up inside the torch body away from the welding action.
2. Fusion Welding is often encountered in marine

engineering texts, and means that the parts
to be welded are melted together, sometimes
with the addition of extra metal. Welders often
do this work with electric arc welding equipment
or with oxyacetylene gas torches.
3. Electric arc welding is used on the joints of

large pipe lines, for repairing iron and steel
castings, and for welding other structures and
plates. Most arc welding is done with metal electrode filler rods, which are coated
with flux suitable to the material being welded. The electrode is held in a spring-jaw
holder which is connected by a heavy provide a return for the arc current, another
cable, called the ground, connects the metal being welded to the power source. The
ground cable has a clamp-type terminal for easy attachment and removal.

Arc welding set-up
The end of the metal electrode and nearby portions of the metal being welded is
melted by the heat of the arc, and they are thus fused together. The electrode supplies
the extra metal is usually required to make a strong weld.
The arc-welding equipment has a temperature of about 5,000°F, and a few

minutes exposure to the ultra-violet rays of the arc will produce ―skin-burn." To protect
the face and eyes, arc welders wear a heavy face mask with a dark glass window. They
also wear leather jackets and aprons to protect their bodies from the heat.
4. Oxyacetylene welding, or gas welding, is done with a welding torch, which mixes
the acetylene and oxygen gases to provide fuel for the flame. Two heavy hoses are
connected to the torch, one leading to the acetylene supply, the other to the oxygen
supply. Portable gas welding units have high-pressure steel containers of the gases,
often mounted' on a two-wheel cart.
Regulating valves control the pressure

released from the steel flasks to the
hose lines, while hand valves on the
regulate the amount of each gas that
is released inside the torch and also
control the mixture.
Portable oxyacetylene welding unit
Additional metal necessary for gas welds is obtained from a welding rod, the rods
being selected by diameter and by the kind of material suitable to the welding job. Fluxes
are used as required.
An oxyacetylene flame is capable of producing a maximum temperature of about

6,300°F, the size of the flame being regulated by the torch valves and by the size of the
tip used on the torch.

Plasma cutting
is rapidly replacing oxy-acetylene cutting in many home and shop applications.

Used either as a mechanized cutter or by hand, the system is simple to operate, and
makes a faster, cleaner cut with much less sparking and less heat induced into the
parent metal
The Arc Process
All electrical-welding processes use the flow of electricity to create heat. The
power flows from the torch or electrode to the work, which is grounded to the source at
the machine. In arc welding, the consumable electrode or rod makes the connection that
creates the arc to the piece being welded. The welding rod is a metal rod coated with a
hard flux material. As the arc is created when the tip of the metal comes to the work
piece, the heat generated at the bead is 6000° F or more, which melts both the parent
metal and the filler rod, while simultaneously vaporizing the flux coating to create a gas
shield around the bead, protecting the solidifying weld from contamination by gasses in
the air (see illustrations).
Safety considerations

With every method of welding, safety is of paramount consideration, but each type
has precautions that apply to that type of equipment in particular. In all forms of electric
welding, including arc welding, high-amperage electrical current is the primary hazard.
All of your cables, plugs and leads should be inspected regularly for any signs of defects.
Even dirt or paint overspray on connection scan cause arcing and poor welds. Water, of
course, is a good conductor of electricity, and therefore should be avoided in the work
area. Your clothing, equipment and especially the floor must be kept dry to avoid the
possibility of electrical shock. Rubber-soled shoes are recommended, but athletic shoes
(Non-leather) are not. Most experts will tell you not to wear metal jewelry such as
watchbands, rings, bracelets, necklaces or belt buckles when welding. If electric welder
power comes into contact with metal articles you are wearing, they canbecome instantly
hot to the point of melting, or can cause electric shock. Of the electric welding methods,
arc welding requires the most protection of your face and body during welding. The
intensity of the arc produces strong U V and infrared radiation. Any skin exposed during
the welding process can become burned, in severity ranging from mild sunburn to
serious burns, with the symptoms not appearing until eight hours after the exposure.
Leave the top button unbuttoned on your shift and you'll have a nasty V-shaped burn on
your neck after only a short while arc-welding. Likewise, wear fire-resistant, long-sleeved
shirts, and keep your sleeves rolled down at all times. Keep these shirts just for welding,
and tear off the pockets if they have any, or keep them empty and buttoned. An
experienced weld or friend of ours was recently burned painfully when welding overhead
with just a shop shirt on — a hot bead of spatter went right into his shirt pocket and
burned into his chest. Without the pockets, there's a chance the bead will roll off onto the
floor rather than stay in one spot on your shirt
Pressure Gauge
Although pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements,

such as for tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other
cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference.
When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
 Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to

gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually
omitted.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are only
added when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge
pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and
altimeter pressures must be absolute. Differential pressures are commonly used in
industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each
connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a

gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means,

obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and
determine the difference in readings. Moderate vacuum pressures are often ambiguous,
as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign.
Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg
(typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg.
Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with
altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge
pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example,
when a car drives up a mountain, the tire pressure goes up. Some standard values of
atmospheric pressure such as 101.325 kPa or 100 kPa have been defined, and some
instruments use one of these standard values as a constant zero reference instead of
the actual variable ambient air pressure. This impairs the accuracy of these instruments,
especially when used at high altitudes.
Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure
unit e.g. 30 psi g, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus
atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge
(vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure
to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented
cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure
referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented gauge reference pressure
sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held
open to the air.
A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is

sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure
ranges such as hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible
effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some
manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for
pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing
diaphragm is exceeded.
There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a
high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is
offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric
pressure.
A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero
because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed
at 1 bar.

An absolute pressure measurement is one that is referred to absolute vacuum.

The best example of an absolute referenced pressure is atmospheric or barometric
pressure.
To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum
behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process pressure connection of an absolute
pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.
Maintain Safe Engineering Watch
 All significant reading, movements and activities related to the engineering systems and
properly recorded
 Check the engine log book and the write up in the engine room log book and record book
 The duties are carried out in accordance with accepted principles, procedures and ship
specific in instructions
 Check and test all the emergency alarm, alarm system settings and presets in contained
in a system maintenance log
 Check all the equipments or tools, always available at all time and see to it arrange
properly, check the record if noted that had been made properly check up at repair
accordingly for maintenance at the engine room before and after maneuvering
 Malfunctioning parts are properly replace, the procedures used for fault finding and
repaired are in accordance with manuals, safety procedures and good practice and
operations are decisively carried out and in accordance with procedures stated

WATCHKEEPING AND SAFETY
FUNCTION ON OPERATIONAL LEVEL
MARINE ENGINEERING AT THE OPERATIONAL LEVEL
Maintain a safe engineering watch
Thorough knowledge of basic principles to be observed in keeping an engineering

watch including:
1. Duties associated with taking over and accepting a watch

2. Routine duties undertaken during the watch
3. Maintenance of the machinery space log book and the significance of the reading
taken
4. Duties associated with handing over a watch
 Safety and emergency procedures, changeover of remote/automatic to local control

of all systems
 Safety precautions to be observed during a watch and immediate actions to be taken
in the event of fire or accident, with particular reference to oil systems
Operate main and auxiliary machinery and associated control systems
Main and auxiliary machinery:
1. Preparation of main machinery and preparation of auxiliary machinery for

operation
2. Operation of steam boilers, including combustion systems
3. Methods of checking water level in steam boilers and action necessary if water
level is abnormal
4. Location of common faults in machinery and plant in engine and boiler rooms and
action necessary to prevent damage
Operate pumping systems and associated control systems
Pumping system:

1. Routine pumping operations

2. Operation of bilge, ballast and cargo pumping systems
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR AT THE OPERATIONAL LEVEL
Maintain marine engineering system including control system
Marine systems
 Appropriate basic mechanical knowledge and skills
Safety and emergency procedures
 Safe isolation of electrical and all plant and equipment required before
personnel and permitted to work on such plant or equipment
 Undertake maintenance and repair to plant and equipment
ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AT THE OPERATIONAL

LEVEL
Operate alternators, generators and control systems
Generating plant
 Appropriate basic electrical knowledge and skills

 Preparing, starting, coupling and changing over alternator or generators
 Location of common faults and action to prevent damage Control System
 Location of common faults and action to prevent damage
Prevent, control and fight fires on board
Fire prevention and fire-fighting appliance
 Knowledge of fire prevention

 Ability to organize fire drills
 Knowledge of classes and chemistry of fire
 Knowledge of fire fighting systems
 Action to be taken in the event of fire, including fires involving oil systems
Taking over an engine room watch
A proper hand-over of important events and conditions of the machinery

from one watch-keeper to the other is of utmost importance. The usual practice is that
the relieving watch-keeper should come 15 minutes before the start of the watch. He
should come to the engine room via the staircase starting at the highest entrance point.

He should first take a brief ‗round or ‗walkthrough‘ of the engine room before the start of
the watch.
Taking a ‗walk through‘ or a ‗round‘
A walk-through the engine room is a must, as one can visually see and check all
important parameters and conditions.
The following aspect are checked during a ‗walk-through‘ or a ‗round‘
 When starting a round one should always be near the funnel so that one can
check the exhaust smoke colour from outside the engine room. The smoke colour
is checked to see whether it is whitish, dark black or transparent light grey.
Whitish smoke indicates excess of air, while blackish smoke indicates poor
combustion usually due to fuel problems. A transparent slightly grayish smoke
shows good combustion
 One should also identify the source of the smoke i.e. from which exhaust funnel
pipe for the main engine, separate ones for each diesel generator and one for the
auxiliary boiler. Blackish smoke from the exhaust is an offense when the ship is at
port. However, some blackish smoke may emerge initially when starting
maneuvering of the engine or the auxiliaries.
 Check to see if there are sparks emerging from the funnel. This is due to minute
hydro-carbon deposits which self-ignite at the economizer. This happens either
when soot-blowing the economizer or the boiler, or due to water in the fuel, or due
to a very dirty economizer, or due running the engine at low loads for a long time
especially during maneuvering, or due to poor combustion. It is dangerous if the
wind direction is blowing the sparks to a hazardous cargo zone at the forward side
of the ship.
 All pumps are to be checked for the following: Motor current amperes should not
be higher than the normal that the running amperes. No overheating of the motor
or the pump body. Bearing temperatures and all temperature and pressure
gauges should be showing normal values. No unusual noise or vibrations. Slight
leakage of the gland that is required for cooling, but excessive leakage of the
gland that is required for cooling, but excessive leakage requires tightening of the
gland packing.
 On the top platform, check the exhaust gas economizer for exhaust, steam, or
water leaks. Check the condition of the ‗lagging‘ on the pipes and nay leakages
check the engine room ventilation, position of sky lights and access doors to the
engine room. There should be no restrictions so that they can be quickly closed in
emergency situation.
 Check the main engine jacket water expansion tank level and condition, and
monitor the loss in case jacket water level decreases.

 Check the presence and condition of portable fire fighting appliance, fire hoses
and nozzles at their correct locations.
 On the upper platform, check the inner gas system, bubbler, fan and motor
bearing, and fan leakages.
 Check the boiler flame color through the sight glass to see if the combustion is
correct.
 Check the boiler water level in the gauge glass. Blow through the gauge glass if
required.
 Check the generator expansion tank water level, loss and condition. Also check
the exhaust gas economizer circulating pump.
 On the control room platform, check the temperature and level of the fuel oil
tanks, drain them for water, and open steam heating if necessary.
 Check the diesel generators for operating load, exhaust, temperatures, leakages,
all pressure and temperature, unusual noise, loose parts, exhaust bellow and
sump levels.
 At the bottom platform, check all pump and ascertain which sea water suction is in
use. Check double bottom sludge tanks; bilge for oil or water leakage and
pressure: and the intermediate bearing and its lubrication.
 Check the oily water separator and sample the water being pumped overboard
pumping procedure should be followed strictly according to the company‘s policies
and instruction. Ensure that weighted cocks on double bottom sounding pipes are
in shut position and caps closed. The main engine is to be checked thoroughly
form the crankcase platform up to the economizer platform. Feel the crank case
and scavenge doors for any increase in temperatures. Listen to the engine sound
and observe any unusual noise.
 Check the piston cooling flow from the sight glass
 Check the scavenge drains to see quality and quantity of oil or water leaks
 Check the air cooler air-side drains to make sure that the drained water is from
condensation and not from sea water. Scavenge temperature must not be too law.
 Check the hydraulic governor oil level.
 Feel air starting pipes to see if they are hot and touch the high pressure pipe to
feel the pressure pulses of injection.
 For hearing machinery sounds, use a metal rod with one end to the ear and the
other end touching the machinery.
 Drain all air bottles of water.
 Check all parameters and gauges in the engine control room.
 Check that the load is sufficient on the generators. It is preferable to run the
generators at higher loads rather than at low loads which would cause fouling,
especially when running on heavy fuel oil.
 Check the engine room log book requirements for any cargo or maneuvering
operations; requirements for adverse conditions; and any problem encountered
during the previous watches. Ensure proper knowledge of procedures to be

followed in the event of a failure of any equipment. Read the standing orders and
chief engineer‘s instructions.
 Check if any operations are being carried out like fuel transfers; fresh water tank
filling; and disposal of oil residues, bilges, sewage or garbage.
 Check all auxiliaries like air compressors and purifiers.
 Check the compressor running temperature; time to press up the air receiver;
lubricator operation and level; sump oil level; and running current amperes.
 Check the purifier inlet oil temperature; overflow pipe for oil overflow; running
current amperes ; back pressure, filter pressure; and leakages.
 Check all objects in the engine room in case they have to be lashed, especially
during bad weather conditions.
 Check the nature and location of all being carried out on various machineries.
 Check the work being done by all engine room personnel and hazards involved.
 Check if any system has been isolated or weather any abnormalities are present
with the machinery.
 Check proper working of the communication system.
 Some companies now require both watch-keeper to sign a hand over form listing
all checks and abnormalities.
 Only after the incoming watch-keeper is fully satisfied with the handover, will he
take over charge from the outgoing watch-keeper.
Checks to be done during the watch
 After a through ‗walk through‘ or ‗round‘ of the engine room, it is imperative that
periodic personnel checks are made on all running machinery.
 In case of any abnormal conditions, the watch keeper should immediately assess
the situation. If it is an emergency, he can call for help by pressing the engineer‘s
call alarm.
 In case of a ship or fire emergency, he can press the emergency general alarm.
 If he is not in a position to understand the cause or the remedy, he should inform
the chief engineer or the second engineer.
 In case of abnormalities which affect the speed or operations of the main engine,
power generators or the cargo plant, the watchkeeper should also inform the
bridge or the cargo control room watchkeeper.
 All starting, stopping and important procedures are listed in the engine room
operation guide book which is now a requirement.
 In case the watchkeeper requires more manpower, he should ask the chief
engineer or second engineer to provide more manpower, rather than compromise
on safety.

 Priority to be given to the running machinery and operations, rather than any
overhaul work.
 A safe working atmosphere is required at all times.
 While logging down and recording parameters in the engine room log book, the
watchkeeper should analyse any change and its cause.
Oil spill
In case of an oil spill, stop the fuel oil transfer operations and raise the general
alarm. Follow the oil spill contingency plan. Identify the source of the spill and
immediately restrict any further oil spillage by isolation. Drain and contain the oil on the
ship by putting the oil spillage by isolation. Drain and contain the oil on the ship but
putting the oil spill dispersant and the gear from the oil spill storage station. Try to
recover as much oil as possible. Log events and communicate with the port authorities.
Collision
In case of a collision of the ship, stop the fuel transfer operation and raise the
general alarm. The engine room should be immediately manned in case of ums mode.
Check if there is any ingress of water into the engine room. Take the soundings of all
double bottom tanks to check that they are intact. Keep all fire fighting gear on standby.
Check for oil pollution around the ship. Check all machinery to see if they are affected
especially the electrical plant. Report to the bridge the condition of the room, engine and
the auxiliaries. The master will then assess the danger of sinking, capsizing of flooding.
The designated person ashore, the superintendent of the ship and the port authorities
are to be informed.
Flooding
In case of flooding, raise the emergency alarm, inform the bridge, slow down and
stop the main engine. According to the capacity needed, designated bilge injection valve
are to be started. Identify and isolate the cause of flooding. Once pumping is started
make sure the level of water should be going down and not increasing. Also, give due
attention that the level should not flood any of the pump of the engine flywheel bottom
level. Take care that no water should fall onto any electrical started panel, device or
writing.
Grounding
In case of grounding, immediately stop the main engine and raise the emergency
alarm. Inform the bridge. Change over from low to high sea suction. Take the sounding
of all double bottom tanks in the engine room as well as the cargo tanks check for
intactness. Report the condition of the engine room to the master who will assess the
danger of sinking, flooding, capsizing, oil pollution and vessel‘s stability. Record the
events and status of the main engine.
Check the following: crank case inspection and deflections if necessary, stern
tubes system condition and leakages, leakage gear, and all sea water coolers and filters.
Piston cooling system
 Low pressure cut approximately 2 bar

 High inlet temperature slow down alarm at 60 deg. C and shut at 65 deg. C
 Low level alarm in the cooling water drain tank
 Sight glass at every unit with a piston cooling non-flow alarm
Jacket cooling system
 Low inlet pressure shut down at approximately 2 bar

 High outlet temperature slows down at 90 deg C and alarm at 85 deg C.
 Low level alarm in the expansion tank
 Sight glass in the expansion tank
 Air separator and vent
Lubricating oil system
 Sump low and high level alarm

 Main lube oil pressure low alarm at 2.2 bar and shut down at 2 bar
 Lube oil outlet temperature alarm at 50 deg. C and slow down at 55 deg. C
 Relief valves at the discharge side of both pump connecting the discharge
side back to the suction side
 Pressure gauge after cooler and after discharge filter
 Differential pressure low alarm
 Air vent at the cooler
 Air vent at the discharge filter
Fuel oil system
 Drain at the service tanks, settling tank,filter,mixing column and heaters

 Relief valves at the booster pump discharge, heater, common inlet
manifold to the pump and on the individual fuel pump
 Fuel high temperature alarm at 85 deg. C
 Low fuel temperature alarm at 85 deg. C
 Viscometer, thermometer and pressure gauges

Starting air system
Battle
 Relief valve set at 32 bar

 Fusible plug
 Drain cock and pressure gauge
 Non return, stop, and isolating valves
Air compressor
 Low pressure (first stage) and high pressure (second stage) relief valves
 Non-return valve at compressor outlet to air bottle
 Corrosion resistant bursting disc or relief valve in the coolers on the water
side
 Air discharge high temperature cut-out
 Cooling water high temperature cut-out
 Low lube oil pressure cut-out
 In B and W engines, puncture valves are fitted on the top of each fuel
pump, which spill the high pressure oil back to suction side of the pump
 In medium speed auxiliary generator engines, fly weights using centrifugal
force activate a stop cylinder to push back the fuel racks
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Working around marine power plants, members of the crew must observe a
few safety precautions if they are to escape injury.
 The following rules should be thoroughly memorized and lived up to at all

times:
 Keep a close watch on the water level in the boilers.
 Always use a torch when lighting an oil burner.
 When blowing down the gage glass, look away from the glass until gage
glass drain valve is closed. The glass may break and pieces fly in your
eyes.
 In passing up and down ladders and along gratings, keep one hand on
guard rail at all times. Do not try to carry an object requiring both hands.
Remember the ship may roll or pitch unexpectedly, causing you to fall to

the deck or into the moving engine. The old saying, "one hand for the ship
and one for yourself," is a good one.
 Always use safety goggles to protect the eyes when working around flying
particles, such as chipping paint or using an emery wheel. Remember you
can't see with a glass eye.
 When working with tools do not lay them on the gratings. The ship may roll
or someone walking along the grating may accidentally kick them off,
injuring the man below by striking him on the head. Put tools away when
leaving the job.
 When oil is spilled, wipe it up immediately. There is nothing that can cause
as quick a fall as to step on an oily steel deck plate.
 Always keep your arms bare and fingers free of rings when around
machinery.
 Never enter any kind of an empty tank or boiler until all safety precautions
have been taken.
 Do not smoke in unauthorized places.
 Do not fool or tamper with the machinery.
 Notify the engineer of any unusual occurrence, or of anything of which you

are in doubt.
 Keep your mind on your job.
 Know where the emergency escape ladders are. Practice using these
emergency ladders frequently.

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Marine Engineering s.

DEFINITION OF MARINE ENGINEERING

Marine Engineering involves the design, construction, installation, operation and

THEORY AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES

INTRO TO DIESEL ENGINE

The diesel engine: first patented in 1892

• The Diesel engine was initially intended to run on coal dust.

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 1

 Speed – high speed, medium speed, slow speed

Steam Turbine Engine

Gas Turbine Engine

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 2

Regarding the engine output,

Indicated horsepower (IHP)

Are essential to examine the engine performance. Indicated horsepower can be

The power output is dissipated as heat in the braking material. By adjusting

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 3

1) Friction between piston rings and cylinder liner

Mechanical efficiency is defined as BHP/IHP.

Actually, mechanical loss is almost constant regardless of the engine output.

Super-charging is the best way to get higher engine output. Super-charging

(1) Dynamic system

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 4

Typical turbo-charger is shown in an above.

Cross Section of Typical T/C

Axial Flow Type T/C

Axial Flow Type T/C Exam Sketch

Radial Flow Type T/C

Radial Flow Type T/C Exam Sketch

The kind of turbo charger

Classification by driving method

 Machine drive system ( Supercharger )

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 6

Exhaust Gas Turbine Drive System

In dynamic system, the turbine of turbo-charger is driven by mainly pulse energy

Inspection and maintenance of turbocharger

 Check a bend of a shaft. When exceed an allowable value, it must be exchanged

Compressor wheel (Blower Blade)

 When see a bend, a deformation a defection and a crack of blade it must be

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 7

Floating Metal, Thrust Metal, Ball Bearing

Seal Ring and O-Ring

Water Cooling Turbine Casing

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 8

Turbo-charging increases the density of the air by compressing it, allowing a

When air is compressed it gets hot. （Polytrophic compression when air is

Charge air cooling has a double effect on engine performance:

On modern engines the air temperature will be controlled by automatic valves

(Engine construction) Stuffing Box

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 10

Crank Shaft & Main Bearing

Main Bearing Shells

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 11

Fuel Injection Pump

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 12

Bosch scroll pump spill

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 13

Variable Injection Timing (VIT) Control

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 14

Reason for Using VIT

How Variable Injection Timings is achieved

Coast Guard Education and Training Command Page 15