1 ELECTRON THEORY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electronics is a relatively new branch of technology, which has made impact in every aspect of our
lives. Electronic techniques are now applied to all branches of science and engineering and more and
more people in all walks of life are going to need a basic knowledge of electronics techniques.

1.2 DEFINITION
It is the field of science that studies the behaviour of electrons. It comes from the words; electrons
mechanics. The ability to control the movement of electrons either through a vacuum (gas filled tubes)
which are sometimes called valves or the semi-conductor materials forms the basis of electronics.
Within the field of electronics, there are numerous specializations;
-Computers
-Communication
-Consumer electronics.
-Medical electronics
-Industrial electronics etc

1.3 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS

All electronic equipment is made up of 3 basic circuits only. There are a few additional types of special
circuits but they are nothing but variations of the 3 basic circuits. These are:
Rectifier circuits
Amplifier circuits
Oscillator circuits
A rectifier circuit changes ac to dc and are most common in electronic equipments power supplies.
An amplifier circuit take small voltage changes and enlarges/amplifies them into large voltage changes.
Oscillator circuits generate ac voltages at any desired frequencies. They are used in radio transmission
among other equipments.

1.4 Multiples And Submultiples Of units.

A set of multiples and submultiples of SI units is recommended to make it possible to write any
quantity in a concise form. E.g. A length of 0.001M is better written as 1mm.

Unit multiplying Factor Prefix Symbol

109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
!00 SI __
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

EXAMPLE
Write the following in a more concise form.
(a) 0.000015A (b)0.01M (c) 11000V (d)100000KW

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solution
(a) 15μA (b)10mm (c)11KV (d)100MW

1.5 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STATES OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has weight and occupies space, the basic building block of matter is the atom.
Matter exists in 3 physical states:
Solids
Liquids
Gases
When matter exists in a gas or liquid, its dimensions are determined by the dimensions of the container,
the 3 chemical states of matter are;
Elements
Compounds &
Mixtures
 Elements are substances that cannot be chemically broken into simpler substances. They only have
one kind of atom e.g. oxygen, gold, iron, hydrogen etc.
 Compounds are formed by chemical combinations of two or more elements e.g. water(hydrogen
+,oxygen), sugar(carbon +hydrogen +oxygen)
 Mixtures are combination of substances where individual elements retain the same properties as
when they were alone.
 All matter is composed of atoms and molecules. The smallest particle which a compound can be
broken and maintain its physical properties is the molecule.
 The smallest particle, which a compound can be broken and maintain its chemical properties is the
atom.
1.6 STUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Each atom has one or more electrons, and one nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
Apart from the simple hydrogen atom, the nucleus is made up of protons neutrons in approximately
equal numbers (Hydrogen a highly reactive element has no neutrons)
The electrical charge of the electron is negative, the electrical charge of the proton is positive; the
neutron has no electrical charge.
A normal atom is electrically neutral containing an equal number of electrons and protons. That means
the charge per electron is equal but opposite in polarity
1.6.1 ELECTRON THEORY
Atoms are far too small for the most powerful microscope and we have to infer their construction by
the way they behave and the way they affect various forms of radiation beamed at them. Because
nobody knows what an atom looks like, physists construct models of the atoms to help them predict
various atom behaviours.
In 1897, JJ Thompson did an experiment that may be the origin of the studies of this field. He produced
cathodes rays by applying a voltage across a gas filled tube and showing that they could be deflected by
an electric field or magnetic field. He concluded that they consisted of minute negatively charged
particles later called electrons. He determined charge/mass (Q/M) ratio and showed that this was the
same where different materials were used, and concluded that electron is universally present in all
matter.
1.6.2 THE BOHR`S MODEL
Neil Bohr (1885-1962) was a Danish scientist who developed a model of the atomic structure that
explains the electron theory. In this model, the atom consists of the nucleus at the middle of it with
electrons.
The electrons don’t bunch together in a solid mass but rather they spread out in different orbits.
According to Bohr;
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  An atom consists of positively charged nucleus round which negatively charged electrons
revolve in different circular orbits.
 The electrons can revolve round the nucleus only in certain permitted orbits i.e. orbits of certain
radii.
 The electrons in each permitted orbits have a certain fixed amount of energy. The larger the
orbit (i.e. larger the radius) the greater the energy of the electrons.
 If the electron is given additional energy e.g. heat or light, it is lifted to a higher energy level.
 For an electron to move from a higher energy level to a lower one, then it emits energy in form
of electromagnetic radiations.
The figure below shows shell structure of common atoms.

+
1 + +1
6 4

a) Hydrogen

Nucleus
b) Carbon Electrons
c) Silicon
1.6.3 PAULIS PRINCIPLE
Bohrs Model was letter refined by Wolf Gang Pauli, who developed an ‘exclusive principle’ that made
it possible for the calculations of the maximum number of electrons that can exist in any given shell.
This is readily determined for the various shells by the expression (equation):

Maximum number of electrons per shell=2N2……………………… (Enq1.1)

N=the shell number counting outwards form the nucleus.

1.7 VALENCE ELECTRONS

Are the electrons in the outer most shell of an atom.
The number of valence electrons determines the stability both electrically and chemically for all atoms.
The outer most shell is full when it has 8 electrons. When an atom has fewer than 8 valence electrons,
then the atom is active both electrically and chemically. Electrically in that the valence electrons can
leave their home atoms and become free electrons. Chemically in that the electrons can be lost or other
electrons can be gained.

1.8 ENERGY LEVELS

It has already been discussed that each orbit has affixed amount of energy associated with it. The
electrons moving in a particular orbit possess the energy of that orbit The larger the orbit the greater the
orbit. Hence electrons in the outer orbits possess more energy than those in the inner orbits.

1.9 ENERGY BAND THEORY

In the case of a single isolated atom, the electrons in any orbit possess definite energy, however, an
atom in a solid is greatly influenced by closely packed neighbourhood atoms. The result is that the
electron in any orbit of such an atom can possess a range of energies rather than a single energy. This is

3
known as the energy band, which can be defined as the range of energy possessed by an electron in a
solid.

Though there are a number of energy bands in solids, the following are of particular importance.
1.9.1VALENCE BANDS
They are the electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom. The valence band has electrons with the
highest energy. The valence band maybe completely or partially full. The partially full band can
accommodate more electrons.
1.9.2CONDUCTION BAND
In some materials e.g. metals, the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus. Even at
ordinary temperatures, some of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons. It is
these free electrons, which are responsible for the conduction of current. All electrons in the conduction
band are free.

1.9.3 FORBIDDEN ENERG GAP

It is the separation between the conduction band and the valence band on the energy level diagram. No
electrons of a solid can stay in the forbidden energy gap since ther is no allowed energy level in this
region.
The width of the forbidden gap is a measure of the bondage of the valence electrons to the atom. The
greater the forbidden gap the more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to
push an electron from the valence band to the conduction band(make valence electron free) External
energy equal to the forbidden gap energy must be applied.

Conduction Band

Forbidden Gap

Valence Band

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1.10 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS
These includes -Conductors
-Insulators (non conductors)
-Semiconductors
1.10.1CONDUCTORS
They are the materials that allow current to flow more easily. They have many electrons which are free
to move, this together with the screening effect of the inner electrons means that the outer electrons are
easily detached fr0om the atoms making the materials good conductors of current.
In terms of the energy bands the valence and the conduction bands overlap each other . Due to this
overlapping a slight potential drop across the conductor causes the free electrons to contribute current.

Conduction Band

Valence Band

The best conductor is gold followed by silver then copper, aluminium, zinc, etc
1.10.2 INSULATORS
They don’t allow current to flow, as they are poor conductors.
Electrons within insulators are very tightly bound to their atoms and a lot of energy is needed to free
them.
In terms of the energy bands their valence band is full while their conduction band is empty. The
energy gap between the valence and the conduction band is very large;( approximately 15eV).
Therefore a very large electrical field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction band.

Conduction Band

Forbidden energy gap

~ 15 eV

Valence Band

Example of insulators include: paper, polythene rubber Perspex, dry air, pvc etc
1.10.3 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
They Have their atoms grouped together in a regular pattern called the crystal lattice. They are
not good conductors since they have few free electrons. The number of free electrons can be increased
by
1. Raising their temperatures by heating the semi-conductor.
2. When a beam of light is shone on the semi-conductor.
3. Addition of controlled amount of impurities into the semi-conductors.

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In terms of the energy bands he valence band is almost full and the conduction band is small. Therefore
relatively smaller electric field is required to push the electrons from the valence to the conduction
band.

Conduction Band
Forbidden gap ~1eV

Valence Band

Examples of semi conducting materials include silicon and Germanium.

1.11 TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1.11.1ELECTRIC CHARGE
The quantity of electric charge on a body is a measure of the number of electrons the body has above or
below the number of electrons the body has above or below the number required to make it electrically
neutral. The symbol for electric charge is Q.

Positively Charged Material

Negatively Charged Material

Unlike charges attract, like charges repel.

The unit of electric charge is the coulomb(C) 6.28 X 1018 electrons would be grouped together to give a
charge of one coulomb.

1.11.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT

It’s the movement of the same kind of charge (electrons) in the same direction. In metallic conductor
there are many free electrons moving in random directions. When a battery is connected, an electric
field is set up which provide energy to free more electrons so that they all move in the same direction.
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge passing each point in a circuit each second.

Ch arg e(coulombs)
Current 
Time (sec onds
Q
I …………………………………………(Eqn.1.2)
t
The unit of current is the ampere (A). One ampere is the flow of one coulomb of charge past each point
of a circuit each second. The smaller units of ampere are
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 Mill amperes (mA) =10-3 A
Microamperes (A) =10-6 A
NB: Although it is recognised that the flow of current is due to the flow electrons from the negative to
the positive, by convention, the direction of the current on a circuit diagram is shown as that in which a
positive charge would flow.

Current (I)




1.11.3 VOLT
As an electric current is the movement of charge in the same direction, it follows that the charge
must possess energy and is therefore able to work (move). A battery, a dynamo or a cell provides
the energy. This is called the electro-motive force (e.m.f.). It is measured in volts, the volt being
the unit of e.m.f.
Volt is defined as one joule of energy carried by each coulomb of charge through the circuit.

Energy ( joules )
Volt 
Ch arg e(coulombs)
W
V  …………………………………….(Eqn 1.3)
Q
Energy is required for a current to pass through the various wires of a circuit and through the various
components making up the circuit. This means that the current will be carrying less energy after
passing through a component than before entering. Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by each
coulomb of the charge. Hence, the amount of energy on one side of a light bulb should be higher than
on the other side. The voltage is referred to as Potential Difference (p.d.).
p.d. is the difference in voltage that exists across all components in a circuit and it’s a measure of the
energy needed to drive the current through the components. It is also measured in volts.

1.11.4 RESISTANCE
It is the opposition to current flow due to various components of a circuit. The symbol for resistance is
R and the units of resistance are ohms().
Resistance of a material is determined by for main parameters:- The length of the material, its cross-
section area, the type of the material(resistivity) and the temperature

For wires of a given material it is found that the resistance R is directly proportional to the length L and
inversely proportional to the cross section area A.
L
R
A
Introducing a constant
L
R
A ……………………………………..(Eqn. 2.5)
Where ρ (rho) is the resistivity of the material. Unit of resistivity is ohmmeter.
Conductance G of a conductor is expressed as

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 1
G ……………………………………………..(Eqn 2.6)
R
Unit of conductance is the siemen (S)
V
Hence I  V .G ………………………………………(Eqn.2.7)
R
Like wise conductivity, σ is expressed by
1
  ………………………………………………..(Eqn 2.8)

Example1
Calculate the resistance and conductance of 10M length 10copper and nichrome wires if the have the
same cross-section area of 1mm2. Resistivity of copper at 20˚C is 1.76 x 10-8ΩM and that of nichrome
108 x10-8ΩM.

Solution
L=10M A= 1mm2 =1 x10-6 M2

L 1.76 * 10 8 *10
For copper R   0.176
A 1 * 10  6
1 1
G   5.68S
R 0.176

108 * 108 *10

R  10.8
1 * 10 6
For nichrome
1
G  0.926S
10.8

1.11.5 OHM’S LAW

It states that the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the
conductor and inversely proportional to the resistant of the conductor provided the temperature is kept
constant.
V
I
R
Three equations that result from ohms Law are:
V
I ……………………………….(Eqn 1.4)
R
V  I .R ……………………………..(Eqn. 1.5)
V
R  ……………………………….(Eqn 1.6)
I

1.11.6 POWER
This is the rate of doing work/ the rate of expending energy.

Power = Energy (Joules)

Time (Seconds)
W
P …………………………..(Eqn 1.7)
t

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Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is used and is measured in watts. A watt of
electrical power is defined as the energy expended at the rate of one joule per second.
From (Eqn. 1.2) t  Q / I and from (Eqn 1.3) W  V .Q
Hence electrical power can be expressed as
Q
P  V .Q 
I
I
 V .Q * and so
Q
P  VI …………………………………………….(Eqn 1.8)

Example
If the voltage across a 50K resistor is 250V . What would be the current flowing through it? What
would be the power dissipated by the resistor?
Solution
I V / R
I  250 x50 x10 3  5 x10  3  5mA

P  VI  250 x5 x10 3  1250 x10 3Watts

 1.25W

1.11.7 KILOWATT HOUR

An alternative unit for energy that is often used when calculating the quantity of electric energy is the
Kilowatt hour (KWh). This is the quantity of energy converted into some other form when 1kWis
supplied for 1 hour.

1.12 ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS

1.12.1 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

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 Resistor
or

Variable
or resistor
+
Battery

Ground

Capacitor
+ P ol a r i z e d C a p a c i t o r

Va r i a b l e C a p a c i t o r
Inductor
Light Emitting Diode
P-njunction Diode + Operation
Inductor Schottky Diode Amplifier

Variable Inductor Varactor Doide Relay

NP N B J T T r a n s i s t o r Zener Diode
or
or Fuse Switch
PN P B J T T r a n s i s t o r
or
Transformer
Signal Generator
1kHz

1.12.2 CIRCUIT
A number of components connected together in such a way to carry out a specific function. It must
have some power.
1.15.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A representation of how the various components making up a circuit are joined together.
Eg.
1uF D1
+ 1k

+
V1 S1

1.12.4 SYSTEMS
Electronic circuits which are able to carry out specific functions.
1.12.5 SUB-SYSTEMS
They are electronic units making up the whole systems.

1.12.6 BLOCK DIAGRAMS

They are diagrams showing how systems are joined together

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 Eg.

From Transformer Rectifier Filter Voltage To the

a.c. Regulator load
mains

Block diagram of a power supply unit

1.1.1 LAYOUT DIAGRAMS/ WIRING DIAGRAMS

Shows the way components are laid out onto particular types of circuit boards. It shows the exact
location of the components and the wires joining them.

Exercises
1. Show the atomic structure and determine the electron valence for the element silicon (Si) which has
an atomic number of 14.
2. Calculate the amount of time taken for neutral dielectric material to obtain a charge of –20C if the
charging current is 2.5A.
3. Draw a diagram illustrating an electrically balanced atom that has 30 protons in its nucleus, has four
shells and where the first three shells are full. (Label all
ii. Define the electrical conductivity of the material.
4. List any two materials used to make semi conducting devices.
5. Describe briefly why some materials are good conductors of electricity and others are insulators.
6.Explain the relationship between the physical structure of the atom and the electric current flow
7.In any circuit state any two requirements for producing current.
8. Define the following terms and give the S.I. units for each.
i. Electric Power
ii Current
iii. Electric Charge
iv. Potential Difference
v. Electro motive force
9. A solar panel on a satellite delivers 1.2 A from 30V for a period of 60 days Calculate
i. The Power.
ii. The cost of the energy if it is costed at 2 cents per KWh.
10. Give the energy band description of conductors, semi-conductors and insulators.
11. i. State the three ordinary mathematical forms of the ohms law.
ii. If the voltage applied to a circuit is doubled and the circuit resistance is increased to four
times its former value, find the final current value.
12. Briefly describe the neils bohr theory of the atomic structure and outline Pauli’s principle.
13. How long will it take a neutral dielectric to obtain a charge of +4C if the charging current is 0.5A

2.ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
They maybe divide into two:

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 -Passive Components
-Active Components

2.1 PASSIVE COMPONENTS

Components, which cannot increase the strength of a signal i.e., they cannot by themselves
produce again (amplify) in the signal strength. They do not control the movement of the electrons but
all they do is to allow the electrons to pass through them e.g. resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
transformers.
2.2 ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Use the movement of electrons either through a vacuum or through a semi-conductor to perform
some function. They provide a gain in the strength of the signal when it is applied to the. They amplify
signals e.g. Vacuum tubes(electronic valves), diode, transistors, thyristors etc.

2.3 RESISTORS
They are used to reduce the amount of current flowing in a circuit. They oppose the flow of
current. This opposition is called resistance and is measured in ohms. All conductors have resistance,
which is measured by the ohms law.

2.3.1 TYPES OF RESISTORS

1. Fixed Value Resistors
2. Variable Resistors
3. Special Types of resistors

2.3.1.1 Fixed value resistor

There are a number of different types of resistors each having different maximum value,
different tolerances, different power ratings and different stabilities (Stability is the ability to maintain
the same resistance value over a wide range of temperatures).
The various types include:
a) Carbon Resistors
Moulded out of a mixer of a conductor e.g. graphite and an insulator e.g. clay. They have a tolerance of
10%, a power rating between 0.01 Watts and 1 Watt and a resistance range from 10 to 10M.
They are used for general-purpose work and are cheap to make.
They have poor stability and are easily destroyed by heat.
Since carbon resistors are relatively small in size, it is rather impossible to indicate their value on their
bodies. The value of the resistors is given on the resistor in form of a colour code consisting o four
coloured bands. Three of them give the size of the resistance and the 4th, the tolerance of the resistance.
Tolerance is the percentage by which the resistance maybe higher or lower than the coded value.

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 1st Digit

2nd Digit

Number of Zeros

Tolerance
Tolerance
Red-2%
Gold-5%
Silver-10%
No band-20%

The bands are nearer to one end of the resistor than the other and it is with the band closest to the end
that we start with. This band gives the 1st digit of the value. The 2nd band gives the next digit of the
value. The 3rd band gives the number of zeros to be written after the two-digit number to give the value
of the resistance in ohms. The colour codes are as follows:
Black =0
Brown =1
Red =2
Orange =3
Yellow =4
Green =5
Blue =6
Violet =7
Grey =8
White =9
e.g.
A carbon resistor with the first band being yellow, the second one red, the third one orange and the
fourth one silver has a value of 42000 ± 10%.

b) Film Resistors
Are made from a thin carbon (graphite), metal or metal oxide film deposited on the outside of a
ceramic roll. They have tolerance of 5%, a power rating between 0.25 Watts to 1 Watt and a resistance
range from 10 to 1M. Stability is usually better than that of carbon resistors.
c) Wire Wound Resistor
Consists of a length of temperature stable alloy wound onto a ceramic cylinder and insulated by
enamel. Has a tolerance of 5%, a power rating of 3 Watts and above and a resistance range from 10
to 10K.
They have very high stability and are used for low value accurate work.
Advantages
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 1. Have good temperature stability.
2. Have higher mechanical strength.
3. Have heat resistance.

Disadvantages
1. Large in size.
2. Expensive.
3. They are not available in very high values.

2.3.1.2Variable Resistors
Resistors whose resistance change with the change of a movable contact. They are normally
made of a circular track of resistant material e.g. carbon and a slide, which moves over the track hence
changing the resistance.

Spindle

Slide
Track

A B

Connection

Maximum resistance between connections A and S is when the slide is at the far right of the track i.e. at
point B.
Maximum resistance between connections B and S is when the slide is at the far left of the track i.e. at
point A.
Connection between A and B will make the resistor a fixed one.

The Markings
The value i.e. resistance of the track is marked on the case of the resistor together with the letters
“LIN” or “LOG”. This refers to how resistance changes round the track.

Uses Of Variable Resistors

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 1. If we have just 2 connections (The slide and one of the track connections) we have a variable
resistor, which can be used in place of a normal resistor. Most useful in the setting up of circuit
when we are not sure of exact value of the resistor needed.
2. If you use all the 3 connections, then the variable resistor can be used as a variable potential
divider e.g. in volume control.

2.3.1.3 Special TYPES OF RESISTORS

2.3.1.3.1 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
They are also called photoconductive or photo cells. They are made from a material e.g. cadmium
sulphite whose resistance changes when light shines on it. In complete darkness the resistance maybe
as high as 10M(. In full sunlight the resistance maybe as low as 1K(. A light dependent resistor maybe
used in a potential divider to make alight sensor
2.3.1.3.2 THERMISTOR
Resistors whose resistance depends on temperature. They are divided into 2
Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor
They have a low resistance when hot. They can be used in potential dividers to make heat sensors.
Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor
They have high resistance when hot. Used to protect amplifier and other circuits by reducing the
amount of current flowing if the circuits overheat.

2.3.2 RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS

The basic electric circuit will consist of
1. Voltage source e.g. cells, batteries.
2. Conducting path
3. Load usually resistive loads.
4. Insulation to the conducting path.

2.3.2.1 Resistors In Series

R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

IS

IS
VT

Considering the figure of the circuit above, the rules for a series circuit
1. The source current IS remains the same throughout the circuit.
2. The source voltage VT is equal to the sum of all the p.d. across the resistors in the circuit i.e.
VT=V1+V2+V3+…………..VN where n is the nth p.d. ………………….(Eqn. 2.1)
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 3. The total circuit resistance RT equals the sum of the entire resistance in the circuit i.e.
RT=R1+R2+R3+…RN where n is the nth resistance……………………..(Eqn2.2)
4. Total resultant resistance is always greater than the largest resistor in the circuit

2.3.2.2 Resistors In Parallel

Is

I1 I2 I3

R3 V = Vs
R1 R2
Vs

Is

Rules Of Parallel Circuit

1. The voltage in a parallel circuit remains the same across any branch. I.e. VT=V
2. The total circuit current IS is the sum of all the branch currents i.e. IS=I1+I2+I3+…IN where n is the
nth current/branch…………………………………………………….(Eqn 2.3)
3. The total circuit resistance is calculated using the formula 1/RT=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…
1/RN……………………………………………(Eqn2.4)
4. The resultant resistance is always smaller than the smallest resistor in the circuit

Examples 1
Find the unknown values in the circuits of the figures below

Is
>
R1
I1` I2
+
E
+ R2
E R1
R2

Q.1 Q.2

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Q.1 (a) E =24V, R1 =8Ω, R2 =4Ω, RT =?,Is=?, V1=?, V2=?
(b) R1=1KΩ, R2=9KΩ, Is= 5mA, RT = ?, E=?, V1=?, V2=?.
Q.2 (a) E=20V, R1=6Ω, R2=3Ω, RT=?, Is=?, I1=?, I2=?
(b) R1=12KΩ, R2=4KΩ, Is=3mA, RT=?, E=?, I1=?, I2=?.

Solution
Q.1 (a) Since this is a series circuit, then
RT = R1+R2 =8 +4=12Ω
E 24
Is    2A
RT 12
V1 = Is*R1 = 2*8 = 16V
V2 =Is*R2 = 2*4 = 8V

(b) RT = R1 + R2 = 1 + 9 =10KΩ
E = Is*RT = 10*103 * 5 *10-3 = 50V
R1 1
V1 =Is*R1= 1*103 * 5*10-3 =5V or E *  50 *  5V
RT 10

Q.2 (a) This is a parallel circuit, and so

R1 * R 2 6 * 3
RT    2 K
R1  R 2 6  3
E 20
Is    10 A
RT 2
E 20 R2 3
I1    3.333 A or I 1  Is *  10 *  3.333 A
R1 6 R1  R 2 36

E 20 R1 6
I2    6.667 A or I 2  Is *   6.667 A
R2 3 R1  R 2 6  3
R1 * R 2 12 * 4 48
(b) RT     3K
R1  R 2 12  4 16
E= Is*RT = 3*10-3 * 3*103 = 9V
E 9
I1   3
 0.75 * 10  3A  0.75mA
R1 12 * 10
E 9
I2    2.25 * 10  3A  2.25mA
R 2 4 * 103

Example 2
In the circuit of he figure below find RT, Is, V1, V2, I1, and 12.
Is
>
R1
V1
4R
E + I1 I2
12V < >
R2 R3
6R 3R V2

17
Solution
This is a series parallel circuit.
To get total circuit resistance we start with the parallel part first.
R 2 * R3 6 * 3
R'23    2
R 2  R3 6  3
RT= R’23 + R1 = 4+2 =6Ω
E
Is  T  12  2 A
R 6

V1 = Is*R1 = 2 * 4 = 8V
V2 = Is*R’23 =2*2 = 4V
V2 4
I1    0.667 A
R2 6
V2 4
I2    1.333 A
R3 3

Exercise
In the figure of the circuit below calculate the voltage across resistor R4

R1
4R

E +
18V R3 R2
2R 10R

R4
8R

Example 3
In the figure of the circuit below calculate RT and find the source current Is. Also Calculate the amount
of power dissipated by the resistor R1 and R2.
R1 R4 R6
3R 5R 5R

E + R7
18V R5 2R R9
R3 10R
10R 10R

R8
R2 8R
1k

Solution
18
To get the total circuit resistance we start with end opposite the power supply(battery)
But first
R '78  R 7  R8  2 R  8 R  10 R

R '78 * R9 10 * 10
R '789    5R
R '78  R9 10  10
R '6..9  R '789  R 6  5  5  10 R
R 6..9 * R5 10 * 10
R '5..9    5R
R 6..9  R5 10  10
R 4..9  R5..9  R 4  5  5  10 R
R 4..9 * R3 10 * 10
R3..9    5R
R 4..9  R3 10  10
RT  R3..9  R 2  R1  5  1  3  9 R

E 18
Is    2A
RT 9

PR1=I2s*R1=22*3= 12W

PR2 = I2s*R=22*1= 4W

2.3.4 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

2.3.4.1 KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
States that the algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving any point in a circuit must be equal
to zero. Otherwise charge will accumulate instead of having a conducting path.

IA=5A
IC=8A
IB=3A

IA + IB-I C= 0 = 5 + 3 - 8 = 0
We consider all the currents into a point as positive and all the currents directed away from that point as
negative.
Example
In the circuit of the figure below Calculate the value of the currents Is, I1, and I2.
R1 R4
10R Is I2 10R
> <
E
+ I1
R5
240V R3 20R
60R
R2
30R

Solution
We start by getting The value of the total circuit resistance.
R’45= R4+R5 =10+20 = 30R

19
 R '45 * R3 30 * 60
R '345    20 R
R '45  R3 30  60
RT  R1  R 2  R '345  10  30  20  60 R
E 240
Is    4A
RT 60
R '45 30 30
I 1  Is *  4*  4*  1.333 A
R 45  R3 30  60 90
I 2  Is  I 1  4  1.333  2.667 A

2.3.4.2 KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

States that the algebraic sum round any closed path is zero. If you start at any point at one
potential and come back at the same point with the same potential, the difference of the potentials must
be zero.
OR
The algebraic sum of all potential difference in any closed path must be equal to the voltage
supplied to the path.
Example
In the figure of the circuit below calculate the values of the currents And the voltages across all the
resistors in the circuit.
R1 R2
120R I1 I2 180R
> <
V1
+ I3
+ V2
30V R3 90V
18R

Solution
Considering the closed loop1(Loop around voltage source V1).
V1=VR1+ VR3
30=I1.R1 + I3.R3 but I3 = I1 + I2 so that
30=I1.R1 + R3(I1+I2) Inserting the known values of the resistors.
30=120.I1 +18(I1 +I2) = 138I1 + 18I2
wish can be simplified to. 5 = 23I1 + 3I2…………………….(1)

Considering closed loop2(loop around voltage source V2)

V2 = VR2 +VR3
90 = I2.R2 + I3.R3
90 = 180I2 + 18(I1+I2) 18I1 +198I2
wish can be simplified to 5 = I1 +11I2………………………..(2)
equations (1) and (2) can be solved simultaneously
23I1 + 3I2 = 5 x 11
I1 + 11I2 = 5 x 3
253I1 + 33I2 = 55
3I1 + 33I2 = 15 We get the value of I1= 0.16A
and I2 = 0.44A
and I3 =I1 +I2 = 0.60A
VRI = I1*R1= 0.16*120 = 19.2V
VR2=I2*R2 = 0.40*180 = 72V
VR3 = I3*R3 = 0.60*18= 10.8V

20
2.3.5 BS (British Standard) 1852 CODE
This system is used to mark the value of resistors on circuit diagrams. Using this code letter R is
used for ohms such that 10R will be 10Ω
Letter K is used for Kilo Ohms such that 10K will be 10KΩ
Letter M is used for Mega Ohms such that 10M will be 10MΩ2M1 will be 2.1M.

2.4 CAPACITORS
They store electric charge. Consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric
material.
When connected to a battery the capacitor changes up until the p.d. between the terminals is the same
as the e.m.f. of the battery. If the battery is removed the charge may take a long time to leak away
unless a conductor is connected across the terminals. Capacitance of a capacitor is its charge storing
ability. It is measured in Farads (F). Capacitance depends on.
-Area of the plates (being large if the area is large)
-Distance between the plates (being small if the distance is large)
-Type of di-electric material used.
2.4.1 Capacitors charging action
When a capacitor is charged one of its plates has an excess of electrons and therefore a negative charge,
while the other plate has a shortage of electrons and therefore has an equal opposite charge (positive).
These charged plates cause an electric field to exist between them. An electric field may be defined as a
region in which a charged particle will experience electric forces. In a capacitor the electric field exist
mainly in the dielectric material. The electric field is made up of electric flux. Electric flux has the
same units as electric charge(coulombs).
The intensity of the field is called the electric field strength and has a symbol E.
V
E [Volts/metre]………………………………………………………(Eqn 2.9)
d
where
d= distance between the plate(thickness of the dielectric).
The electric field strength V/d is sometimes called the potential gradient through the dielectric.

2.4.2 Electric flux density

In a capacitor, the electric flux exist in the dielectric, and the flux density D is defined as the electric
flux in the dielectric divided by the cross section area A.

Q
D [c/m2]………………………………………………..(Eqn 2.10)
A
The ratio of the electric flux density to electric field is the absolute permitivity

D
ε  ……………………………………………………(Eqn 2.11)
E
Q V
but D and E
A A

Q / A Qd
Hence ε  
V /d VA

Q=CV

21
 CVd Cd
ε 
VA A
and so
A
C ……………………………………………………….(Eqn 2.12)
d
Permitivity of free space (εo)
The permitivity of free space is the permitivity of a vacuum and has a value of 8.85x10-12 F/M.
Relative permitivity.(εr)
It is the multiplying factor for each dielectric material and thus has no unit.
Absolute permitivity is the product of relative permitivity and permitivity of free space.
ε = εr x εo…………………………………………………………(Eqn 2.14)

The table below shows the values of relative permitivities for different materials.

Material εr Material εr
Air 1 Mica 6
Barium titanate 6000 Paper 2.5
Glass 6 Polythene 2.3
Insulating oil 3 Silica 3.5

The value of the capacitance can thus be express as:

A
C =εoεr d ………………………………………………………(Eqn 2.15)

where
εo is the pemitivity of free space and is given as: εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/M
εr is relative permitivity of the dielectric material used its value varies from material to material
and in most cases will be given
A is the area of the plates in M2
d is distance between the plates in M.

In general for a charge Q and a p.d. V, capacitance is expressed as

Q
C …………………………(Eqn> 2.16)
V
Example
Two insulated metal plates each of 600-cm2 effective area and 5 mm apart in air are charged to a p.d. of
1000V. Calculate the capacitance between the plates and the charge held by the capacitors. Given that
the relative permitivity of air is 1.

Solution
orA 8.854 * 10 12 *1 * 600 * 10 4
C  3
 10.625 * 1011F  1.0625 * 10 12F  1.0625 pF
d 5 * 10

Q = CV = 1.0625 *10-12 *1000 = 1.0625*10-9C

When choosing a capacitor it is important to consider its working voltage (that which it can with stand
before dielectric break down), Its tolerance and its leakage current.

22
Capacitors are either polarised (i.e. have both the positive and the negative terminals) and hence have
to be connected right way round the circuit. or non polarised, or non polarised and can be connected
either way.
The types of dielectric materials are used mainly determine the various types of capacitors.
Eg. Ceramic, paper, mica, plastic air capacitors etc.
Dielectric material though is not the only method used to classify capacitors.

2.4.3 USES OF CAPACITORS

i. Storing charge /Electric power.
ii. Separating a.c. from d.c. (it blocks d.c. while allowing a.c. to pass)
iii. Smoothening in power supply circuits
iv. In time delay circuits

2.4.4 CAPACITORS IN SERIES

C1 C2 C3
Q

< > < > < >

V1 V2 V3
Vs

Consider 3 capacitors in series. In a series circuit the Charge Q is constant| round the circuit
Q
From the basics: V 
C
Q
So that the voltage across the capacitor C1 , V1 is expressed as : V 1 
C1
Q
Voltage across capacitor C2 is express as: V2
C2
Q
And that across capacitor C3 expressed as : V3 
C3
The total circuit voltage Vs can thus be expressed as:
Vs= V1 +V2 +V3
Q Q Q Q
  
CT C1 C 2 C 3
Q  I 1 1 
Hence  Q   
CT  C1 C 2 C 3 

I 1 1 1
   ……………………………(Eqn. 2.17)
CT C1 C 2 C 3

2.4 .5 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

C3

C2

C1 23

V
Q=CV
Voltage is constant in a parallel circuit and so
Q1=C1V, Q2=C2V, Q3=C3V
QT= Q1+ Q2 + Q3
CTV =C1V + C2V + C3 V
CT =C1 + C2 + C3 …………………………………………..(Eqn 2.18)

Example
Three of 3μF, 4μF and 8μF are connected in series across a20V d.c. supply . Calculate the equivalent
capacitance and find the voltage across each capacitor.

Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17
      
CT C1 C 2 C 3 3 4 8 24 CT = 1.414μF

circuit Charge, Q = CT*Vs = 1.414*10-6 * 20 = 28.1*10-6C

Q 28.1 * 10 6
Voltage across the 4μF , V1 V 1    9.367V
C1 3 * 10  6
Q 28.1 * 106
V2   7.025V
C2 4 * 10  6
Q 28.1 * 10 6
V3   3.512V
C3 8 * 10  6

Example2
C2
0.1uF

X C1
0.75uF
Y
Z
C3
0.15uF

Three capacitors are connected as shown above and a 100v d.c.supply connected across terminals XY.
Assuming leakage effects are negligible, calculate the voltage across XZ.

Solution
C’23 = C2 + C3 = 0.15 +0.1 = 0.25μF
1 I 1 1 1
     5.333
CT C '23 C1 0.25 0.75
CT  0.1876
Q = C.V = 0.1876*10-6 * 100 = 18.76*10-6C
Q 18.76 * 10 6
VXY    25V
C1 0.75 * 10  6
24
2.4 .6 ENERGY STORED IN A CPACITOR
Suppose a capacitor is charged to a charge Q , the voltage of the capacitor will be proportional to the
charge and will increase with time such that .
Q = CV = It
CV
Hence I
t
The average Of voltage over time t seconds will be V/2 (V being the final voltage reached)
Energy = Power * time
V CV
W  * *t
2 t
Hence 1
……………………………………...(Eqn.2.19)
W  CV 2Joules
2

Example
Calculate the maximum and the minimum resulting capacitances that can be deduced by combining 3
capacitors of values 0.1μF, 0.2μF and 0.2μF.
If a 100V d.c. supply is connected across each of the combination, calculate the energy stored by each
of the circuit.

Solution
In parallel we get the maximum capacitance.
Cmax = C1 + C2 + C3 = 0.1 + 0.2 +0.2 = 0.5μF
Cmin is when we connect all the capacitors in series
1 1 1 1
    20
C min .01 0.2 0.2
1
C min   0.05F
20
Energy stored in the first case
1 1
W  CV 2 * 0.5 * 10  6 *100 2  0.25 * 10  2J  2.5mJ
2 2
Energy Stored in the second case
1 1
W  CV 2 * 0.05 * 10 6 *1002  0.25 * 10 2 J  0.25mJ
2 2

2.5 INDUCTORS

25
2.5.1 Magnetic circuits
i. Magnetic Flux (  )
It is the amount of magnetic field produced from a magnetic source. The unit of magnetic flux is
the weber(Wb).

ii. Magnetic Flux Density (B).

The amount of flux existing within a defined area;

B  …………………………………..(Eqn 2.20)
A
The unit of magnetic flux is the Tesla (T).

Example
A magnetic field of flux 30mWb covers an area of 50cm2. Find the flux density of the field.

Solution.
 30  10 3
B   6T
A 50  10  4

iii. Reluctance (S)

It is the magnetic resistance of a particular magnetic circuit to the presence of magnetic flux. Fro
magnetic purposes, materials may be divided into two type magnetic materials and non- magnetic
materials.

iv .Magneto motive force(mmf).

The magnetic effect produced by a coil will depend on the current flowing in the coil and the
number of turns.
mmf = current x Number of turns.
mmf = I x N [ampturns]. ……………………………………………(Eqn 2.21)

Magnetic flux can be be expressed as.

mmf mmf
Magneticflux   ….(Eqn 2.22)
Re luc tan ce S

2.5.2 The inductor

A coil of insulated wire that may or may not be over a ferrous metal.
When a coil is connected in a circuit the flow of current through the coil forces the electro-magnetic
fields to be created in the coil opposing the direction of the applied current. The effect is that the
current first applied to the inductor seems to have very high resistance reducing the current flow
through. Once the electro-magnetic field is established the resistance drops.
Once the current flowing through the conductor is constant, the only opposition to current flow comes
from the resistance of the coil wire. This resistance is small compared with the apparent resistance
(called inductive reactance). The opposing force that prevents current from flowing is the induced
current trying to flow in the opposite direction. We make great of this phenomena in transformers.
The unit of inductors is the Henry (H). In electronics milli-Henries and micro-Henries are commonly
used. When inductors are needed they are specified in terms of
Wire thickness (area).
Number of turns.
Core type.
Length of conductor.
26
When inductors are in series their values are added.
When they are in parallel, they are treated like resistors in parallel.

2.5.3 ENERGY STORED IN INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS

The energy stored in a coil having constant inductance of L Henries and carrying a current of I amperes
can be given by
1
W  LI 2Joules ………………………………………(Eqn 2.23)
2
Example
A coil has a resistance of 16Ω and an inductance of 3H. Its connected to a 40V d.c. supply Calculate
the energy stored in the magnetic field when the current reached a steady value.

Solution
The value of current flowing in the circuit when the effect of the magnetism ceased to be felt is given
as;
V 40
I   2.5 A Hence
R 16
1 1
Energy (W )  LI 2 * 3 * 2.52  90375 J
2 2

2.6 TRANSFORMER
It is an a.c. electro-magnetic device that takes in energy on one side (primary) and delivers it onto
another (secondary) usually at a different voltage.

Vp Vs

Soft Iron
Primary Winding Secondary Winding
Vp Tp
  N …………………………(Eqn 2.24)
Vs Ts
Where
Vp=Primary Winding
Vs=Secondary Voltage
Tp=Number of turns in the primary windings
Ts= Number of turns in the secondary windings
Tp
N  TurnsRatio 
Ts
Also
27
 Ip Ts 1
  ………………………………….(Eqn2.25)
Is Tp N
Where
Ip=Primary Current
Is= Secondary Current

Example
The primary voltage and the secondary current of a transformer having a turns ratio of 50:1 are 200V
and 1.5A respectively. Calculate he secondary voltage and the primary current.

Solution
Vp 50 200 50
N  Hence
Vs 1 Vs 1
200
Vs   4V
50
Ip 1 1 Ip 1
   Hence
Is N 50 1.5 50
1.5
Ip   0.03 A  30mA
50
2.6.1 Transformer Efficiency
This assumes that the efficiency of an ideal transformer is 100% i.e. no power losses and hence input
power is equal to the output power. But for a practical case the efficiency ranges from 96%-99%.
OutputPowr
Efficiency  * 100 %……………….(2.26)
InputPower

2.6.2 Impedance Or Resistance Ratio

Consider the transformer circuit shown in the figure below

Rp > Rs

With the load resistor Rs across its secondary then looking into the primary an input resistor Rp is
observed which is the equivalent value of Rs when transferred to the primary.
Rp
The ratio is the impedance or the Resistance ratio of a transformer.
Rs
Now
Vp Vs
Rp  Rs 
Ip Is
Rp Vp Vs Rp Vp Is Vp Is
The ratio    *  * N*N
Rs Ip Is Rs Ip Vs Vs Ip
Rp
Hence  N 2 …………………………………….(Eqn 2.27)
Rs
Example
If Rs =100Ω and the turns ratio N=2:1 Then looking into primary the transformer resistance will be
sen as?

Solution

28
Rp Rp 22 4
N 2   Rp=400Ω
Rs 100 1 1
Transformer Matching
To must ensure matching between a load and an output stage or between 2 stages of a circuit a
transformer is sometimes used as a coupling device.
e.g

If an amplifier is feeding aloud speaker as shown above, with the amplifier having an output impedance
of 1000Ω, for matching to occur, the turns ratio must be of suh a value as to present 1000Ωto the
amplifier.

Rp 1000
Hence N 2 N 2
Rs 10

2
N  100 and so N=10:1
Which is a step down transformer.

Exercise
1.Give the color codes for the following resistors using the four band-code
i. 330Ω
ii. 2.2MΩ
iii. 680KΩ
iv. 47Ω
2. Give the values of the resistors with the following colour codes
i. Yellow, White, Black, Gold
ii. Orange, blue, Orange
iii. Brown, Red, Yellow, Silver.
iv. Orange, orange, black, gold.
3. List any three advantages of using wire wound resistors over carbon resistors.
4. Calculate the resistance and the conductivity of a piece of length 0.5M and cross section area0.001mm 2of the
following materials
Copper  =0.0172 M
Glass  = 1 x 108 M
5. By the use of an illustration diagram show the construction of a variable resistor and show which connections
would give the maximum resistance (3 Marks)
6. Differentiate between the active and the passive components and an example for each.
7. In the figure below resolve for the voltages across R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7.

29
 R7=100R

R5=1K

R6=6K
+
Vt =32V R3=2K2

R4=1K5
R2=1K2

R1=2K4

8. In the circuit diagram shown in the figure below

a. Determine Rl1, Rl2, and Rl3
b. Determine the divider resitors R1,R2 , R3

200V @10mA

R1

150v @ 1mA

RL3
Vs =200V
R2

RL2
100v @ 1mA

R3 RL1

Ib=100mA

9. i. Capacitors of 0.5μF and 0.8μF capacitance are connected in parallel. What is the resultant capacitance?
ii. A third capacitor is connected in series with this circuit and the resultant capacitance of all three is then 0.3μF.
Calculate the value of the third capacitor.
iii. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 10V is connected to this final circuit, Calculate the p.d. across each capacitor.
10.

30
 C
a

26uF 26uF 14uF

b
In the circuit of the figure above the variable capacitor C is set to 60µF. If a voltage 500V d.c. supply is
connected across ab. Calculate.
i. Total capacitance.
ii. Voltage across the variable capacitor.
iii. The charge on the 14µF capacitor.
11. i. Capacitors of 0.5μF and 0.8μF capacitance are connected in parallel. What is the resultant capacitance?
ii. A third capacitor is connected in series with this circuit and the resultant capacitance of all three is then 0.3μF.
Calculate the value of the third capacitor.
iii. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 10V is connected to this final circuit, Calculate the p.d. across each capacitor.
12. State two applications of capacitors in electrical circuits
13. A single-phase transformer operates from a 230V supply. It has an equivalent of 0.1Ω referred to the primary.
The secondary is connected to a load having a resistance of 200Ω. Calculate the secondary terminal voltage.
14. An ideal transformer has 500 turns on the primary side and 7000 turns on the secondary side. if a 250V is
applied across the primary terminals
i. Calculate the voltage developed on the secondary side.
ii. If a load is connected across the secondary, which causes a current of 0.1A to flow, calculate the
corresponding current on the primary side.

Voltage or
Current 3. AC THEORY
Direct current flows in one direction only.

31

Time in Seconds
 AC constantly changes direction and value.

Sine Wave
Voltage or
Current

Time in Seconds

Square Wave
V or I

Time in Sec

V or I Saw Tooth

Time in Sec

Complex
Wave
V or I

Time in Sec
32
The root mean square (rms) value of an a.c. voltage is defined as the d.c. equivalent that provides the
same power as the original waveforms. For a.c. waveforms different types of rms values are always
quoted. For sinusoidal waveforms rms value is given as
PeakValue
Root mean Square  ……………………(Eqn 3.1)
2

For an a.c. wave-form, since the voltage and current are continuously changing we can only give the
value of these parameter at a given time instance. This voltage or current is known as the instantaneous
value. For a sine wave is can be given by.
VNSTANTANEOUS = VPEAK.Sin2πft = VPEAK Sin θ………………….(Eqn 3.2)
Where
f is the frequency of oscillation of the wave form
and t is the time instance.

3.1 REACTANCE
Inductors and capacitors offer resistance to the flow of a.c. current. This a.c. resistance is called
reactance () and is measure in ohms. Reactance depends on the value of the inductor or the capacitor
as well as the frequency of the a.c. waveform. An inductor has an inductive reactance, XL given by
XL = 2fl………………………………………….. (Eqn 3.3)
Where f = frequency of the oscillation in Hertz
L =Inductance in Henries
The reactance of an inductor increases with frequency.

Example
A10mH inductor operating at a 1KHz frequency has a reactance?
Solution
XL = 2πfL = 2*π*1000*10*10-2 = 62.8Ω
A capacitor has a capacitive reactance XC given as
1
XC  ………………………………………….. (Eqn 3.4)
2fC
C = capacitance in Farads
The reactance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency.

Example
Calculate the reactance of a 1μF capacitor operating at 10 KHz

Solution
1 1
XC    15.9
2fC 2 *  * 10 * 10  3 *1 * 10  6

3.2 j-Notations

33
When a.c. flows in reactance energy alternates between the a.c. source and the field (magnetic or
electric) of the reactance has a phase difference of 90o with the current. Phase difference is only 90o
when the inductive or the capacitive reactance is pure. Pure inductive /capacitive circuit is one that
does not have any resistive component whatsoever.

In a resistance both the current and the voltage are in phase.

I
V

In an inductor current lags voltage by 90o.

In a capacitance voltage lags current by 90o.

Since V=I.XL, it means that XL represents a phase operator which rotates the current phase through
+90o to get the voltage phase. Such an operation is equivalent to the manipulation by j. hence
XL = j2fL=jL=jXL=ωL 90
Hence the example above is concisely expressed as

XL =j62.8Ω = 62.8 90

In the case of capacitive reactance XC is that value by which the current must be multiplied in order to
derive the voltage. It must be a phase operator that will rotate the current through -90o. This is
equivalent to a multiplication by –j. hence
 j
XC    jC  C  90
2FC
In the example above the answer is then correctly express as
XC   j15.9  15.9  90

A circuit with both capacitive reactance and inductive reactance has a total reactance given by the
phase sum of the 2 reactances i.e.
X = XL + XC……………………………….(Eqn 3.5)

Example
If XL =j70Ω and XC=-j30Ω then
X=XL+XC = j70 +-j30=j40Ω
Or
34
 If XL=j40Ω and XC = j90Ω then
X = j40 –j 90 =-j50Ω

IMPEDANCE
This is the opposition to a.c. current flow in a circuit, which has both resistance and reactance
components.

jXL θ
|Z|

|Z|
θ

R -jXC

Z = R + jX……………………………..(Eqn3.6)
|Z| = R 2  X 2 …………………………..(Eqn 3.7)
1
X
  tan   ………………………………(Eqn 3.8)
R
Exerxise
1. Explain the following terms and show how each of them is related to the peak e.m.f
i. Instantaneous e.m.f
ii. Peak e.m.f.
iii. Average e.m.f
iv. Root mean square e.m.f
2. Distinguish between resistance, reactance and impedance
3. The equation relating current (in amperes) with time (in seconds) for a circuit is i=141.4sin 377t. What are the
values of?
i. r.m.s. current.
ii. Frequency.
iii. Instantaneous value of the current when t= 30mS.
4. The magnitude of the impedance of a certain coil is measured as 500 at a frequency of 796 Hz and as 800
when the frequency is doubled. Find the inductance of the coil and its effective resistance
5.
L=200mH

~Vs=24V
f=4.775KHz R=4.7K

In the figure of the circuit above

i) Calculate the value of the inductive reactance.
ii) Calculate the value of the circuit current.
iii) Calculate the voltage across the inductor and the resistor.
iv) Determine the phase angle of the circuit.

35
6. In circuit of the diagram below calculate
i. The net reactance
ii. The circuit impedance
iii. The circuit current.
iv. The phase angle.
R1 XC1
30R 70R

XL1
I^ 30R

Vt=100V XC2
20R

XL2 R2
30R 10R

4. SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Virtually all-modern electronic devices are constructed from semi-conductor materials. The electrical
characteristics of semi-conductors stems from the way its atoms interlock with each other to form the
structure of the material. The interlocking of semi-conductor atoms through electron sharing is called
covalent bonding. + + +
Atom
. . .

.+ .+ .+

. . .

.+ .+ .+

36

Covalent Bond
Four neighbours allocated at equal distances surround each atom. These atoms are held together by
covalent bonds and each covalent bonds and each covalent bond contains 2 electrons. The mainly used
semi-conductors are
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
However, because of temperature properties, germanium is not so widely used nowadays.

4.1 CONDUCTION IN SEMI-CONDUCTORS

At absolutely zero temperatures 0K = -273oC. All the covalent bonds are intact and hence there are no
free electrons and no conduction takes place. At temperatures above absolute zero the covalent bonds
are broken and there will be free electrons. There are types of charge carriers in semi-conductors.
 Conduction electrons (negative charges)
 Charge carriers still held in the broken bonds this are the holes (positive charges).

4.2 HOLE FORMATION AND THE HOLE CURRENT

Whenever a covalent bond in a semiconductor raptures, a hole is left in the semi-conductor by the
virtue of a lost electron. Since the atom that has lost the electron now has a net positive charge, the
atom becomes a positive ion. If a nearby valence electron should now enter the hole, then the net effect
is that a unit of positive charge has moved from the first to the second atom. This transfer of a hole
from one atom to another constitutes a flow of positive charge and hence represents a component of
electric current. Hole current occurs at the valence band level.
Valence band do not become free they move from one atom to the other. If a conduction band electron
(free electrons) fall into a hole, this does not constitute current flow. Such an occurrence is a
cancellation of charge and the hole electron pair has been annihilated or a recombination has
occurred. The holes and electrons involved in charge transfer re called charge carriers.

4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS

 Intrinsic
 Extrinsic
4.3.1INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
They are pure semi-conductors. They have very high electrical resistivity. Charge carriers are
B number of holes. They are tetra-valence
A of electrons is equal to the
thermally generated. The number
elements.
4.3.1.1 Intrinsic Conduction

+ 37
Inside AB
Applying external fields, covalent bonds will be broken creating holes, which will be attracted to the
negative terminal. There are two components of current in the semi-conductor; due to holes and due to
electrons.
Outside AB
Conduction electrons will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. The electrons will
leave the end A and move to the external circuits. The negative terminal will repel the electrons and
they will move through the external circuit to end B.

4.3.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS

They are not pure states. Some impurities are added (doping) in the ratios of 1:107 (one atom of the
impurity into 107 atoms of the pure material).
There are two types of extrinsic conductors.
4.3.2.1 N-Type
If we introduce into the crystal structure an atom that has five instead of 4 valence electrons, 4 of the 5
valence electrons participate in some kind of bonding that holds the atoms together. The 5th is not
needed for covalent bonding and it becomes a free electron.
An impurity is that produces excess electrons in this way is called a donor atom because it donates
electrons to the material. Donor material used in silicon include
Arsenic
Phosphorous
Antimony
Electrons from silicon

A
r
* free electron

In the N-type semi-conductor the number of electrons is much greater than the number of holes hence
electrons are the majority charge carriers while the holes are the minority charge carriers.

4.3.2.2 P-Type
Doping a semi-conductor with impurities that have only 3 electrons in their outer most shells produces
p-type semi-conductors.. When they are introduced in the crystal structure, an electron deficiency
occurs because the impurity produces 3 of the 4 electrons necessary for covalent bonding. A hole is
created everywhere an impurity appears. Such impurity atoms are called acceptors. Materials for
doping silicon to create p-type semi-conductors include.
Aluminium
38
 Boron
Gallium
Indium

Electrons from silicon

A
l
Hole

In p-type semi-conductors holes are the majority carriers while electrons are the minority carriers.

4.4 P-N JUNCTION THEORY

When a block of p-type material is joined to a block of n-type material a very useful structure results.
The region is not formed by simply placing 2 materials adjacent to each other but rather through a
manufacturing process that creates a trans-section from the P to the N within a single crystal.
P N
- +
+ + + - - -
- +
+ + + - - -
- +
+ + + - -- -
- +

Depletion/Barrier Region

Diffusion current flows whenever there is a surplus of carriers in one region and a corresponding lack
of carriers of the same kind in another region. Consequently at the instant the P and N blocks are joined
electrons at the N-region diffuse into the P-region and the holes in the P-region diffuse into the N-
region. For each electron that leaves the N-region to cross the junction, a donor atom that now has a
positive charge is left behind. Similarly for each hole that leaves the P-region (i.e. for each acceptor
atom that acquires an electron) an acceptor atom acquires a net negative charge.
Accumulation of charge polarity in the two separated regions causes an electric field to be established
between those regions. The accumulation of negatively charges in the P-region prevents additional
electrons from entering that region. (Like charges repel and similarly positive charges in the N-region
repel additional holes).
In the region of the junction where the charge atoms are located there are no mobile carriers because all
charges have been depleted/removed. This region is hence called the depletion layer/region. It is also
called the barrier region because it the electric field acts as a barrier to further diffusion of current. The
width of the depletion layer depends on how heavy the P and N materials have been doped using. If
both sides have been doped using the same impurity densities, the depletion layer will extend an equal
distance in both the P and N sides. If doping levels are not equal then the depletion region will extend
further into the side having a smaller impurity concentration.

39
If more electrons wish to cross the depletion region they must have sufficient energy to overcome the
barrier potential. Such energy will be provided by an external e.m.f. source. The height of the barrier
potential will depend on.
 The doping in the P and N charges/sides.
 Temperature
 The semi-conductor used i.e. between 0.2V-0.3V for Germanium and 0.6V-0.7V for
silicon at room temperature.

4.5 FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION

p N

When you connect the P side of the semi-conductor to the positive terminal of the battery and the N
side to the negative terminal of the battery: The electrons from the N side are attracted by the positive
terminal while the holes tend to be attracted by the negative terminal of the battery. The depletion layer
reduces by and by with the increase in the e.m.f.

At no biase

__
+ P N

At Forward Bias

The barrier potential reduces by and by until it is no more. Hence current can flow.

40
4.6 REVERSED BIAS P-N JUNCTION

P N

_
_ +

When we connect the P side to the negative terminal of the battery and the N side to the positive of the
terminal, the depletion layer increases by and by with the increase of the external e.m.f.:
At NO Bias

_ +
_ N
P

At Reverse Bias

4.7 P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A semi-conducting device that acts as a good conductor when forward bias and acts as an insulator
(open switch) when reverse bias.
A K
+ -

The positive terminal of the diode is called the anode while the negative terminal is called the cathode.
The direction of arrow is the direction of flow of current (conventional current).

4.7.1FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS DIODES

When we connect the anode to the positive terminal of the battery and the cathode to the negative
terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be forward bias. The connected in this way allow current to
flow.

41
 A K

+
When we connect the anode to the negative terminal of the battery and the cathode to the positive, then
the diode is said to be connected in reverse bias mode thus reducing the current flow to practically nil.
A K

+
4.7.2 P-N JUNCTION DIODE VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
This a graph of the current flowing through a P-N junction diode plotted against the voltage across the
diode.

VBRK If(mA)
Ge
Si

250 50

VR(Volts) 0.3 0.7

Vf (Volts)

Ge

Si IR(μA)

When connected in forward bias, the current flow through the diode until the p.d. across it is greater
than 0.2V for the germanium diode and 0.6V for the silicon diode. His is the voltage at which the
barrier potential is overcome.

In reverse bias mode a small amount of current flows the moment you connect a p.d. source across the
diode. This current remains constant and is called the saturation current until the diode reaches
breakdown voltage. At breakdown voltage, current increases suddenly and the diode becomes
destroyed. Saturation current is almost negligible.
In the P-N junction characteristics curve there are 3 important features
1. Breakdown Voltage
2. Saturation Current
42
 3. Knee Voltage

The a.c. forward resistance of a P-N junction is given by

V
Ra.c.  ………………………………………...(Eqn 4.1)
I

4.8 RECTIFICATION
The voltage supply to most of the electronic equipments is gotten from the a.c. mains by using circuits
whose function is to convert a.c. current/voltage to d.c. current/voltage. Such circuits are called
rectifiers and the process of converting a.c. to d.c. is called rectification. The rectifiers are broadly
classified into two categories
1. Half-Wave Rectifiers
2. Full-wave Rectifiers

4.8.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

A K
Load
~ Vin
Vout

The diode D1 is connected in series with the voltage supply VS, which changes direction after every half
cycle.
During the positive going half cycle the anode of the diode D1 is positive with respect to the cathode
hence it is forward bias. Therefore D1 conducts.
During the negative going half cycle the anode of the diode D1 is negative with respect to the cathode
hence it is reverse bias. Therefore D1 does not conduct (acts as an open switch).

Vin

T(sec)

Vout

43

T(sec)
 Hence, conduction occurs only during the positive going half cycle, ie. The load current and voltage are
only produced for half of the applied cycle. The average values of voltage and current are given by.
Vin max 2 * Vinrms
Voutavg .    0.318Vin max  0.45Vinrms ……(Eqn 4.2)
 

4.8.2F ULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

A

R1 D1

~
Vs B D2 Load
R2 Vout

During the positive going half cycle point X is positive with respect to point Z. The anode of D1 is
positive with respect to its cathode and hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not.
During the 2nd cycle, negative going cycle, point Y is positive with respect to Z hence anode of D2 is
positive with respect to its cathode. D2 will conduct while D1 is cut off.

Vin

T(sec)

Vout

44

T(sec)
There is conduction by either D1 or D2 during the entire voltage cycle. The average values of the load
voltage and current from the full-wave rectifier is given by
2 * Vin max
Voutavg   2 2 * Vinrms  0.64Vin max  0.9Vinrms ………(Eqn 4.3)


4.8.3 TRANSFORMER FED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

D1 i1
>
iL
<
D2
>
i2

A transformer is used to step-down the a.c. voltage as the situation demands and to isolate the rectifier
circuit from the power line and thus reduce the risk of electric shock.
There is a connection to the centre of the secondary winding. A transformer of this type is called a
centre-tapped transformer
In the circuit, during the positive half cycle, when the point x is positive with respect to Y, D1 is
forward biased i.e. D1 conducts.
For the negative half cycle when point Y is positive with respect to X D2 is forward biased but D1 is
reversed biased i.e. D2 conducts. Therefore current I1 flows through the load RL in the same direction I2
flows for positive and negative half cycles.

4.8.4 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

It is the most costly and bulky item in the previously discussed full-wave rectifier is the centre tapped
transformer. The centre transformer will have twice the number of secondary turns windings to produce
the same amplitude of the output voltage.
>
D1 D3

~
D4 D2

4.8.5 SMOOTHENING/FILTERING
The above circuits convert an a.c. waveform into a d.c. waveform, which never goes, negative but
cannot be called continuous d.c. because they contain large alternating components. Such a waveform
is too bumpy to be used to supply electronic circuits but to be used for battery charging. The various
methods used for smoothening include.
 Capacitor filter
 Capacitor input filter
45
  Choke input filter

4.8.5.1 Capacitor filters

4.8.5.1.1 Half Wave Rectifier
D1
>
+
~ C

4.8.5.2 FULL WAVE RECTIERS

>

D1 D3
+

D4 D2

When the out put from the rectifier is increased as shown by the dotted lines, the capacitor charges up.
During the second quarter of the cycle , when the out put from the rectifier fall, the capacitor discharges
into the load. The out put voltage falls until once again the rectifier charges the capacitor. The
effectiveness of the smoothening circuit is determined by.
 Amount of change stored in capacitor
 The load i.e. resistor
 Time between pulsations

Exercise
1) Explain the meaning of the following terms.
i. Recombination ii. Donors
iii. Break-down voltage iv. Acceptors
2) Briefly describe the formation of barrier potential at the P-N junction.
3) i. Draw a circuit diagram to show how two diodes and a centre-tapped transformer may be used to
give full-wave rectification. Sketch the input and output waveforms.
ii. If a voltage of 240V is applied at the primary side of the 20:1 turns ratio transformer.
Calculate the value of the average voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4) Explain the behaviour of a P-N junction when it is in,
-Forward biased
-Reverse biased is applied across it.
5) i. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductors.
ii. List the two types of extrinsic semiconductors.
6) Draw the voltage / current characteristic of P-N junction diode and hence explain the meaning of
the following terms.
i. Reverse saturation current
ii. Break down voltage
46
5. TRANSISTOR
There two main types of transistors
 Bipolar transistor(BJT)
 Field effect transistor

5.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

It’s a semi-conductor device made up of 2 P-N junctions.

Collector

Base

C
B

47
Emitter
 NPN Transistor

Collector

Base
C
B
PNP
E

Emitter

PNP Transistor

There are 3 basic terminals to the transistor

 Base
 Emitter
 Collector
Transistors are of two types
 PNP Transistor
 NPN transistor
The principle of operation is the same for both, the only difference being the d.c. bias conditions.
Transistors can be made of either silicon or germanium but by far the most widely used transistor is the
NPN silicon transistor.
Ic
>

N +
Ib J2 V2
> P
V1
+ J1
N

Ie

The figure shows an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources V1 and V2. V2 is constant and
could be a battery while V1 is a variable from 0V upwards.
Starting with V1 turned to zero no current will flow due to V2 because the base collector junction J2 acts
as a reverse biased diode.
48
The voltage from V1 is now gradually increased As long as it is less than 0.7V (assuming that it is
silicon), no current will flow into the base region because the barrier potential at the base emitter
junction J1 will not have been overcome.
Above 0.7V J1 will act as a normal forward bias diode and electrons will flow from the emitter into the
base. A few of these electrons will be taken by the base but since the base region is thin, lightly doped
and V2 is the large positive voltage than V1, most of the electrons will be attracted by the positive of V2
and continue into the collector through V2 and back to the emitter region.
There are therefore two components of current flowing at the same time one is flowing round the
circuit of V1 and is called the base current. The other flows round the circuit of V2 and is called the
collector current.
The value of the emitter current IE is the sum of the other two currents.
IE = IA + IC………………………..(Eqn5.1)

Suppose that for every 100 electrons that entered the base region and passed to the collector only 1
electron is gathered by by the base, then that would mean that Ic=100 IB
The gain of a transistor is represented Hfe or . Such that
IC=IA……………………………….(Eqn 5.2)
The same equations can be applied to a PNP. The only difference is the polarity of supply will be
reversed.

5.1.2 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION

There are 3 possible ways to connect a transistor when used in a circuit.
5.1.2.1 COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION
Where the input signal is fed between the base and the emitter and the output signal taken between the
connector and emitter.

Q1
NPN
OutPut
Input Signal
Signal

This is the most widely used configuration due to its flexibility and high gain The common emitter gain
is given by.
IC

IB
IC
and so, IC =βIB , IB 


5.1.2.2 COMMON BASE CONNECTION

Where the base is common to both the input and output signals.
The current amplification  is the ratio of the output current to the input current. In common base
connections IE is the input current and IC is the output current.

49
 E C

Input Signal B OutPut Signal

The common base gain is given by

IC

IE ……………………………..(Eqn5.3)

5.1.2.3 COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Where the collector is common to both input and output signals. This configuration is also known as
emitter follower. Since the output is taken at the emitter.

E
B
OutPut Signal
Input Signal C

The common collector current gain is given by

IE
  ……………………………………(Eqn 5.4)
IB

5.1.3 LEAKAGE CURRENT

A small reverse current flows through a P-N junction due to thermally generated minority carriers that
are propelled by the barrier potential. When the base is left open since the base collector junction is
reverse biased there is a reverse current due to the thermally generated carriers. This reverse current is
in the same direction as the main current (collector current).
E
B
+ Vcc

Vbb=0V C

The total collector current is therefore the sum of these components

IC = βIA + ICEO……………………….(Eqn 5.5)
and for the common base
E C
+ Vcc
Vee=0V B

And hence
IC = αIE + ICBO…………………………..(Eqn 5.6)

5.1.4 COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS CURVES

The transistor has 4 common emitter characteristic curves outlining its behaviour under static or
quiescent (d.c.) condition.

50
The transistor circuits and the meters are connected as shown and the appropriate measurements taken
and tabulated on a table. From the tabulations the curves could be plotted.

<Ic

A
IB +
> A +
+
VCE
+ - VCC
VCC
VBB
VBB
VBE -

IE

VBB(volts) IB(μA) IC(mA) VBE(volts) VCE(volts)

0.00 0.0 0.0 VCC
0.2 0.0 0.0 VCC
0.4 0.0 0.0 VCC
0.6
0.8
1.0
Etc.

5.1.4.1 INPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

IB(μA)

The figure shows input characteristics of an NPN transistor. It is the same as the characteristics of a
forward biased P-N junction. It is noted that the input current IB flows only when the required voltage
drop is established across the base emitter junction. Once that voltage is established the voltage VBE
VBE(voltss)
51
remains almost constant for a large increase in base current hence the transistor is considered a current
device.
5.1.4.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

IC(mA)
IB=40μA

IB=20μA

IB=0μA

VCE(volts)
\
The figure shows a family of curves relating the output/collector current IC to the output/collector
emitter voltage VCE for specific values of base/input current IB.

5.1.4.3 TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

IC(mA)

∆IC

∆IB

IB(μA)

Shows the relationship between output and input currents. The static current gain may also be
calculated using the characteristics curve.
5.1.4.4MUTUAL CHARACTERISTICS CURVE

Germanium
IC(mA)

Silicon

Ic(mA)

5.1.5 TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION

VBE(volts)
52
40V
VCE(V)
 5.1.5.1 ACTIVE REGION
VCE between 1V and 40V.
In this region the collector current is constant. The collector diode is gathering almost all the electrons
that the emitter has sent to the base. Transistors operate in the active region when they are used to
amplify a weak signal.
5.1.5.2 BREAKDOWN REGION
VCE  40V.
The transistor should never operate in this region because it will be destroyed.
5.1.5.3 SATURATION REGION
VCE between 0 and a few tenth of a volt.
The sloping part of the curve in this case the collector diode has insufficient positive voltage to collect
all the free electrons injected to the base.
IB is greater than normal.
 < Normal.
5.1.5.4 CUT OFF REGION
The curve at the bottom IB = 0.
Only a small collector currents, so small it cannot be see, due to minority charge carriers. Saturation
and cut off regions are used in digital and computer circuits (the switching circuits).

5.1.6 TRANSISTOR OPERATING POINT (Q-point)

This is the point of intersection between the load line and transistor curve. The operating point of a
transistor is given by the coordinates (VCE, IC).

<Ic

RC
IB RB
> +
VC
+ VCC
VBB E
VBE

IE

The figure above is an example of base biase for setting a fixed value of base current considering the
input loop and applying kirchhoffs voltage law.
53
 VBB = IB + VBE………………………………….(Eqn 5.7)
VBB  VBE
Hence IB  …………………………………..(Eq 5.8)
RB
IC =βIB
Considering the output loop and again using the kirchhoffs voltage law
VCC = ICRC +VCE………………………………..(Eqn 5.8)
Hence VCE = VCC - ICRC………………………………(Eqn 5..9)
The Q-point (the operating point) is given by the coordinates of VCE and IC
Example
3KΩ

1MΩ +
15V
+
15V

Calculate and plot for the Q-point of the transistor circuit above given that VBE = 0.7V and β=100
Solution
VBB  VBE 15  0.7
IB   6
 14.3 * 10  6A  14.3A
RB 1 * 10

IC=βIB=100*14.3*10-6 = 1.4*10-3A =1.43mA

VCE = VCC – ICRC = 15-(1.43*10-3*3*103) = 10.7V
Hence Q-point (10.7V,1.43mA)

Ic(mA) 5
4

0
VCE(volts)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

5.1.7 D.C. LOAD LINE

You can find the Q-point of a transistor circuit based on the transistor load line using the transistors
output equation.
VCC= IC +VCE
VCC  VCE
Therefore Ic 
RC
54
Which is a linear equation and can be reduced to the standard form of y=mx+c
When VCE = 0 (i.e. intersection of the y-axis)
VCC VCC
Ic  0
RC RC
15
Using the previous example then Ic   5mA which has been plotted in the above output
3 * 103
curve (graph)

When Ic = 0 (i.e. intersection of the x-axis)

Then 0 =VCC-VCE and so VCE = VCC
again using the above example we get that
VCE = VCC = 15V
Which is also ploted on the same curve. To get the d.c.c load we only need to join he two extreme
points
We realize the when Ic is 0A the transistor is operating at cut-off region and it operates at saturation
when VCE = 0V

5.1.8 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

We have looked at the d.c. characteristics of a transistor and used this to determine the d.c. output
voltages and currents that resulted from the application of d.c. inputs. We now investigate the extent to
which small changes in the input voltage and current cause changes in the corresponding output
quantities.
Before a transistor can be used as an amplifier it must have the correct d.c. bias. In the transistor
amplification circuits looked at so far, biasing is done with the aid of a battery, VBB, which is separated
from the battery VCC.

<Ic

RC
IB RB
> +
VCE
+ VCC
VBB VBE

IE

In the interest of simplicity and economy, it is desirable that the transistor circuit should have a single
source of supply i.e. the one in the output circuit, VCC. The following are some of the most common
methods of obtaining transistor biasing using one supply.
 Base resistor biasing
 Feedback resistor biasing
 Voltage divider
5.1.8.1 VOLTAGE DIVIDER
In the figure below VBB and VCC can be substituted by a potential divider R1 R2, this way only one d.c.
voltage is required, VCC. The ratio of R1:R2 is chosen so that the transistor is given the correct bias at the
base.

55
 +VCC

R1
RC

R2 VBB'

R2
VBB'  * VCC ………………………(Eqn 5.10)
R1  R 2
We can also be able to estimate the equivalent resistance at the base which we shall call RB
equivalent(RB’)
R1 * R 2
RB '  ………………………………( Eqn 5.11)
R1  R 2
5.1.8.2 THERMAL RUNAWAY
Minority charge carriers from the leakage current ICEO will flow from the collector to the emitter. As the
temperature rises the leakage current increases, increasing the collector current and so on. The process
is known as thermal runaway and if unchecked could damage the transistor.
5.1.8.3 D.C. STABILIZATION
The effect of the leakage current in the common emitter amplifier is to cause instability in the d.c.
conditions. This is overcome by the addition of the emitter resistor. VE is thus equal to VE = IERE and
thermal stabilization takes place as follows Due to the increase of the leakage current Ic and IE increase
and VE increases with them, and since
VBE = VB -VE , an increase in VE causes a decrease in VBE. This reduces IB and hence resets both IC and
IE to their previous values

+VCC

R1
RC

R2 VBB'
RE

From this we realize that the equations to get the operating points of the transistor circuit change with
the inclusion of the emitter resistor.
So VBB=IBRB + IERE + VBE
=IBRB + (IC+IB)RC + VBE
=IBRB + (βIC + IB)RC + VBE
=IB(RB +RC +βRE) + VBE
VBB  VBE
and IB  ………………………….(Eqn 5.12)
RB  RC  RE
IC =βIB
IE = I C + I B

56
And on the output loop
VCC = ICRC + IERE + VCE
VCE = VCC – IERE -ICRC……………………………………(Eqn 5.13)

5.1.8.4 COUPLING CAPACITOR

The purpose of a.c. coupling is to block d.c while allowing the signal through. Such coupling devices
as the capacitor or the transformer are used at the input or output of an amplifier. The d.c conditions of
the transistor are thus not affected by the preceding or the succeeding stages.
5.1.8.5 DECOUPLING CAPACITOR

A 10Vd.c A 10Vd.c
10mVa.c 0Va.c

Point A has a d.c. voltage of 10V and an a.c. voltage of 10mV. When a capacitor is connected across the
resistor, the capacitor being open circuit to d.c. does not interfere with the d.c. voltage at point A .
However, if the value of C is such that at the operating frequency, its reactance is very small compared
to the resistance, all the a.c. will be effectively shorted to ground. Point A will thus have 0 a.c. signal.

5.1.8.6 SUMMARY OF THE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

+VCC

R1
RC
Cc
Cci o
vo
n

~vi R2 Cc
RE e

The figure above shows a single stage small signal common emitter amplifier. It is connected to an
open circuit a.c signal Vi
Biasing circuits: The resistance R1 and R2 form the biasing circuit. The biasing circuit must establish a
proper biasing point otherwise a part of the negative’s half cycle or positive half cycle of the output
signal maybe clipped.
1. Stabilization circuit: RE forms the stabilization circuit. It controls the amount of collector current
flowing in the circuit.
2. Input capacitor (Ccin): It’s a coupling capacitor approximately 10F. Used to couple the signal to
the base of the transistor. If not used, the signal source d.c voltage components will cause changes
on the biasing conditions of the transistor.

57
 3. Decoupling/Bypass/Emitter capacitor(Cce): Is used in parallel with RE to provide a low reactance
path for the amplified a.c signal. If not used, then the amplified a.c signal flowing through RE will
cause a voltage drop across it.
4. Output capacitor (CCO): It is also a coupling capacitor. Couples one stage of the amplifier to the
load e.g. loud speaker, siren etc. or the next stage of amplification. If not used the biased
conditions of the next stage will be drastically changed.
5. Collector resistor (RC): It is also called the load resistor and is connected so that an output can be
produced at the collector.

5.2 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETs)

Fets like the bipolar transistor is a 3 terminal semiconductor device. It is called unipolar because the
current through it from the flow of one kind of charge either electron or holes i.e. charge carriers.
Field effect is delivered from the fact that the current flow is controlled by an electric field set up in the
device by an extremely applied voltage.
There are two main types of FETS.
i. Junction field EFFECT TRANSISTORS (JFET).
ii. Metal oxide semiconductors FET (MOSFET).

5.2.1 Junction Field Effect Transistors Drain (D)

Depletion
layer
D D
Channel
G Gate, G
Q1 Q2
G NJFET PJFET n

S S
N-Channel p-Channel
Sourse (S)

As shown above N types material has region of P material embedded on each side.
The two P-types are joined electrically and the common connection between them is called a Gate
terminal.
The terminal on one end of the one type band is called a Drain (D) and on the other side a
source(s).
The n-region between the 2 opposing p-regions is called a Channel.
The voltage applied to the Gate controls the flow of currents between the Drain and Source.
Connecting an external voltage between the Drain and the Source of an N-Channel JFET. So that the
Drain is positive in respect to the source, Current is established by the flow of electron from the source
58
to the drain. In that case, the PN junction on each side of the channel is reverse biased and this causes a
pair of depletion regions/layers to form in the channel.
-the channel is more lightly doped than they Gate side. So the depletion layer penetrates into the n
type channel than in the p-type Gate.
The width if depletion depends from the magnitude of the reversed biased voltage VDS.
As VDS is increased, the depletion layer is increases and the width of the channel is narrowed.
The reduction of the channel width increases the resistance of the channel &hence decreases the
flow of current ID from D to S.
To get the effect of increasing VDS on ID, let us suppose that gate is shorted, i.e. (VGS=0) to S.
As VDS is increased slightly above 0, we find that ID increases directly proportionally to it, i.e.
OHMS LAW.
As we increase VDS we find that noticeable depletion regions begin to form in the channel.
Note: The depletion regions are broader near the drain than they are near the source. This is
explained by the fact that the current flowing through the channel creates a voltage drop along the
length of the channel. Near the top of the channel, voltage is very nearly equal to VDS, so there is a
large reverse biasing voltage between the end channel and the P-Gate.
When VDS is increased further, the depletion region becomes very narrow causing the total
resistance of the channel to increase as a consequence. To increase, the rise of the current begins to
level off.
When VDS is increased to cause the depletion region to meet at the top (Drain N) the condition is
called Pinch-off. At this point, the gate to channel junction is reverse biased by the value of VDS so
(the negative of) this value is called the pinch off voltage VP.
VP is an important JFET parameter whose value depends on the doping levels and the geometry of
the device. It is always a negative quantity of N-channel and positive for P-channel.
Current reaches a maximum at VP and this current is called the Saturation Current (IDSS). Current
between the Drain and the Source with the Gate shorted.

ID
D

VDS IDSS

Gate, G
n

ID

ID
S |VP| VDS
D
If you now introduce a voltage VGS say VGS =-IV, the reverse biased causes the depletion
VGS=region
0V to
penetrate the N-channel further along the entireVlength
DS of the channel than they did when V GS was
zero.
Gate, G VGS= -1V
n
VGS= -2V
VGS
VGS= -3V

59 VGS= -4V

S VDS
 As we continue to increase VGS.. Since there is already a 1V reverse bias between the gate and the
channel. The pinch off condition where the depletion region meets is now than in the other case.
VDS=VGS -VP hence increasing the reverse basing value of VGS (making VGS more negative) causes
the pinch off condition to occur at smaller and smaller saturation current result.

5.2.1.2 JFET Drain characteristic curve

Cut off
ID
Parabola Voltage Controlled region
resistance region

VGS= 0V

VGS= -1V
Pinch-off Region VGS= -2V
VGS= -3V
VGS= -4V

VDS
The dashed line which is in the parabola represent is called a saturation voltage VDS (sat)= VGS - VP
and the equation of the parabola is;

ID=IDSS(VDS (sat)/Vp)2
For example when Vp= -1V and IDSS =12MA, VDS (Sat)=3V we want to calculate
i. VGS.
ii. ID
Solution:
VGS (sat)= VGS -Vp
60
 3= VGS --4= VGS +4
VGS = 3-4=-1v

ID= IDSS(VDS (sat)/Vp)2

12*10-3(3/-4) 2
=6.75mA

The region to the left of parabola is called the voltage control resistant region/ ohmic region / triode
region. In this region the resistance between the drain and the source is controlled by the VGS.
When the ID = 0 regardless of VGS, at this point VGS reverse biases the gate to source junction by an
amount = 0.(VP = 0) this is the cut off region

5.2.1.3 The transfer characteristics curve

It is a plot of the output current ID verses the input voltage, VGS.
The transfer characteristics can be derived from the drain characteristics curve by constructing a
vertical line on the drain characteristics ( a line of constant VDS) and to note the value of ID at the
intersection of the line of constant VGS..
The value of ID can then be plotted against VGS. to construct a transfer characteristics curve.

ID=0,VGS=VP

IDSS IDSS VGS = 0

VGS = -2
VGS = -3
VGS = -4
VGS -4 -3 -2
VDS
The curve assumes a parabola shape and can be defined by schockeys equation.
VGS 2
I D  IDSS (1  )
VP
The square suggests that the equation is non-linear and exponential in nature.

5.2.1.4 Fixed Bias

Like BJT, a JFET can be used as an amplifier and must be biased in order to create a d.c output
voltage around which d.c variations can occur.
When connected in common source configuration, the input voltage is VGS. and the output voltage
is VDS. Therefore the bias must set d.c (or quiescent value) for drain to source voltage VDS and drain
current ID
Q point ( VDS, ID)

61
 +VDD -VDD

N-channel ID
ID
RD
P-Channel RD

VGS + VDS
VDS
+
VGS

Notice that a d.c supply voltage is connected to supply drain current to the JFET through resistance
RD and another d.c voltage is used to set the gate to source voltage VGS.. This biasing method is
called Fixed biasing method because the gate to source voltage is fixed by a voltage across those
terminals.
Writing KirchHoff’s voltage law round output loop n-channel

VDD= ID RD+ VDS

VDS =VDD- ID RD

VDD  VDS
ID 
RD
This determines the equation of a d.c load line.
To ensure that the Q point is the pinch off region, the quiescent value of the Q point of the VDS must
be greater than the magnitude VP –ve the VGS magnitude.
|VDS|>| VP | - | VGS |

Example
Given that the figure, IDSS = 10mA and VP = -4V. Compute the quiescent values of ID, VDS when
(i) VGS. = -1.5V
VGS. = -0.5V 10 * 10-3 (1- -1.5) 2 = 3.91mA
-4
(ii)

Solution
VGS 2
I D  IDSS (1  )
VP
2
 1.5 
ID  10 x103 1     3.91mA
 4
VDS = VDD - ID RD
= 16- (3.91x10-3x2+103) = 8.18V

Q = (VDS, ID) = (8.18, 3.91)

62
5.2.2 Metal oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
There is no P-N junction between the gate and the channel.
It is similar in many respects to the JFET in that both have the Drain, Gate, and the Source terminal and
both are devices whose channel conductivity is controlled by gate to Source voltage.
The principle feature that distinguishes a MOSFET from a JFET is the fact that the Gate terminal of a
MOSFET is insulated from its channel, for that reason, MOSFET is also known as insulated Gate FET.
(IG FET)

5.2.2.1 Depletion Type MOSFET

Drain Silicon Dioxide

N-Channel (D)

N+

Gate N P
(G)
N+

P-channel
Source Metal
Symbol (S)
Schematic Diagram

A block of high resistance P-Type silicon forms a substrate in which are embedded to every heavy
doped wells/ pockets labeled N+.
A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) which is an insulating material is deposited along the surface.
Metal contacts penetrate the silicon dioxide layer at the 2 N+ wells and become the Drain and the
source terminal.
Between the 2 N+ wells is more lightly doped region of any material that forms the channel.
Metal is deposit on the SiO2 opposite the channel and becomes the gate terminal.
NOTE: The SiO2 insulates the Gate from the channel.
Going from the gate to the channel we encounter metal, oxide and a semiconductor in that order which
accounts for the name MOSFET.
Notice there is no P-N junction between the gate and the channel as in a JFET.

5.2.2.2 Operation of a MOSFET

VDS D
N+
G P
N
VGS +
N
S

63
A voltage VDS is connected between the Drain and the source to make the drain positive with respect to
the source.
The gate is made negative with respect to the source, to produce an electric field in the channel near the
silicon dioxide layer (SiO2). This portion is thus depleted of the charge carrier and the channel width is
effectively narrow.

The narrower the channel width the greater the resistance is and the smaller the current flow from the
drain to the source thus the device behaves very much like N-channel JFET.
The principle difference being that the channel width is controlled by the action of the electric field
rather than the size of the depletion layer of a P-N junction.
Since there is no P-N junction, the voltage VGS. can be made positive without any concern for the
consequences of forward biasing junction.
Making VGS more positive attracts more electrons into the channel and increases / enhances its
conductivity thus the gate voltage in the depletion type MOSFET can be valid through positive and
negative voltages and the device can operate both in enhancement and depletion modes.
Although there is a P-N junction between the N material and the P substrate this junction is always
reverse biased and very little current flow through it.

Exercise
1. Draw the characteristic curves of a common-emitter transistor; label the axis correctly giving the units of the
various parameters used on the axis.
2. State the main reason as to why the common emitter configuration of a transistor is the most widely used.

3. Describe how the phenomena of thermal run away take place on an amplifier circuit.
4. With the aid of an illustrating diagram explain how the biasing of a transistor takes place.

5. An NPN transistor connected in the common emitter mode has the following parameters
RB=10K, RC=1k, VBB= 2V, VCC= 10V, VBE = 0.7V and  = 100.
i. Find the operating point (Q-point) of the transistor
ii. Draw the load line for the transistor circuit.
6. List the four operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor.
7. Define the following terms
i. Operating point
ii. Leakage current
iii. Thermal runaway
8. In a given bipolar junction transistor amplifier, explain the uses of the following components.
i. Coupling capacitor
ii. De-coupling capacitor
iii. Emitter resistor.
9. Draw the THREE bipolar junction transistor-operating curves.

64
6. THYRISTORS
The word thyristor comes from the Greek and it means door i.e opening a door and letting something
pass. It is a semiconductor device that uses internal feedback mechanism to produce a switching action.
The most important thyristors are the silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) and Triacs.
SCR and Triacs can switch large current on and off. For this reason they can be used for over Voltage
protection., motor controls, lightening systems and any other heavy current loads.

6.1 layer diode

65
 P

Q1
IB1
PNP

IC1 IC2

Q2
NPN
IB2

The upper transistor Q1 is a PNP transistor, and the lower transistor Q2 is a NPN transistor.
The connector of Q1 drives the base of Q2. Similarly the connector of Q2 drives the base of Q1.
IB2 = βIC2, IB1= βIC1

6.1.1 Positive Feedback

Any change of the base current of Q2 is amplified through Q1 to magnify the original change. This
positive feedback continues changing the base current of Q2 until both transistors go either into
saturation or cut off.
If the base current of Q2 is increased, the collector current of Q2 increases. This increases the base
current of Q1 and collector current of Q1.
More collector current of Q1 will further increase the base current of Q 2. This feedback action
continues until both transistors are driven into circulation. In that case the overall circuit acts as a
closed switch.
On the other hand, if something causes the base current of Q2 to decrease, the collector current of Q1
decreases and the base current of Q2 decreases further. This action continues until both transistors are
driven into cut off, then the circuit acts as an open switch.

6.1.2 Break over voltage.

The only way to close 4-layer diode is by break over.

66
 J1 J2 J3
Anode
Cathode
> P -+N+ - P -+ N _
+ -+ + - -+

J1 & J3 → forward biased junction.

J2 → Reverse biased
An increase of the anode to cathode forward voltage increases the width of depletion layer at J2. And
also increases the accelerating voltage for minority carriers across the same junction. These minority
carriers collide with fixed atoms and dislodge further minority carriers until there is avalanche break
down of the junction. This makes J2 Forward biased, and the anode current t at this point would only
be limited by the external load impedance / resistance.
The break characteristic curve is shown bellow

I
High conduction
current

IH
V
Break-over
Voltage

At Forward break over voltage VBO, the thyristor changes its characteristic of having a high voltage
across it with low leakage current to a low voltage across it with a large forward current.
At the voltage VBO, the thyristor turns on.
As long as the current through it is larger than the holding current (IH), the diode remains latched in the
on state .
If the current becomes less than IH, the device switches to cut off region.

6.2 The silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

It is the most widely used thyristor.

67
It can switch very large current on and off and because of this, it is used to control motor, ovens, air
conditioners etc.
+VCC

RL

Q1
PNP

Q2
NPN

Anode

Gate P

N
Smbol

Cathode
Schematic Diagram

We add an input terminal to the base of Q2 and hence we create a secondary way of clothing the latch.
To close the latch, we can couple a trigger (sharp pulse) into the base of Q2. The trigger momentarily
increases the base current of Q2 and this starts the +ve feedback which drives both transistors into
Saturation
The input is called the Gate, the top, the anode and the bottom, the cathode.
SCR is far more useful than the 4-layer diode because the gate triggering is easier than the break over
triggering.
Since the gate is connected to the base of an internal transistor, it takes at least 0.7V to trigger an SCR.
This voltage is called VGT (Gate trigger IA Voltage)

4mA 2mA
6mA
6.2.1 SCR characteristics curve
Forward on 0mA
current

VBO
VAK

Break Down
Region
68
 If the reverse voltage is increased, the leakage current will remain almost constant at first and then
where the point reversed break down occurs, current increases rapidly to a large value which may
destroy the device.
When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, the thyristor can not conduct unless the
anode voltage is raised to a value at which avalanches break down can occur.
When current is introduced at the gate then the break over voltage reduces, i.e. the larger the gate
current, the smaller the break over voltage.
The gate pulse/current must last long enough time to allow the thyristor current to exceed the latching
current.
Latching current is the minimum current that must flow through the thyristor before it is able to
remain in its on state after the gate current has been removed.
Once the thyristor has definitely turned on, the current flowing through it can be reduced but it must
also be equal to or greater than the holding current.
Holding current is the minimum current that can keep the thyristor in its own condition after it has
been switched on.

6.2.2 Controlled Rectification

R1

R2 load

SCR
C

VS Figure A

T(sec)

Vload
69
 T(sec)

Figure B

Figure A shows supply voltage being applied to an SCR circuit which controls the current through a
heavy load.
Variable Resistance, R1 and C shifts the phase angle of the gate signal. R2 limits the gate current to
safe levels.
When R1 is changing the ac gate voltage lags the supply voltage by an angle alpha (∞) between 0 and
90o. Before trigger point the SCR is off and the load current is zero. The shaded portion shows when the
SCR is conducting. Because R1 is variable the phase angle of the gate voltage can be changed. This
allows us to change the shaded portion of the supply voltage, in other words we can control the average
current through the load. This controls the speed of the motor, the brightness of the lamp or the
temperature of the furnace.

6.2.2.1 Half Wave Rectification

Q1

Load

VS

T(sec)

Vload

70
 

V Sind V
max

V max 
  sind   cos  
max
Voavg  
2 2  2
V max  
 1 cos 
2
6.2.2.2 Full Wave Rectification

Load

VS

T(sec)

Vload

71
 

V Sind V
max

V max 
 sind   cos  
max
Voavg  
  
V max  
 1 cos 


OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ( OP-AMPS)

This is an integrated circuit amplifier.
It has very high input gain, high resistance and for most types a low output resistance.
The symbol for the OP-AMP is shown below.

72
 +V

I +
Vo
NI

-V

Two input terminals 1 and 2 are provided. The one labeled I is known as inverted terminal since a
voltage applied to this terminal appears at the output terminal with the opposite polarity. The other
input terminal is labeled NI and this is non inverting terminal. A signal applied to this terminal is
amplified with the zero phased shift.
Two other terminal 3 and 4 are provided for connection of +ve and –ve power supply voltages.
Most OP-AMP will operate satisfactory from a wide range of supply voltages.
Another terminal 5 is provided to which the mid point of the power supply must be connected. In most
cases this point is the earth or ground potential.
Terminal 6 is used for output. Further terminals 7, 8 and 9 may be provided for connection of external
frequency compensation.
Majority of the OP-AMP in use today is 741 series, which is cheap, durable and readily available and
its characteristics are quite adequate for many applications.
An ideal OP-AMP has the following characteristics.
 Infinite input impendence/ Resistance Zin → ∞
 Zero output impendence Z0 → 0
 Infinite voltage gain A →∞
 Infinite bandwidth BW→ ∞
In practice the ideal OP-AMP does not exist and practical devices have various limitation.

7.1 Inverting Amplifier

Rf

Ri

Vs Vo

The simplest amplifier is shown in the figure above. A Resistance R1 is connected between voltage Vs
and the inverting terminal.
The other resistance called feedback resistance is connected between the output terminal and input
terminal. Typical values of R1 and Rf should be between 100KΩ and 1MΩ.
If we let the voltage input to the amplifier to be V1 and voltage gain, then the voltage input therefore
Vo=A.Vi.
The current flowing through resistance R1=I1
I1= Vs-Vi
R1
If the input resistance of the amplifier is very high then the input current of the amplifier may be
neglected & the current flowing through R1 must also flow trough Rf
Therefore
73
If = V1-Vo
Rf
I1=if => Vs-Vi = V1-Vo
R1 Rf

Vo=A.Vi => Vi = Vo
A

A = ∞ , Vo =0
A Hence Vi=0.

Hence Vs = -Vo
R1 Rf

Vo = - Rf . Vs
R1
OR
Vo = - Rf
Vs R1

This expression shows that the gain A of the amplifier provided it is large does not affect the output
voltage / output signal and the size of Vo is only dependent on Rf& R1. e.g If Rf= 1MΩ & 100KΩ.
Solution:
Vo = - 1* 106 * Vs
100*103

Vo = -10Vs.

Example
137.5K

25K

Vs Vo

Assuming the OP-AMP above is ideal. Find.

(i) The r.m.s current in the 25 KΩ resistor when Vs=1.5V r.m.s.
(ii) The value of Vo when Vin(Vs) is equal 1.5V r.m.s.
(iii) The output voltage when Vin(Vs)=0.6 d.c.

Solution
(i) r.m.s current = Vs
R1
= 1.5
25*103
= 6.0*10-5A

(ii) Vo r.m.s = -Rf.Vs

74
 R1

= | -137.5*103*1.5|
25*103
= 8.25 Vr.m.s

(iii) Vo = -Rf *0.6

R1

= -137.5*103 *0.6
25*103

= -3.3V d.c

7.2 Non- Inverting Amplifier

Rf

Ri

vi VO
Vs

The figure above shows the non- inverting configuration of an OP-Amp. Notice that input signal Vs is
connected directly to the non-inverting terminal and that resistance R1 is connected from the inverting
terminal to the ground.
Assuming the ideal OP-AMP of infinite impedance / resistance, no current flows into the inverting
terminal & i1=if

Thereforei1= if
I1 = Vi if= Vo-Vi
R1 , Rf

Vi =Vo-Vi
R1 Rf

Vo = A ( Vs-Vi)

Vo = ( Vs-Vi)
A

A = ∞, So Vo = 0
A
So Vs-Vi = 0 and Vs = Vi
The equation becomes.
Vs = Vo-Vs

75
R1 Rf

Vs = Vo-Vs
R1 Rf Rf

Vs + Vs = Vo
R1 Rf Rf

Vs (1/R1 +1/Rf) = Vo
Rf

Vs( Rf + R1) = Vo
R1.Rf Rf

Vo = Vs . Rf + R1
R1

Vo = Rf + R1 = 1 + Rf
Vs R1 R1

Example
A signal source produces a 1V.r.m.s signal; the signal must be amplified to 2.5V. Assuming the phase
of the output voltage is to remain the same. Find the value of the input resistance required if Rf =
150KΩ.

Solution

Rf =150KΩ
Vs =1Vr.m.s
Vo =2.5Vr.m.s
R1 =?

Vo = (1+150)
R1

2.5 = 1+150 = 2.5 – 1 = 150

R1 R1

1.5R1 = 150
1.5 1.5

Therefore R1 = 100KΩ

7.3 Summation Amplifier (Adder).

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 R1 Rf
V1
R2
V2
R3
V3 vi Vo

There are now 3 input voltages V1, V2 & V3. The current through R1,R2 & R3 are respectively.
I1= V1-Vi, i2 = V2- Vi, i3 = V3-Vi
R1 R2 R3
And current through Rf= if = Vi – Vo
RF

Total input current V1-Vi + V2-Vi + V3-Vi

R1 R2 R3
This is equal to IF, if the same assumptions were made as previously.

Vi-V0 = V1-Vi + V2-Vi +V3-Vi

RF R1 R2 R3

Vi = 0

Hence -V0 = V1 + V2 + V3
RF R1 R2 R3

Therefore V0 = -Rf V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3
Example
Two sign waves are applied to a summation amplifier via input resistance R1 and R2 of values 100KΩ
and 200KΩ respectively. The sign wave applied to R1 is given by V1 = 1.2 sinwt and that applied to R2
is V2 = -0.6 sinwt. If the feedback resistor has a resistance of 250KΩ, What is the equation of the
output voltage and its r.ms value?

Solution

R1 = 100KΩ
R2 = 200KΩ
V1 = 1.2 sin 2∏ft → Sinwt
V2 = -0.6 sin 2∏ft → Sinwt
Rf = 250KΩ

Vo = -Rf (V1 + V2)

R1 R2

Vo = -250 (1.2 sinwt) + -250(-0.6 sinwt)

100 200

= -2.5(1.2 sinwt) + -2.5(-0.6 sinwt)

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 = -3 sinwt + 0.75 sinwt

7.4 Electronic Integrator

This a device that produces an output wave form whose value at any instance of time equals the total
area under the input wave form up to that in time.

E t (s) Area=Vo(t)
5 0 0
5 1 5
5 2 10
5 3 15
5 4 20
5 5 25

The figure below shows an electronic integrator constructed using an OP-AMP.

R

C
Vs Vo

i1 = ic

i1 = Vs-Vi, ic = C.d (Vi-V0)

R dt

Vs -Vi = -Cd (Vi- V0) if Vi = 0

R dt

Vs = - Cd V0
R dt

d V0= Vs
dt -CR

d V0= Vs . dt
-CR
t t
1 1
Therefore Vo  0  CRVsdt   CR 0 Vsdt
Exercise
A steady voltage of –0.8 Volts is applied to an integrator with R = 250KΩ and C= 2nF, what is the
value of the output voltage 0.15 seconds after the application of the output.

7.6 Electronic Differentiation.

78
 C

R
Vs Vo

Def: It produces an output wave form whose value at any instance of time is equal to the rate of change
of the input at that point in time.

Vi = 0
And ic = if.
Ic = d( Vs-Vi) = Vi-Vo
dt R

C.dVs = -V0
dt R

Therefore Vo = -RC dVs

dt

8. FAULT FINDING
6.1 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS TECHNIQUES

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Voltage, current and resistance are measured using the voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter.
6.2 MULTIMETERS
A very useful piece of testing equipment. Can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter or an ohmmeter.
Switches are used to change between these functions.

6.3 MOVING COIL METER

Most analogue meters operate under the principle of this meter in that when a coil carrying a current is
suspended in a strong magnetic field, a deflection torque acts on the coil and moves until the torque is
balanced by a restoring spring usually supplied by suspension system. The deflection is proportional to
the current and the scale of the instrument is linear.

6.4 MEASURING CURRENT

The millimetre is set to read current and is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be
measured. A current meter should have low resistance so that it doesn’t reduce the current flow through
it.
R1 R2

+
Vs
A

6.5 MEASURING VOLTAGE

The voltmeter is set to read volts and is connected across the p.d. we want to measure. A good
voltmeter has very high impedance. This means it will take very little current from the circuit.
R1

R2
+
Vs +
R3
-

6.6 MEASURING RESISTANCE

An ohmmeter measures resistance by measuring the current flowing from its own internal battery. The
scale of the ohmmeter is backward i.e. low resistance lets a large current flow. Because the e.m.f of the
internal battery can change with age, an ohmmeter is always zero before use. This usually means
connecting the leads (zero resistance) and adjusting a variable resistor until the ohmmeter reads exactly
zero.

Ω Adjust Zero

6.7 CHECKING FOR CONTINUITY

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A wire conductor that is continuous without a break has practically zero ohms of resistance. This test
should be done on the lowest ohms range. A break in the conductivity path is evident from a reading of
infinite resistance showing an open circuit.

6.8 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL METERS

They use a pointer whose deflection is proportional to the sample current. Analogue meters are
particularly sensitive to small but rapid fluctuations in the current or voltage, which makes them an
ideal choice when performing adjustments to electronic equipments.
The main disadvantage of this meter is
1. It has very delicate precision movement, which cannot withstand severe shock. This
doesn’t make it ideal choice for field service.
2. Has parallax error. The meter should be read looking at it vertically down.

Digital meters have become more popular mainly because they are robust (no moving part), have no
problem with parallax error, are comparatively les expensive than equivalent analogue types, and they
can have other additional features e.g. frequency counter, capacitance meters, thermometers, diode and
transistor testers etc.
The only draw back is that when they sample voltage or current, they are reading at intervals of up to
0.5 seconds. This makes it difficult when carrying out adjustments in circuit or when a continuous read
out is desired.

6.9 FAULT DIAGNOSIS

When a complete equipment is brought in for repairs, one must locate the block of the equipment that
is faulty before locating the circuitry component that has failed. The complete circuit of the electronic
equipment can be broken down into a series of functional blocks and the following methods can be
used to decide which block is faulty.
6.9.1 INPUT TO OUTPUT METHOD
It is an example of a systematic approach. This method involves applying a suitable input signal into
the input block. Measurements are then made sequentially at the output of each block in turn working
from the input towards the output.
6.9.2 OUTPUT TO INPUT METHOD
Involves applying a suitable input signal at the input block and measuring the output of each block in
turn working from the output towards the input
6.9.3 HALF SPLIT METHOD
It is a very powerful method for locating faults in equipments made up of a large number of blocks in
series. It is possible to divide a circuit in halves, decide which half is working correctly and split the
non-functional section in half again to locate the fault.

When an equipment is brought in for repair you can use the following methods to test it.
1. Check if all the components are in the correct position.
2. Check that there are no short circuits (excessively high current drains on the power supply may
indicate shorts).
3. Examine the PCB for solder splashes.
4. Carry out some basic electrical tests to ensure that power is reaching all parts of the circuit.
5. Check all components are functioning correctly.
6. Remove and test suspect components using the appropriate test equipment. Alternatively substitute
dubious components with tested and tried parts.
7. Make a thorough check of the circuits, voltage, current, and signals using the appropriate test
equipment.

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 6.10 TOOLS FOR MAINTENANCE
6.10.1 BASIC TOOLS
You will need a screwdriver and a few other common tools to disassemble the equipment. Most
equipments use the star screws so make sure you have a star screwdriver. Others will use flat heads or
Allen screws. A pair of pliers helps you to loosen and tighten nuts. Tweezers or long pair of small nosed
pliers helps you to group small parts like screws that may have fallen inside the machine.
6.10.2 MULTIMETERS (VOLT-OHMMETER)
Used to test voltage levels and the impedance of circuits. All standard meters lets you measure a.c
volts, d.c volts, milliamperes and ohms. Some test capacitance and opens or shorts indiscreet
components e.g. diodes or transistors.
6.10.3 LOGIC PROBE
Meters are generally used for measuring analogue signals they test for the presence or absence of low
d.c voltages that represents digital data. The zero and ones are usually electrically defined as 0 Volts
and 0.5 Volts respectively. One of the LED of the logic probe lights up if the logic is zero or low.the
other LED lights up if the logic is one or high. The third LED may indicate a pulsing signal. To use the
logic probe, we connect the probe’s power leads to a voltage source on the board. Clip the black ground
wire on the circuit ground and touch the tip of the probe against a pin of an integrated circuit.
6.10.4 LASER DETECTOR
Infrared is not visible to the human eye. You need to use a special infrared sensor to determine that the
laser is indeed working.
6.10.5 OSCILLOSCOPE
The CRO is primarily used to display a.c signal waveforms, although it can be used to measure d.c
voltages. It produces a graph of voltage against time, with time on the horizontal axis. The screen is
covered with a grid of squares, which are usually 1cm2. Measurement of the wave shape is performed
by counting the number of vertical and horizontal divisions ( and subdivisions) occupied by one cycle
and multiplying by the time and voltage control settings.
6.10.6 POWER SUPPLY
Takes away the need to keep on inserting batteries. It can also be used for fault diagnosis when power
supply unit in a piece of equipment has failed. A variable power supply is usually more versatile.
6.10.7 FUNCTIONAL GENERATOR (SIGNAL GENERATOR)
Used to generate voltage waveforms of differing amplitudes, shapes and frequencies. Many electronic
circuits are designed to process signals. However, under test conditions these signals are not always
available. Examples of generators available include
 Low Frequency Generators
offer a range of output frequencies from 15Hz to 1MHz.
 Radio Frequency Generator
can provide both amplitude and frequency modulated signals over a wide range of carrier signals.
 Television Pattern Generator
essentially tests equipment in any TV/VCR service department. It can generate a range of picture
displays useful in both fault finding and setting up/adjustment procedures.
6.10.8 FREQUENCY COUNTER
Used to measure frequencies of sinusoidal or square waves.
6.10.9 INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTER
Used to test the integrity of insulation of cables and components e.g. in transformers.

Exercise
1. Differentiate between analogue and digital meters and state one merit for each
2. Discuss the various methods used for fault finding.
3. State and give the uses of four instruments used for maintenance.
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4. With the aid of a diagram explain the operation of an ohmmeter
5. With regard to measuring instruments
i) Explain the reason why the scale of an analogue ohmmeter is reversed
ii) Explain the reason why voltmeters have high internal resistances while ammeters
have low internal resistances
iii) Explain why the ohmmeter is adjusted to read zero (zeroed) before being used to
Measure the resistance.

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