The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 19:3 (2010), pp.

539-548

Filipino school counselors’ explicit theory

of counseling: An examination of salience
Laramie R. Tolentino
De La Salle University, Philippines
laramie.tolentino@dlsu.edu.ph

In line with the central aim of promoting an in-depth understanding of counselor application
of theory to practice, this qualitative study described school counselors’ articulation and use of
personal explicit theories of counseling. Ten registered and practicing Filipino school counselors
were interviewed and requested to analyze a vignette using their reported theoretical orientation/s
as a guiding framework. Each interview transcript and written case analysis was carefully analyzed
using Bordens and Abott’s (2005) content analysis method and Hill et al.’s (2005) consensual cross
analysis method. Results showed an evident general valuing for an explicit theory of counseling.
Moreover, the school counselors predominantly preferred a combined orientation approach when
applying their personal counseling theory. However, comparison of the self-report ratings and
external consensual ratings of the vignette-based case analysis exposed disparities between the
verbalized personal theory and its actual use in counseling. The findings were discussed in relation to
the existing literature on counselor theoretical orientations and implications for counseling practice
and research were suggested.

Keywords: explicit theory of counseling; theoretical orientation; school counselors

A counselor’s helping behavior is a product of integration of the counselor’s implicit theories

his/her personal counseling theory, which offers
a rationale that facilitates a better understanding
of counselor operation in a helping relationship.
Specifically, a counseling theory provides a
sound basis for creating clear-cut counseling
goals from which choice of intervention and
evaluation of outcomes are often based. It also
serves as a cognitive model from which problem
conceptualizations, application of counseling
techniques, and prediction of likely client change
are drawn (Hansen, Stevic, & Warner, 1982;
Neukrug, 2007). This cognitive model is the
about personality and explicit theory of counseling.
An explicit theory is also known as the counselor’s
theoretical orientation based on empirically-
tested and formal theories of counseling. The
various counseling orientations are summarized
by Ivey & Ivey (2007) into four major theoretical
forces namely: (a) psychodynamic-analytic, (b)
cognitive-behavioral, (c) existential-humanistic,
and (d) multicultural counseling orientations.
Counselors’ choice and adherence to a specific
explicit theory is influenced by how well the formal
proposition matches their implicit theories about

Copyright © 2010 De La Salle University, Philippines

540 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
personality and development (Najavits, 1997).
Local findings reveal that majority of Filipino
counselors are significantly influenced by theories
they were exposed to, which are mostly from the
Western perspective. Few claim that they are using
a personally-developed approach (Villar, 1997). In
particular, the nondirective humanistic theoretical
orientation is typically chosen by Filipino
counselors (Salazar-Clemeña, 1993). Conversely,
recent literature shows an emerging popularity
of empirically-based counseling approaches as
a primary treatment choice among counselors.
Specifically, the cognitive behavioral orientation
is highly preferred because of its practical and
structured approach to help clients (Krehbiel,
2009). Seligman (2001) and Auger (2004)
identify additional factors that builds the personal
style of a counselor, these are: (a) professional
interest and ideas that evolved from acquisition
of professional experience, (b) clarification of
preferred orientation as they develop counseling
skills, (c) emphasis in graduate training, (d)
modeling by professors, (e) treatment systems
advocated by internship sites or institutions where
they were first employed, (f) type of clients they
deal with, and (g) the counselor’s personality and
worldviews. Counselor beliefs that are formed by
these contributory factors are authenticated by
first hand experiences and observations. Personal
beliefs and observations affirm counselors’
implicit beliefs about counseling and strengthen its
congruence with explicit theories of counseling.
Successful integration of personal counseling
theory to practice is found to be positively related
to therapeutic effectiveness (Nugent, 1994). For
this reason, a true fit of a counseling theory can
only be determined when a counselor tries to
practice what he/she claims to believe. However,
actual practice also exposes discrepancies
between counselor beliefs and actions. In a
recent research that explored clinician’s use of
theory in practice, disparities were found between
clinician’s construction of therapy and actual
practice (Brook, 2005). Similar local studies
illustrate further discrepancies between Filipino
counselors’ reported personal counseling theory
VOL. 19 NO. 3
and actual practice (Salazar-Clemeña, 1993). For
instance, responses gathered in a survey reveal
that self-report perceptions may not always
be demonstrated in actual counseling (Villar,
1997). Likewise, counseling administrators
rate the use of personal counseling orientations
as necessary but occasionally demonstrated
by school counselors (Pabiton, 2005). These
current findings present a problem that warrants
immediate attention given that lack of congruence
between theory and practice will likely jeopardize
any counseling relationship (Schmidt, 1994).
Above all, groundless practice of counseling
will result to choosing interventions haphazardly
which will produce harmful outcomes that will
also lead to career crisis or burnout (Fear and
Woolfe, 1999).
A personal counseling theory therefore
provides the vision, clarity, focus, and structure
that practitioners need in face of chaos (McLeod,
2003; Villar, 1997). Consequently, the articulation
of a personal counseling theory as a basis for
practice is repeatedly accentuated as one of the
essential counselor competencies by international
professional associations (Association of
Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers
[APPI], 2002; Association for Specialists in Group
Work [ASGW], 1998) and is recognized as an
important component of counselor professional
development (Kaslow, 2004). It is also cited as
one of the best practices under the responsive
systems support component of the Connecticut
Comprehensive School Counseling Program
(2001), even as the United States National
Association for College Admission Counseling
[NACC] (2000) highlighted its role in promoting
maximum service effectiveness. Local literature
likewise affirms counselors’ awareness of the
importance of developing and using a personal
counseling theory to maximize counseling efficacy
(Salazar-Clemeña, 1993). Correspondingly,
the Philippine guidance curriculum and syllabi
identify the development of a personal counseling
theory as one of the basic course requirements in
counselor graduate programs. Being reflective and
having self-knowledge are considered important
EXPLICIT THEORY OF COUNSELING
characteristics of a successful practitioner (Ivey
& Ivey, 2007). Hence, a competent counselor
is a skilled professional who is able to display
a functional knowledge of his/her personal
counseling theory.
Counselors’ personal counseling theories are
rarely examined despite the evidences that support
its substantial influence to practice. In particular,
very few local studies are conducted to further
examine counselor development and use of theory.
Most of these pioneer local researches (Salazar-
Clemeña, 1993; Villar, 1997) have done more
than ten years ago. Several developments have
occurred in the field of counseling. In particular,
the Guidance and Counseling Law is recently
enacted which facilitates the professionalization
of counseling in the Philippines. As a result,
the demographics of Filipino school counselors
have also changed. It is for this reason that the
researcher strongly believes that it is about
time to fill the gaps and to further examine
again Filipino school counselors’ development
and use of theory. The present study seeks to
provide information that will aid professional
boards, organizations, and counselor education
institutions in reviewing the adequacy of
existing local competencies and standards that
supports the development and articulation of
personal counseling theories and whether these
competencies and standards are clearly reflected
in the training, supervision, and evaluation of
counselors. It also seeks to facilitate the creation
of a local model of best practices in counseling
that will steer the creation of new approaches
that will promote professional development. In
terms of methodology, this study addresses the
need to develop multiple assessment tools that
measure the complex belief systems of counselors
(Najavits, 1997). The use of supplementary
researcher-assisted instruments in this study such
as the vignettes and rubrics aim to encourage
other researchers to utilize creative approaches to
obtain richer and valid data. Therefore to aid in an
increased understanding of personal counseling
theories and offer suggestion for further research,
the present study specifically looks into the
TOLENTINO, L. R. 541
explicit theories of counseling of registered and
practicing Filipino counselors.
Method
Participants
A purposive sampling method was used to
obtain a representative sample of the target
population, that is, Filipino registered and
practicing guidance counselors. The sample size
was determined based on informational needs
and the general inclusion criteria set for the
selection of respondents, to wit: (a) that they are
Filipino citizens, (b) are registered counselors
and have obtained their counseling professional
license either through board examination or
exemption, (c) have at least enrolled in a Masters
in Guidance and Counseling program or other
equivalent postgraduate programs, and (d) have
completed a course on Counseling Theories
and Techniques. Ten registered counselors from
various educational institutions in Metro Manila,
Philippines participated in the study. The average
age of the respondents was 34.4 (SD = 5.31). They
also represented seven local universities offering
counselor education programs. It was from these
institutions that they received postgraduate
education and training in counseling. Seven out
of the ten selected respondents have completed
a Master’s degree either in Counseling or other
related disciplines. All of them were members
of professional counselor organizations. Lastly,
all participants are currently practicing as
school counselors with more than five years of
counseling-related experience.
Design
This study employed a qualitative and
descriptive design to extensively explore the
salience of explicit theories of counseling among
Filipino counselors. Given the lack of research
data about the constructs of interest, the researcher
chose a qualitative approach and an idiographic
mode of inquiry for an in-depth examination
of counselor personal explicit theories. Firstly,
542 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
the nature counselors’ explicit theory and its
perceived value were explored through individual
interviews. It was followed by a vignette-based
case analysis task that sought to validate the
consistent application of the reported theoretical
orientation. The information gathered from these
two phases was integrated to determine common
themes that describe the nature, perceived value,
and use of the present sample’s explicit theories.
Finally, the congruence between theory and
actual case analysis were also examined through
consensual rating.
Instruments
Semi-structured Interview Guide. The
interview guide was the primary tool utilized
during the individual face-to-face interview. The
instrument focused on the nature and perceived
value of the counselor’s theoretical orientation.
These pre-determined questions were opened
for modification by the researcher during the
interview depending on the quality and adequacy
of the responses and the need for further probing
of relevant answers.
Case Analysis Vignette. The vignette described
an individual counseling case of a male college
freshman who had adjustment problems in
school. The instrument primarily functions as a
stimulus for the written case analysis task. Given
the hypothetical scenario, respondents were
instructed to describe how a typical counseling
would proceed using their explicit theory of
counseling.
Case Analysis Reflection Guide. The case
analysis reflection guide was a follow-up
instrument that comes with the vignette. It was
composed of four open-ended questions related
to (a) problem conceptualization, (b) counseling
goals, and (c) counseling techniques.
Case Analysis Scoring Rubric. The case
analysis rubric was a researcher-made scoring
tool that primarily measured the degree of clarity
and congruence between the counselor’s explicit
theory of counseling and actual case analysis. It
had three areas of assessment namely, (a) problem
conceptualization, (b) counseling goals, and (c)
VOL. 19 NO. 3
counseling techniques. These scoring criteria,
which were also indicated in the reflection guide,
were based on the key stages of counseling and
the basic counselor competencies. Moreover,
the rubric had four levels of assessment which
ranged from absent to complete articulation
of the abovementioned areas. Each level had a
corresponding numerical score, of which absent
or failure to articulate a clear and consistent case
analysis received a score of one (1) or two (2)
for minimal, three (3) for partial, and four (4)
for complete articulation. This scoring method
applied to all areas.
Procedure
Prior to administration, external validation and
pilot testing of all the researcher-made instruments
was conducted. A PhD holder in Counseling
Psychology acted as external rater, while two
volunteer registered counselors participated in
the pilot testing. Feedback obtained from both
procedures was utilized to further improve the
quality and appropriateness of the research
instruments and protocol.
Potential respondents were contacted and
invited to participate in the study. A formal letter
of consent clarifying the purpose of the study and
explaining what participation entails was sent to
those who expressed willingness to participate.
Actual data gathering involved the
administration of the respondent information
sheet to obtain demographic data, individual
interview, and the conduct of the vignette-based
case analysis task. The first part of the interview
focused on the counselor’s general beliefs and
typical conduct of counseling. Questions posted
during this part sought to determine the nature of
explicit theories.Subsequently, each respondent
received a vignette worksheet for analysis. Each
participant was instructed to describe how he/she
would intend to conduct counseling to address the
problem. A case analysis reflection guide was also
provided to structure the written output.
Lastly, the case analysis task was followed by
the second part of the interview which focused
on counselor’s perceived value of an explicit
EXPLICIT THEORY OF COUNSELING
theory of counseling. Moreover, specific questions
related to their counseling orientation were
asked after the vignette task so as to not prime or
influence the content of their case analysis. All the
interview sessions were documented using a voice
recorder from which the verbatim transcriptions
for data analysis were produced. Confidentiality
was ensured through proper safe-keeping and
labeling of recordings.
The verbatim transcripts were analyzed
using Bordens and Abott’s (2005) content
analysis method and the case analysis using
Hill, Thompson, Hess, Knox, Williams, and
Ladany’s (2005) consensual qualitative research
cross analysis method. A final table of thematic
categories per research questions was constructed
after analyzing all transcripts and reaching
theoretical saturation, which was the point at
which all analytical categories accounted for
each data and described the complexity of the
respondents’ personal philosophies (Marrow,
2007). Thereafter, verbatim comments for
each thematic category and brief description
of the respondents were included to enrich the
understanding of the presented qualitative data.
To ensure credibility of data analysis and as
suggested by Hill et.al (2005), the researcher
sought the assistance of two external raters.
The external raters underwent orientation and
training prior to actual engagement in data
analysis. The orientation, training, and use of
a rubric were steps taken to ensure reliability.
Using the scoring rubric, a numerical rating was
given for each area depending on the degree
of clarity and congruence. A rating of one (1)
indicated lack of clarity and congruence; two (2).
minimal attempt; three (3), partial; and four (4),
complete and consistent articulation of counseling
philosophy. Then, a meeting was set to discuss the
researcher and external rater’s individual ratings
as well as to clarify one another’s points of view
until consensus was reached for the final rating.
Lastly, a final table was produced to describe
and summarize the agreed upon ratings, and to
illustrate the salience of the present sample’s
explicit theories of counseling.
TOLENTINO, L. R. 543
Results
Nature of explicit theory
The present findings reveal that counselor
adherence to counseling theories varies. Combined
theoretical orientations emerged as a general
category while adherence to a single orientation
appeared to be a rare thematic category. From the
sample, eight out of 10 of the counselors reported
using more than one theoretical orientation
while only a few adhered to a single orientation.
Moreover, seven out of 10 of the counselors
adhered to either the cognitive behavioral approach
or rational-emotive-behavioral approach, which
utilized a more direct style of helping.
Combined Theoretical Orientation. This
general category described the preference for
more than one theoretical orientation. The samples
adhered to a theoretical orientation tended to vary
depending on the nature of a case and the type
of population one serves. One of the counselors
explained the reason for her preference to combine
approaches. “I can’t help but say that it depends on
the case or need of the client because people are
complex. Since they are complex, it is necessary
for counseling to be adaptive.”
In addition, the counselors also emphasized
practicality when choosing an orientation. A
theoretical orientation’s ease of use is considered
an important characteristic. “There are some
theories that you are comfortable with and that
you believe in. Then, you adapt it with other
theory.”
Single Theoretical Orientation. This rare
category described the few respondents who
opted to adhere to a single theoretical orientation.
Preference for an orientation was based on its
compatibility with personal beliefs, characteristics,
and observations.
Perceived value of explicit theory
The self-report quantitative ratings showed
that nine out of 10 of the respondents rated
having a personal counseling theory as very
important ( = 4.80, SD = 0.42). The reasons they
cited in support of their rating were summarized
544 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 19 NO. 3

in Table 1. The most typical thematic category
was the conception of a counseling philosophy
as source of direction, while the second category
which was a reflection of identity emerged to
be variant. Lastly, the category of a model of
counseling appeared to be rare.
In the most typical category, a counseling
philosophy was characterized as an aid that
directs the helping process and provides structure
to ensure systematic delivery of counseling
interventions. Other common metaphors used by
the respondents in relation to this category were
guiding star, pilot’s flight plan, and roadmap.
Moreover, a more personal feature was shown in
the variant category which conceived a counseling
philosophy as a reflection of the counselor’s
identity. In this category, a counseling philosophy
was seen as an aid to further define a counselor’s
professional identity and credibility. Finally,
the rare category showed the present sample’s
conception of a counseling philosophy as a guide
which enabled the establishment of standards that
are useful benchmarks for counseling. There was
an evident recognition of the value of having a
personal counseling theory and was associated
with various factors that enhanced helping
effectiveness of school counselors.
Use of explicit theory in counseling
The responses obtained from the interview
revealed that all the counselors acknowledged
the use of a guiding framework when counseling,
which they also considered as their personal
counseling theory. However, the individual ratings
showed that very few counselors obtained ratings
of complete congruence and only some were able
to demonstrate consistency of adherence to their
reported orientation in the case analysis task. A
summary of the reported theoretical orientation
and overall consensual case analysis ratings were
presented in Table 2. The mean ratings shown were
based on the obtained averaged sum of numerical
consensual ratings. The overall consensual ratings
ranged from 1.33 to 4.00 (M = 2.03, SD = 0.95).
Specifically, half of the respondents obtained
minimal ratings of congruence and a few obtained
absence of congruence. Only a minority obtained
high ratings or complete congruence. The current
findings revealed a lack of alignment between the
reported counseling philosophy and evaluated
case analysis. These findings contradicted the self-
report ratings which were presented in Table 3.
The self-report ratings ranged from 2.00 to
4.00, with 4.00 being the highest rating given by
the respondents (M = 3.67, SD = 0.62). It appeared

Table 1
Practitioners’ perceived value of a personal counseling philosophy

Thematic Categories Description Occurrence

Source of Direction A counseling philosophy directs the helping Typical

process and ensures a systematic delivery
of interventions.

Reflection of Identity A counseling philosophy reflects the Variant

counselor’s personality and beliefs. It also
provides identity for counselors to determine
the kind of therapy or style of helping one uses.

Model of Counseling A counseling philosophy is a guide Rare

that enables the counselor to establish
standards that provides a basis for practice.
EXPLICIT THEORY OF COUNSELING TOLENTINO, L. R. 545

Table 2
Summary of present sample’s reported theoretical orientation and overall vignette-based case analysis
consensual rating

Theoretical Orientation Overall Consensual Case Analysis Rating

Mean SD Verbal Interpretation

Reality, CBT 3.67 0.58 Complete

CBT, REBT 2.00 0.00 Minimal
Holistic and Solution-Focused 1.33 0.58 Absent
Humanistic, CBT and REBT 1.00 0.00 Absent
Cognitive Behavioral Approach 4.00 0.00 Complete
CBT and Sports Therapy 2.00 1.00 Minimal

Humanistic and Feminist 1.67 0.58 Minimal
Humanistic Approach 1.67 1.15 Minimal
REBT and Humanistic 1.67 1.15 Minimal

Table 3
Summary of present sample’s reported theoretical orientation and self-report rating of consistency of
adherence

Theoretical Orientation Self-Report Rating of Consistency of Adherence

Scale of 1 – 5 Verbal Interpretation

Reality, CBT 4.00 Frequently Consistent

CBT, REBT 4.00 Frequently Consistent
Holistic and Solution-Focused 2.00 Seldom Consistent
Humanistic, CBT and REBT 4.00 Frequently Consistent
Cognitive Behavioral Approach 4.00 Frequently Consistent
CBT and Sports Therapy 3.00 Occasionally Consistent
Humanistic and Feminist 4.00 Frequently Consistent
Humanistic Approach 4.00 Frequently Consistent
REBT and Humanistic 3.00 Occasionally Consistent
REBT, Reality, and Gestalt 3.00 Occasionally Consistent

that the present sample generally perceived the Discussion

consistency of their adherence as frequent or high,
with 4.00 being the most commonly occurring
self-report rating. On the other hand, none of the
respondents reported consistent adherence to their
theoretical orientation at all times.
The present study shows that the selected
Filipino registered school counselors have a clear
understanding of an explicit counseling theory’s
value in practice. In particular, the present sample
546 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
conceives a counseling philosophy as a source of
direction, reflection of professional identity, and
as a model of counseling. All of these correspond
with key descriptions identified in related
literatures on personal counseling theories (Engels
& Dameron, 1990; Hansen, Stevic, & Warner,
1982; Kaslow, 2004).
The further examination done on the nature
of the present sample’s explicit theory reveals
combined orientations as an evident general
preference. This preference is related to the
counselors’ implicit belief that individuals are
unique, hence, counseling must be adaptive to
unique client traits and needs. Related literature
provides various reasons that explains this
emerging preference among counselors. One is
how the emergence of wide-variety of theories
challenge counselors to borrow and combine ideas
(Nugent,1994). Another is counselor perception
related to adaptability (Villar, 1997), which is
also the primary reason determined by most of
the respondents.
However, apparent awareness seems to
not warrant functional application and clear
articulation of personal explicit theory. This is
further supported when respondents were asked
to do actual case analysis and to describe how
their explicit theory is reflected in their practice.
Initially, the self-report ratings show relatively
higher ratings of consistency of adherence to their
theoretical orientation. The self-report ratings
reflect a generally higher perception of consistency
of adherence to reported counseling philosophies,
with 4.00 being the most frequently occurring
rating. On the contrary, rubric-based consensual
ratings further reveal the discrepancy and lack
of congruence between theory and practice.
Closer analysis of the various areas of assessment
reveal minimal attempt to conceptualize and set
counseling goals that are consistently congruent
with their reported counseling orientation. On
the other hand, the counselors attain partial
to complete ratings in the area of counseling
techniques. There seems to be an apparent
difference in efficacy between ability to choose
counseling techniques and conceptualize cases.
VOL. 19 NO. 3
The results obtained from the various sources
of data further affirm similar studies’ findings
of discrepancies between counselor beliefs and
actions (Brook, 2005; Pabiton, 2005; Salazar-
Clemeña, 1993, Villar, 1997). On the other hand,
both the self-report ratings and consensual ratings
coincide with the current study’s findings on the
nature of the present sample’s personal counseling
philosophies. In particular, it corresponds with
the general preference to combine theoretical
orientations.
Taken as a whole, there seems to be a lack
of systematic integration of borrowed and
combined counseling approaches which leads to
incongruence between theory and actual practice.
The overall findings suggest that there is still a
gap in terms of counselors’ functional knowledge
of how their explicit theory of counseling applies
to practice. The findings provide counselor
educators, supervisors, practitioners who uphold
professional standards, current and aspiring
counselors, with information concerning the
present use and significance of explicit theories
among selected Filipino registered counselors. In
line with the findings and conclusions of this study,
future research is needed to validate the salience
of personal counseling theories among counselors,
specifically, to further explore counselors’
adherence towards eclecticism. Likewise, it is
necessary to examine carefully the factors related
to the discovered gap between theory and practice.
Finally, professional organizations and institutions
are encouraged to provide continuing education
programs that will highlight the importance of
developing and using personal counseling theories
in practice.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by a grant from
the Philippine Commission on Higher Education
and the College of Education Research Council
of De La Salle University, Manila. I thank Dr.
Jose Alberto Reyes, Dr. Imelda Villar, Dr. Lucille
Montes, and Dr. John Addy Garcia for their
EXPLICIT THEORY OF COUNSELING
valuable suggestions and Dr. Guadalupe Salanga,
Nino Jose Mateo, Abigael Abug, and Lemuel
Toledano for their research assistance.
References
Association for Specialists in Group Work. (1998).
Best practice guidelines. Retrieved from www.
asgw.org/PDF/Best_Practices.pdf
Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and
Internship Centers. (2002). Competencies:
F u t u re d i re c t i o n s i n e d u c a t i o n a n d
credentialing in professional psychology.
Cited in Brear, P., Dorrian, J., & Luscri,
G. (2008). Preparing our future counseling
professionals: Gatekeeping and the implication
for research. Counseling and Psychotherapy
Research: Linking research with practice. 8
(2), 93-101.
Auger, R. (2004). What we don’t know can
hurt us: Mental health counselors’ implicit
assumptions about human nature. Journal of
Mental Health Counseling, 26 (1),13-24.
Bordens, K., & Abbott, B. (2005). Research
design and methods: A process approach (6th
ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Brook, J. (2005). Clinician use of theory
and technique when working with women
affected by alcohol and other drug abuse: An
exploratory analysis. Retrieved from ProQuest
Digital Dissertations (AAT 3196032).
Engels, D. & Dameron, J. (1990). The professional
counselor: Competencies, performance
guidelines, and assessment (2nd ed). Alexandria,
VA: American Association for Counseling and
Development.
Fear, R. & Woolfe, R. (1999). The personal
and professional development of the
counselor: The relationship between personal
philosophy and theoretical orientation.
Counseling Psychology Quarterly. 12 (3),
253-262.
Hansen, J., Stevic, R., & Warner, R. (1982).
Counseling: theory and process (3 rd ed).
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
TOLENTINO, L. R. 547
Hill, C., Thompson, B., Hess, S., Knox, S.,
Williams, E., & Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual
qualitative research: An update. Journal of
Counseling Psychology. 52 (2), 196-205.
Ivey, A. & Ivey, M. (2007). Intentional
interviewing and counseling: Facilitating
client development in a multicultural society.
Belmont, CA: Thomson/Brooks/Cole.
Kaslow, N. (2004). Competencies in professional
psychology. American Psychologist, 59 (8),
774-78.
Krehbiel, J. (2009). The emerging popularity of
cognitive-behavioral therapy. Retrieved last
from http://www.familyresource.com/health/
mental-health/the-emerging-popularity-of-
cognitive-behavioral-therapy
Marrow, S. (2007). Qualitative research in
counseling psychology: Conceptual
foundations. The Counseling Psychologist.
35 (2), 209-235.
McLeod, J. (2003). An introduction to counseling
(3rd ed). Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Najavits, L. (1997). Psychotherapist’s implicit
theories of therapy. Journal of Psychotherapy
Integration. 7 (1), 1-16.
National Association for College Admission
Counseling (2000). Statement on Counselor
Competencies. Retrieved from http://
www.nacacnet.org/AboutNACAC/Policies/
Documents/CounselorCompetencies.pdf
Neukrug, E. (2007). The world of the counselor:
An introduction to the counseling profession
(3 rd ed). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/
Cole.
Nugent, F. (1994). An introduction to the profession
of counseling. New York, NY: Merill.
Pabiton, C. (2005). School counselor competencies
and job performance as perceived by counseling
administrators. The Philippine Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 7(1), 1-20.
Salazar-Clemeña, R. (1993). Counseling
psychology in the Philippines: Research and
practice (2nd ed). Manila, Philippines: De La
Salle University Press.
Seligman, L. (2001). Systems, strategies, and
skills of counseling and psychotherapy.
548 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-
Hall.
Schmidt, J. (1994). Counselor intentionality
and effective helping An introduction to the
profession of counseling. Retrieved from
ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and
Student Services Greensboro NC http://
www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/helping.htm
(ED378461)
The Connecticut School Counselor Association,
The Connecticut Association for Counselor
VOL. 19 NO. 3
Education and Supervision, & The Connecticut
State Department of Education. (2001). Best
practices for school counseling in Connecticut:
Counselor competencies, model job description,
and evaluation guidelines Retrieved from
Education Resources Information Center
http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED469352.pdf
(ED469352)
Villar, I. (1997). Western approaches to counseling
in the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: De La
Salle University Press.