Willi-Hans Steeb, Yorick Hardy - Problems & Solutions in Quantum Computing & Quantum Information-World Scientific Publishing Company (2004) PDF

PROBLEMS ti
SOLUTIONS IN
QUANTUM COMPUTING &
QUANTUM INFORMATION
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PROBLEMS 8
SOLUTIONS IN
QUANTUM COMPUTING &
QUANTUM INFORMATION
Willi-Hans Steeb
Yorick Hardy
Rand Afrikaans University, South Africa
r pWorld Scientific
N E W JERSEY * LONDON * SINGAPORE * B E l J l N G SHANGHAI HONG KONG * TAIPEI - CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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British Library Cataloguing-in-PublicationData

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN QUANTUM COMPUTING

AND QUANTUM INFORMATION
Copyright 0 2004 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Re. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof; may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,USA. In this case permission to
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ISBN 981-238-789-7
ISBN 981-238-790-0
(pbk)
Printed in Singapore.
Preface
The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in quantum

computing and quantum information together with their detailed solutions
which will prove to be valuable to graduate students as well as to research
workers in these fields. All the important concepts and topics such as quan-
tum gates and quantum circuits, entanglement, teleportation, Bell states,
Bell inequality, Schmidt decomposition, quantum Fourier transform, magic
gate, von Neumann entropy, quantum cryptography, quantum error correc-
tion, coherent states, squeezed states, POVM measurement, beam splitter
and Kerr Hamilton operator are included. The topics range in difficulty
from elementary to advanced. Almost all problems are solved in detail and
most of the problems are self-contained. All relevant definitions are given.
Students can learn important principles and strategies required for problem
solving. Teachers will also find this text useful as a supplement, since im-
portant concepts and techniques are developed in the problems. The book
can also be used as a text or a supplement for linear and multilinear algebra
or matrix theory. The material was tested in our lectures given around the
world.
Any useful suggestions and comments are welcome.
The International School for Scientific Computing (ISSC) provides certifi-

cate courses for this subject. Please contact the authors if you want to do
this course.
e-mail addresses of the authors:

steeb-wh@yahoo.com
whsQna.rau.ac.za
YorickHardyQyahoo.com
yhaQna.rau.ac.za
Home pages of the authors:
http://issc.rau.ac.zaa
http://zeus.rau.ac.zaa
V
Contents
I Finite-Dimensional Hilbert Spaces

1 Qubits 3
2 Kronecker Product and Tensor Product 14
3 Matrix Properties 24
4 Density Operators 49
5 Partial Trace 58
6 Unitary Transforms and Quantum Gates 66
7 Measurement 88
8 Entanglement 98
9 Teleportation 132
10 Cloning 141
11 Quantum Algorithms 143
12 Quantum Error Correction 158
13 Quantum Cryptography 162
I1 Infinite-Dimensional Hilbert Spaces

14 Harmonic Oscillator and Bose Operators 169
15 Coherent States 193
16 Squeezed States 205
vii
viii Contents
17 Entanglement 212
18 Teleportation 225
19 Swapping and Cloning 227
20 Hamilton Operators 232
Bibliography 241
Index 247
Notation
0 empty set
N natural numbers
Z integers
Q rational numbers
R real numbers
R+ nonnegative real numbers
C complex numbers
R" n-dimensional Euclidian space
C" n-dimensional complex linear space
Fl Hilbert space
i
%Z
a
real part of the complex number z
3.2 imaginary part of the complex number z
AcB subset A of set B
AnB the intersection of the sets A and B
AUB the union of the sets A and B
f 09 composition of two mappings (f o g)(z) = f (g(z))
t time variable
X column vector in C"
XT transpose of x (row vector)
II . II norm
scalar product (inner product) in C"
scalar product in Hilbert space
X X Y vector product
A@B Kronecker product of matrices A and B
f @g tensor product of elements f and g
of Hilbert spaces
det(A) determinant of a square matrix A
tr(4 trace of a square matrix A
rank(A) rank of matrix A
AT
-
transpose of matrix A
A conjugate of matrix A
A* conjugate transpose of matrix A
ix
X Notation
At conjugate transpose of matrix A

(notation used in physics)
In n x n unit matrix
I unit operator
[A,B] := AB - B A commutator for square matrices A and B
[A,B]+:= AB + BA anticommutator for square matrices A and B
ajk Kronecker delta with b j k = 1 for j = k
and bj, = 0 for j # k
eigenvalue
real parameter
H Hamilton function
Hamilton operator
arbitrary orthonormal basis for C"
hl27r with h the Planck constant
frequency
Bose annihilation and creation operators
coherent state
The Pauli spin matrices are used extensively in the book. They are given
bY
0 1 0 -i 1 0
In some cases we will also use 01, ~2 and c ~ 3to denote G~ and uz .
We will also use the so-called Dirac notation. Let 'FI be a Hilbert space and
'H* be the dual space endowed with a multiplication law of the form
( c , 4) = c4
where c E C and E 'H. The inner product can be viewed as a bilinear

form (duality)
(.I.) : 'FI*x'FI+c
such that the linear maps
(41 : + -+ (4l+), ( . I : 'FI* + 'FI'
I+) : 4 4 (4l+), 1 . ) : 'FI + 'FI:

where prime denotes the space of linear continuous functionals on the cor-
responding space, are monomorphisms. The vectors (41 and I+) are called
bra and ket vectors, respectively. The ket vector 14) is uniquely determined
by a vector 4 E X ,therefore we can write 14) E H.
Problems and Solutions xi
The concept of a Hilbert space will be used throughout the book. A Halbert
space is a set, 7-i of elements, or vectors, (f,g, h, . . .) which satisfies the
following conditions (1)-(5).
(1) If f and g belong to 'H, then there is a unique element of 3-1, denoted
+
by f g, the operation of addition (+) being invertible, commutative and
associative.
(2) If c is a complex number, then for any f in 'H, there is an element cf of

'H; and the multiplication of vectors by complex numbers thereby defined
satisfies the distributive conditions
+ +
c ( f 9) = cf cg, +
(c1 c2)f = C l f + c2f.
(3) Hilbert spaces 'H possess a zero element, 0, characterized by the property
that
O+f=f
for all vectors f in 7-1.
(4)For each pair of vectors f, g in 'H, there is a complex number (flg),

termed the inner product or scalar product, of f with g, such that
-
(fld = (glf)
(fig + h ) = (f 19) + (flh)
(f lcg) = c(f 19)
and
(flf) 2 0 .
Equality in the last formula occurs only iff = 0. The scalar product defines
the norm = (flf)'/2.
(5) If { fn } is a sequence in 'H satisfying the Cauchy condition that

llfm - fnll 0
+
as m and n tend independently to infinity, then there is a unique element

f of 7-l such that [Ifn - f l l + 0 as n 4 co.
Let B = { 4n : n E I } be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space 'H. I

is the countable index set. Then
Part I
Finite-Dimensional
Hilbert Spaces
Chapter 1
Qubits
A single qubit is a two-state system, such as a two-level atom. The states

(kets) Ih) and) . 1 of the horizontal and vertical polarization of a photon can
also be considered as a two-state system. Another example is the relative
phase and intensity of a single photon in two arms of an interferometer.
The underlying Hilbert space for the qubit is C2. An arbitrary orthonormal
basis for C' is denoted by { lo), 11)}. The classical boolean states, 0 and
1, can be represented by a fixed pair of orthonormal states of the qubit.
Problem 1. We denote two orthonormal states of a single qubit as
where
(010) = (111) = 1, (011) = (110) = 0 .
Any state of this system can be written as a superposition (linear combina-
tion of the states)
aIO)+PI1), l~I2+IPl2=LQ,PEC.
Find a parameter representation (i) if the underlying field is the set of real
numbers (ii) if the underlying field is the set of complex numbers.
Solution 1. (i) Using cose, sine and the identity

cos2 e + sin' e = 1
for all 6 E R we have
3
4 Problems and Solutions
(ii) We have as a representation
where q5 E R and ei4e-ad = 1.
Problem 2. Consider the normalized states

cos 81 cos 8 2
Find the condition on 81 and 82 such that
cos 81 cos 82
(sins,> + (sins?)
is normalized.
Solution 2. From the condition that the vector

o1 + cos e2
( cos
sin81 + sin82 )
is normalized it follows that
(sin81 + + (cosdl + ~ 0 ~ = 81 . ~ ) ~
Thus we have
1
sin f ? sin
~ 82 + cos O1 cos O2 = --
2
.
It follows that
1
cos(81 - 82) = -- .
2
Therefore, O1 - 82 = 2 ~ / 3or - e2 = 4r/3.
Problem 3. Let {lo), 11)) be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space

R2. Let
A := lO){Ol + 11)(11.
Consider the three cases
Qubits 5
Find the matrix representation of A in these bases.
Solution 3. We find
1 0 0 0 1 0
(9 A=(0 o)+(o 1)=(0 1)
(ii) A = -1( 1 1
2 1 1
)+:( -1 -‘>=(o
1 1 10 )
cos2 e sin20 - cos 6 sin 0
(iii) A =
cos 0 sin 8 - cos 0 sin 6 C O S ~8
For all three cases

A = 12
where 1 2 is the 2 x 2 unit matrix. Obviously, the third case contains the
first two as special cases.
Problem 4. Let {lo), 11)) be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space

C2. The NOT operation (unitary operator) is defined as
(i) Find the unitary operator U N ~ which

T implements the NOT operation
with respect to the basis {lo), ll)}.
(ii) Let
Find the matrix representation of U N ~ for

T this basis.
(iii) Let
Find the matrix representation of U N ~ for

T this basis.
Solution 4. (i) Obviously,
since (010) = (111) = 1 and (011) = (1lO)= 0.

(ii) For the standard basis we find
(iii) For the Hadamard basis we find
Thus we see that the respective matrix representations for the two bases
are different.
Problem 5 . The Walsh-Hadamard transform is a 1-qubit operation, de-

noted by H , and performs the following transform
(i) Find the unitary operator U H which implements H with respect to the
basis { lo), 11)}.
(ii) Find the inverse of this operator.
(iii) Let
Find the matrix representation of UH for this basis.
Find the matrix representation of UH for this basis.
Solution 5 . (i) Obviously,
(ii) The operator U , is unitary and the inverse is given by Uk’ = U& = U H ,
where * denotes the adjoint.
(iii) For the standard basis we find
(iv) For the Hadamard basis we find

..=-(I 1 1 ) .
Jz 1 -1
Qubits 7
We see that the matrix representations for each of the two bases are the
same.
Problem 6. Consider the Hilbert space C 2 and the linear operator (2 x 2

matrix)
where n := ( n l 1 n 2 , n 3 )(nj E R) is a unit vector, i.e.,

2 + n 22 + n i = 1.
n1
Here 6 l 1 6 2 , a3 are the Paula matrices

01=(; ;), 6 2 = ( i0 -io ) l u3=( 1
0
0
-1
)
and 12 is the 2 x 2 unit matrix.
(i) Describe the property of II(n), i.e., find IIt(n), tr(II(n)) and I12(n).
(ii) Find the vector
ea4 cos 6
'(n) sine ( . )
Discuss.
Solution 6. (i) For the Pauli matrices we have
6; = u1, 6; = 6 2 , 0; = u 3 .
Thus II(n) = n t ( n ) . Since
and the trace operation is linear, we obtain tr(II(n)) = 1. Since

2
6::= 0 2 = 6 32 = I2
and
[ O i l a2]+ = 0, [ U Z ,6 3 ] + = 0, [631 61]+ =0
where
[A,B ] + := AB +BA
denotes the anticommutator, the expression
simplifies to
3 3
1
n2(n)= 412
1
+ 2 C njuj + -4 C n31~. 1
j=1 j=1
+ + ng = 1 we obtain n2(n)= H(n).

Using n: ng
(ii) We find
+ +
(1 n3)ei4 cos 8 (nl - in2)sin 0
+
(nl in2)ei4cos 6 (1 - n 3 )sin 8 +
Problem 7. The qubit trine is defined by the following states
where { lo), 11)} is an orthonormal basis set. Find
I W O 1G1)l2 7 I($l I$2) l2 1 I($2 I$o) l2 .
Solution 7. Using (010) = 1, (111)= 1 and (011) = 0 we find
Problem 8. The kets Ih) and) . 1 are states of horizontal and vertical
polarization, respectively. Consider the states
1
l@l)= -z(lh) + fib))
Give an interpretation of these states.
Solution 8. Since (hlh)= (vlw)= 1 and (vlh)= (hlw) = 0 we find

Qubits 9
Since the solution to cos(a) = -1/2 is given by Q = 120" or Q = 240' we

find that that the first three states ]$I), I&), I$lrg) correspond to states of
linear polarization separated by 120". We find
i
The states 141) and 142) correspond to elliptic polarization and the third
state (43)corresponds to linear polarization.
Problem 9. Let
= ( ei+ cos e
sin 6
where +,8E R.
(i) Find p := [+)(+I.
(ii) Find trp.
(iii) Find p 2 .
Solution 9. (i) Since
we obtain the 2 x 2 matrix
(ii) Since cos28 + sin28 = 1 we obtain from (i)

trp = 1.
(iii) We have
since
Problem 10. Given the Hamilton operator
H = fiwo, ,
(i) Find the solution
~ $ ( t )=) e-iAt/hl$(t = 0))

of the Schrodinger equation
d
=
with the initial conditions
(ii) Find and discuss the probability
I(Nt = o > l W ) l 2 .
(iii) The solution of the Heisenberg equation of motion
ifi-daz = [a2 HI (t)

9
dt
is given by
uZ(t)= eiEit/fiaze-iAt/fi
Calculate az(t).
(iv) Show that
Solution 10. (i) The solution of the Schrodinger equation is given by
I$(t)) = exp(-il;rt/fi)l$(t = 0)).
Since a
: = 1 2 we find
where U(t) is a unitary matrix. Thus
(ii) We find
I($(t = O)I$(t))l2 = cos2(wt).
(iii) Since
[az, 13= fiw[az,a,] = 2ifiway
[ay,B] = fw[ay,a,] = -2ifwa,

we obtain the system of matrix-valued differential equations
dUZ
- - - 2way(t)
dt
Qubits 11
da, = -2ua,(t)
dt
with cz(t= 0) = (T, and cy(t = 0) = uy. The solution of this system of
matrix-valued linear differential equations is given by
n Z ( t )= u, cos(2wt) + uy sin(2wt)
ay(t)= ( cos(2wt) - (T, sin(2wt) .
T ~
(iv) We find
($(t = O)l(T,(t)l$(t = 0)) = cos(2wt)
and
($(t)ln,I$(t)) = cos2(wt) - sin2(wt) = cos(2wt)
Problem 11. Consider a Mach-Zehnder interferometer in which the

beam pair spans a two-dimensional Hilbert space with orthonormal basis
{ lo), 11)}. The state vectors 10) and 11) can be considered as orthonormal
wave packets that move in two given directions defined by the geometry of
the interferometer. We may represent mirrors, beam splitters and relative
Up phase shifts by the unitary matrices
respectively. Consider the density matrix
Pin = lO)(Ol
where { lo), 11)} denotes the standard basis. Using this basis find
t t t t
Pout = UB UM UPUB Pin UB UpUMuB
Give an interpretation of the result.
Solution 11. Since
and
we obtain
1 +cos(x) isin()o
Pout =- -isin()o 1-cos(>o
This yields the intensity along 10) as
10: 1+ cos(x).
Thus the relative U p phase x could be observed in the output signal of the
interferometer.
Problem 12. Let {lo), 11))be an orthonormal basis in C2.

(i) Find
whered[A,B[ := AB – BAedenotes the commutator.

(ii) Calculate
(iii) Calculate
(iv) Calculate
(v) Calculate
(vi) Is
Solution 12. (i) We have
since (010) = (111)= 1 and (011) = (110) = 0. We see that the commutator
is nonzero.
(ii) Since (011) = (110) = 0 we find
(iii) Analogously
(iv) Analogously
Qubits 13
(v) Since
(lO)(ll + 11)(ol>2= 1 2
we obtain
= cosh(t)12 + sinh(t)(lO)(ll + Il)(Ol).

(vi) Clearly
Chapter 2
Kronecker Product and

Tensor Product
Let 3-11 and 3-12 be two Hilbert spaces and 3-1 be a third Hilbert space defined
in terms of 3-11 and 7 i 2 with the following specifications. For each pair of
vectors fl, f2 in 3-11, 3-12, respectively, there is a vector in 3-1 denoted by
f 1 @ f2 such that
The Hilbert space 3-1 consists of the linear combinations of the vectors fl@ f2
together with the strong limits of their Cauchy sequences. We term 3-1 the
tensor product of 3-11 and 3-12 and denote it by 3-11 @ 3-12. If A 1 and A 2 are
linear operators in 3-11 and 3-12, respectively, we define the operator A 1 @ A 2
in 3-11 8 3-12 by the formula
and &. Similarly we can define

A, 8 A 2 is called the tensor product of A 1
the tensor product of n Hilbert spaces. For the finite-dimensional Hilbert
spaces C" and R" the tensor product reduces to the Kronecker product.
Problem 1. Let A := ( a i j ) i j be an m x n matrix and B be an r x s

matrix. The Kronecker product of A and B is defined as the ( m.r ) x (n.s)
14
Kronecker Product and Tensor Product 15
matrix
allB al2B ... alnB
a2lB a22B ... annB
ARB:=
amlB am2B ...

Thus A @ B is an mr x ns matrix.
(i) Let
141) := (;) , 142) := (;) .

Thus { 141)~
1 4 2 ) } forms a basis in C 2 (the standard basis). Calculate
141) €3 I4d7 141) @ 1 4 2 ) €3 1$1)7 1 4 2 ) €3 1 4 2 )
and interpret the result.

(ii) Consider the Pauli matrices
.,:=(; ;)7
u,:=('0 -1
O ) .
Find u, €3 u, and u, €3 u, and discuss.
Solution 1. (i) We obtain
Thus we find the standard basis in C 4 from the standard basis in C 2 .

(ii) We obtain
gx@g,= (: : :
1 0 0
?l)
0
0 - 1 0 0
and
0 1 0
uz€3ux=(o 1 0 0 !l).
0 0 - 1 0
We note that u, €3 uz # u, @ ox.
Problem 2. Given the orthonormal basis
in the Hilbert space C2. Use this basis to find a basis in C4.
Solution 2. A basis in c4 is given by
since
where j, k, m, n = 1, 2.
Problem 3. A system of n-qubits represents a finite-dimensional Hilbert

space over the complex numbers of dimension 2n. A state I$) of the system
is a superposition of the basic states
In a short cut notation this state is written as

1
I+) = C ljlj2
cj1jZ...jn . . .j n ) .
jl J.2 1.. .,jn=o
Consider as a special case the state in the Hilbert space 'H = C4 (n = 2)
Can this state be written as a product state?
Solution 3. Yes, the state can be written as product state. We have
Problem 4. The single-bit Walsh-Hadamard transform is the unitary

map W given by
The n-bit Walsh-Hadamard transform W, is defined as
W, := W €3 W €3 . . . @ W (n-times) .
Consider n=2. Find
Solution 4. We have
Thus
Finally
Wz generates a linear combination of all states. This also applies to W,.
Problem 5. Let A be an m x m matrix and B be an n x n matrix. The

underlying field is C. Let Im,I, be the m x m and n x n unit matrix,
respectively.
(i) Show that
tr(A €3 B ) = tr(A)tr(B) .
(ii) Show that
tr(A €3 I, + I, 8 B ) = ntr(A) + rntr(B) .
Solution 5. (i) The Kronecker product of the matrices A := ( u i j ) i j and

B := ( b k l ) k l is defined in problem 1. Thus
m n
tr(A 8 B ) = Ujjbkk
j=1 k = l
= tr(A)tr(B) .
(ii) Since the trace operation is linear and trl, = n we find
tr(A €3 I, + I, €3 B ) = tr(A 8 I,) + tr(I, €3 B ) = ntr(A) + mtr(B)
Problem 6 . Let A be an arbitrary n x n matrix over C. Show that
exp(A €3 I,) 3 exp(A) €3 I,. (1)

Solution 6. Using the expansion
and
( A @ I,)k = A' 8 In, kEN
we find identity (1).
Problem 7. Let A, B be arbitrary n x n matrices over C. Let I , be the

n x n unit matrix. Show that
exp(A @ I , + I, @ B ) E exp(A) @ exp(B) .

Solution 7. The proof of this identity relies on
[ A @ I , , I , @ B ]= O
where [ , ] denotes the commutator and
Thus
= exp ( A ) @ exp(B ) .
Problem 8. Let A and B be arbitrary n x n matrices over C. Prove or

disprove the equation
= @ ,.'
Solution 8. Obviously this is not true in general. For example, let

A = B = I,. Then
e A @ B = eI,2
and
,A @ = @ e'n # e'n2.
Problem 9. Let A be an m x m matrix and B be an n x n matrix. The

underlying field is C . The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A are given by
XI, A 2 , . . . , A, and u1, u2, . . . , u,. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
B are given by p1, p 2 , . . . , p n and v1, v 2 , . . . , v,. Let € 1 , € 2 and € 3 be
real parameters. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
E ~@AB + E Z A@ I, + €3Im €3 B .
Solution 9. Let x E C m and y E C". Then we have
( A @ B ) ( x @ Y) = ( A x ) @ ( B Y ) ,
( A @ In)(x @ Y) = ( A x )@ Y, ( I , @ B ) ( x@ Y) = x @ ( B Y ) .
Thus the eigenvectors of the matrix are
uj @ v k , j = 1 1 2 , . . . , m k = 112,...,n.
The corresponding eigenvalues are given by
ElAjPk + E2Aj + E3Pk
Problem 10. Let A , B be n x n matrices over C. A scalar product can

be defined as
( A ,B ) := t r ( A B t ).
The scalar product implies a norm
llA1I2 = ( A , A )= tr(AAt) .
This norm is called the Hilbert-Schmidt norm.
(i) Consider the Dirac matrices
To:= (. g)
1 0 0
0 0 0
1 -1
0
7 Y1:= (l!
0 0
O
-1
0 1
0)
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Calculate (70,71).
(ii) Let U be a unitary n x n matrix. Find (UA, U B ) .

(iii) Let C,D be m x m matrices over C. Find (A 8 C,B 8 D).
Solution 10. (i) We find
(ii) Since
tr(UA(UB)t) = tr(UABtUt) = tr(UtUABt) = tr(AB)
where we used the cyclic invariance for matrices, we find that
(UA,UB) = (A,B) .
Thus the scalar product is invariant under the unitary transformation.

(iii) Since
tr((A 8 C)(B8 0 ) ' )= tr((A 8 C)(Bt 8 Dt))

= tr((ABt) 8 (CDt))
= tr(ABt)tr(CDt)
we find
( A @ C , B @ D )= (A,B)(C,D).
Problem 11. Let T be the 4 x 4 matrix
where aj, j = 1 , 2 , 3 are the Pauli spin matrices and -1 5 t j 5 +1,

j = 1 , 2 , 3 . Find T 2 .
Solution 11. We have

3 3 3
j=1 j=1 k = l
Since
and we find
Therefore
T2 = (I2 €31 2 ) ( 5‘:)

+
3
Problem 12. Let { lo), Il),. . . , In - 1)} be an orthonormal basis in the

Hilbert space C”. Is
independent of the chosen orthonormal basis? Prove or disprove.
Solution 12. Consider the special case R2.Let
Thus
0
I$) = (:) (;) $ (;) (:) $ (;)

@ + @ = 0
Now lwt
Then
Thus, I$) depends on the chosen basis.

Problem 13. In the product Hilbert space C2 @ C2 the Bell states are
given by
1 1
I@+) = $0) @ 10) + 11)@ 11)>1 I@-) = $0) @ 10) - 11) @ 11))
1 1
I*+) = JZ(l0) @ 11)+ 11)@ lo)), I*-) = JZ(l0) @ 11) - 11) @ 10))
and form an orthonormal basis in C4. Here, { lo), 11)} is an arbitrary

orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C2. Let
(i) Find I@+), I@-), IS+), and IS-) for this basis.
(ii) Consider the special case when 4 = 0 and 8 = 0.
(ii) If we choose 4 = 0 and 6' = 0 which simply means we choose the

standard basis for 10) and 11) (i.e., (0) = (1 O)T and 11) = (0 l)T),we find
that the Bell states take the form
Problem 14. Let 7 - l ~and 7 - l ~be two pdimensional Hilbert spaces over
C, where p is a prime number. Let
{IOA), I I A ) , * * . , I ( p - l ) A ) )
{IOB), 11B),...,Ib-1)B))
be orthonormal bases in these Hilbert spaces. We define the states
in the Hilbert space 7 - l ~'8 ZB,where a, b E { 0,1,. . . , p - 1}. The p x p

matrices X and Z are defined as
Xlj) = lj + 1modp), Zlj) = w j l j ) , j = 0,1,. . . , p

with a complex primitive pth root w of 1 and { lo), \ I ) ,. . . , (p - 1)} is the
orthonormal basis given above for the Hilbert space 7 - l ~ Calculate
. I$(O, 0))
and IW1)).
Solution 14. Since
we obtain
- 2)-I
Using
we find
P-1
I'$(L1))= - Cu'lj~)
J;p' j=o
'8 Ij, + 1modp).
The states I$(a,b)) are maximally entangled states in the Hilbert space
'FIA @ Z B .
Chapter 3
Matrix Properties
For finite-dimensional quantum systems the singular value decomposition,

spectral decomposition and polar decomposition of matrices are of im-
portance. Furthermore finding the norm, eigenvalues, eigenvectors and
Schmidt rank are necessary.
Problem 1. Let A and B be two n x n matrices over C. If there exists

a non-singular n x n matrix X such that
A = XBX-l
then A and B are said to be similar matrices.
Show that the spectra (eigenvalues) of two similar matrices are equal.
Solution 1. We have
det(A - XIn) = det(XBX-' - XXI,X-l)
= det(X(B - XIn)X-')
= det(X)det(B - Xl,)det(X-')
= det ( B - XIn).
Problem 2. Let A be an n x n matrix over C. Then there exists an n x n

unitary matrix Q , such that
Q*AQ= D + N
24
Matrix Properties 25
where D = diag(X1,XZ, . . . ,A,) is the diagonal matrix composed of the

eigenvalues of A and N is a strictly upper triangular matrix (i.e., N has
zero entries on the diagonal). The matrix Q is said to provide a Schur
decomposition of A.
Let
A=( ') Q = - (12 i l )
-2 3 -1 -2i .
Show that Q provides a Schur decomposition of A.
Solution 2. Obviously,
Q*Q = QQ* = Iz.
Now
0 3-4i
0 3-4i
Consequently, we obtained a Schur decomposition of the matrix A with the
given Q.
Problem 3. Consider a square non-singular square matrix A over C.

The polar decomposition theorem states that A can be written as
A=UP
where U is a unitary matrix and P is a hermitian positive definite matrix.
Show that A has a unique polar decomposition.
Solution 3. Since A is invertible, so are A* and A*A. The positive square

root P of A*A is also invertible. Set U := AP-l. Then U is invertible and
u*u = P - ~ A * A P -=~ p-1p2p-1 =I
so that U is unitary. Since P is invertible, it is obvious that AP-l is the

only possible choice for U .
Problem 4. Let A be an arbitrary m x n matrix over R, i.e., A E RmX".

Then A can be written as
A = UCVT
where U is an m x m orthogonal matrix, V is an n x n orthogonal matrix,

C is an m x n diagonal matrix with nonnegative entries and the superscript
denotes the transpose. This is called the singular value decomposition.
An algorithm to find the singular value decomposition is given as follows.
1) Find the eigenvalues X j ( j = 1 , 2 , .. . ,n) of the n x n matrix ATA. Ar-

range the eigenvalues XI, Xp, . . . , A, in descending order.
2) Find the number of nonzero eigenvalues of the matrix ATA. We call this
number T .
3) Find the orthogonal eigenvectors of the matrix A T A corresponding to

the obtained eigenvalues, and arrange them in the same order to form the
column-vectors of the n x n matrix V .
4) Form an m x n diagonal matrix C placing on the leading diagonal of it

the square root cj := of p = min(m, n) first eigenvalues of the matrix
A T A found in 1) in descending order.
5) Find the first r column vectors of the m x m matrix U

1
~j = -Avj, j = 1,2,. . . , T
cj
6) Add to the matrix U the rest of the m - r vectors using the Gram-
Schmidt orthogonalization process.
Apply the algorithm to the matrix
Solution 4. 1) We find
The eigenvalues are (arranged in descending order) XI = 3 and A2 = 1.
2) The number of nonzero eigenvalues is r = 2.
3) The orthonormal eigenvectors of the matrix ATA, corresponding to the

eigenvalues A1 and A2 are given by
We obtain the 2 x 2 matrix V (VT follows by taking the transpose)
v = (v1 v 2 ) = ($;; -372) .
4) From the eigenvalues we find the singular matrix
.;(; dl)
a 0
on the leading diagonal of which are the square roots of the eigenvalues of
the matrix ATA (in descending order). The rest of the entries of the matrix
C are zeros.
5 ) Next we find two column vectors of the 3 x 3 matrix U . Using the

equation given above we find
6) To find the vector u3 we apply the Gram-Schmidt process. The vector

u3 is perpendicular to u1 and u 2 . We have
T
u g = el - (ul e1)ul - (uTe1)uz = (1/3 - 1/3 - 1/3)T.
Normalizing this vector we obtain
u3 =
(-Ti3)
-d/3 .
It follows that
Thus we have found the singular value decomposition of the matrix A .
Remark. We have
Avj = ajuj, ATuj = ojvj
and therefore
A ~ =A ~ ~A A = O;uj
~ ~ ~
Problem 5. Consider the Hilbert space R4.Find all pairwise orthogonal

vectors (column vectors) XI,.. . , xp,where the entries of the column vectors
can only be +1 or -1. Calculate the matrix
j=1
and find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of this matrix.
Solution 5 . p cannot exceed 4 since that would imply dim(R4) > 4. A

solution is
x1 = ($ xz= (i:),
-1
x3= ($ a = (!l).-1
Thus
kXjx?= 1 1 1 1
l) +
(11 1 1 1
1
(1'
-1
1'
1
1' Jl)
-1
j=1
;);
1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1
+(; 1 -1 -1
1 1
1
;)+(J1
1
1'
1 -1 -1
-1 -1 -1 -1
=(!p 8).
4 0 0 0
The eigenvalue is 4 with multiplicity 4. The eigenvectors are all x E R4

with x # 0 . Another solution is given by
Problem 6. Consider the 4 x 4 matrix (Hamilton operator)

where w is the frequency. Find the norm of H , i.e.,
IIAll := sup IIBXII, xE c4

llxll=l
Solution 6. There are two methods t o find the norm of k. In the

first method we use the Lagrange multiplier method where the constraint
llxll = 1 can be written as
x; + x; + x i +xi = 1 .
Since
-..z=(o
0 0 0 1
0 01 10 0 .). =.( 0
0
0 0 - 1
01 10 0 )
1 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 0
we have
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
Let x = ( x 1 , x 2 , ~ 3 , x 4E) c4.
~ We maximize
f (x):= llHX112 - X(x:’ + x; + x; + x; - 1)

where X is the Lagrange multiplier. To find the extrema we solve the equa-
tions
af- - 21i2 w2 x1 - 2 X X l = 0
-
ax1
af- - -2Xx2 = 0
-
ax2
- - --2Xx3=0
ax3
af
- - - 2ti 2 w 2 5 4 - 2Xx4 = 0
ax4
together with the constraint xf + x; + x i + xs = 1. These equations can
be written in the matrix form
(a
i=L2w2-X 0
-A0 - X0
0 0
02 - X
f i 2 wO ) (;)=(!)
If X = 0 then 2 1 = 2 4 = 0 and llHxll = 0, which is a minimum. If X # 0

then 2 2 = 2 3 = 0 and:+ 2: = 1 so that llkxll = tiw, which is the maxi-
mum. Thus we find //HI1= hw.
In the second method we calculate H * H and find the square root of the
largest eigenvalue. Since H* = H we find
Thus the maximum eigenvalue is h2w2 (twice degenerate) and Ilk;rll= fiw.
Problem 7. Let A and B be n x n hermitian matrices. Suppose that
A2 = I n , B2 = I, (1)
and
[ A ,B ] + AB +BA = 0,
where 0, is the n x n zero matrix. Let x E C" be normalized, i.e., llxll = 1.
Here x is considered as a column vector.
(i) Show that
+
( x * A x ) ~ ( X ' B X )5~ 1. (3)
(ii) Give an example for the matrices A and B.
Solution 7. (i) Let a , b E R and let r 2 := a2 + b2. The matrix

C = aA + bB
is again hermitian. Then
+
C2 = a2A2 abAB + baBA + b 2 B 2 .
Using the properties (1) and (2) we find
C2 = a21, + b21, = r21,.

Therefore
(X*C'X) = r2
and
-r 5 a(x*Ax)+ b(x*B x ) 5 r .
Let
a = x*Ax, b = X*BX
then
a2 + b2 5 r
or r2 5 r. This implies r 5 1 and r2 5 1 from which (3) follows.
(ii) An example is A = uz and B = uy since u; = 12, 0

; = I2 and
O,Oy +
Oyuz = 02.
Problem 8. Let A and B be n x n hermitian matrices. Suppose that
A2 = A , B2 = B (1)
and
[ A ,B]+ A B + B A = 0, (2)
where 0, is the n x n zero matrix. Let x E C" be normalized, i.e., llxll = 1.
Here x is considered as a column vector. Show that
+
( x * A x ) ~ (x*Bx)' 5 1. (3)
Solution 8. For an arbitrary n x n hermitian matrix M we have
0 5 ( x * ( M - (X*MX)I,)2X) = (x*(M2- 2(x*Mx)M + (X*MX)ZI,)X)

= (x*M'x) - 2(x*Mx)' + ( x * M x )=~ ( x * M ~ x-) ( x * M x ) ~ .
Thus
0 5 (x*M'X) - (x*M x ) ~
or
(X*MX)2 5 (X*M2X).
Thus for A = M we have using (1)
(x*Ax)' Ix*Ax
and therefore
0 I ( x * A x )I 1
Similarly
0 I (X*BX)5 1
Let a, b E R, r2 := a2 + b2 and
C := aA t bB
Then
C2 = a2A2 + b2B2+ abAB + baBA.
Using (1) and (2) we arrive a t

C2 = a2A + b2B.
Thus
(x*Cx)' 5 (x*C2x)5 a2 +b2.
Let
a := (x*Ax), b := (x*Bx)
then
(x*Cx)= a2 + b2 = r2
and therefore ( r 2 ) 25 r2 which implies that r2 5 1 and thus (3) follows.
Problem 9. Let ' H A and 'HB be two finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

The Schmidt rank of a linear operator L : ' H A @ 'HB -+ 'HA @ 7 - l ~over
X A @ 'HB is the smallest non-negative integer Sch(L, ' H A , 7 - l ~ such
) that L
can be written as
Sch(L,%A , ' H E )
L= L j , A @Lj,B
j=1
where L ~ , A
v : 'HB 4 'HB are linear operators.
Let Find the

denote an orthonormal basis in Schmidt rank
Sch and Sch where
Solution 9. We note that
UCNOT= lO)(Ol@ Iz + 11)(11@UNOT

where
UNOT := l O ) ( l l + Il)(Ol.
In other words
0 < SCh(UcNOT,c2,c2)5 2.
Now suppose UCNOT can be written as the product A @ B where
A :=ao10)(01 + ailO)(ll + az)1)(01 + asll)(lI
+ +
:=bolO)(01 bilO)(ll bz/l)(Ol bs(l)(ll. +
This yields the conditions aobo = 1, aobl = 0 and a3bl = 1. These equations
are inconsistent, i.e.,
c2)# 1.
Sch(UCNOT,c2,
Thus
SCh(UCNOT, c2,
c2)= 2.
The operator U s w ~ has
p the eigenvalue 1 (three times) with corresponding
orthonormal eigenvectors
and the eigenvalue -1 with corresponding eigenvector & ( l O l ) - 110)).

Defining
we find that
USWAP := loo)(ool + ld'l)(hl - 1'#'2)(421 + 111)(111

where {loo), Iqh),(h),
111))forms an orthonormal basis in C4. In this basis
USWAPis the diagonal matrix
Clearly, the matrices
are linearly independent. Thus
Problem 10. The operator-Schmidt decomposition of a linear operator Q

acting in the product Hilbert space 3-1 = 3-118 'Hz of two finite-dimensional
Hilbert spaces (dim'H1 = rn, dim'H2 = n) with 3-11 = C" and 'H2 = C" can
be constructed as follows. Let X, Y be d x d matrices over C. Then we
can define a scalar product (X,Y) := tr(XYt). Using this inner product
we can define an orthonormal set of d x d matrices { Xj : j = 1 , 2 , . . . , d2 }
which satisfies the condition
(xj,xk) = tr(xjxL) = a j k .
Thus we can write the matrix Q as
m 2 n2
j=1 k=l
where { A j : j = 1 , 2 , . . .,m 2 } and { B k : k = 1 , 2 , . . . ,n 2 } are fixed

orthonormal bases of m x m and n x n matrices in the Hilbert spaces C"
and c"respectively, and c j k are complex coefficients. Thus c = ( C j k ) , with
j = 1 , 2 , , . . ,m2 and k = 1 , 2 , . . . , n2 is an m2 x n2 matrix. The singular
value decomposition theorem states that the matrix C can be written as
c = ucv'
where U is an m2 x m2 unitary matrix, V is an n2 x n2 unitary matrix and
C is an m2 x n2 diagonal matrix. The matrix C is of the form
s1 ... 0
.. ..
. .
c= 0 ... Snz
0 ... 0
.. ..
- .
0 ... 0
It is assumed that C,U and V are calculated in orthonormal bases, for

example the standard basis. Thus we obtain
m2 n2 n2
where se is the Gth diagonal entry of the m2 x n2 diagonal matrix C.

Defining
m2
j=1
m.2
k=l
where e = 1,2, . . . ,n2 we find the operator-Schmidt decomposition
e=i
(i) Consider the CNOT gate
Find the operator-Schmidt decomposition of UCNOT.

(ii) Consider the SWAP operator
Find the operator-Schmidt decomposition of U ~ W A P .

(iii) Let
2= ( G I 2 @ I2 + ifiox @ ox) ( G I 2 @ I2 + i f i f f ,@ )
0,
where o x ,uy and u, are the Pauli spin matrices. Find the operator-Schmidt
decomposition of Z.
1 0 0 0 0 1
uCNoT=(o o)@(; :)+(o 1)@(1 0 )
=(; ;)@I2+(; +G.
(ii) We have
(iii) We have
Problem 11. Let A , B be n x n matrices over C. Assume that
[ A ,[A,Bl1 = [B,[ A ,Bl1 = 0 . (1)

Show that
Solution 11. We use the technique of parameter dzflerentiation. Consider

the matrix-valued function
f(e) = e€ AeE B
where E is a real parameter. If we differentiate with respect to E we find
df = AecAeeB+ ecAeeBB= ( A + e'ABe-EA)

- f(E)
de
since eeAe-EA= I n . We have
AB
e e A ~ e - ~= + € [ A B]
,
where we have taken (1) into account. Thus we obtain the differential
equation
df
-=
de
+ + € [ A B, ] f)
((A B) (6).
+
Since the matrix A B commutes with [ A ,B ] we may treat A B and +
[ A ,B] as ordinary commuting variables and integrate this linear differential
equation with the initial conditions
We find
e(A+B)+(c2/2)[A,B]
= ,E(A+B),(~~/~)[A,BI
f(e) =e
+
where the last form follows since A B commutes with [ A ,B ] . If we set
e = 1 and multiply both sides by e - [ A , B ] /then
2 (2a) follows. Likewise we
can prove the second form of the identity (2b).
Problem 12. Let A be an n x n matrix. Assume that the inverse matrix

of A exists. The inverse matrix can be calculated as follows (Csanky's
algorithm). Let
p ( z ) := det(zI, - A ) (1)
where I, is the n x n unit matrix. The roots are, by definition, the eigen-
values AI, A2, . . , , A, of A . We write
where
c, = (-l), det A .
Since A is nonsingular we have en # 0 and vice versa. The Cayley-Hamilton

theorem states that
Multiplying this equation with A - l we obtain
If we have the coefficients cj we can calculate the inverse matrix A. Let

n
j=l
Then the s j and cj satisfy the following n x n lower triangular system of

linear equations
0 0 ...
. .
Since
tr(Ak) = + 4-. . . + Ank = s k
we find sk for k = 1 , 2 , . . . ,n. Thus we can solve the linear equation for
c j . Finally, using (4) we obtain the inverse matrix of A . Apply Csanky's
algorithm to the 4 x 4 matrix
Solution 12. Since
u2=(o
0 0
O
1 0
1 0
O 1).
0 0
0 0 0 1
u 3 = ( 10
0
1 0 0 .)
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
and U4 = I4 we find
trU = o = s1, trU2 = o = s2, t r u 3 = o = s3, t r u 4 = 4 = s4

We obtain the system of linear equations
1 0 0 0
O 0)
( 00 0 3
0 0 0 4
(+(!)
c4 -4
with the solution
c1 = 0, c 2 = 0, c3 = 0, c4 = -1.
Thus the inverse matrix of U is given by
/o 0
0 0
1 0 "1 .
Problem 13. Let
(i) Let E E R. Find

,r J + ,c(J++J-)
7 7
(ii) Let T E R. Show that
,r(J++J-) -
= ,J- t a n h ( r ) , 2 J ~ ln(cosh(r))eJ+ t a n h ( r )
Solution 13. (i) Using the expansion for an n x n matrix A
we find
efJ+=(; ;)+€(o0 1
o ) l e q ; 0 0o)
and
(ii) Using the results from (i) we find the identity.

Problem 14. The Heisenberg commutation relation ( h = 1) can be writ-

ten as
b,$]= -iI
where @ := -ia/aq and I is the identity operator. Let a, 0 E R and
U ( a ) = exp(iafi), V(0) = exp(iP4).
Then using the Campbell-Hausdorff formula we find
W N P ) =exP(i4v(P)u(4 '
This is called the Weyl representation of Heisenberg's commutation relation.

Can we find finite-dimensional n x n unitary matrices U (U # In) and V
(V # In) such that
uv = ( V U
cn
with ( E C , = 1 and neither U nor V the identity matrix?
Solution 14. Such matrices can be found, namely the permutation ma-
trix
0 1 0 ... 0
u : = (0. 0.
0
1 0 0
0
.
1
0
;)
:::
...
...
and the diagonal matrix
Ilj :)
1 0 0 ... 0
v := . . .
0 0 0 ... y-1
Problem 15. Let U be the n x n unitary matrix

0 1 0 ... 0
u:= . . .
0 0 0 ...
1 0 0 ...
and V be the n x n unitary diagonal matrix (( E C)
1 0 0 ... 0
. .
0 0 0 ... p-1
where <" = 1. Then the set of matrices

{U ~ V
: j ,~1 ~ = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . , n - l }
provide a basis in the Hilbert space for all n x n matrices with the scalar
product
1
(A, B) := -tr(AB*)
n
for n x n matrices A and B. Write down the basis for n = 2.
Solution 15. For n = 2 we have the combinations
This yields the orthonormal basis
.=(; ;), %=(; ;), ..=(o 1 J0 - % = ( 1 0 -1

0 ) -
Problem 16. Let A and B be n x n matrices over C . Show that the

matrices A B and B A have the same set of eigenvalues.
Solution 16. Consider first the case that A is invertible. Then we have
AB = A(BA)A-'.
Thus A B and BA are similar and therefore have the same set of eigenvalues.
If A is singular we apply the continuity argument If A is singular, consider
A+EI,. We choose 6 > 0 such that A + EI,is invertible for all E , 0 < E < 6.
+ +
Thus (A d,)B and B(A €1,) have the same set of eigenvalues for every
E E (0,6). We equate their characteristic polynomials to obtain
det(X1, - (A + d,)B) = det(X1, - B ( A + eln)), 0 <E <6.

Since both sides are continuous (even analytic) functions of E we find by
letting E -+ O+ that
Problem 17. The numerical range, also known as the field of values, of
an n x n matrix A over the complex numbers, is defined as
W(A) := { X*AX : llxll = 1, x E C" } .

(i) Find the numerical range for
(ii) Find the numerical range for
Solution 17. (i) Obviously, the numerical range is the unit interval [0,1].
(ii) The numerical range W ( A )is the closed elliptical disc with foci at (0,O)
and (1,0), minor axis 1, and major axis f i .
The Toeplitz-Hausdorff convexity theorem tells us that the numerical range

of a square matrix is a convex compact subset of the complex plane.
Problem 18. An n x n circulant matrix C is given by
For example, the matrix

0 1 0 ...
0 0 1 ... 0O \
is a circulant matrix. It is also called the n x n primary permutation matrzx.

(i) Let C and P be the matrices given above. Let
f ( A ) = co + C I A + . . + cn-1 An-'
*
Show that C = f ( P ) .
(ii) Show that C is a normal matrix, that is,
c*c= cc*
(iii) Show that the eigenvalues of C are f ( w k ) ,k = 0,1,. . . ,n - 1, where w
is the nth primitive root of unity.
(iv) Show that

det(C) = f(wO)f(wl). . . f ( w " - ' ) .
(v) Show that F*CF is a diagonal matrix, where F is the unitary matrix
with (j,k)-entry equal to
Solution 18. (i) Direct calculation of

f ( P ) = QIn + c1P + c2P2 + -.. + en-1 pn-1
yields the matrix C , where I, is the n x n unit matrix. Notice that P2,
P3, . . . , Pn-1 are permutation matrices.
(ii) We have PP* = P*P. If two n x n matrices A and B commute, then
g ( A ) and h(B) commute, where g and h are polynomials. Thus C is a
normal matrix.
(iii) The characteristic polynomial of P is
det(XIn - P ) = An - 1 = n(A-
n-1
k=O
wk).
Thus the eigenvalues of P and Pj are, respectively, w k and wjk7 where

k = 0 , 1 , . . , ,n - 1. It follows that the eigenvalues of C = f ( P ) are f ( w k ) ,
k = 0 , 1 , ..., n - 1 .
(iv) Using the result from (iii) we find
n-1
det(C) = f(wk)
k=O
(v) For each k = 0 , 1 , . . . ,n - 1, let

k 2k W(n-l)k T
Xk = (1,w ,w ,...) )
where denotes the transpose. If follows that
Pxk = (wk ,w 2 k ,...,W ( n - l ) k 7 1)T = w kx k

and
cxk = f(P)xk = f ( W k ) X k .
Thus the vectors Xk are the eigenvectors of P and C corresponding to the

respective eigenvalues wk and f ( w k ) , k = 0 , 1 , . . . ,n - 1. Since
we find that
1
-xo
ZXll " ' l
is an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space Cn. Thus we obtain the unitary
matrix
1
F=-
fi
such that
F*CF = diag(f(wO),f(wl), . . . , f ( w n - ' ) ) .
The matrix F is unitary and is called the Fourier matrix.
Problem 19. An n x n matrix A is called a Hadamard matrix if each

entry of A is 1 or -1 and if the rows or columns of A are orthogonal, i.e.,
A A ~ = ~or I A~* A = ~ L .
Note that AAT = nIn and ATA = nIn are equivalent. Hadamard matrices
Hn of order 2n can be generated recursively by defining
Hl= (' )
1 -1
Hn= (Hn-l
Hn-1 -Hn-1
for n 2 2. Show that the eigenvalues of H , are given by + 2 n / 2 and -2"12

each of multiplicity 2,-'.
Solution 19. We use induction on n. The case n = 1 is obvious. Now

for n 2 2 we have
= det((XI - H n - l ) ( M + Hn-l) - H;-l).
Thus
det(XI - H n ) = det(X21 - 2H;-,)

= det(XI - &Hn-l) det(XI +hHn-l).
This shows that each eigenvalue p of Hn-l generates two eigenvalues *&'p
of H,. The assertion then follows by the induction hypothesis, for Hn-l
has eigenvalues +2(n-1)/2 and -2(,-')i2 each of multiplicity 2n-2.
Problem 20. An n x n matrix A is called reducible if there is a permu-

tation matrix P such that
PTAP= (B C.)
where B and D are square matrices of order at least 1. An n x n matrix
A is called irreducible if it is not reducible. Show that the n x n primary
permutation matrix
0 1 0 ... 0
A:= . . .
0 0 0 ...
1 0 0 ...
is irreducible.
Solution 20. Suppose the matrix A is reducible. Let
where P is some permutation matrix and the Jj are irreducible matrices of

order < n. Here @ denotes the direct sum. The rank of A - I is n - 1 since
det(A - I ) = 0 and the submatrix of size n - 1 by deleting the last row and
the last column from A - I is nonsingular. It follows that
rank(PTAP - I n ) = rank(PT(A - In)P) = n - 1 .
By using the above decomposition, we obtain

k
rank(PTAP - I n ) = x r a n k ( J j - In) 5 ( n - k) < ( n - 1 ) .
j=1
This is a contradiction. Thus A is irreducible.
Problem 21. Let U be an n x n unitary matrix. Then U can be written

as
U = Vdiag(X1, Xz, . . . , Xn)V*
where X I , Xz, . . . , An are the eigenvalues of U and V is an n x n unitary
matrix. Let
Find the decomposition for U given above.

Solution 21. The eigenvalues of U are +1 and -1. Thus we have
U = Vdiag(1, -1)V*
with
v = - 1( 1 1 ).
Jz 1 -1
Therefore V = V*
Problem 22. An n x n matrix A over the complex numbers is called

positive semidefinite (written as A 2 0), if
x*Ax 2 0 for all x E C".
Show that for every A 2 0, there exists a unique B 2 0 so that

B ~ = A .
Solution 22. Let

A = U*diag(XI,. . . ,X,)U
where U is unitary. We take
B = U*diag(X:l2,. . . ,Xi'2)U.
Then the matrix B is positive semidefinite and
B2 = A
since U*U = I,. To show the uniqueness, suppose that C is an n x n
positive semidefinite matrix satisfying C 2 = A . Since the eigenvalues of C
are the nonnegative square roots of the eigenvalues of A , we can write
C = Vdiag(X:/2,. . . ,A, 1/2 )v*
for some unitary matrix V. Then the identity
yields
Tdiag(X1,. . . ,An) = diag(X1,. . . ,Xn)T
where T = UV. This yields
Thus
Hence
Tdiag(X:12,. . . , A:/2) = diag(A:’27. . . ,A:12)T.
Since T = U V it follows that
B=C.
Problem 23. An n x n matrix A over the complex numbers is said to be

normal if it commutes with its conjugate transpose
A*A = AA* .
The matrix A can be written
n
A =CAjEj
j=1
where X j E C are the eigenvalues of A and Ej are n x n matrices satisfying
Let
Find the decomposition of A given above.
Solution 23. The eigenvalues of A are given by
A1 = +1, A2 = -1.
The matrices Ej are constructed from the normalized eigenvectors of A.

The normalized eigenvectors of A are given by
(1) x 2 = -1( 1 ) .
x’=Jz ’ Jz -1
Thus
Problem 24. Starting from Maxwell’s equations in vacuum

1 dE aB
curlB = --, curlE = --
c2 at at
divE = 0, divB = 0
and Kramer’s vector
F := E + icB, F* := E - icB
show that the photon is a spin-1 particle.
Solution 24. Using Kramer’s vector we can write

i dF i dF*
curlF = --, curlF* =
c at c at
divF = 0, divF* = 0 .
Let
+1 if j k e are an even permutation of the integers 123

-1 if j k e are an odd permutation of the integers 123 .
0 otherwise
Since
we can write
Introducing the differential operator
we find
For fixed k , --ickje is a 3 x 3 matrix, S k ( j , e ) . The equation for F then takes

the form
Using the definition of cjke, we obtain the representation for the 3 x 3

matrices
0 0 0
0 1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0
We have
sxs=is
and
s,24- s; + s3”= 2 1 3 .
Thus Maxwell’s equations describe a particle of spin-1.
Chapter 4
Density Operators
A d e n s i t y operator p or d e n s i t y m a t r i x is a positive semidefinite operator

on a Hilbert space with unit trace. An operator is positive semidefinite if
it is hermitian and none of its (necessarily real) eigenvalues are less than
zero. The state of a quantum-mechanical system is characterized by a
density operator p with trp = 1. The expectation value of an observable
A, determined in an experiment as the average value (A) is given by ( A )=
tr(Ap).
Problem 1. Consider the operator (4 x 4 matrix) in the Hilbert space

c4
1
P=4
4 1 - €114 + 4 0 ) @ lO)>((Ol @ (01)
where E is a real parameter with 6 E [0, 1
1 and
Does p define a density matrix?
Solution 1. We find the diagonal matrix for p
.=(
(1 - € ) / 4 + €
0
0
0
(1 - € ) / 4
0
0
0
0
(1 - €)/4
0
0
(1 - €)/4
).
49
Thus
P = P‘
trp = 1
(xlplx)2 0, for all x E c4.

The last property follows since all entries on the diagonal are non-negative.
Thus p defines a density matrix.
Problem 2. Let
Does
P := I$)($l
define a density matrix?
Solution 2. We find the 2 x 2 matrix for p
Thus
P = Pt
trp = cos2B + sin2e = 1
and
for all x := ( 2 1 , ~ 2 E C2.

) ~Thus p defines a density matrix.
Problem 3. We consider mixed states. A mixed state is a statistical

mixture of pure states, i.e., the state is described by pairs of probabilities
and pure states. Given a mixture { (PI, 1$1)), . . . , (pn,I$n)) } we define its
density matrix to be the positive hermitian matrix
n
Density Operators 51
where the pure states I + j ) are normalized (i.e., (+jI$j) = l), and pj 20
for j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,n with
n
c p j =1.
j=1
(i) Find the probability that measurement in the orthonormal basis
{lh)l.**ilkn)}
will yield Ik j ) .
(ii) Find the density matrix pu when the mixture is transformed according
to the unitary matrix U .
Solution 3. (i) From the probability distribution of states in the mix-

ture we have for the probability P ( k j ) of measuring the state Ikj) ( j =
1,2,...,n)
n
1=1
n
= (IcjlPlkj).
(ii) After applying the transform U to the states in the mixture we have
the new mixture { (PI, Vl+l)), . . . , (pn,UI&)) }, with the density matrix
PU = cn
j=1
Pj~I+j)(+jlU*
= upu*.
Problem 4. Suppose we expand a density matrix for N qubits in terms

of Kronecker products of Pauli spin matrices
3 3 3
1
P=-
2N
jO=ojl=o
..' C
jN-1=0
'j#3j1.,.jN-l'j#3 @ ffj,@ ' ' ' @ ffjN-l
where 00 = Iz.
(i) What is condition on the expansion coefficients if we impose pt = p?
(ii) What is the condition on the expansion coefficientsif we impose trp = l ?
(iii) Calculate
Solution 4. (i) Since = al, t o2 = a2, t and I2 = I: we find that

t a3 = a3
the expansion coefficients are real.
(ii) Since tr(A 8 B) = tr(A)tr(B) for square matrices A and B and
tral = tra2 = tro3 = 0, trI2 = 2
we find
(iii) Since
we find
Problem 5. Let A and B be a pair of qubits and let the density matrix
of the pair be ~ A B which
, may be pure or mixed. We define the spin-flipped
density matrix to be
where the asterisk denotes complex conjugation in the standard basis
and
oy= (p z); .
Since both ~ A and

B TAB are positive operators, it follows that the prod-
uct PABPAB,though non-hermitian, also has only real and non-negative
eigenvalues. Consider the Bell state
and p := [+)(+I. Find the eigenvalues of PABPAB.
Solution 5. Since
/1 0 0 1\
we have p= p . Furthermore
u y @ u y = (0
0 0 0 - 1
1 0
0 1 0 .)
- 1 0 0 0
Thus p = p and p p = p with eigenvalues 1, 0, 0,O. The tangle of the density
matrix P A B is defined as
TAB := [max{pi - p2 - p3 - p4, 0)I2
where pj are the square root of the eigenvalues of ~ A B ~ Aordered

B in de-
creasing order. For the special case in which the state of AB is pure, the
matrix ~ A B ~ Ahas
B only one non-zero eigenvalue and one can show that
TAB = 4 det P A
where P A is the density matrix of qubit A, that is, the trace of ~ A over
B
qubit B.
Problem 6. Let p1 and p 2 be n x n density matrices. Let X j denote

the eigenvalues of p1 - p2 with corresponding orthonormal eigenvalues 14j)
where j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,n.
(i) Find the difference ID1 - D2l between the probability distributions
D1 and Dz for the measurement of the mixtures p1 and pz in the basis
{ Ih), . . ., I&) 1.
(ii) Show that measurement in the basis { 141),... , I&) } maximizes the
difference ID1 - D2l.
Hint. Use Schur’s theorem. For any hermitian matrix A , let
a1 2 a2 2 ... 2 an
be the nonincreasing diagonal entries of A and
PI L p2 L ... L pn
the nonincreasing eigenvalues of A. Then for 1 5 k 5 n
k k
where equality holds for k = n.
Solution 6. (i) We write p1 and p2 in the basis { ]$I), . . . , I&) }. In this

basis we have
ID1 - D21= cn
j=1
I(4jlPll4j) - (4jlPZI4j)l
j=1
n
j=1
(ii) Let U be an arbitrary unitary transform (change of basis). We define

P := UplU* and Q := Up2U*. The matrix P - Q is hermitian. Let
91 2 92 2 * . a L qn
denote the nondecreasing diagonal entries of P - Q in the { ] $ I ) , . . . , I&) }
basis. Let
u1 2 u2 2 ... 2 u,
be the nondecreasing eigenvalues (i.e. X j ) of P - Q. Consider the differ-
ence ID; - Dil between the probability distributions Di and DL for the
measurement of the mixtures p1 and p2 in the basis { U($q),. . . ,Ul&) }.
n
ID; - 0
12
1= C I(4jIU*Pl~l4j)- (4jIU*P2Ul4j)l
j=1
j=1 j=1
Since
t r ( P - Q) = tr(P) - tr(Q) = 1 - 1 = 0
and n n
tr(P) - tr(Q) = C((S0jIPldj)- (d~jIQlS0j))= Cqj
j=1 j=1
we have for all 1 5 k 5 n
We conclude from the triangle inequality that
where equality holds for some 1 5 Ic0 5 n. Similarly

From Schur’s theorem we have
j=1 j=1 j=l j=l
Thus n
j=1 j=1
Problem 7. Consider a quantum system of spin-1/2 particles. The

density matrix describing the spin degree of freedom is a 2 x 2 matrix
which can be written as
1
p(n) = T(12 + n .a ) = -21( I 2 + 72101 + 72202 + 72303)
where 01, 02, 03 denote the Pauli spin matrices and In1 5 1. For In1 = 1
the density matrix describes a pure state, whereas for In1 < 1 one has a
mixed state. The density matrix p is thus uniquely determined by a point
of the unit sphere In1 5 1. Consider the Hamilton operator
where y denotes gyromagnetic ratio and B(t) denotes the time-dependent

magnetic induction. The time-evolution of the density matrix p(t) obeys
the uon Neumann equation
ih@ = [H(t),p(t)]
dt
and the time-dependent expectation value of the spin vector is given by
(49):= t.(UP(t>>
or7written in components
(gl(t)) = tr(alp(t)), (O2@)) = tr(a2p(t))7 (O3@)) = tr(u3P(t)).
It follows that the Bloch vector n(t) pertaining to p(t) is related to the spin
vector as follows
n(t>= ( a ( t > )
or, written in components
m ( t >= (m(t)), 722(t) = (az(t>), 723(t) = k73(t)) ’
Find the time-evolution of n(t).

Solution 7. We have
where j = 1 , 2 , 3 . Inserting the right-hand side of the von Neumann equa-

tion, using the cyclic invariance of the trace tr(XY2) = tr(2XY) =
tr(Y2X) and the properties 0 1 0 2 = ZQ, ‘T2Q = z q , QCTI = 2 ~ 2 we ,
obtain
d
-n(t) Y
= -n(t) x B(t)
dt ii
where x denotes the vector product.
Problem 8. Given the Schrodinger equation

a
iii--($J)= ffl$J).
at
Find the time-evolution of the density matrix
n
j=1
Solution 8. From the Schrodinger equation we find

a
-Zh-(@)(t)I = ($J(j)(t)Ifi.
at
Thus
1
= -(E;Tp(t) - p(t)Ei)
ih
Note that the equation of motion for p ( t ) differs from the Heisenberg equa-
tion of motion by a minus sign. Since p(t) is constructed from state vectors
it is not an observable like other hermitian operators, so there is no reason
to expect that its time-evolution will be the same. The solution to the
equation of motion is given by
Problem 9. Let p denote the density matrix
in C2. Find a pure state I@)E C2 8 C2 such that the reduced density
matrix found by taking the partial trace over the second system (C2)is p.
In other words purify the density matrix p to obtain a pure state I@).
Solution 9. We begin with the Schmidt decomposition of I@) over the

Hilbert space C28 C2
j=1
where A1 and A2 are the eigenvalues of p and I$Q) and I+p) are the cor-
responding orthonormal eigenvectors of p. The states 141) and 142) in C2
are also orthonormal. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of p are given by
A 1 = A2 = 1/2 and
Thus the spectral decomposition of p is given by
Hence
where (d114i) = (42142) = 1 and (41142) = (42141) = 0. Thus we could

take IQ) as one of the Bell states
but not a product state.

Chapter 5
Partial Trace
The calculation of the partial trace plays a central role in quantum com-
puting. Suppose a finite-dimensional quantum system S A B is a system
composed of two subsystems SA and S B . The finite-dimensional Hilbert
space 'H of S A B is given by the tensor product of the individual Hilbert
spaces 'HA @ ' H B . Let N A := dim'HA and N B := dh'HB. Let pAB be the
density matrix of SAB. Using the partial trace we can define the density
operators pA and p B in the subspaces 'HA and 'FIB as follows
NB
P A := trBpAB C ( I A @ ( $ j ( ) p A B ( I A @ l$j)>
j=1
and
P B := trApAB3 c(($jI
NA
j=1
'8 IB)pAB(I$Clj) '8 I B ) )
where I A is the identity operator in 'HA, I B is the identity operator in

' H B , l$j) ( j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,N B ) is an orthonormal basis in ' H B and I $ j ) ( j =
1 , 2 , . . . ,N A ) is an orthonormal basis in 'HA.
Problem 1. Assume that pAB is separable, i.e.,

PAB -
-PA@pPB.
Calculate pA and p B .
Solution 1. Obviously we find pA = PA and p B = p ~ This

. can be seen
58
Partial Trace 59
as follows
Thus
NR
Since
j=1
we find pA = P A . Analogously we can show that p B = p~
Problem 2. Consider the 4 x 4 matrix (density matrix)
in the product Hilbert Space

(i) Calculate
where the basis is given by
and 12 denotes the 2 x 2 unit matrix.

(ii) Find
trB(IU)(UI)

1 0 0 0
(:)@I2=(::
0 0 :), ( ; ) @ I 2 = ( ;0 1:)
we find, using the transpose of these matrices on the left-hand side of Iu)(ul,
that
Using matrix multiplication we obtain
Finally we obtain the 2 x 2 matrix
(ii) Since
12@(:)=(o
1 0
0 01 ) 7 . (:)=(. 0 0
1 0.)
0 0 0 1
we find
Using matrix multiplication yields

Partial Trace 61
Finally we obtain the 2 x 2 matrix
We see that
However
and
Problem 3. Consider the 9 x 9 matrix (density matrix)
Iu>(uI=
Find
trc3 (14
(4)
and I3 denotes the 3 x 3 unit matrix.
Solution 3. We have
1 0 0 /o 0 0
(0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 (i) @Is=
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 \o 0 0
and
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
The respective transposes of the above matrices are given by
Taking this basis we find
Thus we obtain the 3 ´ 3 matrix
Problem 4. The partial trace can also be calculated as follows. Consider

a bipartite state
n-1 n-1 "-1 n-1 n-ln-1
j=O k=O j=O k=O j=O k=O
in the finite-dimensional Hilbert space 7i = C" @ C". We can define the

n x n matrix
h j k := c j k , j , k = O , l , ..., n - 1 .
Partial Trace 63
Then we have (prove it)

P A = trBP = h A t .
(i) Consider the Bell states. Find P A .

(ii) Under a unitary transformation U , V (U and V are n x n unitary
matrices) the matrix A is changed to
A + UTAV
where denotes the transpose. Apply the transformation to AAt. Calculate
tr (
Solution 4. (i) Consider the Bell state
Since COO = c11 = 1/* and c01 = c10 = 0 , we find the matrix
Thus
For the other three Bell states we find the same result.
(ii) We have
A A ~+ ( u ~ A v ) ( v ~ A ~=uU~ ~~ A) A ~ U ~ +
since VtV = VVt = I,. Furthermore, tr(AAt)z stays invariant under the
transformation since uTUTt = ( u ~ u )=~I,.
Problem 5. Let { lo), Il),. . . , IN - 1)} be an orthonormal basis in the

Hilbert space C N . The discrete Wzgner operator is defined as
where q and p take integer values from 0 to N - 1 and 6m,u denotes the
Kronecker delta. The arithmetic in the subscript is modulo N arithmetic,
+
i.e., 2q mod N and ( r s) mod N . The ( p , q ) pairs constitute the discrete
phase space. For a state described by the density matrix p the discrete
Wigner function is defined as
1
~ ( pq) ,:= Etr(pA).
Let p = lO)(Ol. Calculate W ( p , q ) .
Solution 5 . Since (01.) = 60, we obtain
To calculate the trace we have
Using (k10)= 6k0 and ( s l k ) = 6 s k we arrive at

1
W(P,Q ) = ~ d Z q , O .
Problem 6. For a bipartite state with subsystems 1 and 2 described by

the joint density matrix the joint Wigner function is given by
1
W(Q1,Qz,Pl P2) := s t r ( P ( ' 2 ) ( A 1 ( Q 1 7 Pl €3 A 2 (Q2 1 PZ 1)
1
where the Wigner operators are given by
and
Wigner functions describing a subsystem are obtained by summing the joint

Wigner functions in the corresponding set of the respective variables, e.g.,
N-1 N-I
q 2 =o p2 =o
N-1 N-1
q1 =o p1 =o
Consider the EPR-state
Partial Trace 65
Let p = l$)($l. Find W ( q l , q z , p l , p 2 ) . Discuss.
Solution 6. Straightforward calculation yields the Wigner function

1
w ( q l 7 q Z , P l , P 2 )= ~ & 7 1 , q n ~ P l , - P 2
f
The Wigner function given above shows the connection with the EPR-state
for continuous-variable teleportation
J(q1 - q2) 63 h(Pl +P 2 )

where 6 denotes the Dirac delta function.
Chapter 6
Unitary Transforms and

Quantum Gates
Quantum gates are realised as unitary operators. Let 7.t denote a Hilbert
space. A unitary operator U : 3.1 + 31 is a linear operator with the property
U*U = UU* = I where * denotes the adjoint and I is the identity operator.
If H is a hermitian matrix, then exp(iH) is a unitary matrix.
Problem 1. (i) Let A := lO)(Ol-11)(11 in the Hilbert space C2. Calculate
UHAUHlo), UHAUH11)
where UH is the Walsh-Hadamard transform. The unitary transform UH is

defined by
1
) -(lo)
U H I ~=
Jz +
(-l)kll)), k E {0,1).
(ii) Calculate
@ u~)lj,
(UH@ UH)UCNOT(UH 5)
where Ij, 5) = l j ) @I 15) with j , 5 E (0, l},and the answer is in the form of
a ket Im, n) with m,n E {0,1}. The unitary transform
is the controlled NOT operation and the unitary transform
66
Unitary Transforms and Quantum Gates 67
is the NOT operation.
Solution 1. (i) Let j E ( 0 , l ) . Then
= I3
where 7 := 1- j . In other words
(ii) strainghtforward calculation yields
where @ is the XOR operation. In other words we have the controlled NOT
operation, where the control qubit is the second qubit and the target qubit
is the first qubit.
Problem 2. Consider the linear operator
H := i r i W ( l O ) ( l l - Il)(Ol)
operating in the Hilbert space C2,

where
{ lo), 11)1
is an orthonormal basis in C2 and w is a real parameter.
(i) Is H self-adjoint?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and corresponding normalized eigenvectors of H.

(iii) Calculate
V ( t ):= exp(-iHt/h) .
Find the values of t such that U ( t ) performs the NOT operation
V(t>lO) + 11)
U(t>ll) 10).
+
(iv) Calculate U ( t = 7r/4w) and ( U ( t = 7 r / 4 ~ ) ) ~ .
Solution 2. (i) The adjoint of an operator can be obtained by simply

swapping the labels of the corresponding bra and ket vectors in the sum,
and taking the complex conjugate of all complex coefficients. Thus
i.e., H is self-adjoint. We can determine H* as follows. Let
The bra vector corresponding to the ket Hly) is (ylH*. We require that
+
(H*ylz) = (ylHz) for all Iz) = ~ 0 1 0 ) zlll) and ly) = yolo) ylll). We +
find
Since (H*ylz)= (ylHz) for all) . 1 and Iy), we obtain
ih@E = ( @ K 6 + m), - i h w E = (?/oaoo + m).

Consequently
(ii) The eigenvalue equation for H is
H(ul0) + b l l ) ) = X(al0) + b l l ) ) .
Thus we have the equations
-ifiwu = Xb
ihwb = XU
If X = 0 we have a = 0 and b = 0. Therefore we only have to consider

X # 0. Obviously we may assume b # 0 (thus a # 0 ) . We obtain
ifiwa
A=--
b ’
Hence
ib2 = -ia2
so that
b=fia.
+
Using laI2 lbI2 = 1 we find la1 = z t & . We obtain the eigenvalues and
corresponding orthonormal eigenvectors
1
A1 = -fiw, z(lo) + ill))
1
Xz = Aw, -(lo) -ill)).
Jz
(iii) We find Hn ( n E N) by observing that
H 2 = (fiw)2(10)(O(+ll)(ll)= ( f i ~ ) ~ I 2 , H 3 = (fiw)’H, H4 = ( f i ~ ) ~
Thus
Since U ( t ) := exp(-iHt/A) we have
j=O J’
For the NOT operation we use
U ( t = 7r/2w) = lO)(ll - I l ) ( O l .
The unitary transforms U((2k + 1)7r/2w), k E No implement the NOT

operation.
(iv) We have
Thus we find (U(t = n / 4 ~ )=) V~( t = 7r/2w), i.e. U ( t = 7r/4w) acts as the
square root of our NOT operation. Traditionally in quantum computation
we use
UNOT = lO)(ll + Il)(Ol *
In this case for the operation we use
Problem 3. Let az,ay,az be the Pauli spin matrices
(i) Find
Rl,(a) := exp(-ia(a, €3 1 2 ) ) , Rly(a):= exp(-ia(u, €3 1 2 ) )
where a E R and I 2 denotes the 2 x 2 unit matrix.

(ii) Consider the special case Rl,(a = 7r/2) and RlY(a= n/4). Calculate
R1, (7r/2)RlV( 7 r / 4 ) . Discuss.
Since u; = 1 2 we have
(a, €3 1 2 ) 2 = I 2 @ 1 2 .
Thus we find
where we used exp(-in/2) = -2. Analogously, we find

exp(-ia(a, 8 1 2 ) ) = ( 1 2 €3 I 2 ) cosa +e -i?r/2 (fly 8 1 2 ) sina
since
(UY8 12)2 = I2 812.
(ii) Since sin(r/2) = 1, cos(7r/2) = 0 we arrive at
~ 1 , ( r / 2 )= e-i?r/2(ux 8 1 2 ) .
From sin(r/4) = 4 / 2 , cos(n/4) = d / 2 it follows that
Thus
where we used that uxov= zuz. Therefore
where
is the Walsh-Hadamard gate. All the single operations are in the Lie
group SU(2) whose determinant is +1, while the determinant of the Walsh-
Hadamard gate is -1. Thus the overall phase is unavoidable.
Problem 4. Consider the state in the Hilbert space 7-l = C16
I$o) = 10101)
where 10101) = (0) 8 11) g 10) 8 11) and { lo), 11)} is the standard basis in
C2. Let
+l o w )
1
1$2) = Ul$l) = -(lOlOl)
Jz + IlOlO))
1
I$3) =SI$2) = -((0101) - 11010))
Jz
1
l$4) = -(lolol)
=u*1$3) - 10110))
Jz
($5) = B*J$4)= -10110).
Find the 16 x 16 unitary matrices B, U ,S which perform these transfor-
mations.
Solution 4. From the above equations we find the following

1
B(0101)= - ( l O l O l ) + (0110))
Jz
1
U-(~OlOl) + 10110)) = - (1l O l O l ) + IlOlO))
Jz Jz
1 1
S-((lOlOl) + polo)) = -(lOlOl) - (1010))
Jz Jz
1 1
U*-(~OlOl) - p o l o ) ) = -(lOlOl) - (0110))
Jz Jz
1
B*-((0101) - lOll0)) = - j O l l O ) .
Jz
A unitary transform maps an orthonormal basis to an orthonormal basis.
The above equations do not determine B, U and S uniquely. For simplicity
we let B, U and S act as the identity on subspaces for which the unitary
transformations are not constrained by the above equations. For B we have
1 1
BlOlOl) = 101) 8 -(iOl)
Jz + IlO)), B(0110) = 101) 8 -(110)
Jz - 101)).
One solution is
1
B = -14
Jz I4(10l + la)(001
8 (Ir)(Oll+ + IP)(111)
where
la) = 100)+Ill), 10) = 100) - Ill), 17) = 101) I l O ) , + 16) = 110) - (01).
This means that B maps from the computational basis to the Bell basis in
the second two qubits. For U we have
u
1
101) 8 -(lOl)
( J z
+ 110))
1; = -(lOlOl) + IlOlO))
and
We rewrite these equations in the simpler form
U(O101) = ( O l O l ) , U~OllO)= 11010)
A solution for U is then
u = 116 + (polo) - ~0110))((0110~

- (lOlO()
i.e., U is the identity except on the subspace spanned by 10110) and IlOlO),
where U swaps 10110) and 11010). For S we have
1 1
S-(~OlOl)
Jz + polo)) = -Jz
(lOlOl) - IlOlO)).
A solution for S is
s = 1 1 6 - 2~1010)(1010~
i.e., S is the identity except for changing the sign of 11010).
Problem 5. We define
2"-12"-1
This transform is called the quantum Fourier transform. Show that UQFT
is unitary. In other words show that UQFTUGFT = I p , where we use the
completeness relation
2"-1
j=O
Thus 1 2 - is the 2n x 2n unit matrix.
Solution 5 . From the definition (1) we find

- 2n-12"-1
where * denotes the adjoint. Therefore
We have for j = m, Thus for j, m = 0, 1, …, 2n – 1

Thus
Problem 6. Apply the quantum Fourier transform to the state in the

Hilbert space C 8
where the quantum Fourier transform is given by
We use
{lj) :j=o,l, ..., 7 )
as an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C 8 , where 17) = 1111) =
11)€3 11)€3 11).
Solution 6. We use Euler's identity
eie = cose + isine

and
N-I
We need to determine
li-(lc) = c7
j=O
e-i2?rki/8cos(2?rj/8)
=-
1
2
2 *)
( e z 2 s ( l - k ) j / 8 + e-i2m(l+k)j/8
j=O
Thus
Problem 7. Let
U I A is called the inversion about average operator. Show that U I A is uni-

tary. In other words show that U I A U ~ =AIp.
Hint: Use the completeness relation
Solution 7. From (1) we find
U;A =
j=O
c ($
2n-12n-1
k=O
-6jk) Ik)(jl = U I A .
Thus
where we used that (jlm)= Sj,. Furthermore, we find
2"-1
Therefore
Problem 8. Let { lo), 11)} be an orthonormal basis in the two-dimensional

Hilbert space C 2 and
1
UHlk) := - (lo)
Jz + (-l)kll)) k E {0,1}
U p s ( q := ~ O O ) ( O O+
~ lOl)(Oll+ I l O ) ( l O l + eie)ll)(lll
UCNOT:= (OO)(OO( + l O l ) ( O I l + IIO)(lll+ I l l ) ( l O l .
(i) From these definitions show that
UHUH= I2 .
(ii) Calculate
(12 c3 UH)UPS(*)(I2'8 U H ) b b )
and
( 1 2 8 UH)UCNOT(12'8 UH)lab)
where a , 6 E {0,1}. What is the use of these transforms?
Solution 8. (i) An arbitrary state in the Hilbert space C 2 can be written

as
I$) := al0) 611) +
where a , b E C and laI2 + l6I2 = 1. We find
1
UHUHI$)= U H - ( 4 0 ) +all) + 610) - 611))
Ji
1
+
= - (2~10) 2611))
2
= al0) + 611).
Thus, U H U H= 12.
(ii) We find
1
(I2 @ uH)uPS(=)(I2@ UH)lab)= (I2 8 UH)UPS(*)-\a) @ (10) + ( - l ) b l l ) )
Ji
1
= (I2 €3 uH)-la)
Jz 8 (10) + (-l)"+bll)
- ~1l a , a C B b )
-
where a @ 6 = a + 6 (modulo 2) is the XOR operation. We find

(12 '8 UH)UCNOT(I2'8 UH)lab)
= (-1)"bl.b).
The first computation is UCNOT,the second is Ups(*).
Problem 9. The XOR-gate is given by
where m,n E (0,l) and @ denotes addition modulo 2. The transformation

has the following properties: (a) it is unitary and thus reversible, (b) it is
hermitian, (c) m @ n = 0 if and only if m = n. The first index denotes
the state of the control qubit and the second index denotes the state of the
target qubit.
(i) A generalized quantum XOR-gate (GXOR-gate) should act on two d-

dimensional quantum systems (d > 2). In analogy with qubits one calls
these two systems qudits. The basis states Im) of each qudit are labelled by
elements in the ring z d which we denote by the numbers, m = 0 , 1 , . . . , d- 1,
with the usual rules for addition and multiplication modulo d. We define
two operators
) := Im) 8 Im CB n)
U G X O R ~€3I ~In)
and
UGXOR2Im) 8 In) := Im) @ Im 8 n)
where
m 0 n := (m- n) modulo d .
Discuss the properties of these two operators.
Solution 9. For U G X O Rwe ~ find that the operator is unitary but not
hermitian for d > 2. Therefore it is no longer its own inverse. We have to
obtain the inverse of the U G X O Rgate
~ by iteration, i.e.,
For the operator UGXOR2 we find that in the special case for d = 2 it
reduces to the XOR-gate. Furthermore, the operator is unitary, hermitian
and
m 8n = 0 modulo d
if and only if m = n.
Problem 10. Given an orthonormal basis in C N denoted by
(i) Show that
is a unitary matrix.
(ii) Find tr(U).
(iii) Find U N .
(iv) Does U depend on the chosen basis? Prove or disprove.
Hint. Consider N = 2, the standard basis (1,O ) T , (0, l)Tand the basis
&(I7 1IT7 50, -1IT.
(v) Show that the set
{ u,u2, . . . , U N }
forms a commutative group (abelian group) under matrix multiplication.

The set is a subgroup of the group of all permutation matrices.
(vi) Assume that the set given above is the standard basis. Show that the
matrix U is given by
U= [o
0
0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 ... 0
0 1 .;.
...
...
i)
Solution 10. (i) Since ( $ j l & ) = 6 j k we have
N-l
k=O
(ii) Obviously we have

tr(U) = 0
since the terms [$k)($kl do not appear in the sum (i.e. we calculate the
trace in the basis I$o), . . . , [ $ N - l ) ) .
(iii) We notice that U maps I 4 k ) to [ & - I ) . Applying this N times and

using modulo N arithmetic we obtain (i.e., U N maps Iq5k) to I & - N ) )
u ~ = I N .
(iv) For the standard basis in C 2 { (l,O)T, ( 0 ,l)T} we obtain
For the basis in C2 { %(11 l)T, h(1,-l)T}we obtain
Obviously the two unitary matrices are different.

(v) Since UN = I N = U o we have that
UsUt = Us+t = U s f t mod N
Thus the set of matrices {U, U 2 , . . . , U N } forms an abelian group under

matrix multiplication because {0,1,. . . , N - 1) forms a group under addi-
tion modulo N . The two groups are isomorphic.
(vi) Let ej denote the element of the standard basis in Cn with a 1 in the
j t h position (numbered from 0) and 0 in all other positions. Then U is
given by
N-2
k=O
In the product e k denotes the row and er+l denotes the column in
the matrix U . Thus we obtain the matrix described above.
Problem 11. (i) Let uz7uy and (T, be the Pauli spin matrices and I2 be
the 2 x 2 unit matrix. Find
(ii) Replace by in the expressions given above and calculate the

expressions.
(iii) Given the one-dimensional XY-model with open boundary conditions
where the parameter X is the intensity of the magnetic field applied in the
z-direction and the parameter y determines the degree of anisotropy of the
spin-spin interaction, which is restricted to the xy-plane in spin space. Find
j = - N/2+1 j=-N/2+1
Solution 11. (i) Since a: = 1 2 and

u,u,u, = -az
we find for the first expression
Analogously, we find
(ii) Replacing by and using yields
(iii) Using the results from (i) and (ii) and extending from N=4 to arbi-
trary N, we find
j = - N/2+1
From (ii) and (iii) we find that the Hamilton operator f i ~ is

y invariant
under this transformation.
Problem 12. Consider the state
ID) @ IP)
where ID)is a state to describe a m-qubit data register and IP) is a state to
describe an n-qubit program register. Let G be a unitary operator acting
on this product state
ID) €4 IP) + G(ID) €4 IP)).

The unitary operator is implemented as follows. A unitary operator U

acting on the m-qubits of the data register, is said to be implemented by
this gate array if there exists a state (Pu)of the program register such that
G ( P ) @ IPu)) = (UP)) @ 1%)

for all states ID)of the data register and some state lP;) of the data reg-
ister. (i) Show that lPb) does not depend on ID).
(ii) Suppose distinct (up to a global phase) unitary operators U1,. . . , UN

are implemented by some programmable quantum gate array. Show that
the corresponding programs IPl), .. . , If”)
are mutually orthogonal.
Solution 12. (i) Consider
G(ID2) €3 IP)) = (UID2))@ IG).

Taking the scalar product of these two equations and using GtG = I,
UtU = I and (PIP)= 1 we find
If (Dl(D2) # 0 we find (E‘iIPi) = 1. Thus
IP:) =
Consequently, there is no ID) dependence of IPL). What happens for
(D1102) = 0 ?
(ii) Suppose that IP) and IQ) are programs which implement unitary op-
erators Up and U, which are distinct up to global phase changes. Then for
an arbitrary data state ID) we have
G(ID) @ IP)) = (UPID)) @ IP’)

G(lD) @ IQ)) @‘,ID)) @ IQ’)
where IP’) and 19’) are states of the program register. Taking the scalar
product of these two equations and using GtG = I , (DID) = 1 we obtain
(QW= (Q’IP’)(DIu~upID).
Suppose that (Q’lP’) # 0. Then we have
The left-hand side of this equation has no ID)dependence. Thus we have

V,Up = c l for some complex number c. It follows that we can only have
(P’IQ’) # 0 if Up and U, are the same up to a global phase. However we
assumed that this is not the case and therefore (Q’IP’) = 0. Hence
(QP)= 0 .
This means the programs I&) and J P )are orthogonal.
Problem 13. (i) Let
1 2 0 0
M:=L (
0 0 22 ; l ) .
d o 0
1 -2 0
Is the matrix M unitary?

(ii) Let
1 0
and
Show that the matrix M can be written as
M = UClvOTZ(12 C3 U H ) ( SC3 S ) .
(iii) Let SO(4) be the special orthogonal Lie group. Let SU(2) be the
special unitary Lie group. Show that for every real orthogonal matrix U E
S0(4), the matrix M U M p 1 is the Kronecker product of two 2-dimensional
special unitary matrices, i.e.,
MUM-^ Esu(2)~su(2).
Solution 13. (i) Since M M * = I4 we find that M is unitary.

(ii) We obtain
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 - -- 0 0 0 - 1
J Z J Z
(iii) We show that for every A 8 B E SU(2) 8 SU(2), we have
M - l ( A 8 B ) M E SO(4).
Now every matrix A E SU(2) can be written as
R Z k W Y( w L ( P >
for some a , p, 6 E R, where
Therefore any matrix A 8 B E SU(2) 8 SU(2) can be written as a product

of the matrices of the form V 8 12 or I2 8 V , where V is either Ry(0) or
&(a). Next we have to show that M - l ( V 8 I z ) M and M - 1 ( 1 2 8 V ) M are
in SO(4). We have
cOs(ej2) 0 0 - sin(O/2)
cos(6/2) sin(e/2)
M-l(%(e) 8 =
- sin(8/2) 0
cos(8/2)
( sin(O/2)
O 0 0 O
cOs(q2) )
cos(0/2) sin(a/2) 0 0
M - l ( R , ( a ) 8 I2)M
the mapping
=
- sin(a/2)
( :
cos(a/2)
0
0
We have similar equations for the cases of I2 8 %(e) and
0
cos(a/2)
sin(a/2)
0
-sin(a/2)
cos(a/2)
1 2 8 R,(a).
1
Since
'
A 8 B -+ M - ~ ( A BB)M
is one-to-one (invertible) and the Lie groups SU(2) @J SU(2) and SO(4)
have the same topological dimension, we conclude that the mapping is an
isomorphism between these two Lie groups. In quantum computing M is
called the magic gate.
Problem 14. Consider three two-dimensional Hilbert spaces % I , F l 2 and

7&. Consider the normalized product state
1 1 1
j = o k=o e=o
in the product Hilbert space 'HI 8 F l 2 8 W 3 . Let U1, U2, U, be unitary

operators acting in these Hilbert spaces. By the First Fundamental Theo-
rem of invariant theory applied to U1, U Z ,U3, any polynomial in c j k e which
is invariant under the action on I$) of the local unitary transformation
Ui 63 Uz 63 U3 is a sum of homogeneous polynomials of even degree (say 2 r ) .

For r = 1 we have
1 1 1
- -
j1=0 kl=Oel=O
where 01 and 02 are permutations of 1. We denote by e the identity per-

mutation. For r = 2 we have
(i) Calculate the invariants.

(ii) Describe the connection with the partial traces
of the density operator

P := I$)($l
Solution 14. (i) Obviously for the case r = 1 (degree 2 ) we only have
the identity permutation, i.e.,
with
e(1) = 1, e(2) = 2 .
Thus we find only one invariant, namely
1 1 1
which is the normalization condition. For the case r =2 (degree 4) we find

four linearly independent quartic invariants since
e(1) = 1, e ( 2 ) = 2 , u ( 1 )= 2 , 4 2 ) = 1.
Thus
1 1 1 1 1 1
j, =o kl=o el=o j z = o k z = o ez=o

Unitary f i a n s f o n s and Q u a n t u m Gates 85
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) We have
Problem 15. Consider two Hilbert spaces Xreg

and XsYsand the product
state
I$) = ( a ( O r e g )+ Pl1‘“g)) @ los””)
in the Hilbert space Xreg@ Xsys, where reg stands for register and sys for
system. Consider the swap operation (swap gate)
Discuss the operation on physical grounds.
Solution 15. Creating such a superposition could violate conservation

laws (for example charge) and in this case is forbidden by superselection
rules.
Problem 16. The Toffoli gate is the unitary operator acting as
UTla, b, c ) = la, b, ab + c)
in the Hilbert space C8, where a , b, c E { 0, 1} and ab denotes the AND
+
operation of a and b. The addition is modulo 2.
(i) Find the truth table.
(ii) Find the matrix representation for the standard basis.
The Toffoli gate is an extension of the CNOT-gate.

a b CIIU b ab+c
0 0 0110 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
(ii) The matrix representation of the Toffoli gate is given by the permutation
matrix
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Problem 17. The Fredkin gate is the unitary operator acting as
UFIC, 5,y) = Ic, cx + cy, ex + cy)

in the Hilbert space C8, where c, x, y E { 0, 1}.
(i) Consider the cases c = 0 and c = 1.
(ii) Find the matrix representation for the standard basis.
Solution 17. (i) For c = 0 we have F = 1. Therefore
cx = 0, Ex = 2, cy = 0, cg= y.
Thus
UFlO, x, Y) = 10, Y, 4 *
For c = 1 we have c = 0. Therefore cx = x, ex = 0, cy = y, Ey = 0. Thus
Consequently c is a control bit. If c = 0 then x and y swap around. If c = 1

then x and y stay the same.
(ii) The matrix representation of the F'redkin gate is given by the permu-
tation matrix
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Chapter 7
Measurement
In quantum measurement models we consider what kind of measurements

can be made on quantum systems as well as how to determine the probabil-
ity that a measurement yields a given result. The effect that measurement
has on the state of a quantum system is also important.
Problem 1. Assume that Alice operates a device that prepares a quan-

tum system and Bob does subsequent measurement on the system and
records the results. The preparation device indicates the state the system
is prepared in. A preparation readout event j , where j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,m of the
preparation device is associated with a linear non-negative definite opera-
tor A j acting on the state space of the system. The operators A j need not
be orthogonal to each other. The measurement device also has a readout
event k , where k = 1 , 2 , . . . , n that shows the result of the measurement.
A measurement device is associated with a measurement device operator
r k which is also linear and non-negative definite. For example, for a won
Neumann measurement this operator would be a pure state projector. Let
m. n
j=1 k=l
Give an interpretation of the following probabilities
88
Measurement 89
Solution 1. Expression (1)is the probability associated with a particular

point (j,k)in the sample space. Expression (2) is the probability that, if
an experiment chosen at random has a recorded combined event, this event
includes preparation event j. Expression (3) is the probability that the
recorded combined event includes the measurement event k. Expression
(4) is the probability that, if the recorded combined event includes event
j, it also includes event k. That is, it is the probability that the event
recorded by Bob is the detection of the state corresponding to r k if the state
prepared by Alice in the experiment corresponds to Aj. This expression can
be used for prediction. In order to calculate the required probability from a
knowledge of the operator A j associated with the preparation event j, every
possible operator r k must be known, that is, the mathematical description
of the operation of the measuring device must be known. Analogously, (5)
is the probability that the state prepared by Alice corresponds to A j if the
event recorded by Bob is the detection of the state corresponding to r k .
This expression can be used for retrodiction if r k and all the A j operators
of the preparation device are known.
Problem 2. Let A be an n x n hermitian matrix. Then the eigenvalues

Xj, j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,n are real. Assume that all eigenvalues are distinct. The
matrix A can be written as (spectral representation)
n
A= CXjPj, Pj = Iuj)(ujl
j=1
where Iuj) are the normalized eigenvectors of A with eigenvalue X j . For

the projectors Pj we have P j P k = bjkpj. Every observable A defines a pro-
jective measurement. A state I$) in C nsubject to projective measurement
by observable
n
A= CXjPj,
j=1
Pj = (uj)(uj(
goes into state

with probability
The eigenvalues X j are registered as the measured value. If the system is

subjected to the same measurement immediately after a projective mea-
surement, the same outcome occurs with certainty. The expectation of the
measured value is
n
( A ) = C A j P ( d = (@lAl@).
j=1
(i) Let
A=(: ;a).
Find the spectral representation of A.

(ii) Let
Calculate
Solution 2. (i) The eigenvalues of A are A1 = 1 and A2 = -1. The

corresponding eigenvectors are
Thus
+
with I2 = PA, PA,and A = PA,- PA,.
(ii) We have
Thus
Measurement 91
Problem 3. A positive operator-valued measure (POVM) is a collection
{ E j : j= 1,2,...,n}
of nonnegative (positive semi-definite) operators, satisfying

n
j=1
where I is the identity operator. In other words a partition of unity (iden-

tity operator) by nonnegative operators is called a positive operator-valued
measure (POVM). When a state I$) is subjected to such a POVM, outcome
j occurs with probability
Consider a qubit system. Let
and
I$) = -
1
p+ 11)).
Find p(1) and p ( 2 ) .
Solution 3. Since (010) = (111)= 1 and (011) = (110) = 0 we find
Problem 4. Consider the states
I$)
1
= -100)
fi
+ 6111) fi 1
-10) I8 10) + 611) €9 11)
and
14) = 111) = 11)I8 11).
Find p := l($l$)I2, i.e., the probability of finding I$) in the state 14).
Solution 4. Since (lll00) = 0 and (11111)= 1 we obtain

2
p= 3'
Problem 5. Consider the state
and
(01 @ I 2
where 12 is the 2 x 2 unit matrix. Find
Discuss.
Solution 5. Since (010) = 1, (011) = 0 and 1211) = Il),we obtain
The first system is measured with probability 1/2 and the system collapses
to the state 11) (partial measurement).
Problem 6. Consider the states
in the Hilbert space C2 and the state
in the Hilbert space C4. Let (a,P E R)

la) := cosa10) + sinall)
Ip) := cosPI0) + sinPI1)
be states in C2. Find the probability
P ( % P ) := I((4€9 (Pl)l$)I2.
Discuss p as a function of a and P.
Measurement 93
Solution 6. Since
(010) = (111)= 1, (011) = (110) = 0
it follows that
We find
1
p ( a , p) = - (cos a sin L,I - sin a cos p12 .
2
Using a trigonometric identity we arrive at
1
p ( ~p), = 2 sin2(cr - p) .
Thus p ( a , p) 5 1/2 for all a,/3 since sin2 q5 5 1 for all q5 E R. For example,
if Q = p we have p = 0. If a - p = 7r/4 we have p = 1/2.
Problem 7. Let
denote the phase change transform on a single qubit.

(i) Calculate (4 E R)
(ii) Determine the probability that the state Is(0, $)) is in the state
(a) 10) (b) 11) (4 I ~ ( e ~ 7 4 ) ) .

The real parameters 0 and q5 can be interpreted as spherical co-ordinates
which define any qubit on the unit sphere called the Bloch sphere.

The most general state of a single qubit is described by three real parame-
ters
The parameter u represents the global phase, and can be ignored since it
cannot be detected in the measurement model. The same applies to the
global phase exp(z(~/4- 4/2)) in the derivation. Thus 0 and 4 can be used
to define any single qubit Is(O,4)).
(ii) For the probabilities ( u ) we have
2 0
I(ols(e14))12 = cos 5.
For the probability (b) we have
l(ils(e,4))12
= sin2 0 z.
For the probability l(s(O’, @)Is(O, q5))I2 we find
Thus
where we used (010) = (111)= 1 and (011) = (110) = 0. It follows that

2 1 1 1 1
l(s(B’, 4’)ls(e,4))12= cos -(+’--+) cos2 -(6‘-8)+sin2 -(4’-+)
2 2
cos2 -(O’+e).
2 2
If 0‘ = 8 and 4’ = 4 we find 1 for the probability.
Problem 8. Consider the finite-dimensional Hilbert space C” with n > 2.

Consider an orthonormal basis
Measurement 95
Let E be any projector in it, and Ej := l j ) ( j l , where j = 0,1,. . . ,n - 1.

Let the probability of obtaining 1 when measuring E be P ( E ) . Then
P ( I ) = 1, 0 5 P ( E ) 5 1, P(0) = 0 , EjEk = 6jkEj.
P(E0 + El + + En-l)= P(E0)+ P(E1)+ . . . + P ( E n - l ) .

*. * (1)
A state s is determined by the function P ( E ) which satisfies (1). Gleason’s
theorem states that for any P ( E ) which satisfies (1) there exists a density
matrix p such that
P ( E ) = tr(pE) .
In other words, s is described by the density matrix p. Show that Gleason’s
theorem does not hold in two-dimensional Hilbert spaces.
Solution 8. In the two-dimensional Hilbert space consider the eigenvalue

equation
(a.n>lm)= Im>
where u .n := clnl + 02722 + 03723, n is the unit vector (Ilnll = 1)
n := (sin 8 cos 4, sin 8 sin 4, cos 0 )
with 0 5 8 5 ~ r0, 5 4 < 21r and
The projector onto Im) is given by
:
since cos sin $ = f sine. Equation (1) holds with
P(E, + Ern)
= P ( E m )+ P(E-,) = P(1) = 1, ErnE-, = 0 .
It is not difficult to find probability distribution functions Pm = P(8,4)
such that no density matrix p exists. An example is
1 ~ 0 ~ ~ 8
P(e,4)= -2 + -
2 .
Problem 9. Consider the two qubits in the Hilbert space C2
1$1) + sin(0~/2)e~4111)
:= cos(e1/2)1o)
1$2) := cos(e2/2)10)+ sin(82/2)ei4211) .

(i) Find the product state I$) = 1$1) €3 1$2).

(ii) Consider the qutrit state in the Hilbert space C 3
To encode the state I $ J ~ ) €3 I&) we use the state 14) and perform projec-
tive measurements on the state 14) @ ([$I) @ I&)) given by the projection
operators acting in the Hilbert space C 3 €3 C4
Find the probability
(ii) Using (i) we have
P o ( l 4 €3 I+))
Measurement 97
Then
Since
we obtain
where we used sin2 CY + cos2 CY = 1.

Chapter 8
Entanglement
Entanglement is the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics which en-

forces its entire departure from classical lines of thought. Let 3-11 and 7 t 2
be two finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces and let I$) E 3-11 8 3-12. Then 14)
is said to be disentangled, separable or a product state if there exist states
I$l) E 3-11 and I$2) E 3-12 such that I$) = [$I) 8 I&), otherwise I$) is said
to be entangled.
Problem 1. Can the EPR-state (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosenstate)
in the Hilbert space C4 be written as a product state?
Solution 1. This state cannot be written as product state. Assume that

1
(Co10)+C111))8(do10)+dl11)) COY c1, dO7dl E c
= - ( ~ o ) 8 ~ 1 ) - ~ ~ ) 8 ~7 o ) )
Jz
where lcoI2 + lc1I2 = 1 and Idol2 + ld1I2 = 1. Then we obtain the system of
equations
This set of equations admits no solution. Thus the EPR-state cannot be

written as a product state. The EPR-state is entangled.
98
Entanglement 99
Problem 2. Consider the Hilbert space C2 8 C2 and the unitary 2 x 2

matrix
Which of the following states are entangled?
where 8 denotes the Kronecker product and denotes the transpose.
Solution 2. We use the fact that the vector (x1,X2,23,24)T E C4 is

separable if and only if 2 1 x 4 = ~ 2 x 3 Thus
.
Now we apply the separability criteria.

For (i) we have
Thus the state is not entangled.

For (ii) we have
e-i41 el -i4z sin

sin -e
. - el cos -
e2 cos - e2 = e-241 sin -
01 8 1 . (32
cos %e-i+z cos - sin -.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Thus the state is not entangled.
For (iii) we obtain
Thus
01
cos2 -cos 2 62
-+sin 2 01
-sin 2
- 0 sin
02 # -cos2 A e2
- -sin
2 61
-cos 2 62
-
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
el d2 el
=cos - cos - +sin -sin
a2
- - 1.
2 2 2 2
Thus the state is entangled.
Problem 3. A general pure state I@) of two qubits can be written as
IQ) = ei+o cos e0loo) + ea41 sin o,, cos el 101)

+ei42 sin 80sin 81 cos 8 2 110) + ei43 sin 80 sin sin O2 111)
where $ j and 8 k are chosen uniformly according to the Haar measure

1
dp = -d(sin 8~)~d$od~$ld$2d~$3
Oo)6d(sin81)~d(sin (2)
with
n-
O<$j<<T, 0<8k<- (3)
2
where j = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 and k = 0,1,2. An extra overall random phase ezdo
is included to maintain consistency with S U ( n ) ,where n = 4. For a pure
state of two qubits the tangle r , is defined as
7 := 4 d e t p ~ (4)
where PA is the reduced density matrix obtained when qubit B has been
traced over (or vice versa, permuting A and B ) . The tangle T is an entan-
glement measure.
Solution 3. From (1) we obtaivn the density matrix
(5)
where
$2 = ei42 sin 60 sin 81 cos 82, $3 = ei43sin 80 sin 81 sin 82 . (6)

Using the basis
where is the unit matrix we find the matrix
Thus the determinant of (8) is given by

Entanglement 101
Therefore
det P A = $O!b:$3$: -k '$1$;$2$; - $0$;$;$3 - $0*$1$2$3'. (lo)

Inserting ( 6 ) into (10) we get
det P A = cos260 sin2 60 sin2 61 sin2 6 2 + sin460cos26'1 sin281 cos2 6 2

+ ei(-'$0+'$1+'$2-'$3)
-(e'i('$O-'$l-'$Z-'#'3)
1
x sin3 60 cos 60 sin2 81 cos 61 sin 6 2 cos 6 2 .
From (2) we find

48
-cos &(sin 6 0 ) cos61
~ (sin61)~
cos82 sin 62dBodBld82dq5odq51d~2dq53
(27r)4
and
J,,,,) dp = 1
i.e., the Haar measure is normalized. Here we made use of
where k = 1,2, . , . and

dq5 = 27r.
Integrating det P A (or det p ~ over

) the Haar measure gives
2
(r)= -
5
where we used
and
1
sin(z) cos(z)da: = - .
2
A randomly selected pure state of two qubits might thus be expected to have
0.4 tangle units of entanglement. The four Bell states have the maximum
possible entanglement, i.e., T = 1. The product state 100) has T = 0.
Problem 4. We consider the Hilbert space HA8 H B , where
XA = H B = c2.
(i) Consider the state
Calculate
and
where denotes the von Neumann entropy.

(ii) Consider the state
Calculate
and
(iii) Consider the state
where Ul and U2 are unitary matrices acting on C 2 . Calculate
PA := tr%~(l$)($l), -tr(PA log2 PA).

(iv) Consider the state
where Ul and U2 are unitary matrices acting on C2. Calculate
P A := tr'He (I'd')($l)
Entanglement 103
and
Solution 4. (i) We choose the standard basis in C2 to calculate the trace.

For the density matrix p we find
Therefore
Analogously
= (; ; : :) I@)(@l(:
1 0
0 0
;)
0 0
+ ( 0O 0O 0 1") I@)(@l(i
0
:)
1
='(
4 -1 -1l ) + a ( ' l ;')
='( -1)
2 - 1 1 .
In this case, PA = p ~ We. diagonalise P A . The eigenvalues are 0 and

1 with corresponding orthonormal eigenvectors h(1,
l ) T and h ( 1 , -l)T,
respectively. Thus
where we used 0 log, 0 = 0 and 1log, 1 = 0.

(ii) We choose the standard basis in C2 to calculate the trace. We have
Thus
Entanglement 105
+ ( 0O 0 0O 1O )lWl (E 8)
0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
=2(0 l)+5(0 0)=5(0 1).
Therefore
=1
where we used that log, f = -1.

(iii) We choose the basis
{ UZ(:) u2 (;) }
to calculate the partial trace. We have
1 -1 -1 1
1 1
-1 -1
Therefore
1u1(1'
=-
2 .') u;.
We diagonalise PA. The eigenvalues are 0 and 1 with corresponding or-

thonormal eigenvectors L U l ( 1 l ) T and &U1( 1 -l)T, respectively.
4
Thus
where we used
0 0
log2 ( 0 1) = ( 0 log, 0
0 O
1log21)=(: :)
(iv) We choose the basis
to calculate the partial trace. We have
and therefore
/ 1 0 0 -l\
1 0 0 - 1
+(; !i))@(O : : :)(; +(;)

I ) ( : -1 0 0 -1
-(l
- 0 0 o)(: 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
: : ") (k 8)
- 1 0 0 - 1 0 0
Entanglement 107
+(o 1 0 o
0 0 0 1
)(k
0 0 0 0
: : il)(Y :) 0 0
- 1 0 0 - 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
= I ( o l ) + l ( O o)=,(o 1).
Thus
We choose the basis
{ Ul (;) 1 Ul (Y )}
to calculate the trace. Thus
=1
where we used the cyclic invariance of the trace, log, f = -1 and that U1
is a unitary matrix, i.e., UlU; = Iz.
Problem 5 . Let 7 i A and 'HB be two finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces

over C . Let I$) denote a pure state in the Hilbert space ' H A @ 3 - 1 ~ . Let
{lo), 11))denote an orthonormal basis in C2. The Schmidt number (also
called the Schmidt rank) of I$) E ' H A 8 'HB over 'HA @ 3 - 1 ~is the smallest
non-negative integer Sch(I$), 3 - 1 3~- 1~~ )such that I$) can be written as
where I$~)A E ' H A and I$~)B E 3-1~.
Let
be the Schmidt decomposition of I$) over 1 - l ~'8 'HE,where d l and d2 are

the dimensions of the subsystems. Then the Schmidt number is the num-
ber of non-zero X j . The are the eigenvalues of the matrix trB(1$)(41).
Clearly a separable state has Schmidt number 1 and an entangled state has
Schmidt number greater than 1.
Let f : (0, 1}2 4 (0,l) be a boolean function. We define
I$f) :=
1
5 c
a,bE{OJ)
(-1)f(qa) (8 Ib).
For f we select the AND, OR and XOR operations. The AND, OR and
XOR operations are given by
0 01 0 0 0
Find the Schmidt numbers of [$AND), I$oR) and I$XOR) over C 2'8 C2.
Solution 5 . From (1) we obtain

1
+ (-l)o.llol) + (-l)l.opo) + (-1)l.lIll))
[ + A N D ) = ~((-1)o'o~oo)
1
= -(loo) + 101)+ 110) - 111))
2
where . denotes the AND operation. Analogously we find for the OR and
XOR operations
1
I$OR) = Z(l00) - 101) - (10)- 111))
1
I $ X O R ) = ~ ( 1 0 0-
) +
101) - 110) 111)).
Next we take the partial trace of I+AND)($AND~. We obtain
trE(l$AND)($ANDI)= (12 '8 (ol)l$AND)($ANDI(I2 '8 lo))

+(I28 (11)I@AND)($ANDI(12 '8 11))
1
4
= -(210)(01 + 211)(11)
1
= +.
In the above calculation we used the fact that

Entanglement 109
where denotes the Kronecker delta and lab) = la) @I Ib). Similarly we
find
1
~~B(I$oR)($oRI) = 512
Clearly the eigenvalues of
and
The eigenvalues of are 0 and 1. Thus
We note that
Problem 6. Let { lo), Il),. . . , In - 1)} be an orthonormal basis in C".

(i) Is
independent of the chosen orthonormal basis?

(ii) Find l$)($l.
(iii) Find
1 "-l"-l
p := 5 XW)
- Ikj))((jkl - (Icjl)
j=O z
where we used the short-cut notation Ijk) = l j ) @ Ik). What is the use of
this operator?
Solution 6. (i) Let
be an orthonormal basis in C". Then we have the expansion

n-1
Thus I$) can be written as
where we used
Note that for the sum

n-1
j=O
we cannot apply Parseval’s relation. Parseval’s relation would apply to
c
n-1
j=O
($klj)(+llj) = ( 4 k l 4 l ) = d k l .
Thus the Bell state I$J) is dependent on the chosen basis. However, if
all scalar products ( j l 4 k ) are real numbers then 1111) is independent of the
chosen basis.
(ii) We have
. 7%-ln-1
. n-ln-1
(iii) Clearly, P* = P . Furthermore

. n-1 n-1
. n-1 7%-1
A j=o j # k 1=0 l#m

. n-1 n-1
= P.
Entanglement 111
Thus P is a projection matrix. It projects onto the space spanned by
{-+(ljb)-l/cj)) : j,bE{O,1, ..., n-11, b > j
Problem 7. One particularly interesting state in quantum computing

is the Greenberger-Home-Zeilinger state (GHZ state). This state of three
qubits acts in the Hilbert space C8and is given by
(i) Find the density matrix
P = 1$)($1.
(ii) Let uo = 1 2 , o17u2 and a 3 be the Pauli spin matrices, where I 2 is the
2 x 2 unit matrix. Show that p can be written as linear combinations in
terms of Kronecker products of Pauli matrices (including no), i.e.,
P= 'c c 1
23
3 3
jl=OjZ=Oj3=0
3
cjl , i i 2 , j 3 u j 1 ~uij2 8 ui3 .

1
(~~=-(10000001).
fi
Thus
(1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
p=-
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(ii) We find
with
Problem 8. Consider a symmetric matrix A over R

all a12 a13 a14
a14 a24 a34
and the Bell basis
The Bell basis forms an orthonormal basis in R4. Let 2 denote the matrix
A in the Bell basis. What is the condition on the entries aij such that the
matrix A is diagonal in the Bell basis?
Solution 8. Obviously we have
i.e., the matrix A is also symmetric. Straightforward calculation yields

Entanglement 113
The condition that the matrix 2 should be diagonal leads to

a11 - a44 = 0, a22 - a33 = 0
and
a12 = a13 = a24 = a34 = 0
with the entries a14 and a23 arbitrary. Thus the matrix A has the form
Problem 9. Let I$) be a given state in the Hilbert space C". Let X and
Y be two n x n hermitian matrices. We define the correlation as
WIXYl$) - (~lXldJ)(~IYlTN~
Let n = 4 and
x=(: ; ; x).
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
y = ( 0o 0 01 1 .)
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
and
Find the correlation.
Solution 9. Since
we have Thus
Problem 10. Consider a bipartite qutrit system 7 - l ~= X H =~ C3 with

an arbitrary orthonormal basis { lo), Il),12) } in H A and X H ~respectively.
,
(i) Find the antisymmetric subspace H- on H 8 7 - l ~ .
(ii) Find an arbitrary antisymmetric state on H@".
Solution 10. (i) The antisymmetric subspace IH- on 'HA ~ 3 7 - fis~defined

as
(ii) An antisymmetric state on ‘Wn

is given by
2 2
where
and E is the Levi-Civita symbol,i.e. Eijk = 1 for (zjlc) = (123) and its even
permutations, and -1 for odd permutations and 0 otherwise.
Problem 11. Consider the density matrix (Werner state) in C4.
1-r
pw := rI4+)(4+)+ -144
where I++) = &(l,O,O, l)Tis the Bell state, and 0 5 r 5 1.
(i) Find tr(p,) and the eigenvalues of pw.
(ii) Determine the concum-ence
C ( p w ) = max{ XI - A2 - A3 - X4, O }
where XI L XZ 2 A3 2 Xq are the eigenvalues of pw.
(1 + r ) / 4 0 0
(1 -r)/4 0
pw=( 0
O 0 (1 - r ) / 4 0
r/2 0 0 (1 + r)/4 )
ri2 .
Thus tr(pw) = 1. The eigenvalues of pw are (1 + r)/4 + r/2 = (1 + 3r)/4
and (1 - r)/4 with multiplicity 3.
(ii) From (i) it follows that
X i - X2 - A3 - A4 = (1 + 3r)/4 - 3(1- ~ ) / 4= (3r - 1)/2.
The concurrence is
C(pw)= m a { ( % - 1)/2,0}.
If r = 0 we have C ( p w ) = 0 and if r = 1 then C ( p w ) = 1. For r = 4 we

find C(pw)= a.
Entanglement 115
Problem 12. Let p be a density matrix over C28 C2 = C4.We define

the entanglement of formation as
where { p k , I&)} indicates that the minimum should be taken over all mix-
tures which realize p. J{pk, I&)}) is the number of pure states comprising
the mixture and
S(a) := -tr(a log, a)
is the von Neumann entropy. The minimum is taken over all mixtures
(Po7 Id'0))7 (pli I$l)>, . . . 1

which realize p where the cardinality of the set is obviously determined by
the mixture and is finite. We can calculate E f ( p )from
where
is the concurrence, A 1 2 A2 2 As 2 A4 are the eigenvalues of
and
h(P) := -P log2 P - (1 - P>log,(l - PI
is the Shannon entropy. Find E f ( p )for the Werner state
5
pw := --l4+)(4+1+
8
;(14-)(4-1 + l++)(++l + 1+-)(+-1)
1 1
= ++)($+I
2
+ 814
where 14f) = h(1,O,O, l)Tis the Bell state.
P w = - 1(
8
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
)
2 0 0 3
Hence
where
0 0 0 - 1
0 0 1 0
- 1 0 0 0
Thus
13 0 0 12
P&Y 8 y.P
)y
.(: @ )y. = P: = -
The eigenvalues are g, & , a1 and &. The concurrence is
This result is consistent with solution 11when T = a. Thus E f ( p )= 0.1176.

Problem 13. Let 7 - l ~and 7 - l ~denote two finite-dimensional Hilbert
spaces. Consider the Hamilton operator
fi = X A 8 xg
where the linear operator X A = X i ' acts on 7 - l ~and the linear operator
X g = X,' acts on 7 - l ~ Furthermore
. fi = fi-'. Let I+) E 'HA B 7 - l ~The
.
v o n N e u m a n n entropy is given by
E(I'$)):= -trA(PA log2 P A )

where P A = trg(l'$)('$l). The entanglement capability of fi is defined as
E(I;I) := max r(t)It+o
I~L)EXA@XB
where
is the state entanglement rate.

(i) Show that
r(t)= 2trA (trE([fi, l$)('$l] log2 P A )
where [, ] denotes the commutator.
(ii) Show that an upper bound on r(t)It-o is given by
5 1.9123.
r(t)It+o
Entanglement 117
Solution 13. Let PAB(t) := l$(t))($(t)land PA(t) := trB(PAB(t)). We

have
PAB(t) = exp(-ifit)PAB(o) eXp(zkt)
and the time evolution of p ~ ~ ((von
t ) Neumann equation) is given by
Thus
It follows that
since
Let
be a Schmidt decomposition of
U '
j=1
and
{ I ~ l ) , . . . , I ~ S c h ( l d J ( O ) )>,
)) {l'%)i...i I%ch(ldJ(O)))) 1
are orthonormal sets of states. Sch(l+(O))) denotes the Schmidt rank of
I$(O)) over 7 - l ~8 7 - l ~ Thus .
m=l n=l
m= 1 n=l
m=l n=l
where we used the result
m=l n=l
Since
and
we find
m=l n=l
Entanglement 119
where we used
m=l n=l
m=l n=l
since X; = I and Xi = I.
Problem 14. Consider the Hamilton operator
H=P,ux@~z+Py~y@~y7 PX7PYER
where u, and uy are Pauli spin matrices.
(i) Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of fi.
(ii) Are the eigenvectors entangled?
(iii) Let I$) E C4. The von N e u m a n n entropy is given by
E(I+)):= -t+A log2 PA)
where PA := trcz(I$)($l). The entanglement capability of H is defined as
where
is the state entanglement rate. Show that
where
0 0 0 Px - P y
0 PX+PY 0 0
Px - PY 0 0 0
The eigenvalues are p, - py with corresponding eigenvector
py - px with corresponding eigenvector
1
I+-) = -(l,O,O,-l)T
Jz
px + py with corresponding eigenvector
and -px - py with corresponding eigenvector
1
I$-) = -(O, 1,-1,O)T.
Jz
(ii) Clearly all four eigenvectors are entangled (Bell basis).
(iii) Consider
where xo E ( 0 , l ) satisfies
a =2 d q C G j l o g , ("> xo
1- .
Now we have
Entanglement 121
Defining
and
we find
Thus
d
r ( t ) = --(a! log, a;
dt
+ a$ log, a$)
cos(2tp) - J i T G s i n ( 2 t p )
+
e s i n ( 2 t p ) JiTGcos(2tp)
+
where p = p, py and we used that a1 and a2 satisfy the system of linear
differential equations
da1- -
- da2
-
-a27 = al.
dt dt
Since H is asymptotically equivalent to (p, + py)a, €3 0, and
E((P2 + P y ) G €3 4I (pz + py)a

and using
+ py)2dx-log2
r(0)= (pz 1- 20 = a ( p , + p y )
-20
we find E(@)= a(p, + py).
Problem 15. Consider the orthonormal basis { lo), 11)1. . . In - 1)} in

the Hilbert space C n . We assume in the following that this is the standard
basis. Consider the states (coherent states)
(
ID) = 1 -
n-1
k=l
xk
)
1/2
10) + c
n-1
k=l
&%+lk)
where (bk E [0,2n), 0 5 x k 5 1 and the constraints
o < X j < 1 - c
n-1
k=j+l
Xkl j = 1 , 2 ) . . . )n - 2 .
Given the Lebesgue measure
(i) Let n = 4. Then the state Ip) is given by
Show that this state is normalized.

(ii) Calculate
P = IP)(PI*
(iii) Show that the coherent states ID) satisfy
Entanglement 123
where d & 3 ) is the uniform measure given above and R the domain for
q5j(j = 1 , 2 , 3 ) and xk(k = 1 , 2 , 3 ) described above. 14 is the 4 x 4 unit
matrix. This equation is called the resolution of identity and a coherent
state must satisfy this condition.
(iv) Find the reduced density matrix from IP) and a condition for entan-
glement.
Solution 15. (i) Taking the scalar product we have
Thus the state is normalized.

(ii) We find the 4 ´ 4 matrix
(iii) Since
and
we find the 4 ´ 4 identity matrix.

(iv) Let 10)4, 11)4, 12)4, 13)4 be the standard basis in C4 and 10)2, 11)2 be the
standard basis in C 2 . Then we can write lo), = 10)2@10)21) l ) 4 = 10)2@11)2,
)2)4 = )1)2 €9 lo), and )3)4 = )1)2 @ )1)2 with the coefficients
Qo = (1 -21 - 5 2 - 23) co1 = f i e i 4 1 ,
c10 = c11 = &ei43

which leads to the 2 x 2 matrix
= ((1 - 51 - 2 2 - 53)
&ei6z
The reduced density matrix is
1- 2 2 - 23 d&e-i4z + fifiei41e-i43
+ &&e-+1 ei43 x2 + 53
where d := (1 - x1 - 2 2 - ~ 3 ) ~ We
' ~ obtain
.
det(CCt) = 23d2 + 5 1 2 2 - 2 d G 2 d c o s ( 4 1+ 4 2 - 43).

The state IP) is not entangled if
det(CtC) = 0 .
Problem 16. Let 'HA and ' H B be finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. Let
'H be the Hilbert space 'H = 'HA @ ' H B , i.e., 3-1 is the tensor product of
the two Hilbert spaces ' H A and ' H B . Let I$) be a normalized vector (pure
state) in 'H. Let X be an observable (described as a hermitian matrix X )
in 7-l. Then ($lXI$) defines the expectation values. The following three
conditions are equivalent when applied to pure states.
1. Factorisability: I$) = la) @ ID), where la) E 'HA and IP) E 'HB with la)
and I/?) normalized.
2. The generalized Bell inequality: Let A,, be hermitian operators

(matrices) in ' H A with
where I A is the identity operator in ' H A . Let B, , B 2 be hermitian operators

(matrices) in 'HBwith
Entanglement 125
where I B is the identity operator in ' H B . Thus the eigenvalues of A,, -42,
& and BZ can only be f l . The generalized Bell inequality is
I(4lA '8 &I$) + ($1-41 @ BPI$) + ( $ / A 2 '8 &I$) - ($la2'8 i 2 I $ ) l I 2.
3. Statistical independence: For all hermitian operators A on 'HAand B on
' H B with the conditions given above
8 Bw) = ($IA '8 IBI+)(wA @ 8~).

(i) Show that condition 3 follows from condition 1.
(ii) Show that condition 2 follows from condition 3.
Solution 16. (i) Suppose
Then
(ii) We use the shortcut notation
etc. Using statistical independence we have
Using the fact that and we have
where we also used

Problem 17. Let 3 1 and ~ 3 1 be ~ finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. Let

31 be the Hilbert space 31 = 3 1 @~ 3 1 ~i.e.,
, 31 is the tensor product of the
two Hilbert spaces 314 and 3 1 ~ .
Let A l , A2 be hermitian operators (matrices) in ‘HA with
A: = I A , A: = I A .
Let B l , B z be hermitian operators (matrices) in 3 1 with

~
Bf = IB, Bi = IB.
The generalized Bell inequality is given by
I($lAl@ &I$) + ($IA@ &I$) + ($la2 @ BlI$) - ($,la,@ &I$)l I2.

Let 3 1 =~ 3 1 ~ g= C2. Let { 10) , 11)} be the standard basis in C2. Consider
the entangled state in 31 = C4 (EPR-state)
Show that this state and the operators
1 1
Bl := -(az +a,), Bz := -(az - a,)
Ji Ji
violate the Bell inequality.
Alp) = II), A l p ) = 10)
A n l o ) = ill), A$) = -210)

1 1
&lo) Jz + ill)),
= -([I) Alp) = -(lo)
Jz - 210))
1 1
&lo) = -(Il) -ill)), B z p ) = -(lo) - 210)).
Jz Jz
Using (010) = (111)= 1 and (011) = (110) = 0, we find
I($IAl @&I$) + ($la1@&I$) + ($I&@Bll$) - ($lAz@’Szl$)I = 2Jz.
Thus the Bell inequality is violated since 2 4 > 2.

Entanglement 127
Problem 18. Consider the pure state

16):= a100) + pill)
+
in the Hilbert space C2 @ C2, where a,p E C and laI2 Ip21 = 1. Let
p := ($)($I be the corresponding density matrix.
(i) Find -trpl log, p1 where p1 := trczp.
(ii) Let p be a density matrix for a disentangled state on C2 @ C2. Find
the fidelity (also called Uhlmann’s transition probability)
F(P7 a := [t.&iG]
,.
(iii) Show that the minimum over p of the modified Bures metric
DdP, a := 2 - 2% a
is given by 41aI2(1- laI2)at
B := la12100)(001+ Ip12111)(111.
The Bures metric is defined as

DBures ( p , a := 2 2 d m .
-
(iv) Compare the result in (iii) with the result from (i).
Solution 18. (i) We find that

+ +
p = la12100)(001 IP12p1)(111 aF100)(111+Pal11)(001.
Taking the partial trace over the first qubit in C2 yields
+
P I = trczp = I~l2l0)(Ol IP1211)(11.
Thus
-trpl log, p1 = log, la12 - (1- 1al2)10g2(1 -
(ii) Since p is a pure state we have 0= p and
F(P7 a= [ , r 4 z G ]
=[ t r G I 2
= [trdl~)(~lawl]2
= l )($11
[ t ~ d wW
= I($lAdJ)I ( t r d 2
= I(lclla$)l
(iii) From (ii) we have
D B ( p 9 0)= 2 - 2F(pl a) = 2 - 21($1

' .1$)'1.
For
+
a = 1~12100)(001 IP12111)(111
we find
D ~ ( P , ~=)2 - 2(ia41 +1 ~ 1 ~ 1
= 2 - 2(la41 + (1 - 1 ~ 1 ~ ) ~ )
= 41~11~(1-1 ~~1~).
Obviously 0 is not entangled. For = 0 or laI2 = 1 it is immediately
clear that we have a minimum. Thus consider 0 < laI2 < 1. Now let v be
any fixed density matrix in C4 and X E [0,1]. Thus the convex function
.(A) := X a + (1 - X)Y
is also a density matrix. It follows that

d d
D € ? ( P , m ) I X = l = -2x IX(+lal+)
-dX + (1- X)(+lYI+)l I
X=l
d
= -2& 1p(iai4 + 1 ~ 1+~(1 1- ~ I Y I + ) I X=l I
=i -2(iai4 +
1 ~ - 1(+iYi+))
~
+ 2 ( 1 4 4 + 1 ~ 1 4 ($IW
= -2(1ai4 + 1 ~ - 1($I~I+))
-
~
1 4+ ~ 1 ~ 2 10~
1 - 4+~1 ~ < 10 ~
= -2((IQ12 + lP12)2 21aI21Pl2- (+IYl+))

-
= -2(-21aI21Pl2 + 1 (+IYl$)) -
where we used that (+lvI+) is real. If Y is sufficiently close to p = I+)($[

then
1 - ($IYl+) < 21aI21Pl2
and D€?(p,a(X)) is increasing around a. Thus we have found the minimum
41a12(1- laI2).
(iv) For IaI E [0,1] we find
Probelm 19. The two-point Hubbard mode l with cyclic boundary condi-
tions is given by
Entanglement 129
where
t t
njf := Cj~cjT, njl := c3.1 c3' 1 .
t ,cjl
The Fenni operators cjT t ,cjt ,cjl obey the anti-commutation relations
t t
[Cj,o,Ck,d]+ = duu'djkr, [Cjp, c:,9]+ = [cj,u,Ck,d]+ = 0.
H commutes with the total number operator A, and the total spin operator
Sz in the z direction
2
A := C(c;TcjT + CJLCjl)
j=1
We consider the subspace with two electrons, N = 2 and S, = 0. A basis

for 2 particles with total spin 0 is
t t t t t t t t
Isl) := c l T c l l ( o ) > Is2) := clTc21(0)7 IS3) := c2Tc11(o)> 134) := C2TC2110),
where (010) = 1.
(i) Find the matrix representation of H in this basis.
(ii) Can the matrix representation of H be written in the form H = A1 8
+
I 2 1 2 @ A2 where A1 and A2 are 2 x 2 matrices and I2 is the 2 x 2 identity
matrix?
Solution 19. (i) Applying to the basis gives
Q.1) + 433) + UlSl)

= tlsz)
Hb2) = tIs1) + t(S4)
= tlsi) i-
tlS4)
H1s.t) = tJS2)+ tJS3)+ UJS4).
Identifying Isi) with elements ei of the standard basis in C4 yields the
matrix representation of H
U t t O
H = ( tO
t o o t
Ot Ot U 9
(ii) Suppose a Hamilton operator K can be written as I? = A1 @ I 2 + 1 2 @A2
.
where A l , A2 E M 2 and 1 2 is the 2 x 2 identity matrix. Then we have

exp(-iKT/fi) = exp(-i.rAl/h @ 1 2 - i r I ~ / f@i A2)
= exp(-iTAl/h) @ exp(-i.rA2/fi).
In this case separable states remain separable under time evolution in the
model, and entangled states remain entangled under time evolution in the
model. For the matrix representation of H , however we have
fi = t V N O T 8 1 2 + tI2 8 VNOT+ diag(U,0 , 0, U ) , v . 0 ~:= (: t) .
The diagonal matrix diag(U, O,O, U )cannot be written in the form A1 @

+
I2 I2 8 A 2 . Thus we conclude that, almost all initial separable states evolve
into entangled states under the time evolution of the model.
Problem 20. Find the matrix representation of the two-point Hubbard

model in the basis
Solution 20. The two-point Hubbard model admits a discrete symmetry

under the change 1 4 2, 2 -+ 1. Thus we have a finite group with two
elements. We obtain two irreducible representations. The group-theoretical
reduction leads to the two invariant subspaces
These four states can be considered as the Bell states. In the Bell basis the
matrix representation of the Hubbard model is given by
fyp) = ( 2U
t 2 t&o ;)
o o o u
where @ denotes the direct sum.
Probelm 21. The two-point Hubbard model with cyclic boundary con-
ditions is given by
Entanglement 131
Find the time evolution of the initial state
under the two-point Hubbard model. When is I+(.)) entangled?
Solution 21. Solving the Schrodinger equation
we find
I+,(.>) = e -iuT'h.I$(O)).
Consequently, the condition for separability is given by

exp ( - 2 irE ~ )= 0.
Of course, this equation cannot be satisfied. Thus l$(r))is entangled for

all r.
Chapter 9
Teleportation
Teleportation is the transmission of quantum information using a classical

channel and entanglement. It demonstrates the use of entanglement as a
communication resource. The simplest case is to consider the teleportation
of a single qubit using two bits of classical communication and one entangled
pair (EPR-pair).
Problem 1. Consider the following states (a,b E C )
I$) := al0) + bll), laI2 + lbI2 = 1 (1)

1
14) := I$) €3 $100) + 111)). (2)
(i) Show that the state 14) can be written as
1 1
+-((01)
2Jz
+ 110)) €3 (all)+ b10))+ -(lOl)
2Jz
- 110)) €3 (all) - b10)).
(ii) Describe how measurement of the first two qubits of 16) can be used to
obtain I$) as the last qubit. Alice has the first qubit of 14) and Alice and
Bob share the second and third qubits of 14) (an EPR-pair).
Solution 1. (i) Inserting (1) into (2) we obtain

1
14) = -((a1000) + a1011) + b1100)+ bllll)) .
Ji
132
Teleportation 133
On the other hand we have

1 1
--(loo) + 111))€3 ( 4 0 )+ bll)) + # O ) - 111))€3 (40)- bll))
2Jz
1 1
+-(lOl)
2Jz
+ 110)) 8 (all) + b10)) + -(p)
2Jz
- 110))€3 (all) - b p ) )
1
= -((a1000) + a1110) + b1001) + bJ111))
2 4
1
+-(a1000) - a1110) - b1001)+bllll))
2Jz
1
+-(a(0ll) + a(101)+ b1010) + b1100))
2Jz
1
+-(a1011) - allOl) - b1010) + b1100))
2Jz
1
= -((a1000) + a(011)+ bJ100)+ b l l l l ) )
4
= 14).
(ii) We measure in the Bell busis
From the state 14) we can see that the first two qubits are in each of the
Bell states with equal probability. Thus if we measure we obtain a result
corresponding to each of the Bell states and can perform a transform to
obtain 1111) in the last qubit as follows
Bell State Transform

&(loo) + 111)) I2
$(loo) - 111)) lO)(Ol - 11)(11

+ 110))
h(l01) UNOT
$(loo) + 111)) l O ) ( l l - Il)(OI
After measurement and applying the corresponding transform we obtain

I$) as the last qubit. So if Alice and Bob initially share the entangled pair
Alice can perform a measurement in the Bell basis on her qubit and her part
of the entangled pair and sends the result (two bits) to Bob who applies
the corresponding transform to his part of the entangled pair. The state
1111) is thus teleported from Alice’s qubit to Bob’s qubit. Note that the Bell
basis is obtained by applying UCNOT(UH€4 12) to the computational basis

{loo), IOl), \lo),111)).The transforms are unitary and therefore invertible.
Thus we can also measure the first two qubits in the computational basis
after applying
(UH@ I ) ~ C N O T
i.e., teleportation does not explicitly depend on the ability to measure with
respect to the Bell basis.
+
Problem 2. Let I$) := al0) bll) be an arbitrary qubit state. Let 14)
be another arbitrary qubit state. Let U be a unitary operator which acts
on two qubits.
(i) Determine the implications of measuring the first two qubits of
with respect to the the Bell basis. How can we obtain U(l$) €4 (4)) as the
last two qubits?
(ii) Alice has I$) and Bob has 14). Describe how U can be applied to 1@)@1@)
using only classical communication and prior shared entanglement. After
the computation, Alice must still have the first qubit of U(l+) 8 14)) and
Bob must still have the second qubit of U(l$) €4 14)).
Expanding loo), IOl), 110) and 111) in the Bell basis for the first two qubits
yields
Teleportation 135
We measure in the Bell basis
From 10) we can see that the first two qubits are in each of the Bell states
with equal probability. If we make a measurement we obtain a result corre-
sponding to each of the Bell states and can perform a transform to obtain
U(l$) @ I$)) in the last two qubits as follows
Bell State Transform
+(loo) + 111)) I2
&(loo) - 111)) u((lO)(Ol 63 1 2 ) u*

- 11)(11>
h ( l O 1 ) + 110)) ~ ( U N O@TI2)U*
&(loo) + 111)) u( ( l O ) ( l l - Il)(Ol) 63 1 2 ) u*
Thus after measurement and applying the corresponding transform we ob-
tain U(l$) 63 14)) as the last two qubits. Thus if Alice and Bob initially
share the entangled pair
1
Bob applies U to his two qubits. Then Alice can perform a measurement
in the Bell basis on her qubit and her part of the entangled pair and sends
the result (two bits) to Bob who applies the corresponding transform from
the table to his part of the entangled pair. Thus with probability Bob
can begin the computation U (I$) @ 14)) without knowing the state I$) and
still obtain the correct result after Alice measures her two qubits. With
probability he still has to apply a transform which is independent of I$).
(ii) Alice teleports I$) to Bob with one entangled pair, Bob performs the
computation U(l$)@l4))on his two qubits and then teleports the first qubit
back to Alice with a second entangled pair. Thus 4 bits of communication
are used in this scheme (Alice sends two to Bob, and then Bob sends two
to Alice). Alice and Bob can perform UCNOT even though their qubits are
spatially separated if they have prior entanglement.
Problem 3. In quantum teleportation we start with the following state

in the Hilbert space C8
where The quantum circuit for teleportation is given by
-
I
I
I
B
I
/\
C W
where A is the output| >, B the input|0> and C the input |0>. Studywhat
happens when we feed the product state | 00> into the quatum circuit.
From the circuit we have the following eight ´ 8 unitary matrices (left to
right)
where @ denotes the direct sum of matrices and
(i) Find ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S ~ g
(ii) Write a program which implements and verifies the teleportation algo-
rithm.
Solution 3. (i) Applying the first four unitary matrices to the input state
we obtain
a b
= -((OOO)
2
+ (100) + (011)+ (111))+ 2((010) - (110) + (001) - (101)).
Teleportation 137
This state can be rewritten as
Applying all eight unitary matrices to the input state we obtain
~ 8 ~ 7 ~ 6 ~ I$oo)
5
~ 4 ~ 3 ~ 2 ~ 1
a
= -(lOOO)
2
+ 1100) + lolo) + 1110)) + ~b ( ) 0 1 1+) 1111)+ 1001) 4- I l O l ) ) .
This state can be rewritten as
The state [$) will be transferred to the lower output, where both other
outputs will come out in the state (10) Il))/a. +
If the two upper outputs
are measured in the standard basis (10) versus Il)),two random classical
bits will be obtained in addition to the quantum state I$) on the lower
output.
(ii) The implementation in SymbolicC++ is as follows. The Matrix class

of SymbolicC++ includes the method kron for the Kronecker product of
two matrices and the method dsum for the direct sum of two matrices.
The overloaded operators * and + are used for matrix multiplication and
addition. The identity matrix is also implemented. Thus the code for the
quantum circuit is as follows.
#include <iostream>
#include Vector.hut
#include "Matrix.h"
#include "Rational.h"
#include "Msymbol .h"
using namespace std;
typedef Sum<Rational<int> > C;
template <class T> Vector<T> Teleport(Vector<T> v)

i
int i;
assert (v.length0 == 8 ) ;
Vector<T> result;
Matrix<T> NOT(2,2) ;
NOTLO] [O] = T(0); NOTCO] [I] = T(1);
NOTCI] [O] = T(1); NOTCI] [I] = T(0);
Matrix<T> I(2,2);
I.identityo ;
Matrix<T> X (4 4);
X[O][O] = T(1); X[Ol[l] = T(0); XCOIC21 = T(0); X[O] C31 = T(0);
XCII COI = T(0); XCII [I1 = T(1); XCII C21 = T(0); XCI] C31 = T(0);
XC2lCOl = T(0); X[2lCIl = T(0); XC2lC2l = T(0); XC21 C31 = T(1);
XC31 COI = T(0); XC31 C1l = T(0); XC31 C21 = T(1); XC31 C31 = T(0);
Matrix<T> Ul=kron(I,kron(H,I)) ;
Matrix<T> U2=kron(I ,X) ;
Matrix<T> UB=kron(X, I) ;
Matrix<T> U4=kron(H,kron(I,I));
Matrix<T> U5=kron(I,X) ;
Matrix<T> UG=kron(I,kron(I,H));
Matrix<T> U7=dsum(I,dsum (I,dsum (NOT,NOT) ;
Matrix<T> U8=kron(I,kron(I,H)) ;
while(result [i].put(power(sqrt(t(2)),-6),power(T(2),-3)));
return result;
// The outcome after measuring value for qubit.

// Since the probabilities may be symbolic this function
/ / does not simulate a measurement where random outcomes
// have the correct distribution
template <class T>
Vector<T> Measure(Vector<T> v,unsigned int qubit,
unsigned int value)
Teleportation 139
c
assert(pow(2,qubit)<~.length()) ;
assert(value==O I I value==l);
int i,len,skip = I-value;
Vector<T> result (v) ;
T D = T(0);
len = v.length()/int (pow(2,qubit+l)) ;
for (i=O;i<v.length0 ;i++)
c
if(!(i%len)) skip = I-skip;
if (skip) result [il = T ( 0 ) ;
else D += result [i] *result [i] ;
3
result/=sqrt(D) ;
return result;
3
for output clarity
if (v.length()==2) b=b2;
if (v.length()==4) b=b4;
if (v .length() ==8)b=b8;
for(i=O;i<v.length();i++)
if (!v[i] .is-Number() I I v[i] .nvalue() ! = C ( O ) )
0 << " + ( " << v[i] << " ) " << b[i];
return 0 ;
1
int main(void1
c
Vector<C> zero(21, one (2);
Vector<C> qreg;
Vector<C> tp00,tp01,tp10,tpll,psiGHZ;
Sum<Rational<int> > a(llal',O) ,b("b",O) ;
int i;
qreg=kron(a*zero+b*one,kron(zero,zero))(O);
cout << "UTELEPORT("; print (cout ,qreg) << = "; ">
print (cout ,qreg=Teleport(qreg) << endl;
cout << "Results after measurement of first 2 qubits:" << endl
tpOO = Measure(Measure(qreg,O,O) ,1,0);
tpOl = Measure(Measure(qreg,O,O) ,l,l);
tplO = Measure(Measure(qreg,O,l), 1,O);
tpll = Measure(Measure(qreg,O,l),l,l);
for(i=O;i<8;i++)
while(tp00 [i] .put(a*a,C(l) -b*b)) ;

while(tpOO[i] .put(power(sqrt(C(1>/C(2)) ,-2),c(2))) ;
while(tp01 [i] .put(a*a,C(l)-b*b)) ;
while(tp01 [i] .put(pOWer(Sqrt (c(1) /c(2) ,-2),c(2) 1) ;
while(tplO [i] .put(a*a,C(1)-b*b) ;
while(tpl0 [i] .put(power(sqrt(c(I)/c(2)) ,-2),c(2))) ;
while(tpll[i] .put(a*a,C(l)-b*b));
while(tpl1 [i] .put(power(sqrt(C(I)/c(2)) ,-2),C(2))) ;
>
tout << loo> : ; print(cout,tpOO) << endl;
cout << 101> :
I' I' ; print(cout,tpOl) << endl;
cout << 110> : la ; print(cout,tplO) << endl;
cout << I' Ill> : ; print(cout,tpll) << endl;
cout << endl;
return 0;
>
The program generates the following output:
UTELEPORT
Results after measurement of first 2 qubits:

Chapter 10
Cloning
Cloning is the duplication of information. Cloning is necessarily a physical

process. In this chapter we provide exercises describing what types of infor-
mation can be cloned accurately and techniques for cloning certain types
of information.
Problem 1. The CNOT gate maps ( a ,b E ( 0 , l ) )
) .1 @ I4 ) . 1 €4 la @ b)
where @ is the XOR operation. Show that the CNOT gate can be used to
clone a bit.
Solution 1. Setting b = 0 we obtain from the map
I 4 €4 10) + la) €4 la)
since a @ 0 = a for all a. Thus we have cloned a bit.
Problem 2. Let
be an arbitrary normalized vector in C2. Can we construct a 4 x 4 unitary

matrix U such that
141
Prove or disprove this equation.
Solution 2. Such a matrix does not exist. This can be seen as follows.
From the right-hand side of (1) we have
(::)@(::)=((:)+(:,))@(("d)+(:2))
= (7) (2) (:) (:,) (:,)
@ + @ + @ (7) (:,)
+ @ (:2) *
On the other hand, from the left-hand side of (1) we find
((2:) (;))
@ =u( ( z d ) (;) (:,) (;))
@ + @
= ("d ) (: @) (,: ) (,: )

+ @
where we used the linearity of U . Comparing these two equations we find

a contradiction. This is the no cloning theorem.
However equation (1) does hold when
(zd ) (,: ) (,: ) (? ) (:) (:)

@ + @ = @
Therefore zlz,= 0. Thus at least one of 2 1 and 2 2 must be zero. It is still

possible to clone elements of a known orthonormal basis.
Problem 3. Let { lo), 11)} be a basis in C2. Let I$) be an arbitrary

qubit. Is there a unitary transformation such that
I$) @ I$) --+ 14) @ 10) ?,
Solution 3. Such a unitary transformation does not exist. We can argue

as follows: For an arbitrary qubit I$) the composite states I$) 8 I$) span a
three-dimensional subspace of the four-dimensional Hilbert space C4 of two
qubits. However, the composite states I$) @ 10) span only a two-dimensional
subspace, as 10) is a fixed state. Thus the unitary transform would take
a system with von Neumann entropy log, 3 to one with von Neumann en-
tropy log, 2. Since the system is closed (we have a unitary transformation),
this decrease of entropy is therefore a violation of the second law of ther-
modynamics. Thus the second law of thermodynamics implies that such a
unitary transformation does not exist.
Chapter 11
Quantum Algorithms
An algorithm is a precise description of how to realize a given objective, for

example solving a computational problem. We distinguish between clas-
sical and quantum algorithms where quantum physical resources are used.
In the following problems we are primarily interested in computational and
communication problems.
Problem 1. In classical communication complexity Alice is provided with

a binary string
x = 5 0 2 1 .. .5,-1
of length n and Bob is provided with a binary string
Y = YOYl . . * Yn-1
of length n. Alice has to determine a boolean function
f : (0, l}nx ( o , l } n + (0,1}
with the least communication between herself and Bob.

(i) Consider the parity function
f(x,y) = 50 €3 21 @ . . . @ 5,-1 @ yo @ y1 @ * . . @ yn-1

where @ is the XOR-operation, i.e.,
O@O=O, 0@1=1, 1@0=1, 1@1=0.

How many bits has Bob to send to Alice so that she can determine f?
143
(ii) Consider the inner product modulo-2 function
f(x,Y) = ( 2 0 * Yo) @ (21 . Y l ) @ * * . @ (%-l * ?&l)
where . denotes the AND-operation, i.e.,
o.o=o, 0.1=0, 1.0=0, 1.1=1.
What is the minimum number of bits Bob has to send to Alice so that she
can compute this function?
Solution 1. (i) Obviously Bob has to send only one bit, the one he finds
by computing yo @ y1 @ . . . @ ~ ~ - 1 .
(ii) Bob must send all n bits in order for Alice to compute f.
Problem 2. Find all Z A , Z ~ , Z CE ( 0 , l ) such that X A + zg + xc =

1 mod 2. We use the mapping f l : ( 0 , l ) --+U(2)
fl(0) := UH, fl(1) := 12

where UH is the Walsh-Hadamard transform and U ( 2 ) denotes the unitary
group over C 2 . Thus we can map from the triple (ZA,ZB,ZC) to linear
operators acting on three qubits
:= f l ( 2 A ) '8 f l ( 5 B ) '8 fl(.C).

f3(zA,ZB,zC)
Let
1
+
17)) := z(~ool) (010) + 1100) - 1111)).
For each triple ( " A , X B ,ZC) found in the first part of the problem, calculate
14) := f3 ( Z A ,Z B 1 zC)l7)) .
Let S A , S B ,sc denote the result (0 or 1) of measuring the first, second and
third qubit, respectively of 14) in the computational basis. In each case
determine
SA + +
S B sc mod 2, X A . X B . xc .
Solution 2. We have
We note the symmetry of the state I$) with respect to qubit ordering. Thus
we need only to calculate the transform for (O,O, 1) and (1,1,1).For (1,1,1)
we have f3(1,1,l)l$) = (Iz@I2@12)1$)= 17)). Measuring the qubits yields
Quantum Algorithms 145
( S A , S B , S C )E {( ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ) ~
with equal probability. In each case we find S A SB + + sc = 1 mod 2. For
( 0 ,0 , l ) we have f3(0,0,1) = UH @ UH @ 12. Since
we obtain
We find that measuring the qubits yields
with equal probability. In each case we find
+
We find that S A + S B sc = X A . X B . xc mod 2. Suppose Alice, Bob
and Carol each have a bit string (XA.1, ..., X A , n ) , (xB,l,..., x B , ~ )and
( x c , 1 ,. . . ,X C , ~ ) ,respectively. They want to calculate
n
J(xA,xB,xc) = C ( x A , j . X B , .~~ , j mod
) 2
j=1
sharing (communicating) as little information as possible. If Alice, Bob

and Carol share n triplets of qubits in the state I$) they can calculate
sA,1, . . . , S A , ~ SBJ,
, . . . ,S B , and
~ sc,1, . . . ,S C , ~respectively as above. Thus
n
, , XC) =
~ ( x AX B X ( S A+ , ~ + S B , ~ S C , ~ )mod 2.
j=1
If Alice, Bob and Carol calculate

n
~ A l B i c=
j=1
X sAlBlc,j mod 2
Bob and Carol need only to send one bit each ( S B and Sc) to Alice for
+ +
Alice to compute ~ ( x A ,XB, xc) = SA SB Sc, for any n. In other words
the communication complexity is 2. Classically, for n 2 3, three bits of
communication are required.
Problem 3. (i) Find all z, y, z E {0,1,2,3} such that
z +y + z =0 mod 2.
What are the possible values of the function
when the condition (1) holds?

(ii) Now use the binary representation for z = ~ 1 x 0y, = y1y0 and z = zlzo
where zo, 51, yo, y1,z0, z1 E {0,1}. Describe the condition z y z = + +
0 mod 2 in terms of zo,x1, yo, y1, zo and 21.
(iii) We use the map
Thus we can map from the triple yo, 20)

(20, to linear operators acting on
three qubits
.f3(zO,YO,zO) = fl(z0) '8 fl(y0) '8 fl(z0).
Let
1
I$) := -(lOOO)
2
- 1011) - 1101) - 1110)).
For each triple yo, 20) found

(20, in part (i) calculate
Let sz, sy, sz denote the result (0 or 1) of measuring the first, second and
third qubit, respectively of 14) in the computational basis. In each case
determine
s, + sy + s, mod 2, 20 + yo + 20.
+ +
Solution 3. (i) Obviously z y z must be even. Thus the sum includes
only an even number (0 or 2) of odd numbers. Thus we have the nine
combinations
(0,0,0), (0,1,1), (0,0,2), (1,1,2), (0,2,2), (0,1,3), (2,2,2), (1,2,3), (0,3,3).
(ii) Let (z,y, z ) be an element of the set of all permutations of elements of

+ + + +
the above set. When z y z is even, (z y z ) mod 4 E {0,2}. Now
when z+y+z = 0 mod 2 then f(z,y, z ) E ( 0 , l ) . Since z+y+z = 0 mod 2

the least significant bit of the sum must be zero. The least significant bit
is given by z o @ yo @ zo = 0. We find that
f(z,y, z ) = 21 @ y1 @ z1 @ (20 + yo + 20).

XOR is denoted by "@" and OR is denoted by "+". Thus we have
(207 Yo7 20) E { (O,O, 01, (0,1,1), (1,0,1), (1,170) 1.
(iii) We note the symmetry of the state I$') with respect to the qubit or-
dering. Thus we need only calculate the transform for (0, 0,O) and (0,1,1).
For (O,O, 0) we have
Measuring the qubits yields
(sz, sy, s,) E (O,O, O), ( 0 , h 11, ( L O , I ) , (1,170) 1

with equal probability. In each case we find s, sy + +
sz = 0 mod 2 . For
(0,1,1) we have f3(0,1,1) = 1 2 @ UH @ U H . Note that I$) can be written
as
1 1
I+) = 510) @ (100) - 111)) - 511) @ (101) + 110)).
Therefore
1 1
f3(0,1,1)1$') = 510) @ (101) + 110)) - 511) c3 (100) - 111)).
We find that measuring the qubits yields
(Sz, sy, s,) E { (01 1 1 01, (LO,O), (O,O, 11,(1,171) 1

with equal probability. In each case s, + sy + sz = 1 mod 2 .
We find that (s, + +

sy s, mod 2 ) = zo + +
yo 20. Thus for three parties
to calculate f(z,y, z ) , where each party has one of the z, y and z , it is
sufficient for each party to send one bit ( 5 1 @ s, or y1@sy or z1@s,) to the
other parties to calculate f(z, y, 2). In other words each party can calculate
after communication. In other words three bits broadcast to all parties

are sufficient to calculate f (x,y, z ) , the communication complexity is 3 bits.
Classically it is necessary that 4 bits be broadcast.
Problem 4. (i) Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
+ XUNOT,
A(z) := (1- X ) I Z x E (0,l).
(ii) Show that the unitary transform
where f : (0,l) -+ ( 0 , l ) is a boolean function and z denotes the boolean

negation of x, can be written as
(iii) Calculate
Consider the cases f(0) = f(1) and f(0) # f(1).
Solution 4. (i) We have A(0)=I2 and A(1)=UNOT. Thus A0 has

eigenvalues 1 (twice), and A (1) has eigenvalues 1 and -1. We tabulate the
eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of A(x)
(ii) We have
(iii) We find
Thus when f(0) = f(1) we apply the identity operator to the first qubit
and when f ( 0 ) # f(1) we apply a phase change to the first qubit. The
eigenvalues ( - l ) f ( O ) and (-l)f(l)are said to kick back to the first qubit.
A phase change combined with two Walsh-Hadamard transforms in the
appropriate order implements a NOT gate.
Problem 5 . (i) Alice and Bob share n entangled pairs of the form
+
&(loo) 111)). We can write their shared state of 2n qubits in the form
of the generalized Bell state
where the first n qubits belong to Alice and the second n qubits belong
to Bob. Furthermore Alice has 2n bits ao, . . . ,a p - 1 and Bob has 2n bits
bo, . . . , bp-1. Let the unitary operators U P A and UPB act on the compu-
tational basis as follows
UPAIj) = (-l)a'[j), j = 0,1,. . . , 2n - 1
UPBIj) = (-l)bqj), j = 0 , 1 , . ' . , 2n - 1 .
Let
Calculate
(ii) For each of the cases
2"-1
k=O
determine when measurement of the first n qubits in the computational

basis yields the same result as measurement of the second n qubits in the
computational basis
Solution 5 . (i) Fkom (1) and (2) we obtain
Thus we find for (3)
since
n-1 ,
2"-1
k=O
where we decompose j and k as follows
j = j o +j12 + j 2 4 + . . .+jn-12"-', k = ko + k12 + k24+. . .+kn-12"-'
and
(ii) For the case (a) we have for k = I
In other words the probability of measuring Ik) @ Ik) for a given Ic is 2-n.
Furthermore
c
2"-1
k=O
2-n = 2-n c
2"-I
k=O
1 = 1.
For the case ( b ) we find when k = 1

zn-l 2"-1
j=O j=O
Thus if condition ( a ) holds measuring the 2 n qubits in the computational

basis always yields l j ) and l j ) , i.e., the first n qubits always yield exactly
the same result as the second n qubits.
If condition ( b ) holds then measuring the 2n qubits in the computational

basis yields l j ) and Ik) where j # k , i.e., the first n qubits never yield the
same result as the second n qubits.
Problem 6. (i) Show that the vectors
form an orthonormal basis for C 2 .

(ii) Determine the probabilities associated with finding 10) in the states
( O H ) and I ~ H ) ?
(iii) Determine how to obtain [OH) and 1 1 ~ using
) only measurement and
the phase change operation
(IV) lET
BE A BOOLEAN FUNCTION AND
Determine in terms of ( O H ) and ( 1 ~ )
( a ) UflOH) 63 IOH)
( b ) UflOH) 8 I1H).
These techniques are used to solve Deutsch 's problem.
Solution 6. (i) First we demonstrate the linear independence of the

vectors
1 1
+ bll) = -(u
ul0)
Jz + b ) l O H ) + -(a - b)llH)
Jz
1 1
u(0H)+ b(1H) = -(u + b)(O)+ -(a - b)(l).
Jz Jz
+
Thus for ~ 1 0 ~b )l l ~ =
) 0 it follows that a = b = 0.
(ii) We find
1
(OHIOH) = ,((OM + (011) + (110) + (111)) = 1
1 1
l(Ol0H)l2 = 51((0lO) + (OI1>l2 = 5
1 1
I(OIlH)I2 = p l o ) - (OI1)l2 = 5'
Thus measurement projects the state 10) onto IOH) and 1 1 ~with ) equal
probability.
(iii) Starting with lo), we can obtain OH) and 1 1 ~by) measurement in the
I O N ) and 1 1 ~ basis
) and applying U p s as follows
Desired state Measure Transform
[OH) ol), I2
IOH) llH) UPS
IIH) loH) UPS
llH) I1H) I2
(iv) For (a) we have
Thus
For (b) we have
Thus
Note that f(0) g, f(1) is 0 when f is constant, and 1 when f is balanced.

Thus by determining f(0) f(1) we have solved Deutsch's problem .
Problem 7. Consider the following quantum game G , with n _> 3 players.

Each player Pj ( j = 0,1,. . . ,n - 1) receives a single input bit xj and has
to produce a single output bit yj. It is know that there is an even number
of 1s among the inputs. The players are not allowed to communicate after
receiving their inputs. Then they are challenged to produce a collective
output that contains an even number of 1s if and only if the number of 1s
in the input is divisible by 4. Therefore, we require that
n-1
c y j Exj
= -1 n-l (mod)2
j=O 2 j=o
provided that
n-1
E x j=O (mod)2.
j=O
We call x = ~ 0 x .-.xn-l
1 the question and y = yoyl -..yn-l the answer.
Show that if the n-players are allowed to share prior entanglement, then
they can always win the game G,.
Solution 7. We define the following n-qubit entangled state in the Hilbert

space c2”
I$+) := - 1( ~ 0 0 - . . 0 ) + ~ 1 1 . ~ ~ 1 ) )
Jz
1
I$-) := -(loo. . .O) - 111. . . l ) ) .
Jz
The Walsh-Hadamard transform is given by
1 1
UHI1) -+ -10) - -11).
J z f i
Furthermore consider the unitary transformation
uslo) -+ lo), Usll) --+ e i q )
where = a. If the unitary transformation U s is applied to any two

qubits of I$+), while other qubits are left undisturbed, then
USl$+) = I$-)
and if U s is applied to any two qubits of I$-), then
USl$-) = I$+).
Therefore, if the qubits of I$+) are distributed among n players, and if

exactly m of them apply S to their qubit, the resulting state will be I$+)
if m = 0 (mod 4) and I$-) if m _= 2 (mod 4). The effect of applying the

Walsh-Hadamard transform to each qubit in I++) is to produce an equal
superposition of all classical n-bit strings that contain an even number of
Is, whereas the effect of applying the Walsh-Hadamard transform to each
qubit in I$-) is to produce an equal superposition of all classical n-bits
that contain an odd number of 1s. Thus
1
(UH '8 UH '8 . . .'8 uH)l'$+) = -
A(y)=O(mod2)
where
n-I
j=O
denotes the Hamming weight of y. Consequently the strategy is as follows:

At the beginning the state I$+) is produced and its n-qubits are distributed
among the n players. After the separation each player Aj receives input
bit xj and does the following
1. If xj = 1, Aj applies the unitary transformation US to his qubit; other-

wise he/she does nothing.
2 . He/she applies U H to this qubit.
3. He/she measures his/her qubit in order to obtain yj.
4. He/she produces y j as his/her output.
An even number of players will apply U s to their qubit. If that number is

divisible by 4, which means that f C;:: xj is even, then the states reverts
to I$+) after step 1 and therefore to a superposition of all Jyoy1.. . yn-l)
such that A(y) = 0 (mod 2) after step 2. It follows that C ; i i y i , the
number of players who measure and output 1, is even. If the number
of players who apply S to their qubit is congruent to 2 modulo 4, which
means that C;:: xj is odd, then the state evolves to I$-) after step 1 and
-
therefore to a superposition of all ly) = lyoyl.. yn-l) such that A(y) E 1
(mod 2 ) after step 2. In this case C;z,'yj is odd. In either case, (1) is
satisfied at the end of the protocol.
Problem 8. Let ZO, X I ,yo, y1 E ( 0 , l ) where Alice has xo and X I and Bob
has yo and y1. Alice and Bob want to calculate the boolean function
g(x0,Z l , Yo,Y1) := 5 1 CB Y1 CB (xo . Yo)
where @ denotes the XOR operation and . denotes the AND operation.
Furthermore Alice and Bob share an EPR-pair
Alice applies the unitary matrix
to her qubit of the EPR-pair and Bob applies the unitary matrix
to his qubit of the EPR-pair, where
Let a denote the result of Alice measuring her qubit of the EPR-pair and
let b denote the result of Bob measuring his qubit of the EPR-pair. Find
the probability that a @ b = 50 . yo, where @ denotes the boolean XOR
operation and . denotes the boolean AND operation.
Solution 8. We define I+) to be the state of the EPR-pair after Alice

and Bob apply their transforms. Consequently
Thus
Thus we find for the probabilities of obtaining a and b

Next we find the probability that
for given 20 and yo.

20 Yo 20 .Yo P(u @ b = zo . yo)
0 0 0 P(u = 0, b = 0) + P(a = 1,b = 1) = COS' $
0 1 0 P(a=O,b=O)+P(a= 1,b=1)=Cos2~
1 0 0 +
P(u = 0, b = 0) P(a = 1, b = 1) = C O S ~
1 1 1 +
P(a = 1,b = 0) P(u = 0, b = 1) = C O S ~
We find the probability
Chapter 12
Quantum Error
Correction
In classical communication theory where bits are communicated, the only

possible type of error that can occur is a bit flip. In the quantum case
any rotation or phase change in the Hilbert space of the quantum state
is an error, i.e., there are an infinite number of different errors that could
occur just for a single qubit. Fortunately the measurement process involves
the projection of the quantum state into a compatible subspace. Thus
measurement to determine the occurrence of an error reduces the error to
one compatible with the measurement.
Problem 1. Calculate the following in terms of 12, X , Y ,Z
158
Quantum Error Correction 159
where
Solution 1. Straightforward calculation yields
Problem 2. Suppose that the only errors which can occur to three qubits
are described by the set of unitary matrices
{I28 1 2 8 1 2 7 1 2 8 UNOT 8 UNOT 1 2 8 UP 8 U P , I2 8 (UPUNOT)8 (UPUNOT)}
where
UP := lO)(Ol - 11)(11, UNOT := lO)(Il + Il)(Ol.
A linear combination of these unitary matrices is given by
E := a12 8 1 2 8 1 2 -k 012 8 U N O T 8 UNOT-k 612 8 up 8 up

+ Y I ~8 ( U P ~ N O 8T )( U P ~ N O T )
where a,p, 6 , y E C . Describe how an arbitrary error E on the three-qubit
state
1
-(loo) + 111))€3 Id$
Jz
can be corrected to obtain the correct I$) as the last qubit, where
I+) := al0) + bll), laI2 + lbI2 = 1, a,b E c

Solution 2. Applying the matrix
to the state
1
-(loo)
Jz + 111))63 I$)
yields the state
Thus we measure the first two qubits in the Bell basis and apply the cor-
responding transform to the last qubit to obtain I$).
measure transform
Problem 3. Assume that the only errors that occur in a system of qubits
are isolated to individual qubits, i.e., the error in one qubit state is inde-
pendent of the error in another qubit state. Hence the error for each qubit
can be expressed as a linear operator E on the Hilbert space C2. Further-
more E can be expressed as a linear combination of the Pauli spin matrices
ox,gY and oz.Now consider a non-degenerate n-qubit code representing a
single qubit state which can correct errors in up to k qubits.
(i) Find a lower bound describing n.
(ii) Find the lower bound for k = 1.
Hint: The n-qubit states representing qubits with errors should be distinct
(orthogonal) for distinct errors and distinct from the case where there are
no errors.
Quantum Error Correction 161
Solution 3. (i) We have 3 distinct errors on a single qubit described by

the Pauli matrices. Thus there are
n!
l!(n- I ) !
distinct errors in 1 qubits of n qubits. The total number of ways to have at
most k errors in n qubits is then given by
E (7).
1=0 31
There are 2n orthogonal states in a Hilbert space describing n qubits. Since

the states representing qubits (10) or 11)) with distinct errors should be
orthogonal, we find
2&31(7) 5 2n.
1=0
(ii) For k = 1 we have the bound
2(1+ 3n) 5 2n
In other words, for k = 1 we find n 2 5.

Chapter 13
Quantum Cryptography
Cryptography usually involves a key or keys to be used in encryption and

decryption algorithms. Quantum cryptography is primarily concerned with
the secure distribution of keys using quantum communication channels.
Another application is hiding classical data in quantum states.
Problem 1. Let
B1 := { I+o) := I W l 1+1) := IV) 1

denote an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C2. The states IH) and
IV) can be identified with the horizontal and vertical polarization of a
photon. Let
denote a second orthonormal basis in C2. These states are identified with
the 45' and -45O polarization of a photon. Alice sends photons randomly
prepared in one of the four states IH), IV), 140) and 141) to Bob. Bob
then randomly chooses a basis B1 or B2 to measure the polarization of the
photon. All random decisions follow the uniform distribution. Alice and
Bob interpret I+o) as binary 0 and 1+1) as binary 1 in the basis B1. They
interpret 140) as binary 0 and 141) as binary 1 in the basis B2.
(i) What is the probability that Bob measures the photon in the state
prepared by Alice, i.e., what is the probability that the binary interpretation
is identical for Alice and Bob?
162
Quantum Cryptography 163
(ii) An eavesdropper (named Eve) intercepts the photons sent to Bob and
then resends a photon to Bob. Eve also detects the photon polarization in
one of the bases B1 or B2 before resending. What is the probability that
the binary interpretation is identical for Alice and Bob?
Solution 1. (i) The probability that Alice chooses to prepare a state from
the basis B1 is f and from B2 is i.
Similarly the probabilities that Bob
chooses to measure in the basis B1 and B2 are also i.Thus the probability
that Alice and Bob measure in the same basis is a + a.
= To determine
the correlations in the binary interpretation we consider the two cases (u)
Alice and Bob use the same basis and (b) Alice and Bob use a different
basis. The cases (u) and (b) have equal probability of a.
For the case (u)
Alice and Bob have the same binary interpretation. For the case (6) we
note that
In other words, if Bob uses the wrong basis he obtains the correct binary
interpretation with probability f . Therefore the total probability that Alice
and Bob have the same binary interpretation is
-1. I + -1. -1 z -.
3
2 2 2 4
Thus 75% of the photons sent by Alice have an identical binary interpreta-
tion shared by Alice and Bob.
(ii) From (i) the probability that Alice and Eve, Eve and Bob, as well as
Alice and Bob measure in the same basis are all a+ = f . Also from
(i) we find that if Alice and Eve work in the same basis Bob has a 75%
chance of obtaining the correct result since Eve does not perturb the state
of the photon. Similarly if Bob and Eve work in the same basis Bob has
a 75% chance of obtaining the correct result since Bob does not perturb
the state of the photon after Eve resends it. Now we consider the case
when Eve uses a different basis from that of Alice and Bob. Suppose Alice
sends I+o) from B1, and Eve measures in B2. Thus Eve will obtain 140)
or 141) with equal probability f . Now Bob measures in the basis B1 and
i
obtains I+O) with probability or I+l) with probability i.Thus we can
construct the following table where PI is the probability that Eve obtains
Alice’s binary interpretation of the state correctly and P2 is the probability
that Bob obtains Alice’s binary interpretation of the state correctly.
Alice’s basis Eve’s basis Bob’s basis PI P2

B1 B1 B1 1 1
B1 B1 B2 1 1/2
B1 B2 B1 1/2 1/2
B1 B2 B2 1/2 1/2
B2 B1 B1 1/2 1/2
B2 B1 B2 1/2 1/2
B2 B2 B1 1 1/2
B2 B2 B2 1 1 1 1
The total probability that Bob’s binary interpretation corresponds to Al-

ice’s binary interpretation is
i.e., 62.5%.
‘ ( 1 + 51+ 51+ 51+ 5 1
8
+51
+5+
1’
>: =-
Problem 2 . (i) Consider the two-qubit singlet state in the Hilbert space
c
4
1 1
I+) = -(lOl)
Jz - 110)) = $10) @ 11) - 11)@ 10)).
Let U be a 2 x 2 unitary matrix with det(U) = 1. Find
(U @ U)l?!J).
(ii) Consider the state
1
I?)) = -(210011)
2&
- 10101) - 10110) - 11001) - 11010) + 211100))
in the Hilbert space C16. This state is an extension of the two-qubit singlet
state given in (i). Calculate
(iii) The state given in (i) and (ii) can be extended to arbitrary N ( N =
even) as follows
0...01...1
where the sum is extended over all the states obtained by permuting the
state
10.. . 0 1 . . . l ) = 10) €3.. . €3 10) €3 11)€3.. . c3 11)
Quantum Cryptography 165
which contains the same number of 0s and Is and p is the number of 0s in

the first N / 2 positions. Thus the state is a singlet state. Let
U@* -= U 8 . - .8 U N-times
Find
Solution 2. (i) A unitary transformation for 2 x 2 matrices is given by
10) + 40) + bll)
11) -+ 40) + 4 1 )
where
ad - bc = cab, #ER
We obtain
ew
(U 8 V)l44 = JZ(l0) @ 11) - 11)8 10)).
For 4 = 0 (since det(U) = l),we obtain

(U @ V>l+) = I+) *
(ii) Using the results from (i) and det(U) = 1, we find
(V @ u @ u @ U)l+) = I+).
(iii) Using the result from (i), we also find
U@”I+)= I+).
The state I$) given in (iii) can be used to distribute cryptographic keys,
encode quantum information in decoherence-free subspaces, perform secret
sharing, teleclone quantum states, and also for solving the liar detection
and Byzantine generals problems.
Part I1
Infinite-Dimensional
Hilbert Spaces
Chapter 14
Harmonic Oscillator and

Bose Operators
Besides qubit-based quantum computing and quantum algorithms, quan-

tum information over continuous variables is also applied and used in fields
such as quantum teleportation and quantum cryptography. For continuous
systems Bose operators play the central role.
Problem 1. Consider the Hamilton operator for the one-dimensional

harmonic oscillator
1
H- = -jj2
1
+ -mw2G2.
2m 2
We introduce the characteristic length
We define the dimensionless linear operators (Bose operators)
(i) Find [b,bt].

(ii) Express 4 and fi in terms of b and bt
(iii) Express fi in terms of b and b t .
169
we obtain
[b,bt] = I
where I is the identity operator.
(ii) We find
i = -eo(b+bt),
1 p= -file0
(b-bt).
Jz Jzi
(iii) We find
H = tiW(btb + -21I )
Problem 2. Consider the Hamilton operator for the one-dimensional

harmonic oscillator in the form (ti = 1,m = 1,w = 1)
H- = -1j2
1 + -q
1 -2
2 2
and
Find
a and [lj,ij] = -zI it follows that

Solution 2. From p = -2- a9
[ri,4 = -26
[H,$]= ii
I$,p,41 = i
[ H ,[ H ,$11 = 1;-
Using this result and the expansions
i times
uiut = c
O0
j=O
(2")'
+[H,
3.
- j times
[ H , .. . , [ H ,41 . . .I]
we obtain
i.e., the unitary operator U is a Walsh-Hadamard transform.

Harmonic Oscillator and Bose Operators 171
Problem 3. The Bose creation operator bt and Bose annihilation opera-

tor b obey the Heisenberg algebra (commutation relations)
[b,bt] = I
[b,b] = [bt,bt] = 0
and
b10) = 0
where ( 0 )is the vacuum state with (010) = 1.
(i) Calculate
[b2,btb], [b2,btz] .
(ii) Calculate
bbbtbtlO).
(iii) Let
1
In) := -(bt)"lO)
Jn7
be the number state (Fock state). Find
m
n=O
Solution 3. (i) Using the commutation relations we obtain
[b2,btb] = 2b2, [b2,bt2] = 21 + 4btb.

(ii) Using the commutation relations we find
bbbtbtlO) = 210).
(iii) We find
cDc)
n=O
In)(nl= I
where I is the identity operator. This is the completeness relation.
Problem 4. Let
f i := btb
be tlie number operator. Calculate the commutators
[% bl, 1% [% bll, 1% 1% 1% blll .

Discuss the general case for m commutators.
Solution 4. We have
[h,b] = -b, [h,[h,b]] = (-1)2b, b]]]= ( - l ) 3 b .

[h,[h,[fi,
Obviously, for the general case with m commutators we find ( - l ) m b .
Problem 5. Let E E R and E > 0. Calculate the trace

tr(btbe-Cbtb,
which is defined as
n=O
where { In) : n = 0 , 1 , 2 , .. . } denotes the number states (Fock states).
Solution 5. Since
and
we obtain
Problem 6. Let b and bt be Bose annihilation and creation operators,

respectively. Consider the general one-mode canonical Bogolubov transform
-
+ ei@sinh(r)b'
b := ei4 cosh(r)b
-
bt := e-'+ cosh(r)bt + e-iQ sinh(r)b
where r is a real parameter (squeezing parameter).
(i) Show that the operatorsb andbt satisfy the Bose commutation relations.
(ii) Find the inverse Bogolubov transform.
cosh2(r) - sinh2(r)= 1
we find --
[b, btl = bbt - b'b = I.
(ii) The transformation can be written in the matrix form

- e24 cosh(r) e*@sinh(r)
(i) ( = e-*@ssinh(r) e-i@cosh(r)) (6bi) '
The determinant of this matrix is +l. Thus the inverse transformation is

given by
(it) = ( e-*+ cosh(r)

-e-i@ sinh(r)
-ei* sinh(r)
ei@cosh(r)
) ($)
Problem 7. Let E E R and f : C 2 4 C be an entire analytic function.
If a function f is analytic on the whole complex plane then f is said to be
entire. Show that
ecbf (b, bt)e-eb = f (b, bt €1) + (la)
e-eb+f(b,bt)eCb+= f ( b + €1bt)
, . ( 1b)
Solution 7. We have
eCbbte-eb)= f ( b , eebb+e-lb).
eebf(b,bt)e-Cb = f(eCbbe-Cb,
Since
eebbte-eb = bt + €1
we find (la), where we used [b,bt] = I . A similar proof holds for (lb).
Problem 8. Let f : C ---t C be an entire analytic function. Show that
f (btb) = cf
00
n=O
(n)ln)(nl
where In) is the number state (Fock state).
Solution 8. The completeness relation is given by

00
n=O
Since btbln) = nln),we have
It follows that
00 00 00
n=O n=O n=O

Problem 9. Let { In) : n = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . } be the number states (Fock

states). We define the linear operators
M
..
E := In)(. + 11
n=O
n=O
Obviously, Et follows from E.

(i) Find El? and E t E .
(ii) Let f be an analytic function. Calculate kf(fi)Bt and & f ( f i I)&, +
where f i is the photon number operator and I is the identity operator.
Solution 9. (i) Using (rnln)= Smn and the completeness relation we fmd
m=O n=O
m=O n=O
m
m=O
Analogously, we find
htJ?3= I - lO)(Ol .
(ii) Using the Taylor expansion around 0 of an analytic function we have
Applying
film)= rnlrn), fijlm) = mjlm)
and
(fi + I)lrn) = (rn + l)lm), (fi + I)jIm) = (rn + 1)jIrn)
we obtain
E f ( f i )= f ( f i +I)&.
Thus
Ef(fi)E+= f ( f i + I ) .
Analogously
E t f ( f i+ I ) & = f ( f i ) .
Problem 10. Consider the Susskind-Glogower canonical phase states

M
n=O
where In) are the number states. Let

M
n=l
be the nonunitary number-lowering operator. Find
il4)-
Solution 10. Since (mln)= Smn we have
il4) = ei+14).
This means that 14) is an eigenstate of the operator 2.
Problem 11. Let bt and b be Bose creation and annihilation operators,

respectively. Consider the operator
eaib2+az(bt)2+~3(bbt+btb)
(1)
where c q ,Q Z , a3 E R. Let E E R be an arbitrary real parameter. Find the
smooth functions fo, f1, f2 and f 3 , depending on E , such that
e e ( a i b 2 + a z ( b t )'+a3(bbt + b t b ) ) = ,fo(e)I+fi (c)(b')' e f z (E)bt b e f 3 ( e ) b 2
(2)
where I denotes the identity operator. Then set E = 1.
Solution 11. We solve the problem using parameter differentiation with

respect to E . We find a system of ordinary differential equations for the
functions fo, f1, f2 and f 3 . Differentiating (2) with respect to E yields
((ylb2 + a2(bt)' + a3(bbt + btb))e'(alb2+"2(bt)2+a3(bbt+btb))

I ^
Owing t o the identity e'Xe-cX = I , we have

e -e(crlbZ+az(bt)'+a3(bbt+btb)) - e-f3(c)bze-fz(~)btbe-fo(~)~-fi(~)(bt)z . (4)
Multiplication of the left-hand side of (3) with the left-hand side of (4) and
multiplying the right-hand side of (3) with the right-hand side of ( 4 ) yields
(alb2 + ~ 2 ( b ++) a,(bbt

~ + btb))
Since
and
we find
+ +
alb2 a2(bt)' 2a3btb a31 +
dfo + dfie-2fz((bt)2 + 4f,2b2 - f 3 ( 2 1
= -1 + 4btb)) + -(b
df2 t b - 2f3b2) + -b2
df3
dc de de de
where we used
e-pahep' = i - p [ A ,ij]+ L p 2 [ A ,[A,

2!
811 + ...
and bbt =I + btb. Separating out terms with I , b2, (bt)2, and btb we find
Using these system of equations we can cast the system of differential equa-
tions in the form
-dfo
_ - f f 3 + 2a2f3 (54
dc
(5b)
(54
(54
with the initial conditions fj(0) = 0 for j = 0,1,2,3. We first solve (5d)
which is a Riccati equation and then insert it into (5c) and (5b) to find f 2
and fo. Finally we solve for fi. The integration yields
1
fO(E) = - ln(cosh(2X~)- ( a 3 / X ) sinh(2X~))
2
( a 2 /2X) sinh(2x6)
fl(E) = cosh(2X~)- ( a 3 / X ) sinh(2X~)
f2(e) = - ln(cosh(2X~)- ( 4 X ) sinh(2X~))
(a1/2X) sinh(2Xc)
f3(E) = cosh(2X~)- (a3/X)sinh(2X~)
where X := J a 3 - a1a2. Setting E = 1 we have
,a1 b2 + a 2 (bt )'+a3 (bbt +bt b ) - 1

-
Jcosh(2X) - ( a 3 / X ) sinh(2X)
(a2/X) sinh(2X)
(cosh(2X) - ( a 3 / X ) sinh(2X)
x exp(ln(cosh(2X)- (a3/X)sinh(2X))-lbtb)
(a1/2X) sinh(2X)
b2) .
(cosh(2X) - ( a 3 / X ) sinh(2X)
Problem 12. Let f be an analytic function in x and y. Let bt and b

be Bose creation and annihilation operators, respectively. We can define
f ( b , bt) by its power series expansion
0 0 0 0 0 0 00
f ( b , b t ) := C C C ... C f(jl,jz,j3 ,..., j n ) ( b t ) " ~ ( b t ) ' 3 . . . ~ n .

jl=Ojz=Oj~=O j,=O
We can use the commutation relation for Bose operators repeatedly to

rearrange the operators b, bt so that
f(b, bt) = C 1f$2(bt)"b".

m=O n = O
We say that the function f(b, bt) is in normal order form.

(i) Consider the functions
f ( b , b t ) = btbbtb
g(b, bt) = btbbtbbtb.

Find the normal order form for these functions.
(ii) Consider
e-cbtb
where E is a real positive parameter. Find the normal order form.
Solution 12. (i) From the commutation relations for Bose operators we
find
bbt = I btb. +
Thus
f ( b , bt) = btb + btbtbb
and
g(b, b t ) = btbtbtbbb + Sbtbtbb + btb.
(ii) Using the results from (i) we find
Problem 13. The homogeneous Bogolubov transform of the Bose creation

operator bt and Bose annihilation operator b
-
b=pb+d, p,vEC
for a pair of complex parameters
obeying additionally
- lv12 = 1
is canonical since it leaves the commutator invariant
Every canonical transform can be represented as a unitary transformation

-
6 = B ( p ,v ) b B t ( p ,V ) .
The Bogolubov unitary operator B ( p , u ) is defined by this relation up to

an arbitrary phase factor. One choice is the normal form
Show that the Bogolubov transform forms a continuous non-commutative

group.
Solution 13. Let
Then we have
B ( p ' , uI)B(pII,,I!) = B ( p ,u)
and
p = plptl + y'* y", v = pI* y" + y'pll
with [ p i 2- luI2 = 1. The identity element of the group is given by B(l,O),
where we used that ln(1) = 0. The inverse element of B ( p ,u) is given by
B - y p , u) = B + ( p u)
, = B ( p * ,-u).
Obviously, the associative law also holds.
Problem 14. The Lie algebra su(1,l) is given by the commutation rela-
tions
[kl, k 2 ] = -2k3, [ k 3 ,k l ] = ik2, [ k z ,k3] = -ikl
where k l , kp and k3 are the basis elements of the Lie algebra. Show that
an infinite-dimensional matrix representation is given by
0 1 0 0 0 ...
1 0 2 0 0 ...
. . . . .
i 0 0 0
kp = -
2 -3i 0 4i . ..
.. -. ..
. .
1
kg = -diag(l, 3,5,7,. . .) .
2
Solution 14. Straightforward calculation yields the commutation rela-

tions given above.
Problem 15. Bose creation operators bj and Bose annihilation operators

bj obey the commutation relations
[ b j ,b i ] = 6jkI
[ b j ,b k ] = [b;, b i ] = 0 , j , k = 1,2,. . . ,N .
Let N = 2. Consider the operators
K+ := bib:, K- := b2b1, K3 := -(b,bl

I t + bbbz + I )
2
where I is the identity operator. Find the commutators
[K+,K-1, [K3,K + ] , [K3,K-1.

The operators K+, K - , K3 form a representation of the Lie algebra su( 1,l).
Solution 15. Using the commutation relations given above we find
Thus
[K+,K - ] = -2K3.
Analogously
[ K 3 , K - ]= -K-, [K3,K+]= K+
Problem 16. Consider the linear operators
J+ := bib2, J- := babl, J3 := -(blbl t

l t - b2bz)
2
where b i , bi are Bose creation operators and b l , bz are Bose annihilation
operators and I is the identity operator. Find the commutators
[J+, J-1, 153, J + ] , [J3, J-] -

The operators J+, J - , J3 form a representation of the Lie algebra su(2).
Solution 16. Using the commutation relation given above we find
[ J + ,J-] = [bibz,bib11
= bibzbibl - biblbibn
= bibzbibl - bib2 - bibiblbz
= -bib2 + bib1 = 2J3.
Thus
[ J + ,J - ] = 2J3.
Analogously
[J3,J - ] = - J - , [J3,J+] = J + .
Problem 17. Suppose that b i , bi are Bose creation operators and b l , bz

are Bose annihilation operators and I is the identity operator. Consider
the linear operator
2 := b @ I I @bt +
where bl := b @ I and bi := I @ bt. Thus Z = bl + bi. The operator is
called the heterodyne-current operator.
(i) Calculate the commutator
[Z,ztl.
(ii) Find the state
Z(l0) @ lo)), Zt(l0) @ 10)).
(iii) Find the state

Z2(l0>@ 10)).
and
[Z,Zt] = ( b @ I + I @bt)(bt @ I + I @ b)
-(bt @ I + I @ b)(b @ I + I @ bt)
= bbt @ I + b @ b+ bt @ bt + I @ btb
-btb@ I - bt @ bt - b @ b - I @ bbt
+
= (bbt - btb) @ I I @ (btb - bbt)
=I@I-I@I=O.
(ii) We have
since b10) = 0. Analogously
(iii) We find
Problem 18. Bose creation operators b i , bl and Bose annihilation oper-

ators b l , b2 obey the Heisenberg algebra
[bj,b i ] = djkI
[ b j , bk] = [bi,b i ] = 0 , j , k = 1,2

with bl = b @ I , bz = I @ b and b1100) = 0, bz(00) = 0, where 100) = 10)@ 10)
is the vacuum state. Consider the linear transformation
-bi = u i i b i + Uizbz + v i i b i + uizbi

I
-bz = uzibi + uzzbz + Uzibi + uzzbi

bi = uTlbl + UU;zbz+ u;lbl + t&bL
-
ba = Uilbi + V&b2 + uGlbi + Uazbl
where U j k , V j k E c.
(i) Find the condition that the operators &, bz, bi, ba also satisfy the
commutation relation for Bose operators. - I
(ii) For the vacuum state of the Bose fields b l , b2 we can write
0 0 0 0
16) = loo) = 15)@ 10)= 1Cc,,(m)

m=O n=O
@ In).
Find the recurrence relation for A, from the condition

-- --
b110) @ 16) = 0 , bzlO) @ 16) = 0 .
Solution 18. (i) F'rom the conditions

we find
21112121 + 21122122 - 21212111 - 21222112 = 0
1
.1;1
. + 211242 - 2111212*1 - 2112212*2 = 0 (2b)
.11& + 211242 - - 211221;2 = 1
211121;1 (24
u 2 1 4 1 + 212242 - 21217& - v22212*2 = 1. (24
(ii) From the conditions (1) we find
c ( m + l ) n w l m + cm(n+l)2112m
+C(m-l)n~llfi + Cm(n-l)2112& =0
and
C ( m + l ) n U 2 1 r n + Cm(,+1)21226X
+c(m-1)n2121fi + c,(n-1)2122& =0 . (3b)

Let
A4 := 21222111 - 21122121, A, := 21221112 - 21122122.

Multiplication of (3a) with 2121 and (3b) with u11 and subtracting yields
C,(n+i)Al&Tf = -c(,-i),A2Jm - c,(,-i)&fi.
Multiplication of (3a) with 2122 and (3b) with 2112 and subtracting yields
c ( m + l ) n A l m = -c(m-l)nA4fi -Cm(n-l)A56.
We assumed that A1 # 0. From (2a) we see that A2 = AS. Thus we have
2 (2) (g"
O<s<n
(S) 2s k--s
1
( n - s)!(k - s)!(2s)!CO
ssk
and
x 2
O<sin
ask
(L3)n-5
(A2)2s+1 1
(g)k-=
( n - s ) ! ( k- s)!(2s+ l)!co .
Consequently, for the vacuum state of Bose operators & and x 2 we find
IW = c00
k =0 ,TI =0
(C(2k)(2n)12W€3 1 2 4 + C(2k+1)(2TI+1)12k + 1) €3 12n + 1)) .
In operator form this can be written as
Thus the unitary operator
-(a;)')
( b i ) 2 - 1A24 bt t2 - A3
2A1
is the operator of transformation of the vacuum states for the most general
two-dimensional Bogolubov transformation. Thus we also have
Problem 19. A beam splitter can be realized by means of a linear medium

where the polarization vector is proportional to the incoming electric field
P=xE
with x = x ( l ) denoting the first order (linear) susceptibility. We consider
the incoming field excited only in the relevant spatial modes bl and b2 (at
the same frequency w)
E(r,t ) = ;"JZ ((bl + b2)ei(k.r-wt) + h .c.)

2€0V
where h.c. denotes the hermitian conjugate. The interaction Hamilton op-
erator contains only the resonant terms
where . denotes the scalar product. The evolution operator (in the interac-
tion picture) of the whole device is expressed as
u:=exp(iarctan (/+) (b;b2+blbi))
where r, given by
-1
r = (l+tanz($&))
represents the the transmissivity of the beam splitter.

(i) Calculate - -
bl = UtblU, bz = U t b z U .
(ii) Find a rotation of the phase frame by 37~/2.
Solution 19. (i) Straightforward calculation yields

-bl = UtblU = -iT1/2bl + (1- T)l/'bZ
-
b2 = UtbzU = i(l - T)lI2bl + ?/'b2.
(ii) A rotation of the phase frame can be obtained by the substitution
bl 4 -ibl. Then we obtain
-
bl = T'/'bl + (1- ~ ) l / ' b 2
-
bz = T1l2b2- (1 - T ) l / ' b l .
Problem 20. A homodyne detector is constructed by placing a pho-

tocounter in each arm after the beam splitter and then considering the
difference photocurrent between the two modes
Express the homodyne photocurrent in terms of the input modes b l , bz.

D = (27 - l)(b:bl - babz) + 2 d m ( b i b z +bib;)
This expression reduces to
for a balanced (T = 1/2) beam splitter.
Problem 21. Quantum mechanically, a phase shijl b induced by a linear

optical element on a single-mode optical field is described by the unitary
operator
U := exp(i6fi)
where ii := btb is the number operator and b the annihilation operator for
the optical mode. Assume the optical field is in the state I$).
(i) Express I$) in the basis of photon number Fock state representation.
(ii) Find
I$') := Ul$) *
(iii) Find
and
Solution 21. (i) We can write

00
m=O
in the basis of photon number Fock state represenation, where cm are the
expansion coefficients.
(ii) The phase-shifted state I@) can be written as
00 00
m=O m=O
(iii) Thus for the difference we find
and therefore
11 la$)112= (A+IA$) = 4 C lcm12sin2(bm/2) = 4 C P, sin2(dm/2)

m=O m=O
where Pm = lcmI2 is the photon number distribution for the input field.
Problem 22. The generator of displacements for numbers is formally

defined by
W k ) := 1:d4eikb14)(41
where
00
n=O
Show that these basis states are not normalized.
Solution 22. Since

00
m=O
and (mln)= IS,, we find
00
m=O
Problem 23. Let bl, b2 be Bose annihilation operators. Show that
epbl bz evbt1bt2 100) = 1

-evb:bi/(1-pv) loo),
1- pu
P7V E R
where 100) = 10) 8 10).
Solution 23. We solve the problem by considering the expression

epbl bz evbt bt t t
1 zl00) = ef(pA~bz)100)
where f is an analytic function. Differentiating both sides with respect to

p yields
af .
blb2epb1bzevb:b:100) = ef-100)
dP
Thus
af
blbzeflOO) = ef-lOO).
dP
Note that d f / d p commutes with exp(f) since f is a function of br and b,t
only. If we multiply from the left by exp(- f ) we find
If follows that
af
+
) -100)
e - f b l e f e - f b z e f l ~ o=
Using
[b,g(b, 01 = a
ag
with g = e f , we obtain
since e f commutes with d f /dbi. Similarly
Thus we have
Since b2100) = 0 we arrive at
Using (2) again with g =af/abi we obtain
Since bll00) = 0 we obtain
Since f contains only bl and b2 which commute, the solution of this partial
differential equation must be of the form
f (Pl bi1b i ) = h l ( P ) I + hz(P)bib;.

Thus
f ( 0 ,b i , b;) = h f b i
or
hI(0) = 0 , hz(0) = v
owing to (1). Inserting this ansatz into the partial differential equation and
equating equal powers of bfb;, we find that hl and h2 satisfy the system of
ordinary differential equations
with the solution of the initial value problem

U
hZ(P) = -
1-p)
h l ( p ) = -ln(l - pv)
and thus we find (1)
Problem 24. The standard Pauli group for continuous variable quantum
computing of n coupled oscillator systems is the Heisenberg-Weyl group
which consists of phase-space displacement operators for n harmonic os-
cillators. This group is a continuous Lie group and can therefore only be
generated by a set of continuously parametrized operators. The Lie algebra
that generates this group is spanned by the 2n canonical operators l;j, &,
j = 1 , 2 , . . .,n along with the commutation relation
fik]
[@j, = ZhbjkI .
For a single oscillator (n = 1) the algebra is spanned by the canonical

operators { i ,p , I}. We define
x(q):= e - ( i l f i ) 9 e , qP)
:= e ( i l f i ) P 4
where q , p E R. Let { Is) : s E R} be position eigenstates (in the sense of

generalized functions).
(i) Calculate
X(Q)IS), Z(P)lS) *
(ii) Find the commutator [ X ( q ) Z
, (p)].
Solution 24. (i) We find in the sense of generalized functions that
X ( q > l s )= Is +4, Z ( P ) I S ) = exp((i/fi)ps)Is).

Thus the operator X ( q ) is a position translation operator. The operator
Z ( p ) is a momentum boost operator.
(ii) We obtain
X ( q ) Z ( p )= e-(Z/’)qPZ(p)X(q) .
Thus
I X ( q ) ,Z(P)l = (1- e(i/”gP)X(q)Z(P).
Probelm 25.
Solution 25. Using the fact that the operators

1
J+ := -blbz, J - := blba, 53 := --(bib1
2
+ babz + I)
form the Lie algebra
[ 5 3 , J+] = J+, [ 5 3 ,J - ] = - J - , [ J + ,J - ] = 2J3
and
er(J++J-) ,J- tanh(r)e 2 1 n ( c o ~ h ( r ) ) J 3 ~ tanh(r)
J+
we find
€1 = tanh(r), €2 = - ln(cosh(r)), €3 = - tanh(r)
Problem 26. Owing to their helical wave fronts the electromagnetic field
of photons having an orbital angular momentum has a phase singularity.
There the intensity has to vanish resulting in a doughnut-like intensity

distribution.These light fields can be described using Laguerre Gaussian
(LGpl)modes with two indices p and 1. The pindex ( p = 0,1,2,. . .) iden-
tifies the non-axial radial nodes observed in the transversal plane and the
1-index (1 = 0, f l ,f 2 , . . .) the number of the 2n-phase shifts along a closed
path around the beam center. The index 1 is also called topological wind-
ing number since it describes the helical structure of the wave front around
a wave front singularity or dislocation. The index 1 also determines the
amount of orbital angular momentum in units of h carried by one pho-
ton. When the pump beam is a LG1,, mode, under conditions of collinear
phase-matching, the two-photon state at the output of the nonlinear crys-
tal can be written as a coherent superposition of eigenstates of the orbital
angular-momentum operator that are correlated in orbital angular momen-
tum, i.e., 11 +12 = lo, where 11 and 12 refer to the orbital angular momentum
eigenvalues for the signal and idler photons. A photon state described by
a LG mode can be written as
where the mode function in the spatial frequency domain is given by
x exp (il+k + i ( p - )! n)
with pk and & being the modulus and phase, respectively, of the transverse
coordinate q. The functions Ll’ are the associated Laguerre polynomials
and wo is the beam width. Find the state IpZ) for p = 1 = 0.
Solution 26. Since the associated Laguerre polynomial Lt is given by

LE(X) = 1
we obtain
Thus for LGoo we find a Gaussian.
Problem 27. Let { In) : n = 0 , 1 , 2 , .. . } be Fock states (number states).

Consider the linear operator
:= x(ln) I
00
n=O
@ @ I)(I @ I @ (nl)
in the product (infinite-dimensional) Hilbert space 7-l= 'H2 @ ' H 3 with

711 = 'Fl2 = 'Fl3. Here I denotes the identity operator. Apply the operator
T i 3 to the state
I@ I @ I$).
Solution 27. We find
n=O
=I$) 8 I@ I
where we used 00
I+>= C(nl$)ln)
.
n=O
The operator T13 can be considered as a transfer operator.
Problem 28. To build a simple quantum computer one could use the
following optical gates
U s := exp(i.rrbtb) phase modulator
UB := exp (%(bib2 - blb;)) quantum beam splitter
UF := exp ($b!bs(bib2 - 616;)) Fredkin gate
(i) Calculate
eiabtb ) .1
(ii) Calculate
UBlOl).
(iii) Calculate
V F 1011), U F I 10 1)7 UF I ZY0)
with x = .rr and 2,y E { 0, 1}.
Solution 28. (i) Since btbln) = nln) we obtain
eiabtbln) = eian
In) *
(ii) Since
(bib2 - b1b;)lOl) = IlO), (bib2 - b1b;)llO) = -101)

we find
1
UBI01) = - (101)
Jz + 110))
where we used sin(.rr/4) = 1 / 4 and cos(.rr/l) = 1/&.
(iii) Since
and
b!b3(bibz - b1b;)lzyO) = 0
we find
UFI101) = -loll)7 UFI011) = I l O l ) , UFlZYO) = IzyO)
where we used that b10) = 0 and bll) = 10). Thus bib3 plays the role of a
control operator.
Chapter 15
Coherent States
Quantum coherent states are the closest quantum-mechanical analogue to

a classical particle oscillating in a harmonic potential. Coherent states
are a minimum uncertainty state. Quantum computation circuits with
coherent states as the logical qubits can be constructed using simple linear
networks, conditional measurements and coherent superposition resource
states. Coherent states are very sensitive to their environment. The output
of a single mode, stabilised laser can be described by a coherent state, Ip)
where p is a complex number which determines the average field amplitude.
Problem 1. Bose creation bt and annihilation b operators obey the

Heisenberg algebra
[b,bt] = I
[b,b] = [bt, bt] = 0
with b10) = 0, where 10) is the vacuum state. The coherent states Ip) can
be obtained by applying the unitary displacement operator
D ( p ) := exp(pbt - pb), E C
on the vacuum state lo), i.e.,
Show that from this definition the coherent states can also be obtained as
the eigenstates of the destruction operator b, i.e.,
193
Solution 1. We have the commutator
[/I, (pbt - ~ b ) " =] pn(pbt - ~ * b ) ~ - - l , n = 1,2,. .

and therefore we have the commutation relation
[b,W)l = P W).
Since b10) = 0 we have
0 = D(P)blO) = (6 - Pl)o(P)lO) = ( b - PI)IP)
where we used the above commutation relation.
Problem 2. Harmonic oscillator coherent states can be defined in three

different equivalent ways. Describe them.
Solution 2. Firstly, the coherent states are the eigenstates of the Bose
annihilation operator
blP) = PIP), PEc.

Secondly, they are displaced vacuum states
IP) = exp(-IPI2/2> exp(Pbf)exp(-P*b)lO)

where 10) is the vacuum state with (010) = 1. Since b10) = 0 we have
IP) = exP(-lP12/2)exP(Pbt)/0).
Thirdly, coherent states are states of minimum uncertainty
and are thus most classical within the quantum framework.
Problem 3. Let IP) and 17) be coherent states.

(i) Calculate (TIP).
(ii) Calculate (OlP).
(iii) Find l(-&3)I2.

Coherent States 195
we find
1
= exp(-,(lP12 + Irl)+ Pr*>
where we used (mln)= dmn.
(ii) Using (i) we find
(OlP) = exp (-$PIZ) .

(iii) From (i) we obtain
l(rlP)I2 = exp(-IP - TI2).
If y = P we have l(PlP)12 = 1.
H = fiwbtb.
Let
U ( t ) := exp(-itH/h)
where I/?) are coherent states. Find U(t)lP).
Solution 4. Since
and
btbln) = nln)
we find
U(t)IP)= lPe-aut).
Thus the linear evolution of ID) is a rotation in phase space. The initial
state will be revived at wt = 27r, 47r,.. . as expected.
Problem 5. Let
D(P) := exp(Pbt - P*b) .
Find
D(P)bD( -PI
and
Solution 5. Since
[bt,b]= - I , [bt, [bt,b]] = 0
we have
D(P)bD(-P) = b - P I .
Likewise
D(P)btD(-P) = bt - @*I
Problem 6. Coherent states are defined as
where P is a complex number. We have blp) = PIP) (eigenvalue equation),
m=O
and btbln) = nln).

(i) Calculate
Pn := I ( ~ I P >* I ~
(ii) Let fi := btb. Calculate
(iii) Calculate the variance
((Afi)2):= ( ( f i - ( ~ L ) I ) ~ )
Solution 6. (i) Using (nlm)= 6,m we obtain
Pn = (PP*Y exp(-PP*)
n!
This is a Poisson distribution.
(ii) Using bJP)= PIP) and therefore (Plbt = (PIP* we find
(fi) = (Plb+blP) = PP*

Coherent States 197
and
(h2)= (PP*)2 + PP*
+
where we used bbt = btb I .
(iii) Applying the results from (ii) we obtain
= PP*
:= ( ( h- (fi)l)2)
((A?L)~)
Problem 7. Coherent states are defined as
where P is a complex number. Let I$) be an arbitrary state in the Hilbert

space containing ID). Show that
Solution 7. We have the following identity (completeness relation)
from which it follows that the system of coherent states is complete. Using
this equation we can expand an arbitrary state I$) with respect to the state
Note that if the coherent state la) is taken as I$), then this equation defines
a linear dependence between the different coherent states. It follows that
the system of coherent states is supercomplete, i.e. it contains subsystems
which are complete. Using the definition for the coherent state given above
we obtain
where
The inequality I(nl$)l 5 1 means that the function $(p) for the normaliza-
tion state I$) is an entire analytic function of the complex variables P. We
also have I(PI$)I 5 1. Therefore we find a bound on the growth of $J(P)
The normalization condition can now be written as
Problem 8. Coherent states IP) can be written as

IP) = ~(P>IO)
where
D ( P ) := exp(pbt -, ~ b )
and (0) denotes the vacuum state. Show that
ww(r)= exp(iS(PY*))D(P + 7 ) .
Solution 8. Since
and using the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorffformula

eAeB = e A + B e [ A , B l / 2
, ] ,A] = 0 and [ [ A ,B ] ,B] = 0, we find (1). As a consequence we

for [ [ A B
have
D ( P ) D ( ~ ) D ( - P=) e2as(fly’)D(y).
Problem 9. Consider the displacement operator
Show that
Solution 9. The Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula

eA,Be- 1 / 2 [ A , B ]= ,B eAel/2[A,BI
for
Coherent States 199
can be applied since
[pbt - pb,ybt - y*b] = (fly* - pr)I

where I is the identity operator. Thus (1) follows.
Problem 10. (i) The Husimi distribution of a coherent state y is given

by
P,H(P) := l(Plr)I2.
Calculate pyH (p).
(ii) The Husimi distribution of the number state (Fock state) In) is given
bY
PE,(P) := I(PI4I2 *
(iii) Consider the state Inl) 8 Inz). Find
H
Plnl)@lna)(P)= l((Pll8 (P2l)(lnd €3 Inn)) *
and
we find
(PIr)= e-IP12/2e-lr12/2eP'r
where we used (mln)= Smn. Thus
l(~l-,)12 = e--IP-7I2
and the Husimi distribution of a coherent state is Gaussian.

(ii) Since (mln)=,,S we find
and hence
The Husimi distribution represents a Poisson distribution over the photon

number state.
(iii) Since
we obtain
2 := bl + b6
where bl = b @ I and bl = I @ bt. Let
be the displacement operator and
on the Fock basis (number states). The states 12)) are given by
12)) := Dbl(z)lO))= Dbz(z*)lO))*
(i) Find 212)). D‘ISCUSS.

(ii) Find ( ( z l z ’ ) ) .
Solution 11. (i) We have [Z,Zt]= 0 and
212)) = zlz)), z E c.
Thus ) .1 is an eigenstate of 2. For z = 0 the state 10)) can be approximated
by a physical (normalizable) state called the twin beam state - corresponding
to the output of a non-degenerate optical parametric amplifier in the limit
of infinite gain.
(ii) We find
((zlz’))= @ ( z - t’).
Problem 12. Bose creation (bt) and annihilation (b) operators, where
bt = ( b i ,6 1 , . . . ,b k ) , b = (bl, bp,. . . ,b N )
obey the Heisenberg algebra
Coherent States 201
[ b j , bL] = 6 j k I
[ b j , b k ] = [bi,bi] = 0, j,k = 1 , 2 , . . . , N .
Coherent states, where z E C", are defined as eigenvectors of the annihila-
tion operators, that is
biz) = BIZ).
(i) Show that the normalized coherent states are given by
1
Iz) = exp(-51z12) exp(z. bt)lO)
where
N N
1zI2 = C lzjI2, z . bt = 1zjb;
j=1 j=1
and 10) = 10 0 . . . 0) is the vacuum vector satisfying
bJO) = 0 .
(ii) Let Iw) be a coherent state. Find
(iii) Calculate
Solution 12. (i) Consider the number representation
We expand Iz) with respect to In) and apply
bjln) = ,/EJnl,.-.,nj- 1 , . . . , n ~ )
b:(n) = . \ / ; 2 3 T i ( 7 2 1 , . . . , n j + l , . . - , n N )
we find, after normalization, that Iz) is given by ( 1 ) .
(ii) We find
+ lw12 - 2z* . w)
and
1 ~exp(-lz - wI 2 ) .
l ( z l ~ )=
(iii) Since
N
dp(z) = -
1
r j=l
.
rI
d(%Zj)d(SZj)
we find r
Problem 13. In a Kerr medium the state evolution is governed by the

interaction Hamilton operator
I;r = X(b+b)2
where X is a coupling constant proportional to the nonlinear susceptibility
of the medium. A coherent input signal state ID) evolves according to the
solution of the Schrodinger equation
I+c(t)) = exp(-iBt>lP)
Calculate Iqjc(t))for t = r / ( 2 X ) . D’ISCUSS.

1
~ + ~=(r t/ ( 2 ~ ) )=) -(e-i7+p) + ei5/41 - 0))
Jz
1
= -(,-iT/4D (P) + e i n ~ 4 4 0 ( - 4 ) ~ 0 )
Jz
where
D ( P ) := exp(pb+- p b )
is the displacement operator. The state describes a superposition of two
coherent states with opposite phases. As far as 101 becomes large the two
components become mesoscopically distinguishable states of the radiation
field. However, realistic values of the Kerr nonlinear susceptibilities are
quite small, thus requiring a long interaction time, or equivalently a large
interaction length. Thus losses become significant and the resulting deco-
herence may destroy the quantum superposition.
Problem 14. Consider the beam splitter interaction given by the unitary
transformation
UBS = exp(ie(b1b; bib2)) +
where bl and b2 are the Bose annihilation operators. Let ID), 17) be coherent
states. Calculate
UBSl?) @ ID)
Coherent States 203
Solution 14. We obtain
where cos2(8) (sin'(8)) is the reflectivity (transmissivity) of the beam split-

ter.
Problem 15. The trace of an analytic function f (b,b t ) can be calculated

as
n=O
where { In) : n = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . } are the number states. A second method

consists of obtaining the normal order function of f and integrating over
the complex plane
(i) Find the trace of e-rbtb using this second method, where 6 > 0.
(ii) Compare with the first method.
Solution 15. (i) The normal order form of e-ebtbis given by
Thus we have to calculate the integral
We set = rei&. Thus PP* = r2. Since d2p -+ d&dr with E [0,27r),
r E [ O , o o ) and
re-arz 1
d 4 = 27r, dr = -
2a
we obtain
(ii) Using the first method we find

n=O
M
n=O
1
=-
1- e-€
Thus the first method is simpler to apply.
Chapter 16
Squeezed States
Coherent states are not the most general kind of Gaussian wave packet.
They are also not the most general kind of minimum-uncertainty wave
packets, since the minimum uncertainty wave packet satisfies AqAp = f i / 2
which only constrains the product of the dispersions Aq and Ap, whereas
for coherent states we have that (Aq)2 = A / ( 2 w ) and (Ap)’ = fiw/2. For
squeezed states we do not have this restriction. Unlike a coherent state, an
initial squeezed state does not remain a minimum-uncertainty state in the
course of time under the harmonic oscillator evolution. Instead, the prod-
uct AqAp oscillates at twice the harmonic oscillator frequency between a
maximum value and a minimum value. Squeezed states possess the prop-
erty that one quadrature phase has reduced fluctuations compared to the
ordinary vacuum. Squeezed states of the electromagnetic field are gener-
ated by degenerate parametric down conversion in an optical cavity. The
ideal squeezed state of a harmonic oscillator is defined as
where
is the displacement operator and
is the squeeze operator with E = rei@ ( r is the squeezing parameter).
205

A
D := p1 f i + f i G ) .
We set h. = 1.
(i) Find [b,G] and [h,fi].
(ii) We consider the linear operator
Sx := exp(-iXD), X E R.
We define
(iX)n
SiGSx := exp(iXadb)G =
O0
-(adb)ncj
n!
n=O
where
(adb)G := [h,41 .
Calculate S ~ G S ~ .
(iii) Find
S1$SX.
(iv) Let
b= @(G+i&).
Jz
Thus
Express D in terms of b and b†.

(v) Let
Calculate

[t,?;]
= 21
we find
[b,4 = -24, [b,fi]
= zfi.
(ii) Using the result from (i) and the definition (1) we find
S~GSX = eXG.
Squeezed States 207
(iii) Using the result from (i) and the definition (1) with 4 replaced by j,
we find
S xt ^p Sx --e - x j .
(iv) First we express i and $ in terms of b and bt. Using the commutation
relation [4,$] = il, we obtain
B = 2i(b+bt - bb) .
(v) Using the results from (i) through (iii) we find
(X1i21X) = e2x(Old210) = eZx- 1 = (Aq)2

2mw
Problem 2. Consider the squeezing operator
~ ( r:=) exp ( i r ( b 2 - hi’))
where T E R. Find
s(.)4s(4t 7 s(.>fis(.>+
where
1 i
6 := -(b+ bt), J? := --(b - bt)
Jz Jz
Solution 2. We obtain
S(T)GS(T)~= e-‘ij, s ( r ) j s ( r > t= e r j .
Problem 3. Consider the operator
~ ( :=~e z b i b1z - z b : b ~
where b;, bl are Bose creation operators and bl, b2 are Bose annihilation
operators and z E C. Find
u(z)blU(z)-l, u(Z)b2U(z)-1 .
Solution 3. We have
THus
We can write
where the matrix on the right-hand side is an element of the Lie group
SU(2).

,TJ(~)
:= e z b f b : - z b z b ~
where b i , b4 are Bose creation operators and b l , b2 are Bose annihilation

operators and z E C . Calculate
U(z)blU(z)-l, U(z)biU(z)-l .
Solution 4. We have
THus
We can write
where the matrix on the right-hand side is an element of the Lie group
SU(1,l).
Squeezed States 209
Problem 5. Let
(i) Calculate the commutators
(ii) Let
Find
[G,b] = -C[bW,b]
1 = --@t
2
and
[G,[G,b]]= [G, = -C[G, bt] = C 2 b t .
(ii) Using the results from (i), we find
S(<)bS(-<)= (coshX)b - ei4(sinhX)bt

where < = Xei4. Likewise, we find
S(<)btS(-<) = (coshX)bt - e-@(sinhX)b.
Problem 6. Consider the linear operators

1 1 1 1
K+ := -bt2, K- := -b2, KO:= -(b+ -1)
2 2 2 2
At :=bt, A:= b
(i) Show that these operators form a Lie algebra.
(ii) Consider
P := <K+- C*K- + aAt - (Y*A
where < and (Y are complex numbers. Let
v = e~K+e€AterKoe~le6K-eqA
where p, E , y,u , 6 and r ) are complex numbers. Let
eP=V.
Find y,0,6, E , 7 , Y as functions of < and a.

[Ko,K*] = fK*, [K+,K-]= -2Ko

[K+,A] = -At, [K-,At] = A
1 1
[Ko,At] = -At [KO, A] = -?A, [A,At] 1I .
2 '
This Lie algebra refers t o squeezed coherent states.
<
(ii) We write the complex numbers and a in terms of real numbers A, p ,
8 and q5 as
< = Xeie , a = pei"
We use the formula
eABe-A= 2 -
[A,B]~
n=O n!
where the repeated commutator [A, BIn is defined by
[A, B]n := [A, [A, Bln-11

with [A,B]o := B . We find
ePAe-P = cosh(X)A - eie sinh(X)At + e((cosh(X)

X
- l)ei(e-4) - sinh(X)ei9)
ePAte-' = cosh(X)At -e-ie sinh(X)A+ r*. ((cosh(X)-1)e-i(e-4) -sinh(X)e-i4)

X
The corresponding similarity transformations, induced by the operator V,
are
From
we find, by separating out terms with At, A and I, that
= -2ln(cosh(X))
P = eie tanh(X)
S = -e-ie tanh(X)
'
X cosh(X)
((cosh(X) - l)ei(e-4) - sinh(X)ei4)
7=- ((cosh(X) - l)e-Z('-@) - sinh(X)e-i4).

X cosh(X)
Squeezed States 211
The coefficient v cannot be found by this method. How can we determine

v? One h d s
v=- p2
X2 cosh(X)
+
((cosh(X) - 1) isin(8 - 2$)(sinh(X) - Acosh(X))) .
Chapter 17
Entanglement
In the original paper of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen the spin version of
entanglement was not used, rather they considered measurement of position
and momentum observables for two particles in one-dimensional motion.
They considered the entangled state
00
I$) = I
J-00
lP) @ I -P)e-ieP&
where the first component in the tensor product refers to particle 1 and the
second to particle 2. The state I$) is thus a superposition of simultaneous
eigenkets of the momenta P I and P 2 of the two particles with associated
eigenvalues p and - p , respectively. Thus I$) is itself an eigenket of
Pl @ I + I @ I32
with the eigenvalue 0. However, I$) is also an eigenket of the operator
61 @ I + I @ Q 2
where 61and Q 2 are the positions of the two particles.
where b i , b; are Bose creation operators and b l , b:! are Bose annihilation
operators and r E R. Thus bi = bt @ I , bi = I @ bt. Let 10) @ 10) be the
vacuum state, i.e.,
( b @ I)(lO)@ 10)) = 0, ( I @ b)(10) @ lo)) = 0.
212
Entanglement 213
(i) Calculate
(ii) Let
Find
where
is the variance.
n=O
where X = tanh(r). The entanglement of this state can be viewed as an

entanglement between quadrature phases in the two modes (EPR entangle-
ment) or as an entanglement between number and phase in the two modes.
(ii) We find
var(xi.1 + X 2 ) = 2e-2r, var(P1 - Y z ) = 2e-2r.
Problem 2. Let
and
The Wigner function of the pure entangled N-mode state is given by
where q = ( q l ,q z , . . . ,q N ) and p = ( p l , p 2 , .. ., p ~ are

) the positions and
momenta of the N modes and T is the squeezing parameter with equal
squeezing in all initial modes. Consider the case N = 2 . What happen if

?--+XI?
Solution 2. From (1) we have
For r -+ 00 we find in the sense of generalized functions
CJ(q1 - Q2)6(P1+ P 2 )
where 6 denotes the Dirac delta function. This makes a connection to the
original EPR-state of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen. Thus for large r the
function W peaks at q1 - q2 = 0 and P I p2 = 0 . +
Problem 3. Consider a quantum-mechancial system goverened by the
following Hamilton operator
H = fwlbibl + fw2bib2 + fixbiblbib,

where bl and b2 are Bose annihilation operators for two distinct harmonic
oscillator modes, respectively and x is a coupling constant. Such a Hamil-
ton operator for optical systems describes a four-wave mixing process, when
the constant x is then proportional to the third order susceptibility. It can
also be used to describe two distinct modes interaction in Bose conden-
sate. Furthermore, it describes the effective interaction of output pump
and probe fields of an optical-cavity mediated by a two-level atom, in the
dispersive limit. Let
INt = 0)) := IPl) @ I P 2 )
where I,&) and 1/32) are coherent states.
(i) Find
U(t)I+(t = 0))
where
~ ( t=)exp(-iHt/h).
(ii) Consider the special case t = T / X . Discuss.
(iii) Consider the four cases
a) w1 = 2 x , w2 = 2x,
b) w1 = 2x1 w2 = XI
c) w1 = x , w2 = 2x1
d) wi = x , W ~ = X
for
Entanglement 215
(ii) For we have
Thus
or
where
with k = 1,2 and Hence the state is entangled.

(iii) For case a) we find
For case b) we find
For case c) we find
For case d) we find
IS-) = 1/31) @ IP2-) - I - P1) @ IP2+).

These states may be considered as Bell states. However these states are not
perfectly orthogonal, but for large-amplitude fields I/31Il l/32l << 1 this can
be achieved approximately. Furthermore there is an asymmetry in these
states.
Problem 4. Discuss the entanglement of the state
IS) = C C b(ws + wi - wp)S(ks + ki - kp)bi(w(ki))bf(w(ki))lO)

s i
which appears with spontaneous parametric down conversion. Here w j , kj

( j = s, i , p ) are the frequencies and wavevectors of the signal (s), idler (i),
and pump (p) respectively, w p and k, can be considered as constants while
bf and bit are the respective Bose creation operators for the signal and idler.
Solution 4. The entanglement of this state can be thought of as the

superposition of an infinite number of two-photon states, corresponding to
the infinite number of ways the spontaneous parametric down conversion
signal-idler can satisfy the expression for energy and momentum conserva-
tion (owing to the delta functions)
hw, + f i ~ =i hw,, hk, + hki = hk, .

Even if there is no precise knowledge of the momentum for either the signal
or the idler, the state does give precise knowledge of the momentum corre-
lation of the pair. In EPR’s language, the momentum for neither the signal
photon nor the idler photon is determined. However, if measurement on
one of the photons yields a certain value, then the momentum of the other
photon is determined.
Problem 5 . Consider the function
where r > 0 is the squeezing parameter. Find
in the sense of generalized functions, where 4 E S(R2). Here S(R2)is

the set of all infinitely-differentiable functions which decrease as 1x1 + 00,
together with all their derivatives, faster than any power of 1xI-l.
Solution 5 . We find
Thus
lim G(zl,x2; r ) -+ b ( q - Q)
T-00
in the sense of generalized functions, where b is the Dirac delta function.

Entanglement 217
(i) Find
UibiUx, U ib2 Ux .
(ii) Consider the special case X = n/4.
(iii) Find
D =u ~ / 4 ( b-~bbi b~2 ) U ~ / 4
(iv) Solve the eigenvalue problem Old) = dlb).
Solution 6. (i) Using the expansion
we find
UiblUx = bl cos(X) + b2 sin(X), U i b 2 U ~= -bl sin(A) + b2 cos(X) .

(ii) For the special case X = 7r/4 we obtain
since sin(.rr/4) = cos(n/4) = 1/a.

(iii) From (ii) we find
UibiUx = bf cos(X) + bi sin(X), UibbUx = -bf sin(X) + bi cos(X)

Thus
D = bIb2 + b i b l e
(iv) The eigenvalue problem
016) = dlb)
can be rewritten as
(bib1 - bib2)lv) = dlv)
where
Iv) = uT/41b).
The eigenvalue problem can be easily solved since btbln) = nln). We find
In+d)@In) d E Z +
=
{ In) 8 In) d=O
In) 8 In - d ) d E Z-
where Z+ denotes the positive set of integers and Z- denotes the negative
set of integers. The eigenvalue d has countable degeneracy corresponding
to the one-integer parameter set Id")) of eigenstates. In order to solve for

the original eigenvalues we have to compute their transformation under the
action of the operator U , / 4 , i.e.,
We consider the Schwinger two-bosons realization of the SU(2) Lie algebra
with
[J+,J-] = 2J3, [53, J*] = kJ*.
Thus 7r
u,/4 = exp (q(J+ - J-1) .
Using the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula we find
exp(EJ+ - tJ-)= exp(vJ+) exp(PJ3) exp(-r~J-)

where
E
= -tan(<), P =In(l+ 1 ~ 1 ~ ) .
151
Thus
U,,, = exp(bib2) exp(ln2(bibl - bibs)) exp(-bibl)
where we used that tan(.rr/4) = 1.
The operators bjt are Bose creation operators and the operators b j are Bose
annihilation operators.
Show that an eigenstate I$) of I? is entangled or [k,fi]I$~) = 0 where

fi := btb is the particle number operator of mode j for an appropriate basis.
Solution 7. Suppose I$) is not entangled. We write I$) as
I$) = 0)1. 8 '''8 1.N-1)
where { l O j ) , llj),.. . } is a basis for particles in mode j with 0 5 j < N .

We define the creation, annihilation and number operators, for particles in
Entanglement 219
mode j , by
P have the eigenvalue equation for I$)
Thus
Problem 8. Let IP) be a coherent state. Consider the entangled coherent

state
14 = C(lP1) €3 IP2) + ei41 - P1) 63 I - 02))
where C is the normalization factor and q5 E R.
(i) Find the normalization factor C.
(ii) Calculate the partial trace using the basis { In) &I I : n = 0,1,2,. . . }
where { In) : n = 0,1,2,. . . } are the number states and I is the identity
operator.
for coherent states ID) and IT), we have
We find from the condition ($JIG) = 1 that
Thus
(ii) We have to calculate
Thus
Using
and
we arrive at
Problem 9. A beam splitter is a simple device which can act to entangle

output optical fields. The input field described by the Bose annihilation
operator bl is superposed on the other input field with Bose annihilation
operator b2 by a lossless symmetric beam splitter with amplitude reflec-
tion and transmission coefficients r and t. The output-field annihilation
operators are given by
- -
bl = B b l B t , b2 = B b 2 B l
Entanglement 221
where the beam splitter operator is
2 (
B := exp !(bibzei+ - blbfe-"))
with the amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients
t := cos -,
e . e
r := sin - .
2 2
The beam splitter gives the phase difference q5 between the reflected and
transmitted fields.
(i) Assume that the input states are two independent number states Inl)@
Inz),where n1,nz = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . . Calculate
B(ln1)QD Inz)).
(ii) Consider the special case n1 = 0 and nz = N
where
k=O l = O
n1 !nz!ml!mz!
X J 6m1 ,nz+k-e6rnz,n1-k+e
k!(n1- k)!C!(nz- C)!
with 6m,n is the Kronecker delta. When the total number of input photons
+
is N = n1+ nz, the output state becomes an ( N 1)-dimensional entangled
state.
(ii) We obtain from the results of (i)
B(IO) @ IN))= cN
k=O
c f l k ) QD IN - k)
where the expansion coefficients are given by

Problem 10. Describe the different types of entanglement for photons.
Solution 10. There are various ways in which photons can be entangled.
We can choose either their a) polarization entanglement, b) momentum
(direction) entanglement c) time-energy entanglement d) orbital angular
momentum states entanglement.
Polarization entanglement. The highest contrast in experiments can be

achieved for polarization-entangled states created by parametric down-
conversion. Type-I1 sources can produce polarization entanglement directly.
Parametric down-conversion or spontaneous parametric fluorescence is the
spontaneous reverse process of second-harmonic generation, or more gen-
erally speaking three-wave mixing in nonlinear optical media (for example
Beta-Barium Borate crystal (BBO crystal)). Nonlinear optics is described
by a polarization P that is nonlinear in the electric field E. The nonlin-
earity can be formulated by a power series expansion of the polarization
vector (summation convention is used)
where xi:) describes the normal refractive properties of a material includ-

ing any kind of birefringence. xijk
(2) is the coefficient tensor for three-wave,
because two E terms can lead to another P term, mixing in strongly non-
linear material. The xijkl
(3)
term describes effects that occur at even higher
intensities, e.g. Kerr-lensing or phase conjugation.
In down-conversion we are dealing with a high-frequency pump field and

two lower frequency down-converted fields. Energy conservation provides
hw, = f i W l + hw2
whereas phase matching is described by
hk, = hkl + hk2.

As most nonlinear media are birefringent the second criterion can be sat-
isfied by choosing an appropriate cut, thus managing the refractive indices
and therefore wave velocities such that light can be emitted in specific direc-
tions. In type-I1 spontaneous parametric down-conversion a pump beam is
incident on a nonlinear optical crystal (for example BBO crystal) in which
pump photons spontaneously split with a low probability into two orthog-
onally polarized photons called signal and idler. Energy and momentum
conversation require that the wavelength and emission directions of the
down-conversion photons are tightly correlated. They depend on the pump
wavelength as well as on the angle between optical axis of the crystal and
Entanglement 223
the pump beam. In the degenerate case (signal and idler having the same
wavelength) the photons leave the crystal symmetrically with respect to the
pump beam along two cones. For certain orientations of the optical crys-
tal, the two emission cones intersect and the photons emerging along the
intersection directions can not be assigned to one of the two orthogonally
polarized cones anymore and thus form a polarization entangled pair. The
polarization entangled state (Bell state) is described by
where h and w denote horizontal and vertical polarizations of light. By

using only standard optical elements in one of the two output beams, it is
possible to transform any one of the Bell states into any of the other.
The energy-entangled states from down-conversion photons are the most

universal, because they are present for any pair of photons. Since there
are many ways to partition the energy of the pump photon, each daughter
photon has a broad spectrum, and hence a narrow wave packet in time.
However, the sum of the two daughter photons energies is well-defined,
since they must add up to the energy of the monochromatic pump laser
photon. This correlation is represented by the following energy-entangled
state
I+) = J”
0
dEA(E)IEJs c3 1% - E)z
where each ket describes the energy of one of the photons, s and i denotes
the signal and idler, respectively, and A ( E ) is essentially the spectral dis-
tribution of the collected down-conversion light.
Besides the energy entanglement the next common entanglement from the
parametric down-conversion process is the momentum directions entangle-
ment. From the emission of a parametric down-conversion source two pairs
of spatial (momentum direction) modes are extracted by pinholes. Photon
pairs are emitted such that whenever a photon is emitted into one of the
inner two modes its partner will be found in the opposite outer mode due to
the phase matching in the crystal. The superposition of the two inner and
the two outer modes on the beam-splitter serves to measure coincidence
rates in various superposition of the initial spatial modes. After the beam-
splitters there is no way to distinguish the upper two modes from the lower
two and therefore interference will be observed in the various coincidence
rates.
In a discrete version (time-bin entanglement) of energy-time entangled

states sources one sends a double pulse through the down-conversioncrystal.
If the delay between the two pump pulses equals the time difference between
the short and the long arms of the Mach-Zehnder interferomater then again
there are two indistinguishable ways of getting a coincidence detection.
Chapter 18
Teleportation
Quantum continuous variables provide a new approach to quantum infor-

mation processing and quantum communication. They describe highly ex-
cited quantum systems such as multi-photon fields of light. Continuous
variables offer additional advantages over the single-photon system. They
involve the use of highly efficient telecommunication photodiodes. The cc-
herent sources of continuous entanglement are also orders of magnitude
more efficient than the spontaneous sources of discrete entanglement. Tele-
portation schemes can be demonstrated involving bright light sources.
Problem 1. Let 10) be a coherent state. Let b and bt be Bose annihilation

and creation operators, respectively. The displacement operator is defined
bY
~ ( p:= ) exp(pb+ - p*b), p E c.
Consider the product state
This is a maximally entangled continuous-variable state. The state is not

normalized. For teleportation we assume the unkown state 14) to be in
mode 1, the sender’s part of the quantum channel to be in mode 2, and the
receiver’s part in mode 3. Calculate
where I2 is the identity operator acting on mode 2, I3 the identity operator

acting on mode 3, and 0; indicates that the operator acts on mode 1.
225
Solution 1. Using the completeness relation of coherent states
yields
where we used I I P ) = IP). Applying this expansion and the identity

(TIP) = (P*lr*)
we find
where we used the identity
1s
T c
d2r(P*lY)(ylDt(P)14)= (P*Pt(P)l4).
We conclude that after the joint measurement, the sender's state is pro-
jected onto the state which is a unitarily transformed unknown state. Upon
receiving the measurement outcome p , the receiver recovers the unknown
state by using the appropriate unitary transformation D ( p ) .
Chapter 19
Swapping and Cloning
Swapping and cloning cannot only be studied for finite-dimensional systems

but also for continuous variables. We can therefore investigate whether
coherent states can be swapped or cloned.
Problem 1. Can two coherent states be swapped, i.e., can we find a

unitary transformation (swap operator) such that
U.9waP(lPl) €3 IPZ)) = 102) €3 IP1)

holds? Consider the unitary operator
,TJ(~>:= e z b i b 2 - z * b i b : , ZEC.
Solution 1. Yes, we can find a swap operator. From the unitary operator
given above we find
Now we have
where D ( ) is the displacement operator. Thus
227
and therefore
Calculating the unitary transformations in the exponent, we find
Thus
Therefore, we have
If we write then we can write
Choosing sin(|z|) = 1 yields
Applying the unitary operator
from the left, we find
If we set and in ()1 we obtain
Problem 2. We cannot clone coherent states, i.e., we cannot find a

unitary operator which maps
IP) @ 10) -+ IP) @ IP) *

Swapping and Cloning 229
Use the result from problem 1 (equation (1))
to find an approximation.
Solution 2. Applying the operator
to the right-hand side of (l),we obtain
If we set IzI = n/4 we obtain
This is called imperfect cloning.
Problem 3. In this problem we work with three infinite-dimensional

Hilbert spaces El, 7-l2,7-l3 and the product Hilbert space 7-l3@7-l1@"H2 with
7-ll = 7 - l ~= X3. Consider the heterodyne-current operator Z := bl + bi,
where the Bose annihilation operator acts in the Hilbert space and the
Bose creation operator bi acts on the Hilbert space X2. We have [Z,Z t ] = 0
and the eigenvalue equation 212))12 = zlz))l2 with z E C . The eigenstates
12)) are given by
where D1 denotes the displacement operator for mode 1, D2 the displace-

ment operator for mode 2 and
on the Fock basis (number basis). The expression
where
m 00
n=O n=O
denotes the transfer operator which obviously satisfies T131$)3 = 1$)1 for
any vector I$). For a cloning operation consider the input state in the
product Hilbert space 3-13 I8 3-11 I8 ‘Fl2
I$) = kb)3 I8 d2zf(z,z*)1z))12.

C
where 14)3 is the original state in the Hilbert space 3-13 to be cloned in
itself and 3-11. The cloning transformation is realized by the unitary
3-13
operator
+
where 2 = b l b:. Let = Ul$).
(i) Evaluate the one-site restricted density matrix p 3 corresponding to the
state for the Hilbert space 3-13.
(ii) Evaluate the one-site restricted density matrix p 1 corresponding to the
state I $ ) o ut for the Hilbert space 3-11.
(iii) Compare the two density matrices.
Solution 3. Let 1w))lz be an eigenstate of the operator 2. We have

p = I$)(+!.
Thus for the partial trace we have to calculate
Using the completeness and orthogonality of the eigenstates lw))of the

operator Z we find
(ii) For p1 we have to calculate
Using the completeness and orthogonality of the eigenstates Iw))of the

operator Z we find
Swapping and Cloning 231
w*)denotes the Fourier transform over the complex plane

where T(w,
(iii) For
one has two identical clones, i.e., p3 = p1 which are given by the original
state I$) degraded by Gaussian noise.
Chapter 20
Hamilton Operators
Most experimental realizations of quantum logic gates (Hadamard gate,

quantum phase gate, controlled-NOT gate) involve several qubits and num-
ber states (Fock states). A Hamilton operator H must describe the inter-
action. Thus in quantum computing we are faced with two problems. One
is to write the Hamilton operator fi for the system such that the time-
evolution exp( -ifit/li) represents the execution of the computation. The
other one is to build the hardware described by this Hamilton operator.
Problem 1. Consider the model Hamilton operator for ions trapped

inside an optical cavity
H := Ho + v
where
and
P = liR(exp(iqL(at + a ) - i(wLt + 411~)'8 I b '8 a+ + h.c.1

+ hgsin(qC(at+ a ) ) C3 (bt + b) '8 (a++ a - ) .
Here at ( a ) and bt ( b ) are Bose creation (annihilation) operators for the
vibrational phonon and the cavity field photon, respectively and w o is the
transition frequency of the two-level ion. The ion-phonon and ion-cavity
coupling constants are 0 and g, and ak (k = z , +, -) are the Pauli operators
describing the internal state of the ion. Thus we consider a two-level ion
232
Hamilton Operators 233
radiated by the single mode cavity field of frequency wc and an external

laser field of frequency WL. The operators la,I b and 1 2 are the identity
operators in their respective Hilbert spaces. Obviously I 2 is the 2 x 2 unit
matrix. Thus we have a tripartite system. The parameters q~ and q, are
the Lamb-Dicke parameters.
(i) Let
~ o ( t=) exp(-i&t/fi).
Calculate (interaction picture)
HI(t) = uJ((t)Quo(t) = exp(ikot/fi)Q exp(-ifiot/fi).

(ii) Discuss how a Hadamard gate can be realized.
Solution 1. (i) Straightforward calculation yields
~ exp(i(60Lt - 4))) @ I b 8 (T+

fiI(t) = f i (0;
k-1 k t k O^ ck eXp(i(b0,
qc)a + ku + 2W~)t)
k = 1 , 3 , ...
k = 1 , 3 , ...
k = 1 , 3 , ...
k = 1 , 3 , ...
+h.c.
where
*)k~ := exp (2)

c 00
p=o
+ lc)!
(iqL)2PatPaP
p!(p
0; := exp (2)
c 00
p=o
(iqc)2PatPaP
+
p ! ( p k)!
and
60L := WO - W L , 60, := WO - w , .
(ii) Our basis is
Im>@ I 4 @ Id, Im>€4 In) €4 I4

where m = 0, 1,. . . ,oo denotes the state of ionic vibrational motion, n =
0,1,. . . ,cadenotes the state of the quantized cavity field and 19) and Ie)
denote the ground state and exicted state, respectively for the two-level
ion. Using a proper setting for the parameters and the time we can find an
implementation of the Hadamard gate
1
I 4 €4 10) @ 19) -+ @ 10) €3 19) + I 4 €310) €4 14)
1
Im) @ 10) €4 I4 + p)€4 10) €4 19) - Im) €3 10) @ 14).
Problem 2. Consider a single continuous variable corresponding to a

linear operator X. Let P be the operator of the conjugate variable, i.e.,
[X,
PI = 21. (1)
Consider the Kew-Hamilton operator
K=H2=(X2+P2)2.
The Kerr-Hamilton operator corresponds to a x3 process in nonlinear op-

tics. The linear operators X and P could correspond to quadrature ampli-
tudes of a mode of the electromagnetic field. The quadrature amplitudes
are the real and imaginary parts of the complex electric field.
Let
1
s := -(XP
2
PX). +
Calculate
[ K ,XI, [ K ,PI, [X,[ K ,Sll, [P,[ K ,Sll .
Discuss.
Solution 2. We find
Thus the algebra generated by X, P , H , S, K by calculating commutators

includes all third order polynomials in X and P. We can construct Hamil-
ton operators that are arbitrary hermitian polynomials in any order of X
and P. We have
[P3,pmxn] = ipm+2X"-l + lower order terms
and
[ X 3 ,p-xn] = ip"-lx"+2 + lower order terms.
Problem 3. A Kerr medium is nonlinear in the sense that its refractive
index n has a component which varies with the intensity of the propagating
field E, that is
n = no n2lEI2 +
where no and n 2 are constants. For a single-mode field, described by Bose
creation and annihilation operators bt and b, propagating through a low-loss
Kerr media, the interaction Hamilton operator can be written as
(i) Show that the number state (Fock state) In) is an eigenstate.
(ii) Assume that the initial state is a coherent state ID). Find Ip(t)).
(iii) Let X t = n r / s where r and s are mutually prime with r < s. Write
exp(-inrn2/s) as a discrete Fourier transform. Express I,B(t))using this
expansion.

bt2b2 = btb(btb - I )
and btbln) = nln),we have
Thus the eigenvalues are X(n2- n).
(ii) The solution of the time-dependent Schrodinger equation ( h = 1)
is given by
ID(t)) = exp(-ifit)IP).
Using the result from (i) we find
M
n=O
where
P"
c, := exp(-I~1~/2)-.
&J
Since n2 - n is always an even number, the system will revive whenever X t
is a multiple of r.
(iii) Let X t = m / s where r , s are mutually prime with r < s. Then we can
write the quadratic (in n) phase in terms of linear phases using the discrete
Fourier transform
e- 1
exp(-inn2r/s) = C u p S )exp(-2~ipn/e)
p=o
where
s if r is odd, s is even or vice-versa
e={ 2s if both r and s are odd
Thus
eC
1 e-l
at+)= - exp(-irrk2/s + 2+k/e)
k=O
and
Problem 4. The Hamilton operator for the second-harmonic generation

can be written as
K
k = ih-(bt2bsh
2 - b2bbh)
where b is the fundamental cavity mode Bose operator, bsh is the second-
harmonic mode Bose operator and K is the nonlinear coupling. Using the
Heisenberg equation of motion find the time evolution of b and bsh.
Solution 4. The Heisenberg equation of motion of an operator A is given

by
. dA
zfi- = [A,k](t)
dt
The commutation relations are given by
[b,bt] = I , [bSh, bLh] = I
[b,b] = [h,
bsh] = [b,bsh] = [b,bLJ = 0.
Thus we find the operator-valued differential equations
db
- = r;btb,h
dt
In a more realistic model, cavity photon losses must be taken into account.
Problem 5 . A single spin-; particle is placed on a cantilever tip. The

tip can oscillate only in the z-direction. A ferromagnetic particle, whose
magnetic moment points in the positive z-direction, produces a non-uniform
magnetic field at the spin. A uniform magnetic field, Bo, oriented in the
positive z-direction, determines the ground state of the spin. A rotating
magnetic field, Bl(t), induces transitions between the ground state and
excited states of the spin. It is given by
where 4(t) describes a smooth change in phase required for a cyclic adia-
batic inversion of the spin
In the reference frame rotating with B1 ( t ) ,the time-dependent Hamilton

operator is given by
P,” m:w,2Z2
H(t)= -
2mE
+
2 dt
s,- tiWlSx - g p dB,
-zs,
dZ
where Z is the coordinate of the oscillator which describes the dynamics of
the quasi-classical cantilever tip, P, is its momentum, mE and wc are the
effective mass and the frequency of the cantilever, S, and S, are the z-
and the x- component of the spin,
WL is its Larmor frequency, w1 is the Rabi frequency (the frequency of the

spin precession around the magnetic field Bl(t) at the resonance condition
w = W L , d 4 / d t = 0 ) , g and p are the g-factors and the magnetic moment of
the spin and we defined m: = m c / 4 as the effective cantilever mass. The
operator acts in the Hilbert space &(R)@ C2. We set
w, = ( k , / r n y ’ ~ , W L = yB,, w1 = yB1
where y = gp/h is the gyromagnetic ratio of the spin, m, and k, are the
mass and the force constant of the cantilever, B, includes the uniform
magnetic field Bo and the magnetic field produced by the ferromagnetic

particle.
(i) Cast the Hamilton operator in dimensionless form H / h w c -+ I? by
introducing the quantities
Eo := hw,, Fo := a, Ja,
Po 20:= := li/Zo
with w = W L and using the dimensionless time
7 := w,t .
(ii) The dimensionless time-dependent Schrodinger equation
.a*
2- = KQ
a7
where
*(r,z ) =
(21:::;)
can be solved using the expansions
n=O
in) = ,1/42n/2(n!)1/2e-zz/~~ n(2)
where { In) : n = 0 , 1 , . . . } are number states. Here H,(z) are the Her-
mitian polynomials. Find the time evolution of the complex expansion
coefficients An and Bn.
(iii) What would be an initial state closest to the classical limit?
Solution 5 . (i) Since fi/(twc)-+ k we find
where we used WL = w and
(ii) Inserting the series expansions into the dimensionless Schrodinger equa-
tion we find the system of linear differential equations with time-dependent
coefficients for the complex amplitudes An(7)and B,(T)
2-
dAn
dr
= (n + -21 + --)
Id4
2d7
17
A,, - - ( f i A n - l
Jz + - ;Bn
where we used the Bose operators b and bt defined by
bin) = f i I n - l), btln) = JnT-iln + 1)

and
51 (pf + z 2 )In) =
with
1 i
Jz + b),
z = -(bt p - -(bt
z - Jz - b), [b,bt] = I .
(iii) We can choose the coherent state

bo
* 1 ( ~ , 0 )= C An(O)In),
n=O
9 2 ( z ,0) = 0
with
on
An(0) = -exp(-IPI2/2).
fi
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Index
Abelian group, 78 Completeness relation, 73, 75, 171,
Algorithm, 143 197
AND-operation, 144 Concurrence, 114, 115
Anti-commutation relations, 129 Continuity argument, 40
Anticommutator, 7 Controlled NOT, 66, 67
Antisymmetric subspace, 113 Correlation, 113
Associated Laguerre polynomials, Csanky’s algorithm, 36
190 Cyclic invariance, 20
Cyclic invariance of the trace, 56
Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula,
198 Density matrix, 49, 50, 59, 111
Beam splitter, 184, 191, 220 Density matrix purification, 57
Beam splitter interaction, 202 Deutsch’s problem, 152, 153
Beam splitter operator, 221 Dirac delta function, 214
Bell basis, 112, 133, 135 Dirac matrices, 19
Bell inequality, 124, 126 Disentangled, 98
Bell states, 22, 57, 63, 215 Displacement operator, 193, 200,
Bloch sphere, 93 205, 225
Bloch vector, 55
Eigenvalue kick back, 149
Bogolubov transform, 172, 178
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen state, 98
Bose creation operators, 180
Entangled, 98
Bures metric, 127
Entanglement, 215
Entanglement capability, 116,119
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 37 Entanglement of formation, 115
Characteristic length, 169 Entire analytic function, 173, 197
Circulant matrix, 41 EPR-state, 64, 98, 126
Classical algorithm, 143 Euler’s identity, 74
Clone, 141, 228 Expectation, 90
CNOT gate, 141
Coherent states, 122, 193 Factorisability, 124
Communication complexity, 145, Fermi operators, 129
148 Fidelity, 127
Commutation relations, 171 Field of values, 40
Commutative group, 78 Fock state, 171, 235
Commutator, 12 Fourier matrix, 43
247
248 Index
Fourier transform, 231 No cloning theorem, 142

Fredkin gate, 86, 191 Norm, 19, 29
Normal, 46
Gaussian, 199 Normal matrix, 41
Gleason’s theorem, 95 Normal order form, 177
Global phase, 94 NOT operation, 5 , 67, 70
Gram-Schmidt process, 27 Number operator, 171, 185
Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state, Number state, 171, 235
111 Numerical range, 40
GXOR gate, 77
Operator-Schmidt decomposition,
Haar measure, 100 33
Hadamard matrix, 43
Hamming weight, 155 Parameter differentiation, 175
Harmonic oscillator, 169, 170 Parity function, 143
Heisenberg algebra, 171, 182,193, Parseval’s relation, 110
200 Partial measurement, 92
Heisenberg commutation relation, Partial trace, 58, 219
39 Pauli group, 188
Heisenberg equation of motion, 10, Pauli spin matrices, 7, 70, 111
236 Phase change transform, 93
Heterodyne-current operator, 181 Phase modulator, 191
Hilbert space, xi Phase shift, 185
Hilbert-Schmidt norm, 19 Photon, 47
Homodyne detector, 185 Poisson distribution, 196, 199
Hubbard model, 128 Polar decomposition theorem, 25
Husimi distribution, 199 Polarization vector, 184
Positive operator-valued measure,
Imperfect cloning, 229
91
Inversion about average, 75
Positive semidefinite, 45, 49
Irreducible, 44
POVM, 91
Kerr medium, 202, 235 Primary permutation matrix, 41
Kerr-Hamilton operator, 234 Probability, 90
Kramer’s vector, 47 Product state, 98
Projective measurement, 89
Lagrange multiplier, 29
Lagrange multiplier method, 29 Quantum algorithm, 143
Lamb-Dicke parameters, 233 Quantum Fourier transform, 73
Levi-Civita symbol, 114 Qubit, 3
Qubit trine, 8
Mach-Zehnder interferometer, 11 Qudits, 77
Magic gate, 83 Qutrit state, 96
Maxwell’s equations, 47
Mixed state, 50 Rabi frequency, 237
Modified Bures metric. 127 Reduced density matrix, 100
Index 249
Reducible, 44 Toeplitz-Hausdorff convexity the-

Repeated commutator, 210 orem, 41
Resolution of identity, 123 Toffoli gate, 85
Riccati equation, 177 Trace, 172, 203
Transfer operator, 191
Scalar product, 19, 40 Transmissivity, 185
Schmidt decomposition, 57, 108 Triangle inequality, 54
Schmidt number, 107 Twin beam state, 200
Schmidt rank, 32, 107
Schrodinger equation, 9, 56 Uhlmann’s transition probability,
Schur decomposition, 25 127
Schur’s theorem, 53 Unitary operator, 66
Schwinger two-bosons realization,
218 Vacuum state, 171
Second law of thermodynamics, 142 Variance, 196, 213
Second-harmonic generation, 236 Von Neumann entropy, 102, 115,
Separable, 58, 98 116, 119, 142
Shannon entropy, 115 Von Neumann equation, 55, 117
Similar matrices, 24 Von Neumann measurement, 88
Singular value decomposition, 26
Spectral representation, 89 Walsh-Hadamard gate, 71
Spin-flipped density matrix, 52 Walsh-Hadamard transform, 6, 16,
Spontaneous parametric downcon- 66, 154, 170
version, 216 Werner state, 114, 115
Square root of NOT, 70 Weyl representation, 39
Squeeze operator, 205 Wigner function, 63, 213
Squeezing operator, 207 Wigner operator, 63
Squeezing parameter, 172, 205
XOR gate, 77
State entanglement rate, 116, 119
XOR-operation, 143
Statistical independence, 125
XY-model, 79
su(l,l), 180
Supercomplete, 197
Superposition, 3
Susskind-Glogower canonical phase
states, 175
Swap operator, 227
Tangle, 53, 100

Technique of parameter differen-
tiation, 36
Teleportation, 134
Teleported, 133
Tensor product, 14
Time-dependent Schrodinger equa-
tion, 235

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PROBLEMS ti

British Library Cataloguing-in-PublicationData

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN QUANTUM COMPUTING

The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in quantum

Any useful suggestions and comments are welcome.

The International School for Scientific Computing (ISSC) provides certifi-

e-mail addresses of the authors:

I Finite-Dimensional Hilbert Spaces

2 Kronecker Product and Tensor Product 14

6 Unitary Transforms and Quantum Gates 66

11 Quantum Algorithms 143

12 Quantum Error Correction 158

13 Quantum Cryptography 162

I1 Infinite-Dimensional Hilbert Spaces

15 Coherent States 193

16 Squeezed States 205

19 Swapping and Cloning 227

20 Hamilton Operators 232

At conjugate transpose of matrix A

where c E C and E 'H. The inner product can be viewed as a bilinear

(41 : + -+ (4l+), ( . I : 'FI* + 'FI'

I+) : 4 4 (4l+), 1 . ) : 'FI + 'FI:

(2) If c is a complex number, then for any f in 'H, there is an element cf of

(4)For each pair of vectors f, g in 'H, there is a complex number (flg),

(5) If { fn } is a sequence in 'H satisfying the Cauchy condition that

as m and n tend independently to infinity, then there is a unique element

Let B = { 4n : n E I } be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space 'H. I

A single qubit is a two-state system, such as a two-level atom. The states

Problem 1. We denote two orthonormal states of a single qubit as

Solution 1. (i) Using cose, sine and the identity

(ii) We have as a representation

where q5 E R and ei4e-ad = 1.

Problem 2. Consider the normalized states

Find the condition on 81 and 82 such that

Solution 2. From the condition that the vector

Problem 3. Let {lo), 11)) be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space

Find the matrix representation of A in these bases.

For all three cases

Problem 4. Let {lo), 11)) be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space

(i) Find the unitary operator U N ~ which

Find the matrix representation of U N ~ for

Find the matrix representation of U N ~ for

Solution 4. (i) Obviously,

since (010) = (111) = 1 and (011) = (1lO)= 0.

(iii) For the Hadamard basis we find

Problem 5 . The Walsh-Hadamard transform is a 1-qubit operation, de-

Find the matrix representation of UH for this basis.

Find the matrix representation of UH for this basis.

Solution 5 . (i) Obviously,

(iv) For the Hadamard basis we find

Problem 6. Consider the Hilbert space C 2 and the linear operator (2 x 2

where n := ( n l 1 n 2 , n 3 )(nj E R) is a unit vector, i.e.,

Here 6 l 1 6 2 , a3 are the Paula matrices

Solution 6. (i) For the Pauli matrices we have

Thus II(n) = n t ( n ) . Since

and the trace operation is linear, we obtain tr(II(n)) = 1. Since

+ + ng = 1 we obtain n2(n)= H(n).

where { lo), 11)} is an orthonormal basis set. Find

I W O 1G1)l2 7 I($l I$2) l2 1 I($2 I$o) l2 .

Solution 7. Using (010) = 1, (111)= 1 and (011) = 0 we find

Give an interpretation of these states.

Solution 8. Since (hlh)= (vlw)= 1 and (vlh)= (hlw) = 0 we find

Since the solution to cos(a) = -1/2 is given by Q = 120" or Q = 240' we