AREMA Vol. 3 - (2009) PDF

2009
Manual for Railway Engineering
Volume 3
Infrastructure and Passenger

1
Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail - Unified Table of Contents and Common
Elements of Planning, Design and Operations Analyses for Passenger Rail Systems
Chapter 6 Buildings and Support Facilities

3
Chapter 11 Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems
Chapter 12 Rail Transit
Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals
Chapter 17 High Speed Rail Systems
Chapter 18 Light Density and Short Line Railways
Chapter 27 Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment
Chapter 33 Electrical Energy Utilization
General Subject Index

Copyright © 2009
by the
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form, or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning, recording, or
otherwise—without the prior written permission of the publisher. Photocopying or electronic reproduction
and/or distribution of this publication is a violation of USA and International Copyright laws and is expressly
prohibited.
Correspondence regarding copyright permission should be directed to the Director of Administration, AREMA,
10003 Derekwood Lane, Suite 210, Lanham, MD 20706 USA.
ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version
ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

1
COMMUTER, TRANSIT AND

HIGH SPEED RAIL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section Description Page
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.0 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.2 Demographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.4 Zoning Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
2.3.5 Environmental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

2.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.3 Operations Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.5 Route Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.6 Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.7 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.8 Neighborhood Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

2.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.2 Selection of Route Within Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.4 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.7 Community Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association i

Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

2.5.10 Property Value Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.5.13 Shared Trackage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.5.14 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

2.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.6.2 Rolling Stock (Vehicle Technology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

2.7.1 General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
2.8 Corridor Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv

2.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
2.8.2 Operations Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxviii
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

ii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
RAPID TRANSIT, COMMUTER, INTERCITY RAIL, and HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS
Common Elements of Planning, Design and Operations Analyses for Passenger Rail Systems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Passenger Rail Systems Section covers the common elements for passenger rail systems planning design and
operations in a systems approach for Chapters 11, 12 and 17 of the AREMA Manual. The reader will benefit by the
broad discussion of recommended operating practices, train characteristics and recommended infrastructure
practices. The Passenger and Transit chapters have been developed with a common outline and format to help the
reader make direct comparisons between the passenger modes. All common elements of the passenger modes are
presented in this section, with unique mode practices further detailed in the individual chapter materials.
2.0 CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
2.2 PLANNING
2.3 DATA COLLECTION
2.3.1 General
Transportation planning and data collection is performed at many levels of government and by many agencies
including States, Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Regional Planning Organizations, Transportation
Agencies, Municipalities, Passenger, and Freight Railroads. The effect of the implementation of these plans will
affect decisions about the proposed corridor.
2.3.2 Demographic Data
Demography is the statistical study of human populations, particularly with respect to size, density, distribution,
and vital statistics over relatively large areas. The statistics must include where people live and where people
work, as in many instances, the rail corridor may be connecting people to their workplaces.
Vital statistics of the population are also important. The working population will have a different demand than the
leisure population. Age distribution will affect demand and particularly future demand. Economic distribution
will also affect demand.
Population growth, location, and average income trends are also important for forecasting future ridership.
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys
Opinion surveys must be interpreted with caution. What people say, how they feel, and what they eventually do to
support or block a project are not always consistent. Taking surveys does serve the function of coupling the project
and its planning team with the community, but objective data should always be utilized to assess the validity of
subjective survey data.
2.3.3.1 Stakeholder Surveys
The attitudes of the current landowners and the residents of the communities through which the corridor passes
will have a strong influence on the feasibility of a rail corridor. Survey data about these attitudes are important
because they imply whether the project is a community effort, a development effort, or an unsupported concept.
Projects often fail to materialize due to the inability to resolve political differences.
The attitude surveys and observations must answer a number of questions:

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering iii
a. Do local residents and businesses see the rail corridor as improving mobility?
b. Is there resistance to transportation system changes? If so, what are they?
c. What are the perceived problems with the proposed transportation system?
d. Will the political system support the changes called for by adoption of a rail transit corridor?
e. How do attitudes vary between absentee owners, resident owners, and resident users?
2.3.3.2 Stated Preference Surveys
A Stated Preference Survey is used to determine the general perceptions, and preferences of the population
concerning travel. The survey will collect data that can be used to answer such questions as:
a. What are the goals of the transportation system (speed, trip time, value, cost, and safety)?
b. What is the perceived travel cost using presently available modes for the route?
c. What is the population's perceived value of their time?
d. What modes are acceptable?
2.3.4 Zoning Data
Land use zoning must be compatible with rail corridor development. The suitability of rail corridors is highly
dependent on the timing and density of population movements, the presence of high-density land occupancy, easy
access to the corridor, and connectivity with other modes of transportation.
Zoning maps and zoning levels help project future land use densities and weaknesses in the existing zoning plan.
The zoning data must be evaluated from the standpoint of what is practical. That is, how will zoning requirements
change and will the market really support either the projected land use or the present zoning on the books?
2.3.4.1 Existing and Future Land Use
A set of objective data should be collected to identify potential zoning changes. This data supplements the attitude
surveys and should include:
a. Adjacent land uses.
b. Recent trends in land use density and land use classification.
c. Apparent reasons for change.
d. Probable life cycles of present and future land use developments.
2.3.4.2 Available Land for Facilities
The rail corridor will likely require stations, parking lots, maintenance yards, and other support facilities. The
availability of land for these functions (and appropriate zoning and adjacent uses) should be determined.

iv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.3.5 Environmental Data
Various governmental requirements exist to control activities that may disrupt the environment. If the rail project
will utilize Federal funds for its construction, the requirements for an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS),
Environmental Assessment (EA) or Categorical Exclusion may be required. A project cannot be artificially divided
into parts to avoid this requirement.
If federal funding is not used, state or local requirements must be met. Local requirements are often more
stringent than the federal requirements.
2.3.5.1 General
Environmental investigations can include:
a. Wetlands
b. Endangered species
c. Water quality
d. Floodplains/Beach & Shorelines
e. Wildlife
f. Air quality
g. Viewsheds
h. Hazardous substances (site cleanup)
i. Public safety
j. Public nuisances (noise, lighting, odor, vibration)
k. Public convenience (transit times, detours, delays, accessibility)
l. Rerouting of utilities and traffic
m. Taking of property
n. Construction limits (duration, time of day, work sites)
o. Construction nuisance
p. Impact on commercial establishments
q. Impact on property values
r. Presence or absence of at-grade highway crossings
2.3.5.2 Historical
Requirements exist to control activities that may disrupt the historical nature of an area. The disruptions may be
to archeological resources dating back to the original inhabitants of the area or to historic structures of a much
more recent vintage.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering v
The use of existing abandoned or active right-of-ways by a new line may affect the historic fabric of an area.
Similarly the re-use of existing stations and the necessary modifications to comply with modern requirements and
ADA regulations can create effects on the historic fabric of an area.
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data
The collection of geographic and physical data is needed to form the basis of the physical constraints portion of a
corridor evaluation. Corridors can use new routes over the land or existing corridors.
The use of existing railroad rights of way for new rail projects is also typically considered.
Each of the corridor types requires specific data beyond the general geographic features.
2.3.6.1 Existing Transportation/Utility Corridors
The ability to use an existing transportation/utility corridor will depend on the technology chosen for the rail
system. In the data collection phase the corridors should be identified and data concerning them collected. The
data needed to evaluate the existing transportation/utility corridors include:
a. Is the corridor currently in use?
b. Wht is the level of use?
c. Is the corridor contiguous?
d. Who owns the corridor?
e. Are current uses compatible with rail?
f. Are the current uses compatible with rail?
g. Are there interferences with other corridors? (bridges over waterways, grade crossings, and vertical
clearances)?
2.3.6.2 Existing Active and Historic Rail Corridors
In most cases, there is or has been one or more existing railroad rights-of-way between the cities of a given region.
Corridor-specific information on the past and present track configuration and alignment should be obtained. If
electronic files containing a recent map/chart are not available, a scale drawing showing the configuration should
be developed. It should be used to show the curves, tracks, and interlockings, and the proposed configuration.
Components that should be documented where they exist include:
a. Valuation Maps
b. Track Charts
c. Existing or Historic Timetable/Schedules
d. Maximum Authorized Speeds (MAS) and Permanent Speed Restrictions:
(1) Curvature related speed restrictions, (horizontal and vertical).
(2) Structures related speed restrictions (bridges, tunnels and viaducts).
(3) Signal related system speed limitations.

vi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
(4) Interlocking related speed restrictions.
(5) Other non-civil speed restrictions.
e. Route Characteristics
(1) Main Tracks
(2) Passing Sidings
(3) Rail Characteristics - by location
(a) Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)/Jointed Rail
(b) Condition when installed (new, fit)
(c) Weight and Section
(d) Age of rail (date rolled, accumulated tonnage)
(e) Rail Type (continuous cooled, head hardened, etc.)
(4) Tie Characteristics - by location
(a) Tie Type (wood, concrete, other)
(b) General age of ties
(c) Tie spacing
(5) Industrial Sidetracks
(a) Industries served
(b) Status of sidings (active/inactive)
(c) Frequency of utilization
(6) Horizontal Curvature
(a) Curve type (simple, spiraled, compound, reverse)
(b) Location of curves
(c) Direction of curves (hand)
(d) Length of curves
(e) Degree of curvature (curve radius)
(f) Super-Elevation
(g) Tangent length between curves

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering vii
(7) Transition Curves or Spirals
(a) Spiral geometry
(b) Rate of superelevation change
(c) Spiral length and contraints to lengthening
(8) Gradient and Vertical Curves
(a) Ruling gradient of line
(b) Length of vertical curves
(c) Rate of change of gradient (R factor)
(d) Distance between vertical curves
(9) Interlockings and Control Points
(a) Spacing between interlockings (block length)
(b) Interlockings configuration
(c) Type and number of crossovers and turnouts, (including size, definition of tracks connected, and
condition/age)
(d) Diverging speed through crossovers and turnouts
(e) Number of tracks
(f) Interlocking operations (powered remote control, hand-thrown/electric lock, etc.)
(10)At-grade highway crossings
(a) Public
(b) Private
(c) AAR/DOT Number
(d) Surface material
(e) Type of warning devices (passive, active)
(f) Highway AADT/Percent Trucks
(g) Special characteristics of traffic over crossings (school buses, emergency vehicles, heavily loaded
trucks)
(h) Highway configuration
(i) Sight distances
(j) Accident history at each crossing

viii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
(k) Proposed grade spearations
(l) Neighboring land uses
(11)Bridges
(a) Undergrade
(b) Overhead
(c) Fixed/Moveable
(d) Viaducts
(e) Bridge type
(f) Age and general condition
(g) Bridge ratings
(12)Tunnels
(a) Clearances
(b) Cross-sections
(c) Operating restrictions
(d) Age and general condition
(e) Ventilation
(f) Routes for emergency access and/or evacuation
(13)Planned Programs
(a) Infrastructure component replacements
(b) Systematic renewals and upgrades
(c) Spot repairs
f. Yards (type, capacity, limitations, expandability)
g. Terminals
h. Stations
i. Ownership
j. Air rights
k. Maintenance Facilities

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering ix
l. At-Grade Rail Crossings
m. Rail Junctions
(1) Entrance and exit configuration
(2) Traffic characteristics
n. Right-of-Way Features
(1) Drainage
(2) Cuts and fills
(3) Wetlands
(4) Fencing and barriers
(5) Use as a utility corridor (fiber-optics, power transmission)
o. Signal System
(1) Type
(2) Control locations
p. Electrification System
(1) Substations
(2) Paralleling stations and switching stations
(3) Catenary condition and type
(4) Third rail condition and type
q. Vertical and Horizontal Clearances
r. Limits to service that may be dictated by the property owners or political entities.
(1) Current and future freight and passenger traffic needs.
(2) Speed differential between existing and proposed passenger service.
(3) Compatibility of freight and passenger equipment.
s. Existing or proposed utility easements/crossings
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data
The demographic data collected under previous efforts lends itself to predicting general trends between two or
more major points of interest. As the corridors are refined, there is a need to collect more focused data concerning
the population and its economics as it relates to specific locations along the corridor.

x AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
A specific station site must be sized to provide such things as adequate parking, bus stops, passenger platform size,
and multimodal connections. A suburban station may have greater parking requirements on a per rider basis than
an urban station due to the local population characteristics, and the availability of alternate modes.
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data
Corridor transportation needs should be considered within the context of both existing and projected demand.
Existing demand may be evident from the current level of traffic on highways and transit routes within the corridor.
Traffic congestion and/or heavy transit ridership may point out areas where additional capacity is needed and where
rail development may be feasible. The forecasts produced by metropolitan planning organizations (MPO) and
similar bodies should be considered in projecting future demand, although these forecasts may not be applicable to
Intercity and High-Speed Rail Corridors. These forecasts should provide an overall view of the area’s anticipated
transit demands. Corridor-specific studies should be conducted to accurately assess demand within each corridor.
2.3.8.1 Traffic Sources and Corridor Definition
A corridor will be generally defined by its major traffic flows. Key elements in refining the characteristics of a
corridor are the identification and characterization of its major traffic sources. These passenger generators must
be identified so that logical corridor end points and intermediate nodes can be determined, together with their
connecting transportation links. Traffic flows can then be analyzed within the framework of this skeletal corridor
defined by links and nodes.
2.3.8.2 Origin Destination / Travel Pattern Study
Trip origins may be generated by close-by high-density housing, or by a more distant and dispersed market that
arrives via park-and-ride facilities or on feeder bus systems.
For rail corridors, it is thought that most destinations will be defined by high density, temporary populations such
as offices, commercial facilities, retail facilities, production facilities, transportation hubs, shopping areas,
entertainment centers, recreational facilities, etc. People visiting these activities may be either workers or
customers. For example, the temporary daily working population of New York’s JFK Airport is 50,000 people, a
substantial market in itself without considering customers.
The time of day that these populations congregate and disperse is critical to the corridor data. The primary task of the
rail corridor will be the handling of the peak period passenger flows. The off-peak and reverse commute movements
must also be estimated, since these supplemental markets are important to the overall economics of the corridor.
2.3.8.3 Competitive Modes
Studying the competitive modes in a corridor can provide data concerning travel attitudes and preferences. The
data collected on competitive modes include:
a. Transit times
b. Fare Structures
c. Total Travel Costs
d. Terminal Locations
e. Destinations
f. Number of Trips
g. Reliability

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xi
2.4 CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION
2.4.1 General
Rail corridors can be developed in a number of different areas. These include active or abandoned freight railroad
rights of way, exclusive street or highway medians, segregated rights of way, or shared right of way within local
streets. The right of way usually dictates the type of technology and service that passenger systems can provide.
Geometric constraints often dictate the technology that can be used within a certain corridor. For instance,
commuter rail service usually operates within an existing or abandoned freight rail corridor and often shares track
with freight service. Light rail or trolley service can operate within a street environment, often sharing the right of
way with motor vehicle traffic. These vehicles will often operate within an exclusive right of way where land exists
for such a purpose. Heavy Rail and Rapid Transit Systems mostly operate within an exclusive right of way,
including tunnels and aerial structures, to minimize exposure and safety risks to the general public. Rapid Transit
and High-Speed service will most likely be limited to an exclusive right of way and track because of differential
speeds with resultant geometric criteria and to enhance safety of operations.
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria
Within each study area, specific corridors of transportation demand will exist. These corridors are defined by the
transportation demand that arises from centers of economic and social activity such as business districts and their
associated residential communities, schools, hospitals, and shopping and recreational areas. Transportation
demand manifests itself as major traffic flows along the corridor between activity centers. The key point is to
identify those corridors having sufficient ridership potential to justify consideration of the passenger rail systems.
Corridor transportation needs should be considered within the context of both existing and projected demand.
Existing demand will be evident from the current level of traffic on highways and transit routes within the
corridor. Traffic congestion and/or heavy transit ridership point out areas where additional capacity is needed and
where rail development may be feasible. The forecasts produced by metropolitan planning organizations (MPO)
and similar bodies should be considered in projecting future demand. These forecasts will provide an overall view
of the area’s anticipated transit demands. Corridor-specific studies should be conducted to accurately assess
demand within each corridor.
Study results must recognize and attempt to correct for the effects of data limitations, built-in software
assumptions, and other circumstances that may be present. Origin-destination studies can be undertaken to
estimate future transportation demand in the identified corridors within an appropriate planning horizon.
2.4.3 Operations Criteria
For each potential corridor identified, an analysis should be conducted to determine the vehicle technology that is
suitable for that corridor. The analysis should include the types of rail cars (light rail or trolley, heavy rail/rapid
transit, commuter, intercity or high speed rail) and the associated operational characteristics such as clearance
envelopes, minimum alignment curvatures, grades, travel speeds, power needs, station and platform types, car and
bus access, yard and layover tracks, and maintenance facilities. Compare these to the assumed desired operational
characteristics important to the customer, such as travel times, train frequencies (headways), major train and
station amenities, joint development, and other such criteria determined for the corridor.
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations
A corridor will be generally defined by its major traffic flows. Key elements in refining the characteristics of a
corridor are the identification and characterization of its major traffic sources. These passenger generators must
be identified so that logical corridor end points and intermediate nodes can be determined, together with their
connecting transportation links. Traffic flows can then be analyzed within the framework of this skeletal corridor
defined by links and nodes.

xii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.4.5 Route Identification
Identification of potential routes within a corridor usually begins with a review of existing data sources including
road maps, USGS topographic maps, aerial photographs, and various GPS mapping sources available from many
local municipalities. There are a variety of other sources that provide higher levels of detail including topographic
maps, subdivision development plans, street improvement plans, utility maps and records, railroad right-of-way
maps, railroad track charts, and aerial surveys. When identifying routes within a corridor, consideration of
potential vehicle technologies must be addressed to identify routes that are compatible with the technology.
2.4.6 Constraints
During the corridor identification process, certain constraints will be readily apparent. The feasibility survey of a rail
corridor should include identification of as many of these constraints as possible. Constraints include natural
topography (hills, watercourses, wetlands, etc.) and other improvements such as highways and urban development.
Although most constraints can be overcome by various engineering solutions, the number and severity of these will have
an impact on construction and right of way costs and should be considered during the corridor identification process.
2.4.7 Land Availability
As development of urban and suburban areas continues, the identification of usable rights-of-way is a key item in
the planning process. If the line is to serve any portion of suburban development, not only must land be available
for the line itself, but equally important land must be available for the following ancillary requirements:
• Station facilities
• Intermodal facilities (bus, taxi, etc.)
• Pickup/Drop-off locations
• Parking areas and facilities
• Rolling stock storage and maintenance facilities
• Electrical substations (for electrified systems)
• Support facilities (administrative offices, maintenance of way bases)
2.4.8 Neighborhood Interface
A primary consideration in the preliminary identification is the location and access to other modes of
transportation. The location of stations should fit the community needs and be convenient for transferring
between passenger rail, air, bus, and automobile. Intermodal stations should be developed for use of the traveling
public. The number of stations and frequency of stops help shape the type of service which is being provided (from
very few stops only at major cities for High-Speed Rail to stops every few blocks for light rail service). Different
schedules for station stops may reduce impact on travel times, yet still provide coverage for a larger number of
locations. Interfaces of passenger rail with other forms of transportation include pedestrian and bicycle traffic,
automobile traffic, taxis and shuttle buses, and public transit systems such as buses, ferry service and other rail
modes.
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface
A number of regulatory agencies, both Federal and State, dictate rules and regulations for the operation of
passenger transit. When operating within the general railroad system, passenger and freight railroad right of
ways, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) controls safety and maintenance standards as well as interfaces
with highways at grade crossings. Individual states have agencies that provide rules and regulations for the

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xiii
design, construction, maintenance and operation of urban transit systems. Some States have jurisdiction on grade
crossings in their respective states. The Federal Transit Authority (FTA) provides criteria for transit systems.
When operating within an active freight corridor, freight railroads often demand indemnification against financial
liability, regardless of cause, related to any passenger service that operates on the freight railroads’ tracks. This
passenger service can be existing service, new service or one that increases the frequency and/or maximum
operating speed. It may be that the only fully satisfactory way to resolve this issue is through Federal legislation or
use of completely separated rights-of-way.
2.5 CORRIDOR EVALUATION
2.5.1 General
Once a corridor has been identified in the planning stages, a detailed evaluation of the corridor will be required to
provide data for both the operational models and the financial models. A number of factors must be considered in
the corridor evaluation stage. These factors will be assessed to determine a specific route within the corridor and
the vehicle technology that will be used.
2.5.2 Selection of Route Within Corridor
Following the determination that a particular corridor justifies a rail system, the selection of the route to be
utilized within the corridor is undertaken. The route selection process must recognize the differing characteristics
of the various rail modes to some degree. If this corridor will be served as an extension of an existing system, then
many of the design standards will be known at this point. If the decision of which rail mode to use has not been
made, the physical attributes of the corridor (such as right-of-way width, curvature, grades, street alignment vs.
dedicated right-of-way, etc.) will influence the decision on the rail system technology to be used.
Assessment of potential environmental impacts is another important activity early in the evaluation process. When
federal or state funds are used, the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), Environmental
Assessment (EA) or Categorical Exclusion may be required. The EIS is a comprehensive and detailed study of
impacts created by construction and operation of service within the corridor and alternatives to the route and mode
chosen. The EIS process must be started early in project planning if implementation delays are to be avoided.
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience
The most heavily weighted factor in the selection of a particular route within a corridor should be how well the line
serves its potential passengers. Passenger ridership studies and modal split analyses help determine how many
passengers will ride a particular rail line. A route selection that maximizes the number of passengers attracted to
the facility indicates how well the public is served by the proposed route. One must also look at future growth tied
to land use, future developments, regional planning, and other factors that affect where people work, where they
live, and how they will travel.
Design criteria for rail transit projects differ from most railway engineering projects. Criteria such as shortest
distance, least grade, minimum curvature, ease of operation, and other factors are often given less weight in the
design of an urban passenger line.
2.5.4 Land Availability
As development of urban and suburban areas continues, the identification of usable rights-of-way is a key item in
the planning process. If the line is to serve any portion of suburban development, not only must land be available
for the line itself, but equally important land must be available for the following:
• Station facilities

xiv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
• Intermodal facilities (bus, taxi, etc.)
• Pickup/Drop-off locations
• Parking areas and facilities
• Rolling stock storage and maintenance facilities
• Electrical substations (for electrified systems)
• Support facilities (administrative offices, maintenance of way bases)
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces
The total travel time of the passenger is a very important consideration in route selection. However, this factor
should not be calculated simply from one rail station to another; rather it must be calculated from the passenger’s
origin to the destination. Total travel time includes walking or driving, waiting, transfer, travel on bus and/or rail
transit, traversing the station, ticketing, and use of elevators to the final destination.
The changing character of the work force over the past few decades has dramatically increased the proportion of
rail riders requiring automobile parking space at the railhead. Also changing in many older metropolitan areas is
the concentration of travel in what are now known as the morning and evening rush hours, as the work force has
changed from multiple shift work associated with heavy industry, to office or service work on one day shift per day.
The relationship of the location of stations to the highway network, and in particular, the freeway system and
arterial road network, must be considered. If the purpose of the line is to serve a large area beyond the corridor
itself, then the design of the station/highway interface may include modifications of the freeway interchanges to
facilitate intermodal coordination.
Additionally, the design of passenger rail stations should include provisions for feeder bus service and automobile
drop off. Consideration must be given to feeder bus routes and the facilities required for bus layover space as well
as driver break facilities.
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces
In the Central Business District (CBD) there are many factors that must be considered. An extremely important
factor is how well the route is integrated with the passenger distribution system in the CBD. The alignment of the
new system must also mesh with existing and proposed high rise development.
If there are other rail transit lines in the area, new stations should be located in a manner to allow ease of
passenger transfer between systems. New stations should be directly connected to old stations if at all possible. If
the CBD is, or will be, served by a local guided transport system, it should complement the rail line; they should
not duplicate each other. If buses and taxis are the prime means of distribution within the CBD, then the location
and design of stations must be selected to facilitate transfer to these systems.
2.5.7 Community Relations
In the urban area, the route, type of construction (at-grade, aerial, underground), and selection of sites for stations,
storage yards, and maintenance shops must conform with the nature and character of each neighborhood that the
line serves.
Station design should be integrated into the fabric of the individual neighborhood being served. From the
engineering and operation standpoints, stations may be standardized but from aesthetic standpoint they should be
assets and an integral part of the area. Properly done, the new stations will become the hubs in their local area and
will attract development around them.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xv
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities
The location of a new transit station may attract private-sector development of stores, offices, and housing. The
possibility of joint public-sector/private-sector investment should be considered when decisions concerning station
location are being made. Such investments would offset portions of project construction costs and may be made
through joint development of station/commercial complexes, establishment of benefit assessment districts, or other
means negotiated between the parties.
Similarly, the use of air rights over rail storage yards and maintenance shops for commercial and residential use
should be part of the basic planning of the line. Such basic considerations as additional spacing between yard
tracks to allow later placement of columns for future construction allows such development much later, even
though the precise nature of the development may not be predicted when the line is being built.
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas
Passenger rail systems require support and maintenance facilities to provide for reliable service. The number, size
and location of these facilities are dependent upon the length of the system, the number of rail vehicles, and the
frequency of service. Vehicle maintenance and storage facilities should be located in an area along the line to
minimize non-revenue operations. Other facilities will be required for maintenance of way, fare collection,
administrative activities, and operations control.
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts
In the suburban zone, the goal should be to locate the line in such a manner as to maintain or increase property
values, not reduce them. Stations should be located where large tracts of land are available for parking facilities.
Both immediate and future parking needs should be thoroughly considered when site selection is being made. In
the urban zone, proper integration with existing distributor systems will reduce the need for large parking areas.
Location of traction power substations required for electrified systems must be handled carefully. If they cannot be
located in industrial areas, careful attention must be given to the architecture of the structures so that they appear
to be part of the existing environment. Substations should blend with the appearance of adjacent buildings and
maintain the property values of neighboring structures. Where possible, substations may be integrated with
passenger stations, shop facilities, or other project-related structures.
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements
The type of equipment to be used must be determined before route evaluation is completed. To successfully achieve
the mission of attracting passengers from automobiles to rail systems, the rail vehicle chosen must be fast, safe,
and include a comfortable passenger environment. The cost of the vehicles is a major element in the economic
evaluation of routes on a proposed new system. The equipment decision, the civil engineering standards for the
route, and the service level to be achieved are all closely related.
The number of vehicles required on a system will depend not only on the length of a line but also on the frequency
of service (headways), actual operating speed, station dwell times, and other factors such as location of turn back
facilities. When all of these factors have been considered, then a determination can be made of the type of
equipment to be used within the corridor.
In the case of electrified lines, factors peculiar to this form of propulsion must be considered, such as the
availability of electric power in the area. Depending on the type of electrification chosen (third-rail or overhead
wire) appropriate measures must be included to provide a safe environment.
In the case of internal combustion propulsion, factors such as fuel storage and handling, and the ventilation of tunnels
and stations must be considered. Noise and fumes from idling equipment both during daytime layover in the vicinity
of the CBD and during night hours at the urban or suburban terminals must be considered in terminal designs.

xvi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way
Mixed use rail corridors are usually defined as upgraded intercity or commuter rail passenger service on existing
railroad rights-of-way. Many of these corridors are owned by freight railroads, usually allowing the passenger rail
service to share track with freight service.
A mixed use corridor can also include rail transit operating on separate tracks within an existing railroad right of
way, or within a freeway right of way. Light rail transit can also operate within a street right of way, sharing the
alignment with motor vehicle traffic.
A variety of factors must be taken into consideration in the planning of mixed use rail corridors including
clearances between transportation modes, safety, and compatibility of power sources to be used.
2.5.13 Shared Trackage
Shared trackage is a concept that has the potential to reduce construction and maintenance costs. However, there
can be operational limitations that could prove detrimental to level of service. Because of FRA rules regarding a
rail vehicles ability to absorb impact forces (measured by a factor called “buff strength”), sharing track with freight
trains is usually reserved for commuter, intercity, and high-speed rail systems. Rail vehicles not meeting FRA buff
strength requirements can only use freight track during periods when freight trains are completely off line.
2.5.14 Safety/Security
An important step in the evaluation of any corridor should be to evaluate the safety of the corridor as it relates to
the proposed operations. There are two components to safety of a passenger rail operation, hazards to the train
and hazards caused by the train.
A major safety concern in any corridor evaluation is the presence of at-grade automotive or rail crossings. An
optimum route would provide grade separations. However, the desired separation criteria may be difficult or
impossible to obtain without significant capital expenditures.
The following measures should be considered where grade crossings must exist:
• Optimal design of approach roadway, site improvements and crossing warning device.
• Crossing occupancy detected by sensors and transmitted to train braking system.
• Speed of approaching trains.
• Positive barrier system to restrict access of traffic crossing the tracks.
A number of other safety measures such as right-of-way fencing, barriers, or separation should be considered,
particularly in areas where patrons and the general public are expected to be near the right of way. Safety
measures at stations include tactile warning surface treatments at the edge of station platforms, audible warning
devices, right of way fencing, and grade separated pedestrian crossings.
2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 General
The planner’s goal is to match the equipment technology to the physical characteristics and market requirements
of the corridor. The planner should use a sufficient horizon (20 years or more) to consider future population
growth, development, interfaces to other transportation modes, changes in market conditions, trends, etc. when
evaluating the technology/equipment. Flexibility must be designed into any rail system so that the system can

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xvii
react to unforeseen conditions, technological advances, future regulatory requirements and market conditions that
the planner did not anticipate.
Technology, per se, should not be a primary objective. The primary considerations for equipping any project must be:
• Performance objectives and reliability
• Compatibility with any existing equipment or infrastructure with which it must work
• The amount of schedule or performance risk which can be accepted
• The availability of two or more competitive, proven sources which can fulfill these needs
• Life cycle costs
Secondary considerations, which also may be evaluated or analyzed, are:
• Long term maintenance or operations contract possibilities
• Efficiency and design life
• Guarantees, reliability of sub-prime parts sources
• Technology transfer benefits
• Financing offers
• National content
The compatibility and scheduling considerations for complex projects involving all or several sub-systems often
lead to combining several sub-systems into one procurement package. This approach transfers much but not all of
the interfacing and management responsibilities to suppliers. A combination of signaling, communications, and
traction power is often referred to as a Core System, which may also be combined with a rolling stock package. In
fact, it is often the rolling stock suppliers that promote this approach. In transit and some rail systems the traction
power is often combined with trackwork.
The complex technical aspects, many variables of actual performance characteristics, price/payment schedules, life
cycle costs, etc. require that offers of equipment be evaluated by a comprehensive discounted cash flow (present
value) calculation. This process leaves little leeway for subjective judgments or technology preferences, especially
when the purchaser is a public agency or is using public funds. Therefore, equipment systems engineers and their
contracting specialist associates must prepare the procurement documents with great care beforehand and then
adapt them during negotiations with the apparent best overall bidder.
Clearly, there will be some “technology selection” opportunities when the performance specifications are drafted.
As acceptable designs are considered, efforts should be made to avoid a loss of competition. It is usually necessary
to include some design specific requirements in the final contracts, since some characteristics cannot be
circumscribed in purely functional or objective terms.
Throughout these “selection” processes each and every technical discipline must be involved with each other in the
evaluation process, especially the infrastructure engineers, operations specialists, and construction planners.
In addition, rolling stock and passenger facilities design criteria must involve representatives of the public – via
architectural groups, public meetings, political bodies, community action committees, etc. All of the technical,
contractual, political, and community members must agree on the criteria before final adjustments are made prior
to a contract signature.

xviii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.6.2 Rolling Stock (Vehicle Technology)
2.6.2.1 General
Types of passenger rail rolling stock differ significantly in detail between six basic applications, although most of
the design factors to be considered are common to all of them. They all are forms of “mass transport” and must
offer sufficient capacity, reliability, and trip times to justify their inherent lack of origin/destination and schedule
flexibility, perceived cost, and in the urban context, privacy.
Equipment considerations must be based on the physical corridor characteristics and market requirements. These
characteristics and requirements include: top speed, average running speed, acceleration, braking capability, ride
quality requirements, vertical and horizontal curves, super-elevation unbalance requirements, turnout and
crossover geometry, etc. Equipment considerations include: seat and train capacity including standees for light rail
and rapid transit applications, train consist, single level or bi-level cars, high or low platform access, multiple units
of individually powered cars or couplets, traditional power car with individual coaches, trainsets of power cars with
coaches coupled permanently, electric versus non-electric power, tilt versus non-tilt technology, passenger
amenities such as dining, snack, baggage handling, first class versus coach seating, etc.
Light Rail Rapid Transit (LRT) is a successor to the tram, trolley or streetcar, with running speeds up to 55
MPH and stop spacing of 1/4 to 1-1/2 miles or more. A key characteristic is the ability to operate on city streets
without significant station facilities and in mixed traffic.
Heavy Rail Rapid Transit (HRT) is frequently associated with subways, although much if not all of the lines
may be at-grade or elevated. In most instances, HRT lines are in their own sealed corridor, (i.e. without grade
crossings and physically isolated from adjacent property by fences and barriers), and station facilities are
significant. Running speeds may be up to 80 miles per hour with station spacing of approximately one half (1/2)
mile up to two (2) or more miles. Keeping the average spacing as long as possible while maintaining sufficient
accessibility greatly minimizes trip time and reduces fleet size, as do short dwell (station stop) times.
In both HRT and LRT, high-density standee passenger loads are assumed for peak hour periods.
Conventional Rail, short or long distance commuter train service is similar in many respects to HRT, including
the burden of low overall load factors due to very peaked demand. But trip lengths and station spacings are much
longer than HRT (perhaps 20 miles and 3 miles respectively) but much less than long haul intercity service.
Longer commuter trip times necessitate the provision of toilet facilities and the avoidance of standee loading.
Running speeds tend to be as high as 80 miles per hour.
Intercity or traditional long distance service involves extensive passenger amenities with no standee assumptions.
Speeds can be as high as 110 miles per hour, but seldom exceeding 80 miles per hour. Station dwells may be several
minutes to accommodate a very diverse passenger population, most carrying luggage.
High-Speed Rail (HSR) includes both the intermediate, incremental system and the ultimate or ideal all new
system. HSR involves many of the characteristics of traditional Intercity service but at higher speeds; typically
average speeds are usually between 90 miles per hour and 125 miles per hour with maximum speeds from 150
miles per hour to 200 miles per hour.
Incremental HSR (IHSR) is characterized by a gradual introduction on existing lines with other conventional
intercity passenger, commuter, and/or freight traffic. Some at grade highway crossings may be tolerated but it may
be necessary in certain locations to incorporate more extensive warning devices.
HSR station stops and dwells are minimized, to perhaps 40 miles average and a one to three minute dwell time
respectively. HSR service may include some non-stop express service between major origin destination pairs as well
as skip stop service depending on market conditions. HSR service is more expensive and caters to the time
sensitive passenger such as business travelers as opposed to the leisure traveler or student market.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xix
All new greenfield HSR service should have a dedicated right of way (a “Sealed Corridor”) without any at grade
crossings and with extensive tangent sections enabling higher average speeds, in excess of 125 miles per hour and
with maximum speeds of 200 miles per hour. Station stops should be defined by demand in population centers. Station
dwells can range from one to three minutes and market conditions may require express service or skip stop service.
These two HSR versions (Incremental and all new) may be combined, employing the incremental approach in
urban, highly developed areas near cities and all new HSR in the less developed, less urban areas where right of
way is less expensive and more readily available. The rolling stock would of necessity conform to the HSR
requirements but in itself may impose some extra constraints upon the upgraded infrastructure portion.
2.6.2.2 Factors Relating to Choice of Equipment
a. The type of equipment to be used must be determined before route evaluation is completed. In order to
successfully achieve the mission of attracting passengers from automobiles or airplanes to the rail system,
the rail equipment chosen must be fast, safe, and include a comfortable passenger environment. The cost of
the equipment is a major element in the economic evaluation of routes on a proposed new system.
b. The quantity of equipment required on a system will depend not only on the length and desired service
frequency of a line but also on the actual operating speed, acceleration and deceleration, station dwell times,
peak ridership, and other factors such as location of turnback facilities. When all of these factors have been
considered, then a determination can be made of the type of equipment to be used within the corridor.
c. In the case of electrified lines, factors peculiar to this form of propulsion must be considered, such as the
availability of electric power in the area. Depending on the type of electrification chosen (third-rail or
overhead wire) appropriate measures must be included to provide a safe environment.
d. The equipment decisions, the civil engineering standards for the route, and the service level to be achieved are
all closely related. Subsequent sections in this chapter give a broad range of possibilities that can be considered.
e. Joint operations with freight carriers will require consideration of clearance issues and access for freight
only customers. Equipment must be flexible to the needs of the multi use or corridor owners’ requirements.
f. Multiple passenger services and equipment type usage on the same route may produce new challenges for
passenger access and station design. Intercity passenger rail needs for stations, parking, baggage handling,
handicap access and platform level needs can be integrated for ease of use.
g. Service frequency is a critical determinant of equipment quantities required.
2.6.2.2.1 Rapid Transit
a. If the designated corridor has characteristics suggesting the need for a trunk line rapid transit system, the
selection of such factors as car length, platform height, and door pattern affect the length of stations, the
required running and station dwell time, and the number of cars in the fleet.
b. In turn, the selection of the route alignment may require cars that can negotiate small radius curves and
steep grades. The height of the car becomes a factor in the cost of construction if extensive tunneling is
involved. The weight of the car becomes a factor if extensive aerial structures are required.
c. The capacity of the cars, the size of the door openings, and the minimum spacing between trains stopped in
the station significantly impact the design of the station platforms, staircases, escalators, and other station
design elements relating to capacity.

xx AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.6.2.2.2 Commuter Rail
a. Commuter rail services operate over trackage that is part of the general railroad system of transportation.
As such, the rolling stock, signal equipment, and operating practices must be in accordance with all
applicable government (e.g., state regulations, Federal Railroad Administration) and Association of
American Railroads standards. Commuter railroad operations, including associated terminals and shop
facilities, will therefore require railroad-type rolling stock, large curve radii, low grades, and signaling
systems compatible with main line railroad practice. Steeper grades may be allowable when operating on
dedicated lines.
b. Passenger cars may utilize the single-level, bi-level or gallery configurations. Generally, multilevel cars will
offer increased passenger capacity over single-level designs. Seating pitch and type (four-across vs. five-
across) will also influence capacity.
c. Consideration should be given to use of as large a car as possible, consistent with capacity requirements
available physical clearances, and community preferences. Use of larger cars will keep the fleet size down
and reduce many factors, such as:
• Cost of maintenance
• Length of station platforms
• Storage track requirements
d. If a desired extension requires tunneling (e.g. into the central business district (CBD)), there is an
immediate trade-off between the additional costs for tunneling for a larger car, versus the factors involved in
a larger fleet. A limited area for a terminal station on the other hand, may require use of high capacity cars
to minimize required platform lengths. The trade-offs are unique for each situation, and should be
evaluated to identify the most economic approach.
2.6.2.2.3 Conventional Intercity
a. Conventional Intercity rail services are similar to Commuter Rail except for the number of station stops,
distance between stations, average speed and passenger amenities. Intercity services operate over trackage
that is part of the general railroad system of transportation. As such, the rolling stock, signal equipment,
and operating practices must be in accordance with all applicable government (e.g., state regulations,
Federal Railroad Administration and Association of American Railroad) standards. Intercity railroad
operations, including associated terminals and shop facilities, will therefore require railroad-type rolling
stock, large curve radii, low grades, and signaling systems compatible with main line railroad practice.
b. Passenger cars may utilize the single-level, bi-level or gallery configurations. Passenger amenities and
services may be offered depending on passenger expectations and practical requirements. Baggage handling
and transportation must be considered consistent with the market served.
c. Consideration should be given to use of as large a car as possible, consistent with capacity requirements
available physical clearances, and community preferences. Use of larger cars will keep the fleet size down
and reduce many factors, such as:
• Cost of maintenance
• Length of station platforms
• Storage track requirements

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxi
2.6.2.2.4 High-speed Intercity
Coordination of maintenance of way facilities and services with a service corridor owner must be considered within
the development of incremental service as well as any joint urban access segments of new systems.
Maintenance and Operational Considerations
Maintenance and Operational requirements must be evaluated. These requirements include: inspection and
maintenance facility requirements, storage and yard requirements, turnaround servicing needs, and cleaning. The
evaluation must include overall equipment and operating policies that may involve individual equipment or
trainset approaches. Equipment may be operated in a predetermined consist of power cars and passenger cars that
stay together as a unit and are not separated for maintenance or seat capacity increase. Alternatively, the
traditional approach of varying train consists by adding or eliminating power cars and passenger cars based by
individual train requirements may be implemented.
Both systems have advantages depending on the requirements of train operations, but require very different
maintenance practices, maintenance facilities and operational considerations. In addition to the trainset approach,
other equipment system issues, that must be evaluated, include: type of trucks, articulated versus non-articulated
trainsets, electric versus non-electric propulsion, tilt versus non-tilt systems. Power considerations must include
horsepower per ton requirements, tractive effort, single versus double heading of trains, cab car configurations,
and multiple unit train systems.
2.6.2.3 Types of Power Sources
The power source for the equipment may be:
a. Fossil Fueled (non-electrified); Diesel-electric, turbine-electric, turbine-hydraulic, etc.
b. Electrified – with a pantograph for an overhead catenary system or with a truck/equipment mounted pickup
shoe for third rail systems
2.7 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES
2.7.1 General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes
A primary consideration in a preliminary evaluation is the location of and access by or to other modes of
transportation. The location of stations should fit the community needs and be convenient for transferring from
rail, air, bus and automobile. Intermodal stations should be developed for use by the traveling public. However, the
number of stations and frequency of stops help shape the type of service that is being provided [from very few stops
only at major cities for High-Speed Rail to stops every few blocks for Rapid Transit Service]. Different schedules
for station stops may reduce impact on travel times, yet still provide coverage for a larger number of locations.
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces
Interfaces of rail systems with other forms of transportation are generally as follows:
• Pedestrian Traffic or “Walk-Ins”
• Bicycles
Automobile Traffic:
• Park-and-ride

xxii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
• Drop off passengers (Kiss-and-Ride)
• Pick up passengers
• Taxis
• Van pools
Other Public Transit Systems:
• Buses and trolleys
• Subway systems
• Light Rail Systems
• Commuter rail systems
• Intercity passenger trains
• Airports
• People movers
• Ferries/Marine Taxis
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces
Two basic types of stations and their respective interfacing are discussed below. The reader should also refer to
Chapter 6 Buildings and Support Facilities, Part 8 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations and Chapter 14
Yards and Terminals, Part 6 Passenger Facilities for additional information concerning stations. In this section, the
emphasis is on the relationship between rail corridors and other transportation modes and transportation systems.
Since no single system can meet all transportation needs, a set of systems exists. Ideally, an effective
transportation plan combines these systems in an overall public transportation policy. A level of service concept
with a wide range of solutions is the key and requires interface coordination.
For the purpose of this discussion, a transportation system should be viewed not as technology, but as a means of
moving people. The eventual success of the rail corridor will depend on this ability to smoothly interface and
exchange passengers with other transportation systems.
The interfacing of two basic station types to their particular neighborhoods is described in the following sections:
the central business district (CBD) terminal and the outlying station. These two types of stations obviously have
differing interface requirements and generate passengers in different ways. For CBD stations, the interfaces with
pedestrian traffic and high-density transportation systems predominate. For outlying stations, distributor systems
of buses and automobiles generate the majority of passengers.
2.7.3.1 Central Business District Stations
In the CBD station, pedestrians make up a large share of the arrivals and departures. Interfacing is primarily
concerned with the location and flow characteristics of passageways in and out of the station. One problem is how
to best direct the pedestrian traffic to bus stops, adjacent rail stations or waiting taxis. A second problem is to guide
passengers out of the station to continue walking at street level. Ingress and egress of pedestrian traffic may either
be through buildings or via traditional sidewalk access. Understanding the basic interfaces and realizing their
importance in creating a desirable transport mix is essential for decision makers and station planners. The quality

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxiii
of the interface of rail transit with the other transport modes will have a large impact on rider’s decisions
regarding all public transit use. Station interfaces in general, must mesh with the local transportation network and
be compatible with their neighborhoods.
2.7.3.2 Outlying or Distributor Stations
At outlying stations, park-and-ride passengers need dedicated, secure, low-cost or secure parking, a suitable
walkway into the station, and good street access. If climatic conditions warrant, a covered walkway through the lot
may be required. The parking entrance/exit must be coordinated with other station traffic and not impair traffic
flow on public streets.
Outlying stations must also accommodate kiss-and-ride auto traffic of two types, as drop-off traffic characteristics
are not the same as for pickup traffic. Drop-off traffic moves through the station, does not need parking and should
be routed back out into surrounding streets. Drop-off traffic should be separated from pickup traffic where
possible. Slow moving traffic intending to pick up people should have some short-term parking close to the station,
be in view of people waiting in the station, and have a means of recircling if there are no free parking places or
their pick-up is not yet evident. Good coordination with the local traffic pattern is necessary.
The interface with bus lines is also important. Buses properly routed at the home end act as feeders to the corridor
rail line. Buses can be utilized for collection and distribution, while the rail line is utilized for the line haul. Station
design must handle bus traffic expeditiously. A good working relationship with bus operators during planning and
design is essential. Train Arrival (TA) lights are often used to advise bus drives and others waiting to pick up
passengers that a train is arriving shortly. Provision for secure storage of bicycles and pedestrian accessibility
should also be considered
2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION
The purpose of this section is to provide a plan to progress the candidate projects defined by the conceptual level
planning process. It will provide information required to evaluate the feasibility of the short-listed alternatives.
2.8.1 General
The preceding sections deal exclusively with planning, data collection, corridor identification, corridor evaluation,
conceptual engineering, and corridor selection. At the conclusion of the selection phase, the feasibility of the
project will be established so that a more definitive design of the proposed system can be developed in the
subsequent phase, preliminary engineering. At the end of the preliminary engineering activities, the project would
be ready for implementation by the commitment of funding and the authorization of final, detailed design of all
elements of the project.
The political and financial ramifications of rail corridor selection and route design should be considered
concurrently with the preceding steps so that implementation of the system will proceed smoothly.
Planning and design functions should be coordinated closely with the sponsor and other stakeholders throughout
the corridor evaluation and selection process to ensure proper scoping, identification of issues, risks, safety issues,
environmental concerns, accuracy of land acquisition needs and construction cost estimates.
Right-of-way acquisition is often the “make or break” factor for a proposed transportation system and will, in some
instances, govern the location and alignment of the system. During the evaluation phase, the planning team must
be constantly attuned to this important factor and be authoritative in assessments that sufficient right-of-way is
available for the trackway, stations, substations, yards, maintenance shops, and storage facilities. Wherever
possible, viable alternate routes should be considered in addition to the preferred alignment. Costs and non-
economic implications of each alternate approach should be clearly set forth for evaluation by stakeholders and
public sector decision-makers. Very often legislation at one or more government levels is required to make the
necessary land obtainable, and errors can be costly, or perhaps fatal, to the project.

xxiv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
Most rail systems are funded through a combination of sources such as local government, regional authorities, and
state, provincial and federal governments. Here again, much care must be exercised during the evaluation process
to provide accurate and defendable cost information to the supporting agencies, stakeholders, and sometimes the
voting public, for approval of loans, grants, and bond issues. Major rail system programs that over-run estimated
construction costs and fail to achieve ridership and revenue targets alienate the general public. Legislators must be
heavily involved in the evaluation phase of corridor and route selection activities.
2.8.2 Operations Simulation
Operation Simulation combines the essentials for complete evaluation of the overall plans for feasibility and
functionality. Alternative analysis of facility locations, operations, and issues such as differentiation between an
existing railroad or a fresh start on a totally new railroad should be considered. The results should provide a
realistic evaluation to determine the final recommended service.
The train operational analysis primarily consists of using a computer simulation model, or other appropriate
analytic technique, to overlay the current and projected train movements (of all users including freight and
passenger) on the current physical infrastructure of the rail line being analyzed. The purpose is to identify the
ability of the current infrastructure to accommodate existing as well as proposed future train movements. The
analysis produces information on where train movements are constrained (movement of the train according to the
prescribed schedule is not possible as the number of movements is increased according to a proposed train
schedule). The analysis begins with the existing or proposed base case train schedule and progresses as
incremental increases in train movements are added. This process reveals not only where capacity is constrained
but also approximately what combination of existing or proposed base case and new scheduled train movements
caused the constraint that is measured (among other ways) as hours of train delay. Proposed improvements, such
as a new parallel track or new crossovers, are added to the rail line description in the analysis to determine what
degree of benefit they provide in removing the constraint and permitting the movement of trains according to the
existing schedule, without causing a net increase in hours of existing train delay. The rail line infrastructure
improvements identified through this process are the basis for preparing the Capital Cost Estimate.
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan
An Implementation Plan is required to advance the project from 2.2 Planning to 2.8 Corridor Implementation. This
plan should include planning, permitting, implementation, construction, inspection, quality control, and startup.
The use of modern Project Management Techniques and establishment of an effective Project Team is essential to
successful program implementation. Institutional and personal commitments are key to progressing the program
in a timely manner. Stakeholder representatives are valuable members of the project team.
An Implementation Plan is not just a schedule but includes or considers the following:
• Emphasis on obtaining program scope approvals and stakeholder commitment. The Corridor
Configuration Plan can be used as a tool to conceptually describe the short, medium and long-range
improvements that are required to achieve the goals and obtain stakeholder consensus and commitment.
The Corridor Configuration Plan supplemented by more detailed engineered drawings can document
approvals by incorporating stakeholder signatures.
• General agreement on project benefits and forecasted/expected project funding can determine a
conceptual sequence for implementation. This sequence can be further developed and refined as the
project is progressed.
• The milestone schedule depicts the following high level activities:
(a) Design
(b) Grade Separation Planning

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxv
(c) Environmental Process
(d) Negotiation with Outside
(e) Land Acquisition
(f) Procurement of Long Lead Material
(g) Procurement of Construction Services
(h) Contract Construction
(i) Force Account Construction
(j) Equipment Procurement
(k) Project System Testing
(l) Project Completion and Start of Revenue Service
• Risk Analysis and Contingency Planning – identifies risks, impact analysis, risk response and mitigation,
risk deflection, risk avoidance, and risk modeling.
• Change Process and Control – a formal process to manage project changes in quality, scope, functions, cost
and time.
• Responsibility Matrix and tracking of action items from program meetings.
• Useful metrics to measure and monitor performance.
• Time Management - Establishment of a Target Schedule and comparison with current schedule, using
percent complete, earned values, etc.
• Resource Management and Planning – people, material, equipment and time.
• Scope Management – value engineering considering life cycle costs, benefits, quality and functions.
DESIGN
The design process includes advancing the design from the feasibility study level, through schematic design,
preliminary design (30%), to pre-final design (60 to 90%), and final design (construction documents). It is advisable
that a formal value engineering analysis and constructibility review be incorporated into the design process to
ensure that a cost effective and practical system criteria and subsequent design is achieved.
• The design process also produces construction schedules and cost estimates at each level of design. This
allows the project staff to monitor costs, quality and budget and mitigate problems/issues as they occur.
• During the design to modify an existing rail corridor, a Construction Operating Plan is developed that includes:
(a) Railroad operating plan during construction
(b) Possible railroad detour plan if “blitz” methods are utilized
(c) Road closure and maintenance of traffic plan

xxvi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
(d) Emergency access and response plan
(e) Freight shipper plan
(f) Bridge plan
(g) Community outreach
GRADE SEPARATION PLANNING (Under Development)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESS
The Environmental Process flows from design development. As the program and discrete project improvements are
better defined a screening process is used to identify environmental issues. Typically, initial conceptual
engineering is based on field visits, available information like track charts and related physical data and other
source material. If the proposed improvements are all on existing railroad right-of-way it may be possible to obtain
a “categorical exclusion” from the lead federal or state agency.
Those improvements that are off an existing railroad right-of-way may need to go through a more complete
environmental review and approval process. Compliance with Federal and State Environmental Regulations
should be anticipated and incorporated into the implementation plan.
NEGOTIATION WITH OUTSIDE PARTIES (Under Development)
LAND ACQUISITION (Under Development)
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCING
The goal of construction sequencing is to perform work in the right order to achieve the desired results in an
efficient, practical and cost effective manner. Construction planning occurs during design development and is the
basis for proper construction sequencing. Construction sequencing is an iterative process that considers design,
construction, logistic, resource, funding, operational, community, and stakeholder concerns.
Fabrication and delivery of long lead material should be considered in proper construction sequencing and in the
implementation schedule. Specialized material for the maintenance facilities, stations, structural work, signal
work and track work is identified during design and procured to minimize the effects of significant lead times.
Typically, the longest lead track materials are the turnouts and crossovers. Signal houses, signal bridges, and track
circuits are the usual long lead signal material. The maintenance facilities incorporate specialized needs like wheel
truing, fueling, sanding, drop tables, etc. that are long lead specialized items.
Ranking of the improvements provides a basis for construction sequencing and a reasonable starting point for
initial discussions and coordination efforts. Ranking of Improvements is performed both discretely and as groups
that are linked functionally or operationally. A logical phasing plan may be a result of market and ridership.
Station and Facility Improvements would be advanced to meet the anticipated in service (completion) date. These
improvements potentially may include more environmental and community involvement.
• The initial analysis assumes a favorable funding stream that does not constrain implementation but
actual funding may impact implementation.
• Operational and Community issues may conflict with rankings and require some re-sequencing. This is
an iterative process until an acceptable sequence is determined.
• Facilities and stations are geographically compact compared to the corridor segment improvements and
require less operational coordination but are more complex incorporating more disciplines and trades.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxvii
• Corridor segment improvements are linked together both operationally as well as functionally (track,
signals, crossings, bridges, etc.)
The agreement among the major stakeholders on the project elements and schedule and the environmental review and
permitting process typically are among the most unpredictable tasks in terms of the time needed for their completion.
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating
Capital Cost Estimates will be an estimate of total infrastructure, equipment and systems costs based on the
results of operation simulation and the proposed schedule in the operating plan.
The purpose of Capital Cost Estimating is to provide reasonable, useful and professional estimates for budgeting
and evaluation of candidate projects. The capital costs are only one factor to be considered for a project’s
feasibility. Most estimates are based on concepts and schematic data and therefore, are sometimes referred to as
“Conceptual Estimates”. These estimates allow agencies, stakeholders, and decision makers to evaluate capital
cost funding requirements as one of their criteria in evaluating, ranking, and selecting projects.
The accuracy of the cost estimate depends on the quality and level of detail of the information used in the estimate.
At this early level of project development, there is very limited specific engineering and scope information
available. Typical details, historical data and accepted standards can be used in lieu of a more developed design.
An adequate contingency must be applied to compensate for the lack of detailed information. Contingencies can
vary for each component or assembly based on the quality of information and potential for cost variation.
The first step in the estimate is to define the project scope. Project documents (i.e. line diagrams, schematic plans,
specifications, technical memoranda, reports, studies, etc.) can be used to define the project scope. The scope
definition process should provide adequate detail to prepare an estimate based on quantitative information. Quantity
takeoffs can be performed and unit prices applied to obtain an extended amount for each task or item of work.
All of the available information is used to prepare track diagrams, charts and drawings that describe the baseline
proposed conditions that support the initial Train Operational Simulation and Analysis. The Operational
Simulation and Analysis and Infrastructure Requirements are an iterative process.
Costs are based on a conceptual scope developed, as appropriate, for each specific improvement. The unit cost for
each item may be the total of unit costs for each component of the item. Where applicable, these values should be
modified to better reflect local conditions.
As the project is developed and the scope becomes better defined, the cost estimate should be updated to reflect
current information. Typically cost estimates for large programs increase as engineering progresses. The greatest
unknowns in most projects are: physical information on the right-of-way (including soils, drainage, utilities and
property lines; environmental mitigation; government regulations and community issues).
The estimating methodology should be developed in accordance with current best practice and guidelines. Capital
costs may be determined in current year dollars that can be adjusted using financial models, inflation assumptions,
material indices and productivity data.
2.8.4.1 The Capital Cost Estimating Process
The capital cost estimating process is a function of an assessment of the operational requirements of a rail line
segment that allows for a specific train schedule, frequency and reliability combined with an analysis of the
physical site conditions along that rail line segment. The need for specific capital improvements is determined
based on the operational analysis of proposed train schedules, train meet and pass points, station stops; and road
and local freight operations if applicable. An analysis of the type and scale of the specific improvement should be
conducted to determine a general estimate of quantities of materials and labor required for construction of the
capital improvement. Unit costs are then applied to each item to develop an extended amount.

xxviii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
Allowances for contingency are applied to the totals of the extended amounts for each right-of-way segment
consistent with estimating costs at this conceptual design level.
Capital Improvements are defined from an Operational Analysis of the proposed train schedule/frequencies, train
meet and pass points, station stops, etc. The analysis produces a draft operating plan, which defines the following
parameters:
• Type of equipment and equipment characteristics
• Dispatching & control of train operations
• Line segment capacity
• Desired Trip Time
• Signaling requirements
• Station platform requirements
• Terminals / Layover yards / Equipment maintenance points
• Equipment cycles
• Station dwell times
• Draft TPC trip times with input and output tables and graphs
The preceding information is then analyzed to determine the quantity of construction items for each improvement.
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating
Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimates will be established for the proposed service on a recurring basis for
train operations and maintenance of the facilities to support the recommended service.
The purpose of Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating is to provide reasonable, useful and professional
operating cost estimates and maintenance cost estimates for budgeting and evaluation of candidate projects. The
project evaluations should consider all life cycle costs as part of the feasibility stage. Life cycle cost estimates allow
agencies, stakeholders, and decision makers to evaluate total costs when ranking and selecting projects.

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xxx AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
6
CHAPTER 6
BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Specifications and General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-1

1.1 Organization of Bid Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.2 General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.3 Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
2 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-1 1

2.1 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.3 Spacial Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-5
2.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.5 Finish Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.6 Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.7 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14 3
2.8 Fire and Life Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
3 Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.3 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.5 Space Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.6 Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.7 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.8 Miscellaneous Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.10 Environmental Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to
railroads and others concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and
communications), and allied services and facilities. For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a
material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as
presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with
a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of railways. It is not intended to
imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-i

3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12
4 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-1

4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.2 Site Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13
4.3 Building Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13
4.4 Equipment and Related Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13
4.5 Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.6 Building Superstructure Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.7 Heating and Ventilating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
4.8 Electric Lighting and Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.9 Pollution (Air-Noise-Water) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.10 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.11 Fire Protection (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-22
5 Energy Conservation and Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-1

5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2
5.2 Elements of Energy Conservation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3
5.3 Strategies and Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.4 Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings and Shop Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.5 Types of Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.6 Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.7 Audit Survey Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.8 Justification of Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11
5.9 Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13
5.10 Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-14
6 Locomotive Sanding Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-1

6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2
6.2 Sanding Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-7
7 Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-1

7.3 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.4 Exterior Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
8 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-1

8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-2
8.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.4 Building Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13
8.5 Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-15
8.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.7 Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.8 Station and Platform Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-21
9 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Repair Shops . . . . . 6-9-1

9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
6-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

9.2 Machine Maintenance Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4

9.3 Other Workshop Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.4 Machine and Material Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.5 Support Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
10 Design Criteria for Observation Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.2 Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.3 Tower Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3
10.4 Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
11 Design Criteria for CTC Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-1

11.1 Site Considerations (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.4 Support Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.5 Room Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
12 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-1

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2 1
12.2 Washing Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
13 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities . . 6-13-1

13.3 Special Requirements – Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5
13.4 Special Requirements – Combined Coach Locomotive Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7 3
13.5 Special Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8
13.7 Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.8 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.9 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11
14 Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-1 4

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2
14.2 Built-up Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.3 Roofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-9
14.4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-13
15 Inspection of Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-1

15.1 Organization and Inspection Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.2 Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.3 Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.4 Conducting an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.5 Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-5
16 Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-1

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.3 Types of Main Line Fueling Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-iii

16.4 Services Provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-G-1
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-R-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents
(specifications, recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered
headings set in capital letters and identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles
designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (6-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the
Chapter number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the
page number in the Part. Thus, 6-2-1 means Chapter 6, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the
document as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document,
unless an attached footnote indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time the Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the
document are identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified
information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all
Association action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
6-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

6
Part 1
Specifications and General Design Criteria
for Railway Buildings1
— 2003 —
FOREWORD
a. This section will cover the following areas in general: 1

(1) Organization of Bid Documents.
(2) General Design Criteria for railway buildings.
b. It is not the intent of this section to cover Material and Workmanship Specifications required for
construction of railway buildings. To do so would make this section voluminous and would also be 3
redundant, as most architectural and/or engineering firms and in-house design departments have their own
“Standard Files” from which front end documents and specifications are taken, added to, or revised to fit
specific job requirements.
1
References, Vol. 70, 1969, p. 200; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 28.
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-1-1

Buildings and Support Facilities
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
1.1 Organization of Bid Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3

1.1.1 Recommended Format (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.2 Bidding Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.3 Contract Forms (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.4 General Conditions (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.5 Special Conditions (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.1.6 Technical Specifications (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.1.7 Construction Specifications Institute Format (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.2 General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9

1.2.1 Scope (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.2.2 Warning…(2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.2.3 Site Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.4 Site Work (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.5 Utilities (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.6 General Considerations for Railway Building Design (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-11
1.3 Design Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12

1.3.1 Overall Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.2 Special Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.3 Structural Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.4 Materials (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
1.3.5 Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
1.3.6 Electrical (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
6-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Specifications and General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings
SECTION 1.1 ORGANIZATION OF BID DOCUMENTS
1.1.1 RECOMMENDED FORMAT (2003)
a. It is recommended that the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) format be used to organize bid documents.
b. The “CSI Format” has been established as a recognized industry standard. Widespread acceptance of the
“CSI Format” has provided contractors with an easier method to control a project’s efficiency. The “CSI
Format” gives specifiers the ability to relate all files, product literature, references, and specifications to a
single unified system. The building owner stands to reduce his expenditures through increased efficiencies.
c. The “CSI Format” is comprised of four major groupings of documents; bidding Requirements, Contract
Forms, General Conditions, and Technical Specifications. Due to the Special Requirements of Railroad
construction work it may be necessary to add a “Special Conditions” section to the “CSI Format”. It is
recommended that if needed, a “Special Conditions” section be inserted between the General Conditions,
and Technical Specifications.
1.1.2 BIDDING REQUIREMENTS (2003)
a. Bidding requirements may vary considerably depending on the size and location of the project and the
requirements of the owner.
b. The following should be considered when preparing Bidding Requirements:

1
(1) Invitation: will bids be solicited from any interested contractors or by invitation to only selected contractors.
(2) Description of Project: give a brief description of the project noting major items of work and any specialties.
(3) Plans and Specifications: give the address where Plans and Specifications may be obtained and the cost,
if any. Describe clearly how the plans and specifications are to be purchased, i.e. cash only, check, money
order, etc. Also can the plans and specifications be picked up only, mailed, etc. 3
(4) Contractor Requirements: specific requirements that must be met by the contractor such as experience,
safety record, equal employment opportunity, MBE/WBE requirements if any, etc., should be clearly stated.
(5) Owner’s Rights: the right of the owner to reject:
(a) Any bids that appear to be extremely out of line. 4

(b) Any bids from contractors not qualified to do the work.
(c) All bids, if they are considered to be too high or not economically justified.
1.1.3 CONTRACT FORMS (2003)
a. Most railroads have their own set of contract forms to be used for construction work performed by outside
parties. However, should this not be the case, the American Institute of Architects has standard printed contract
forms that may be used as a guide to formulating contract forms for railroad building construction projects.
1.1.4 GENERAL CONDITIONS (2003)
a. It is normally standard practice for a railroad to have a prepared set of general conditions which will apply
to all construction work carried out by outside parties. There may be some divergence if a company
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-1-3

operates in more than one state due to differences in lien laws and insurance requirements. It is, however,
normal for each railroad to have a format or general outline for its general conditions which will be
applicable in all cases. The general conditions for the proposed work should cover such things as general
provisions of the contract, project organization, property rights, scope of work, subcontracting and
assignment, quality of workmanship, equipment and materials, personnel, schedule, payments, changes in
the work, shop drawings, product data and samples, project record documents and project account records,
testing and inspection, protection of persons and property, insurance, indemnity and bonds, claims and
disputes, events of default and termination, compliance with all laws, and miscellaneous. The American
Institute of Architects has standard printed “General Conditions” which may be used as a guide to
formulating a standard set for use by any company.
b. Proper protection of the railroad company from legal entanglements is one of the primary objectives of the
general conditions. Therefore, the general conditions should clearly state who is responsible for obtaining
insurance, taxes, inspection fees, etc.
c. The Federal Railway Administration (FRA) requires certain safety training, equipment and practices for
work on railroads. The general conditions should clearly state the requirements of compliance with these
regulations and any other railroad safety requirements.
1.1.5 SPECIAL CONDITIONS (2003)
a. Special Conditions should be written to supplement the general conditions in all cases where unusual
circumstances may exist. For example, the responsibility of the contractor to perform his work without
disrupting normal train movements in the area and staging of work to maintain normal operations. Special
conditions should spell out responsibilities in any area of the contract, which due to they’re being peculiar to
the job at hand, are not covered specifically in the general conditions such as warranties and guarantees.
b. The special conditions should also list all items of work to be performed by others outside of the contract,
and should list all materials that are to be furnished by the railroad to the contractor.
1.1.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS (2003)
a. Technical specification sections do not have a hierarchical relationship to one another. One specification
section cannot govern another but can be complementary documents since each specification section
potentially can affect all other specification sections. Specification section titles and their arrangement are
not intended to imply how the work is assigned to various trades or subcontractors. The format titles used
have not been arranged to correspond to common trade and/or subcontractors, but are intended to reflect
the “Master Format™” titles used as part of the CSI Format.
b. Each CSI format division is identified by division number and title. The divisions are fixed in number and
in name, and are referred to as the “Master Format™” Level Two Numbers and Titles.
c. In general, the body of each technical specification should spell out the quality of material and workmanship
expected under that section. This will vary greatly depending on the trade or work involved but should be
presented in a like manner in all of the separate specifications. Outline specifications for various building
materials are available from the Construction Specifications Institute.
1.1.7 CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS INSTITUTE FORMAT (2003)
The format presented below outlines the Master Format Level Two, Numbers and Titles. A complete list of titles is
available from the Construction Specifications Institute:

DIVISION 1 – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Concrete Reinforcement
Summary Cast-In-Place Concrete
Price and Payment Procedures Precast Concrete
Administrative Requirements Cementituous Decks and Underlayment
Quality Requirements Grouts
Temporary Facilities and Controls Mass Concrete
Product Requirements Concrete Restoration and Cleaning
Execution Requirements
Facility Operation DIVISION 4 – MASONRY
Facility Decommissioning Basic Masonry Materials and Methods
Masonry Units
DIVISION 2 – SITE CONSTRUCTION Stone
Basic Site Materials and Methods Refactories 1

Site Remediation Corrosion – Resistant Masonry
Site Preparation Simulated Masonry
Earthwork Masonry Assemblies

3
Tunneling, Boring, and Jacking Masonry Restoration and Cleaning
Foundation and Load-Bearing Elements
Utility Services DIVISION 5 – METALS
Drainage and Containment Basic Materials and Methods 4

Bases, Ballasts, Pavement and Appurtenances Structural Metal Framing
Site Improvements and Amenities Metal Joists
Planting Metal Deck
Site Restoration and Rehabilitation Cold-Form Metal Framing
Metal Fabrications
DIVISION 3 – CONCRETE Hydraulic Fabrications
Basic Concrete Materials and Methods Railroad Track and Accessories
Concrete Forms and Accessories Ornamental Metal

Expansion Control Wood and Plastic Doors
Metal Restoration and Cleaning Specialty Doors
Entrances and Storefronts
DIVISION 6 – WOOD AND PLASTICS Windows
Basic Wood and Plastic Materials and Methods Skylights
Rough Carpentry Hardware
Finish Carpentry Glazing
Architectural Woodwork Glazed Curtain Wall
Structural Plastics
Plastic Fabrications DIVISION 9 – FINISHES
Wood and Plastic Restoration and Cleaning Basic Finish Materials and Methods
Metal Support Assemblies
DIVISION 7 – THERMAL AND MOISTURE Plaster and Gypsum Board

PROTECTION
Tile
Basic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials and
Methods Terrazzo
Dampproofing and Waterproofing Ceilings
Thermal Protection Flooring
Shingles Roof Tiles, and Roof Coverings Wall Finishes
Roofing and Siding Panels Acoustical Treatment
Membrane Roofing Paint and Coatings
Flashing and Sheet Metal
Roof Specialties and Accessories DIVISION 10 – SPECIALTIES
Fire and Smoke Protection Visual Display Boards
Joint Sealers Compartments and Cubicles
Louvers and Vents
DIVISION 8 – DOORS AND WINDOWS Grilles and Screens
Basic Door and Window Materials Service Walls
Metal Doors and Frames/and Methods Wall and Corner Guards

Access Flooring Mercantile Equipment
Pest Control Commercial Laundry & Dry Cleaning Equipment
Fireplaces and Stoves Vending Equipment
Manufactured Exterior Specialties Audio-Visual Equipment
Flagpoles Vehicle Service Equipment
Identification Devices Parking Control Equipment
Pedestrian Control Devices Loading Dock Equipment
Lockers Solid Waste Handling Equipment
Protective Covers Detention Equipment
Postal Specialties Water Supply and Treatment Equipment
Partitions Hydraulic Gate and Valves
Storage Shelving Fluid Waste Treatment and Disposal Equipment
Exterior Protection Food Service Equipment 1

Telephone Specialties Residential Equipment
Toilet, Bath, and Laundry Accessories Unit Kitchens
Scales Darkroom Equipment

3
Wardrobe and Closet Specialties Athletic, Recreational, and Therapeutic Equipment
Industrial and Process Equipment
DIVISION 11 – EQUIPMENT Laboratory Equipment
Maintenance Equipment Planetarium Equipment 4

Security and Vault Equipment Observatory Equipment
Teller and Service Equipment Office Equipment
Ecclesiastical Equipment Medical Equipment
Library Equipment Mortuary Equipment
Theater and Stage Equipment Navigation Equipment
Instrumental Equipment Agricultural Equipment
Registration Equipment Exhibit Equipment
Checkroom Equipment

DIVISION 12 – FURNISHINGS Filter Underdrains and Media
Fabrics Digester Covers and Appurtenances
Art Oxygenation Systems
Manufactured Casework Sludge Conditioning Systems
Furnishings and Accessories Hazardous Material Remediation
Furniture Measurement and Control Instrumentation
Multiple Seating Recording Instrumentation
Systems Furniture Transportation Control Instrumentation
Interior Plants and Planters Solar and Wind Energy Equipment
Furnishing Restoration and Repair Security Access and Surveillance
Building Automation and Control
DIVISION 13 – SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION Detection and Alarm
Air Supported Structures Fire Suppression
Building Modules
Special Purpose Rooms DIVISION 14 – CONVEYING SYSTEMS
Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control Dumbwaiters
Radiation Protection Elevators
Lightning Protection Escalators and Moving Walls
Cathodic Protection Lifts
Pre-Engineered Structures Material Handling
Swimming Pools Hoists and Cranes
Aquariums Turntables
Aquatic Park Facilities Scaffolding
Tubs and Pools Transportation
Ice Rinks
Kennels and Animal Shelters DIVISION 15 – MECHANICAL
Site Constructed Incinerators Basic Mechanical Materials and Methods
Storage Tanks Building Services Piping

Process Piping
Fire Protection Piping DIVISION 16 – ELECTRICAL
Fixtures and Equipment Basic Electrical Materials and Methods
Heat – Generation Equipment Wiring Methods
Refrigeration Equipment Electrical Power
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Equipment Transmission and Distribution
Air Distribution Low-Voltage Distribution
HVAC Instrumentation and Controls Lighting
Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing Communications
Control and Instrumentation Sound and Video
SECTION 1.2 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS

1
1.2.1 SCOPE (2003)
a. The intent of this section is to bring to the attention of the Architect, Engineer, or Contractor involved in
designing or constructing railway buildings, design and construction problems that are unique to railway
buildings and/or are rarely encountered in other design or construction projects. This section should be
used in conjunction with design criteria for specific railway facilities presented in other sections of this 3
Manual.
b. It is not the intent of this section to cover material and/or workmanship specifications or design practices.
1.2.2 WARNING…(2003)
NEVER ASSUME A TRACK IS NOT BEING USED. 4

a. You may be working adjacent to a track for hours, or in some cases days, and may not see a train. Do not
assume that it is safe to put equipment or material on or near a track, no matter how short a time it will be
there. Failure to comply with this simple rule may cause serious damage, personal injury, or death.
b. The FRA and the railroads have specific rules to follow when it is necessary to work on or within certain
distances of any track. If it will be necessary to work close to or on tracks, know the rules and be sure you
and your personnel follow them.
c. The railroad authority to contact when it is necessary to work on or near tracks should be clearly named in
the special conditions of the contract and the procedure for notification should also be clearly defined.

1.2.3 SITE CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
1.2.3.1 Track Clearance
a. Railroads have minimum clearance criteria, and states also maintain minimum clearance requirements.
Refer to Chapter 28, Clearances for Clearance Diagrams. Legal Clearance Requirements by States are
shown in Table 28-3-3. Also consult with the railroad involved as they may have more stringent
requirements.
1.2.3.2 Sight Distances
a. Buildings should be located as far as possible from road crossings to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic
adequate sight lines to see approaching trains.
b. Landscaping should anticipate vegetation growth to preclude obstructing sight lines in the future.
1.2.3.3 Additional Tracks
a. If space permits, the building should be located in such a way as to allow for additional future tracks.
1.2.3.4 Derailments
a. Although railroads strive to avoid derailments, they do happen. Locations where derailments are most
likely to happen are at turnouts, the outside of tight curves, ends of bridges, at road crossings, and the
pullout end of classification yards. Locating buildings at or near these locations should be avoided if
possible. The distance from the track should be increased proportionately with allowed train speed.
1.2.3.5 Building Accessibility
a. Public access and employee access to the building and/or facility must be considered. In addition, roadway
access for automobiles, truck deliveries and emergency vehicles must also be addressed. If personnel must
cross heavily used tracks, consideration should be given to either providing an underpass or an overhead
walkway.
1.2.3.6 Protection of Personnel
a. Where a building is located close to tracks, railings should be installed in front of doors between the building
and the track. The railings should be parallel to the track and of sufficient length to make anyone exiting
the building walk to a designated crossing of the track and be aware of train movements before he/she is
able to turn and cross the track(s).
1.2.4 SITE WORK (2003)
a. Site work requirements for buildings constructed on railroad property will vary considerably according to
the geographic area in which they are to be built. Local codes and building ordinances should be reviewed to
determine any special requirements which may apply to the project.
b. If the building involves trackwork refer to Volume 1 of the AREMA Manual for specific requirements.
1.2.5 UTILITIES (2003)
a. Most railroads have special requirements for the installation of water, sewer, gas, fiber optics, electric, and
telephone lines crossing under or above their tracks. A copy of their requirements should be obtained.

Utilities should be routed in order to minimize rail crossings; where required they should be as close to right
angles as possible to facilitate future repairs.
b. Septic tanks and subsoil disposal systems should be located away from tracks and fills and must comply with
Federal and State environmental regulations.
c. If located near an electrified railroad track, bonding isolation of underground utilities, or cathodic
protection may be required.
1.2.6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR RAILWAY BUILDING DESIGN (2003)
1.2.6.1 Excavation
a. When locating buildings adjacent to tracks care shall be taken to determine if communication and/or signal
cables exist in the area. The railroad’s communication and signaling department’s should be contacted to
locate any possible cabling in the area.
b. Excavation work required immediately next to tracks should require consideration of possible sheeting and
shoring of embankments in order to accommodate passing trainloads. Approval of sheeting and shoring
designs should be obtained from the railroad.
1.2.6.2 Vibration and Noise
a. Buildings to be located adjacent to high-speed main lines should take into consideration the vibration
generated by high speed, heavy tonnage trains. Materials and methods of construction should be capable of 1
withstanding the vibration without physical damage.
b. Buildings which are erected in close proximity to idling locomotives may require sound attenuation to be
incorporated into the design.
1.2.6.3 Maintenance
3
a. Materials selected should require minimum cleaning and maintenance. Considerable amounts of oil, grease,
exhaust fumes, and dirt – producing functions exist in and around railroad building, shops and facilities.
Therefore, finish materials in buildings, shops and facilities should be selected accordingly.
b. Some railroad facilities such as shops, warehouses, etc. employ forklifts and other devices for the movement
of material and parts to different locations within the building. Consequently, the building structure should
be provided with impact protection to protect against damage to walls and structural elements in the areas
4
where such movement is possible.
1.2.6.4 Railroad Equipment
a. Railroad buildings may require provisions for one or more of the following:
• Railroad telephone equipment.
• Microwave communication system.
• Radio equipment.
• Signal equipment, etc.
• Compressed air, lube oil, waste oil recovery, etc.

b. It may be necessary to provide space for this equipment as well as empty conduits or raceways under floors,
above ceilings, or in walls for connection of this equipment by others.
1.2.6.5 Security
a. Many railroad buildings are located in remote areas or contain materials or equipment whose theft or
damage would greatly impair the operation of the railroad. The installation of heavy-duty locks, doors,
window guards, fencing, security lighting, etc., should be given serious consideration.
1.2.6.6 Special Access
a. Due to mixed-use occupancy of many railroad buildings, consideration should be given to providing separate
access to portions of the building either from common corridors or directly from the outside. Also, each
building access shall be ADA compliant.
SECTION 1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA
1.3.1 OVERALL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Design criteria should be developed which is directly related to the purpose, function and operational
patterns applicable to the particular building and/or facility to be designed.
b. Aside from any aesthetic considerations, the designer must familiarize himself/herself with the
surroundings in which the project is to be constructed, understand the interdepartmental relationships that
may be imposed on the building and/or facility, and understand how the flow of the work must proceed. In
determining workflows, care should be taken to recognize where possible efficiencies may be realized.
c. In addition to workflow, consideration must be given to employee circulation, accessibility to work stations,
normal exiting and entrance requirements and emergency exiting requirements. Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements must also be incorporated in those areas of the building and/or facilities
where such regulation would apply.
1.3.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Special needs will vary according to the type of building and/or facility to be designed. Care must be taken
to provide for such things as adequate office space (private and general), meeting space(s), employee welfare
areas, public welfare areas, storage for office supplies, parts, tools, etc., delivery areas, if applicable, mail
rooms, elevators, stairs, mechanical equipment areas (rooms), electrical equipment rooms, and special
equipment. All of the foregoing must be considered in addition to the functional needs of the building
and/or facility.
1.3.3 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Each building and/or facility will require its own unique structural system. The designer should have
adequate information about the soil conditions upon which the building is to be constructed, any seismic
requirements, and loading conditions.
b. In buildings and/or facilities where columns are to be used, designers should give careful consideration to
modular bay sizing in order to maximize work areas. In shop areas, placement of columns in work areas
should be avoided wherever possible.

c. Building cost may be significantly impacted by crane spans and capacity. Actual loads to be moved/lifted
should be carefully reviewed. Several smaller cranes can be less costly than one large crane.
1.3.4 MATERIALS (2003)
a. Materials selected for a project should be durable, compatible with the environment in which they must
exist and be easily and economically maintained. Buildings and/or facilities where vehicles can move about
within the interior and/or located adjacent to vehicle movement and/or storage areas should consider the
use of materials which can withstand vehicle impacts and/or impacts from equipment being stored.
b. Interior finishes should be selected on the basis of their ability to be easily maintained and altered if need
be. In some interior areas, materials selected must be able to withstand abuse from frequent use.
1.3.5 HEATING, VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING (2003)
a. Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning requirements will be determined upon a number of factors such as
geographic location, type of building and/or facility involved and local building codes and ordinances.
b. Equipment selection should be based upon economy of use and suitability for the surroundings which it
must serve. Temperature control devices should also be used whenever possible and areas within the
building and/or facility zoned for greater efficiency. Temperature control devices should be tamper-proof in
all cases.
c. Ventilation should meet local code requirements. 1

d. If diesel exhaust is present, provisions should be made to access ductwork, coils and fans for periodic
cleaning in order to reduce the probability of fire.
e. Outside air intakes should not be positioned where locomotive exhaust fumes may be ingested into the
buildings fresh air supply.
3
1.3.6 ELECTRICAL (2003)
a. Primary power for each building and/or facility shall be properly sized to supply adequate power with
sufficient capacity for expansion.
b. Lighting shall be properly provided in order to meet adequate illumination levels throughout the building
and/or facility. 4
c. All electrical work shall be designed to meet local building code requirements and/or the National Electrical
Code.
d. If a building supports a large facility such as a yard or terminal complex, the electrical switchgear may be
substantial and a dedicated room may be needed in the building and/or an enclosure adjacent to the
building.
e. If the building is in close proximity to an electrified railroad track, specific care should be taken to bond
exterior metal in order to minimize the potential for electric shock and stray current.


6
Part 2
Design Criteria for
Railway Office Buildings1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
The material presented herein is intended to be used as a guide by the designer for office planning of leased
property and for designing railway buildings.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page 3

2.1 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.1 Location (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.2 Code Requirements (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.3 Parking (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.4 Landscaping (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.5 Expansion (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3

2.2.1 General Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2.2 Work Sequence Considerations (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.2.3 Employee Circulation Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.2.4 Special Equipment Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.3 Spacial Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-5

2.3.2 Office Space (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-6
2.3.3 File Space (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-6
2.3.4 Storage Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7
2.3.5 Special Room Allowance (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7
1
References, Vol. 72, 1971, p. 120; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 167; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 58. Revised 1991.

2.3.6 Space Required for Aisles (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7

2.3.7 Conference Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-8
2.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9

2.4.1 Framing Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.4.2 Floor Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.4.3 Partitions (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.5 Finish Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10

2.5.1 Exterior Materials (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.5.2 Wall and Ceiling Finishes (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.5.3 Floor Coverings and Finishes (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-11
2.5.4 Colors (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-12
2.5.5 Sound Control (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.5.6 Furniture (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.6 Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13

2.6.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.6.2 Plumbing (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.6.3 Energy Efficiency (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.6.4 Elevators (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.7 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14

2.7.1 Electrical Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.7.2 Lighting (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-15
2.8 Fire and Life Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16

2.8.1 Fire Protection (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
2.8.2 Life Safety (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
6-2-1 Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-12

6-2-2 Interior Environment Criteria for Design of HVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14

Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings
SECTION 2.1 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.1 LOCATION (1991)
The location, availability of space, environmental conditions and property value will have an influence on the
design of the structure.
2.1.2 CODE REQUIREMENTS (1991)
Governing building, fire, life safety, and sanitary code requirements must be considered in the design of the
structure and its location on the site.
2.1.3 PARKING (1991)
a. Provision for parking is recommended where space is available.
b. Parking spaces for employees and visitors are required in some communities.
2.1.4 LANDSCAPING (1991)
a. The designer should determine from local ordinances if landscaping is required and what percent of the site
must be landscaped. If there are no landscaping requirements by law, it is now considered good practice to
provide some planting around the building and parking areas. 1
b. Vegetation used in landscaping should be easy to grow in the climate involved and inexpensive to maintain.
2.1.5 EXPANSION (1991)
Future building expansion should be considered when evaluating the site and the location of the building relative
to the site. 3
SECTION 2.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

4
2.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. The functional requirements are those design criteria which are directly related to the purpose, duties, and
characteristic operational patterns of a particular office situation. As work is processed by the office, there is
a characteristic interaction between individual workstations in conjunction with the flow of work. Providing
for continuity and efficiency of these flow patterns is the major concern of functional planning.
b. Before commencing an immediate design problem, the designer should research interoffice and
interdepartmental relationships to better coordinate an entire sphere of operations. He should investigate
existing flow patterns and develop possible variations for improved efficiency. New flow patterns should not
be initiated without thorough analysis, but neither should old practices be retained without reevaluation.
c. The designer should consider the possibility and probability of expansion of activity and/or revision of
existing or proposed flow patterns. Final spacial design should provide adequate expansion space which
could be occupied with minimum disruption of office activity. Retention of desirable flow patterns after
expansion is necessary for continued efficient operation. Open planning with spaces free of restrictions is

desirable to allow simple rearrangement of workstations as activity, volume and flow patterns change. The
versatility of open planning should be considered when evaluating the need for private offices.
d. The designer should include handicapped accessibility in the design for site work as well as the office structure.
Minimum guidelines and requirements for handicapped accessibility are available through the American National
Standards Institute (A.N.S.I.) manual titled “Architectural and Transportation Barrier Compliance Board.”
2.2.2 WORK SEQUENCE CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. The location of interrelated offices should be such that any work flow between offices can be accomplished
speedily and with a minimum of travel distances or congestion involved. Adjacent locations reduce employee
transit time and intercommunication equipment overloads. Vertical as well as horizontal spacial
relationships should be investigated.
b. Cubicles and/or work centers within an office should be spacially arranged according to the most efficient
flow pattern of operations. Continuity of flow through the office should be accomplished with a minimum of
congestion, backtracking, or excessive distance involved in the transfer of work.
c. Work centers used commonly by several individuals should be centrally located with respect to their users
while satisfying the overall flow pattern continuity. Minimal distances to the centralized work centers
encourage more efficient operation and better use of the specialized facilities.
2.2.3 EMPLOYEE CIRCULATION CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. Frequent interoffice traffic is best accommodated by direct passageways rather than by use of the common
building corridor.
b. Office spaces should be so designed as to allow unrestricted circulation between work centers, allowing
sufficient space to eliminate congestion. Circulation ways should be designed with maximum flexibility to
accommodate varied flow pattern developments.
c. Employees require interaction among themselves and their supervisors, necessitating office designs which
allow easy communications. Generous spacial layouts cause inefficient communications and loss of time, but
provides cost effective space for future expansion.
d. Where the office has frequent visitors, suitable reception and waiting areas should be provided adjacent to
the public entrance or the area to be visited. The visitor’s area should be located on the periphery of the
office to reduce distraction and interruption to other functions.
e. Provision should be made for employee circulation to drinking fountains, toilet rooms and lunch rooms.
Fountains should be dispersed throughout the work area to reduce circulation time and congestion. Toilet
rooms and lunch rooms, where required, can be centralized, allowing use by several adjacent offices. Overall
circulations, especially in complex office structures, should be designed to accommodate rush periods as well
as the normal interoffice circulation patterns.
2.2.4 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. Communications equipment and machines frequently used by many of the individuals within an office are
best dispersed through the area. Equipment can be completely distributed to every workstation or can be
allocated to a group of neighboring workstations when frequency of use is less. Dispersal will reduce the
concentration of activity and noise inherent in centralized work centers, but distractions to individual
employees may rise as disturbances are brought nearer to them. Acoustical control is also more difficult in
dispersed situations than with centralized facilities where sound barriers are feasible.

b. Isolation of equipment or work centers from the basic office area is normally undertaken because of:
(1) Acoustical disturbance.
(2) Climate control (computer rooms).
(3) Limited access for security reasons.
(4) Dirty, messy or malodorous operations.
SECTION 2.3 SPACIAL REQUIREMENTS
a. Before any office can be planned, relocated or expanded, there should be a reasonable estimate of the
amount of space required to house the working activity.
b. To determine the required floor area it is necessary to consider the number of employees and departments,
the number of private offices and the size of the general office area for each department. Adequate space
must be provided for stairways, elevators, corridors, mechanical and electrical equipment rooms, toilet
rooms, janitors closets, conference rooms, lounges, food service areas, public areas, smoking areas (if
allowed), storage and record rooms. The delivery service, mail room and special equipment requirements
1
should be considered when determining the floor area of the building.
c. The actual space requirements are dictated by five basic factors:
(1) Nature of the work. The specific requirements of the office operation performed dictates the type and
size of the working area, the aisle width, the number and type of files, cabinets, tables and desks. 3
(2) Nature of space. The shape of the space effects its utilization economy. The position of columns, depth of
bays, presence of utility piping and/or duct chases, windows, and availability of electrical and phone
outlets affect the economical placement of equipment.
(3) Need for privacy. Private offices, conference rooms, partitions, and railings add to space requirements.
4
(4) Need for access. The access requirements of toilet rooms, lunch rooms, lounges, file rooms, stock rooms,
janitor closets, mail rooms, and electrical, mechanical, and other utility spaces must be considered in
space allotments.
(5) Need for expansion. Provision for operational flexibility during growth cycles.
d. After making a preliminary evaluation of space required and evaluating the functional requirements, a
more refined estimate should be made prior to executing a layout.
(1) Inventory of the space required in each department for people, equipment and special facilities.
(2) Forecast by departments of the space required for normal expansion over a reasonable period of time.
e. Taking a space inventory, worker by worker, in each department, has an additional benefit of permitting a close
look at each workstation to see if present space is sufficient, or if a change in equipment would alter requirement.

Where practical, phone numbers rather than individual employee’s names should be used as a reference in laying
out individual work spaces.
f. A simple inventory form can be drawn up to provide the space estimate. Supervisors can prepare the
inventory, with department head’s approval. To assist the designer during his interviews with the
supervisors, a check list would provide a handy and valuable aid for obtaining information.
2.3.2 OFFICE SPACE (1991)
a. The fundamental unit (module) for office space is the individual worker, seated at his or her work position
or their workstation.
b. Floor area for executive and private offices is often mandated by corporate standards or dictated by
economics.
In lieu of restrictions a guide figure of 250 to 350 square feet for executive, and 120 to 200 square feet for
other offices may be used as a design tool.
c. Density of open office space is either mandated by corporate standards or based on some configuration of
free standing modules of adequate size to enclose a work space with all its required furnishings.
For preliminary space allocation a figure of 150 square feet per person in offices of 2 to 5 people and 100
square feet per person in offices of more than 5 people may be used.
d. Certain types of office equipment require more space than normally allowed in an estimate based on the
average clerk or typist position. Any space taken up by this equipment and their operations should be added
to that considered for regular office space. Equipment in this category includes:
(1) Word processing equipment.
(2) Duplicating equipment.
(3) Personal computers.
(4) Telefax equipment.
(5) Other special equipment.
2.3.3 FILE SPACE (1991)
a. Each open file will require the following space allowance without consideration of any working area in front
of the open drawer:
(1) Standard letter file (15  30) – allows 6-1/4 square feet.
(2) Standard legal file (18  30) – allow 7 - 1 / 2 square feet.
(3) Lateral files:
– 18D30L – allow 7 square feet.
– 18D36L – allow 8-1/4 square feet.
– 18D42L – allow 9-1/2 square feet.
b. Working space in front of file cabinets:

(1) Minimum, 2-4 from front of open drawer.
(2) Desirable, 3-8 from front of open drawer (especially if work space is also on an aisle).
c. Area requirements for file rooms should be based on the physical shape and nature of the space and the
arrangement chosen for file cabinet layout.
2.3.4 STORAGE SPACES (1991)
a. Storage requirements depend on the practices of the particular railroad, and the record keeping methods of
the management.
b. Consideration should be given to various types of storage:
(1) Vaults.
(2) Stock rooms.
(3) File rooms.
(4) Mobile files.
(5) Shelving.
(6) Janitors supplies. 1

(7) Coat closets.
2.3.5 SPECIAL ROOM ALLOWANCE (1991)
a. Depending on the operations, offices will require allied rooms of a size matched to their use. Allow 500
square foot for 15 persons plus 10 square foot for each additional person in:
3
(1) Reception room.
(2) Waiting room.
b. Space should be provided for: 4

(1) Lunch room.
(2) Employees lounge.
(3) Mail room.
(4) Conference room.
(5) Equipment spaces.
2.3.6 SPACE REQUIRED FOR AISLES (1991)
a. Aisle or passageways leading to main exits are mandated by code requirements.
b. Recommended aisle widths between work spaces or cubicles:

(1) Secondary aisle – 3-0
(2) Intermediate aisle – 3-3
(3) Main aisle – 5-0
2.3.7 CONFERENCE ROOM (1991)
a. The size of the room is directly related to the number of persons to be seated.
(1) Small conference room seating 4 to 6 people – allow 150 to 200 square feet.
(2) Medium conference room seating 8 to 12 persons – allow 250 to 325 square feet.
(3) Large conference room seating 14 to 24 persons – allow 450 to 600 square feet.
b. Conference tables may be rectangular, round, boat shape or oval. Table width should be increased as the
number at the table increases.
c. Allow 30 inches per person for chair space to permit comfortable seating at the table.
d. Recommended egress from conference rooms.
(1) Up to 24 persons – one door.
(2) More than 24 persons – two doors.
e. A hard-surface ceiling over the conference table in large rooms is desirable to reinforce voice travel. Floors
should be carpeted to minimize background noise.
f. Consideration should be given to the incorporation of any of the following special features as required.
(1) Coat racks or closets.
(2) Projection booth.
(3) Toilet facilities.
(4) Kitchenette.
(5) Sound and/or video systems.
(6) Built-in bulletin and chalk boards.
(7) Special ventilation.
(8) Draperies and room darkening equipment.

SECTION 2.4 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
2.4.1 FRAMING SYSTEMS (1991)
a. The structural system will be influenced by the building size, use, location, life expectancy, and economic factors.
b. The building designer must use his own judgement in making the final decision for the type of construction
utilized as there can be no hard and fast rule to govern. A careful study of the principal use, location and
cost will be a factor in selection of the structural system and the exterior finishes.
c. An office building is a complex, made up of many units. It is therefore wise to base the floor plan on a
modular design. The designer should study many modular bay sizes in order to make the space fit the
requirements. He should also study the effects different modules would have on the installation cost for
lighting and heating.
(1) Have as few columns as possible and have them in exterior or corridor walls rather than free standing.
(2) Use a practical module and integrated lighting, air conditioning, underfloor duct outlets and window
mullions so that subsequent subdivision will permit partitions on the modular lines without requiring
relocation of these facilities.
d. A center core design which includes mechanical rooms, stairways, elevators and toilet rooms will leave the
office area open for arranging offices and planning for the most economical use of floor area.
1
2.4.2 FLOOR SYSTEMS (1991)
a. Floor live loads as recommended below or as required by governing codes.
Offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 P.S.F.
Public corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 P.S.F.
3
Rest rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-100 P.S.F.
Computer rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 P.S.F.
Light storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 P.S.F.
b. In computer rooms, it is generally desirable to install a double floor system for the many large cables
connecting the various components. These elevated floors are manufactured in square panels and supported 4
above the primary floor on metal pedestals. The floor panels are easily lifted out to access the cabling and
install floor fittings.
c. Floor construction with concrete over metal decking, precast concrete panels with voids or poured concrete
with under floor ducts provide a flexible means of furnishing power and communications to an open floor
plan, utilizing modular office partitions.
2.4.3 PARTITIONS (1991)
a. Core area partitions should be constructed of a permanent type material such as masonry, with or without
plaster, or other permanent finish.
b. Office partitions of metal or wood studs with plaster or gypsum board, will fulfill safety and privacy
requirements if conditions warrant.
c. Modular office partition systems:

(1) Partitions are available in a variety of heights, styles, materials and finishes.
(2) Various length components can be combined to create a wide variety of modular cubicles to serve as
workstations.
(3) Modules may be activated or non-activated type.
(a) Activated modules have either integrated wiring in the panels or cableways in the panels through
which wiring can be pulled.
(b) Non-activated panels must have surface mounted conduit applied after installation.
(4) Power and communication connection is usually through:
(a) A power pole between the module and cabling above a suspended ceiling.
(b) Poke-through connection through the floor.
(c) Raised floor or computer floor system.
(d) Underfloor duct system.
(e) Flat cable system from baseboard, under carpet, to module.
SECTION 2.5 FINISH MATERIALS
2.5.1 EXTERIOR MATERIALS (1991)
a. The selection of exterior materials will be largely dependent on the type of structural system selected.
Visibility and access to the public will determine to a great extent the amount of aesthetic treatment.
b. In many instances local building codes will specifically prohibit certain types of exterior finish or specify a
minimum fire rating to be provided.
c. Windows:
(1) Air conditioned buildings should have insulating and/or tinted glazing. The windows may or may not be
operable.
(2) Windows in non-air conditioned buildings may or may not be insulating or tinted. The windows should
be awning or hopper type, with screens, to provide ventilation.
(3) Building codes in some locations dictate formulas for computing window areas based on room size,
ventilation, and light.
2.5.2 WALL AND CEILING FINISHES (1991)
a. The type of wall and ceiling finish chosen will be determined by fire resistance requirements, appearance
and maintenance considerations.

b. Lobby and corridor walls, in many cases, influence public opinion. Therefore, attractive, easily cared for
materials should be used in such locations. Vinyl or plastic coverings, marble, ceramic tile, or paint are
appropriate. (See Table 6-2-1)
c. In general, office walls should have a hard, durable surface. However, private offices may be paneled with
wood panels and painted surfaces. Many special paints and epoxy finishes are available which are attractive
and durable.
d. Sanitary requirements in toilet rooms can be met by using ceramic tile, plastic surfaces, enamels and
epoxies which are durable and easily cleaned.
e. Ceilings in general, should be fire retardant, sound absorbing, and in public areas aesthetically pleasing.
The designer should include in the contract documents a reflected ceiling plan showing the location of
lighting fixtures, other electrical, and mechanical components.
2.5.3 FLOOR COVERINGS AND FINISHES (1991)
a. The selection of floor coverings and finishes will be governed by the use to which specific areas are
subjected. Heavy traffic areas such as lobbies and corridors require substantial materials such as terrazzo,
ceramic or quarry tile. Resilient type coverings may also be used.
b. Vinyl resilient floor coverings are suitable for general or private offices. Executive offices are generally
carpeted. Carpeting with resilient backing which may be cemented in place is being used more often where
tile or resilient surfaces have previously been used.
1
c. Concrete floors may, in some cases be surfaced with epoxy finishes which are durable and easily
maintained.

Table 6-2-1. Wall and Ceiling Finishes
Wall Finish Materials Type of Occupancy
Decorative Public General Private Executive

Material
Value Corridors Office Office Office
Clay Products Murals Recommended Satisfactory — Satisfactory
(glazed and ceramic tile) for Murals for Murals
Concrete Not Recommended — — — —
Exposed
Masonry Should be Painted Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Not
(exposed CMU) Recommended
Masonry Good Natural Recommended — — Suitable for
(marble-stone-brick) Finish Decor
Metals Limited Recommended — — —
(stainless steel-bronze)
Paint Color Satisfactory Recommended Recommended Recommended
(latex-alkyd-epoxy) Above Wainscot
Paper Color and Pattern Not Not Not Suitable for
Recommended Recommended Recommended Decor
Plaster Must Be Painted Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended
Above Wainscot
Drywall Must Be Painted Not Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
Recommended
Plastic Covered Vinyl Color and Pattern Recommended Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
Above Wainscot
Plastic Laminate Color and Pattern Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended
Plastic Special Decor Decor Only — — Decor Only
Porcelain (on metal) Color Recommended — — —
Textiles Color and Pattern Not Not Recommended Recommended
Recommended Recommended
Wood Paneling Color Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
2.5.4 COLORS (1991)
a. Color, texture, lighting and other design aspects, when used with discretion, comprise that extra ingredient
that sets apart the extraordinary building from the commonplace. The proper use of color and texture can
enhance architectural features.
b. The goal of good design is to produce an attractive and pleasant environment. Colors should be selected to
suit the purpose of the area and assist in creating a congenial work space.
c. Consideration should be given to the exposure of the space to natural lighting as well as to the type of
artificial lighting used.

2.5.5 SOUND CONTROL (1991)
a. Sound control is an important factor to be considered in the design of office buildings. Sound control, in
general, consists of sound absorption within a room or space, and sound attenuation (transmission loss)
between rooms or spaces.
b. Special care should be exercised in the design of ceiling systems and partitions to minimize the transmission
of sound from space to space.
c. Integrated ceiling systems that incorporate lighting, ventilating and acoustical qualities are available from
various manufacturers.
d. Acoustical ceilings, either glued or suspended, will alleviate noise problems. These are available in either
metal or mineral fiber.
e. Wall finishes and partition systems are available which will alleviate reflected sound within offices or spaces.
2.5.6 FURNITURE (1991)
a. Furnishing the office building with new furniture will require a departmental survey to obtain the
requirements of each workstation, office space or special use room or area.
b. Integrated modular partitions and their accompanying modular furniture will provide more storage space
and work surfaces per square foot of floor area than a system of demountable partitions and conventional
furniture pieces purchased independently.
1
c. The public or reception area of the building should have a directory placed in a prominent position. Lounge
furniture should be comfortable and of durable material, and attractive design. Ash trays in lounge areas
and sand urns in the corridors where smoking is permitted will aid in protecting floor finishes.
SECTION 2.6 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.6.1 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (1991)
a. The selection of equipment and design of HVAC systems should be reflective of the site constraints, existing 4
building systems, availability of fuel, and low lifetime maintenance costs.
b. In making decisions regarding the selection of HVAC equipment, the following guidelines should be
considered:
(1) Air cooled equipment is usually less difficult to install and maintain.
(2) The transfer of internal heat from equipment to perimeter offices and support spaces is desirable.
(3) The use of economizer cycles to obtain “free cooling” should be considered. However, where relative
humidity control is required, careful consideration should be given to its effects on relative humidity control.
(4) Ventilation requirements shall be in accordance with current ASHRAE recommendations.
(5) The location of equipment requiring frequent, routine maintenance should be provided with a suitable
means of access that does not require removal of any part of the building such as ceiling tiles.

(6) The use of reheat systems should be avoided if possible.
(7) The duct work should be in accordance with a recognized industrial standard.
c. The criteria found in Table 6-2-2 should be considered in the design of HVAC equipment and systems.
Table 6-2-2. Interior Environment Criteria for Design of HVAC
Summer Temperature Winter Temperature

Location
and Relative Humidity and Relative Humidity
Office, Clerical Areas and Conference Rooms 78°F 68°F
65% max RH 40% min RH
Main Frame Computer Rooms 72°F 72°F
50% RH 50% RH
Data Entry/Retrieval and Operations Areas 75°F 68°F
50% RH 50% RH
Storage and Equipment Rooms ambient conditions 60°F
Toilet and Locker Rooms ambient conditions 68°F
Communications Equipment Spaces, and Uninterrupted conditioned air, temperature and RH as per
Power Source Room manufacturer’s recommendation.
2.6.2 PLUMBING (1991)
a. Sanitary facilities should be located in a central core area, where possible, to reduce the amount of piping
required. Toilet rooms should be located back to back where practical.
b. All main piping should be accessible to the degree possible to facilitate alterations and maintenance.
c. All plumbing shall be installed to meet state and local codes.
2.6.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY (1991)
The energy conservation/efficiency standards of the building should be per latest BOCA Mechanical Code and
ASHRAE 90A, or per governing codes whichever is more stringent.
2.6.4 ELEVATORS (1991)
Office buildings of two or more stories should have an elevator for handicapped accessibility, and moving materials.
SECTION 2.7 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
2.7.1 ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. The electrical systems design must conform to the latest edition of the National Electrical Code, and local
and state codes.

b. To the extent possible, electrical systems must make use of products tested and certified by qualified and
recognized testing laboratories, such as UL.
c. It is recommended that conductors, raceways, boxes, as well as sub-feeders be sized one size larger than
calculated electrical load requires. Conduit should be sized for anticipated load growth.
d. A standby system should be provided as backup for vital equipment, computer systems, etc., or to aid in fire
or rescue operations.
e. Surge protection should be utilized where appropriate (computer systems, etc.) and should conform to NEC
Article 280.
f. Communications equipment should be powered through dedicated circuits and be provided with a backup
emergency powered system where appropriate (UPS, generator, or secondary utility company power source).
2.7.2 LIGHTING (1991)
a. Factors which aid in determining the most appropriate lighting system include:
(1) Economics.
(2) Appearance.
(3) Room finish.

1
(4) Energy consumption.
(5) Color.
(6) Task visibility.
b. Appropriate illumination levels should be as per IES Lighting Handbook, latest edition. 3
c. Consideration should be given to the lighting of the building exterior, walkways and parking lot. Lighting
levels shall be as listed in the IES Lighting Handbook.
d. Emergency lighting should be provided to maintain a minimum average illumination of 1.5 feet candles for
a minimum of 90 minutes (or as governing code requires) in event of power failure in:
4
(1) Exit corridors.
(2) Hallways.
(3) Stairways.
(4) Illuminated exit signage.

SECTION 2.8 FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY
2.8.1 FIRE PROTECTION (1991)
a. The railroads’ best interests are served when its facilities and the people who occupy them are adequately
protected against the threat of fire. The railroads specific policy requirements and/or other guidelines for a
consistent and comprehensive fire protection program, should be included in the design.
b. Implementation relies on the application of sound fire safety judgement coupled with compliance with all
applicable fire protection codes and standards.
2.8.2 LIFE SAFETY (1991)
a. All occupied buildings should comply with the appropriate provisions of NFPA Code 101 and all other
applicable codes. The goal is to provide all facilities with an adequate level of life safety so that in the event
of a fire or other mishap, occupants will be provided with the means to reach an area of safety in as brief a
time as is practical, without having to endanger themselves during the process of evacuation. This concept
necessitates a reasonable degree of redundancy due to the possibility that individual exits may be blocked by
fire, heat or smoke.
b. Special consideration should be given to any building or areas containing essential electronic equipment
(computers, telephone switchgear, etc.) due to the high dollar value, complex wiring and design usually
associated with these areas.
c. All fire protection equipment shall be listed and/or approved by local codes or standards.

6
Part 3
Design Criteria for
Spot Car Repair Shops1
— 1994 —
FOREWORD
A spot car repair system is a facility arranged to bring cars in need of repair to one central location, thus
eliminating lost time in moving men, equipment, materials and tools to the cars. One-spot systems are designed
for making light repairs. It is advantageous to have at least one track for heavy repairs and one for working 1
three-axle trucks. The facilities must be designed in cooperation with all departments concerned, with the
architect or building engineer acting as the coordinator.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3

3.1.1 Advantages (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.2 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3

3.2.1 Location (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.2.2 Parking (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.2.3 Landscaping (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.2.4 Trackage (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.3 Building Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4

3.3.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5

3.4.1 Building Types (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.2 Structural Systems (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.3 Floors (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.4 Roofs (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
1
References, Vol. 74 (1973), p. 115; Vol. 94 (1994), p. 95.

3.5 Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5

3.5.1 Size (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.5.2 Special Areas (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-6
3.5.3 Heavy Repairs (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.6 Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7

3.6.1 Heating (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.6.2 Lighting and Power (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.3 Ventilation (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.4 Compressed Air (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.5 Gutters and Downspouts (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.6 Sewers (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.7 Separation, Recovery or Disposal of Oil (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.7 Finish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8

3.7.1 Interior (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.7.2 Exterior (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.8 Miscellaneous Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9

3.8.1 Walls (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.2 Windows and Skylights (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.3 Firewalls (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.4 Doors (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9

3.9.1 Jacking Systems and Related Equipment (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9.2 Jib Cranes (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.3 Hoists (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.4 Hose Reels (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.5 Bins (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
3.9.6 Car Moving Equipment (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
3.10 Environmental Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12

Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
6-3-1 Edmunston, N.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-13

6-3-2 Cheyenne, WY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-13
6-3-3 Hinkle, OR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-14
6-3-4 Harvey, IL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-14
6-3-5 Saint John, N.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-15
6-3-6 Cumberland, MD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-16
LIST OF TABLES
6-3-1 One Spot Car Repair Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL 1
3.1.1 ADVANTAGES (1994)
a. Time studies indicate that an approximate 100 per cent increase in efficiency is achieved over the
conventional rip-track method. This is due to all work being performed more efficiently, under direct
supervision in a compact area and protected from bad weather. Bad order delays have been reduced in 3
some cases as much as 12 to 24 hours.
b. A switch engine places the cars on the inbound receiving track and retrieves them on the outbound
track, thereby eliminating the spotting and uncoupling of cars. All car movements are handled by repair
personnel in the shop and equipment is interlocked against train movement through the facility.
3.2.1 LOCATION (1994)
The arrangement of the yard and its operation will dictate the location of the shop facility. See Chapter 14,
Yards and Terminals for yard arrangement.
3.2.2 PARKING (1994)
Parking should be provided for personnel working in the areas and for visitors. Consideration should also be
given to overlapping shifts.

Landscaping should be provided in accordance with code requirements. Vegetation used should be easy to grow
and maintain.
3.2.4 TRACKAGE (1994)
a. The track layout is dictated by trackage available and directly affects switch frequency. Inbound tracks
should have a capacity of 20 cars (two 10 car cuts) and an outbound capacity of 10 to 15 cars. With this
arrangement, the operating department has approximately 8 hours or more lead time to supply cars.
Track profile must be provided for inbound car control, and free roll outbound must be provided.
b. Where trackage space is not available more switching is required and, in some cases, cars must be
brought into the facility with the use of tractors or similar devices.
c. Where automatic car moving equipment is used, tracks should be tangent throughout the car puller
area.
d. Track centers should not be less than 26 feet with 30 feet to 40 feet considered optimal.
SECTION 3.3 BUILDING CODES
3.3.1 GENERAL (1994)
The architect/building engineer should check all applicable codes. The following list should be used as a guide:
a. Municipal.
b. City.
c. State.
d. Sanitary.
e. Industrial Commission.
f. Electrical.
g. Mechanical.
h. Fire Regulations.
i. National Transportation Agency (Canada).
j. Environmental Agencies.
k. Other.

3.4.1 BUILDING TYPES (1994)
A variety of building structural types will normally meet the requirements of this service. Pre-engineered metal
buildings are the most common, followed by masonry, other forms of steel frame construction and tilt up
concrete panels with laminated wood trusses or beams.
3.4.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (1994)
Columns or posts between tracks reduce flexibility of operations. Rigid frames or trusses permit column free
clear spans and are desirable in the main shop area.
3.4.3 FLOORS (1994)
Floors shall be of reinforced concrete designed to support the heaviest wheel loading that will be applied.
Flooring in office and lunch room areas may be resilient tile.
3.4.4 ROOFS (1994)
Roof systems shall be designed to be compatible with the structural system selected.
1
SECTION 3.5 SPACE REQUIREMENTS
3.5.1 SIZE (1994) 3

3.5.1.1 Length
Length will depend primarily on the desired number of work positions and whether end doors are used. With
closed doors, a practical minimum length for a one-spot facility is 170 feet. A two-spot facility should be a
minimum of 300 feet long with a jacking position located approximately 100 feet from the inbound end of the
building. This will provide enough length to advance a repaired car ahead to the next position for air brake 4
testing and permit a second car to move into the jacking position with both cars remaining in the building. A
building with open ends need only be long enough to cover the work area; the minimum length required would
be 100 feet. These figures assume the use of built-in or stationary jacking equipment.
3.5.1.2 Width
Side of building to center line of first track should not be less than 17 feet. Track centers preferably should be
30 feet to 40 feet.
3.5.1.3 Height
Clearance above rail in working areas should be a minimum of 25 feet. Wall height of main shop building should
permit 22 feet clear track door opening. Offices, lunch rooms, and other areas not within the main shop may be
in attached low profile structures with ceiling heights to suit the occupancy.

3.5.2 SPECIAL AREAS (1994)
3.5.2.1 Offices
Suitable office space must be provided for the shop foreman, his assistants and clerical staff. Offices should be
designed in accordance with Part 2, Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings.
3.5.2.2 Lunch and Locker Rooms
Lunch and locker rooms are necessary for all employees and should be separate rooms. If both male and female
employees are employed, separate locker rooms must be provided. Each employee must have a personal locker.
The size of the room will be based on the number of lockers. An approximate figure of 10 square feet per locker
may be used to size the room. Actual square foot requirements may vary as directed by local codes and contract
agreements. Lunch tables should be included to provide seating space for each employee based on the greatest
number per shift.
3.5.2.3 Welfare Facilities
Toilet facilities must be provided for shop and office personnel. If possible, shop toilet facilities should be
provided near the work areas to eliminate employees being away from the work station for any great length of
time. The number of fixtures required is determined by code and varies with different locations.
3.5.2.4 Material Storage Facilities
The store and mechanical departments should be consulted on their space requirements which will usually
consist of one large storage area complete with racks and bins, located as near as possible to the central work
area of the shop. Also required are areas for lube pad soaking machines and storage areas for oil, paint, lumber
and wheels. Storage areas should also be provided outside of the building for items such as draft gears,
couplers, brake shoes, brake beams, springs, miscellaneous steel side frames, D.F. bars, barrels of oil, solvent,
etc. This area should be surfaced with either concrete or asphalt and designed to support the wheel loads for lift
trucks. An unloading platform, approximately 3-9 high above top of rail and 50 feet in length with a ramp
should be provided. The width varies, however, the platform should be large enough for lift truck operation.
3.5.2.5 Mechanical Equipment Room
This may or may not be required depending upon whether the building is to be heated and the type of heating
to be provided.
3.5.2.6 Compressor Room
The size of the room and air intake and exhaust will be determined by the size of the compressor to be installed.
A special foundation may be required to support the weight and vibration of the compressor. A dryer may be
necessary in order to remove condensation from the air lines. A self contained compressor unit may be located
outside of the building.
3.5.2.7 Tool Room
A tool room of ample size to contain all the tools required in this facility should be included, this room may be
part of the store facility.
3.5.2.8 First Aid Room
This room should be large enough to contain a stock of first aid supplies, a stretcher and also a cot or bed.

3.5.2.9 Meeting Rooms
If possible, especially in larger shops, a meeting room large enough for safety meetings, etc., should be provided.
Special acoustical treatment is desirable so that meetings can be conducted while the shop is in operation. The
lunch room could be designed to serve this purpose.
3.5.3 HEAVY REPAIRS (1994)

Where heavy repairs are performed in the same shop the following must be considered:
3.5.3.1 Metalworking Shop
A metalworking shop is generally required. Usually both gas and electric welding equipment can be contained
in the same shop.
3.5.3.2 Woodworking Shop
A woodworking shop, located near the lumber store, with a dust collection system to dispose of sawdust and
shavings.
3.5.3.3 Air Brake Room
An air brake room, if provided, shall have special emphasis placed on dust and environmental control.
3.5.3.4 Pipe Fitters Room 1

This is required usually in larger installations where pipe fitters are employed.
SECTION 3.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT

3
3.6.1 HEATING (1994)
Many different types of heating systems can be adapted to an installation of this type. Below is a partial list
that can be referred to the mechanical engineer to aid in selecting the system for each specific location.
Adequate capacity should be provided to overcome heat loss due to open doors. 4
a. Forced air (gas and/or electric).
b. Steam, high and low pressure.
c. Hot water (convection, radiation, etc.).
d. Individual gas fired unit heaters and convection systems.
e. Electric.
f. Infrared.

3.6.2 LIGHTING AND POWER (1994)

a. General lighting in the shop should not be less than 50 average initial foot candles at floor level.
b. Convenience outlets should be provided for small tools, etc. (110 v, 60 Hz, single phase).
c. Compatible welding outlets as required.
3.6.3 VENTILATION (1994)

Most installations of this type do not require any special ventilation except in welding shops, but ample
ventilation should be provided to meet local codes. Special exhaust systems will be required in areas such as
welding stations, toilet rooms, etc.
3.6.4 COMPRESSED AIR (1994)

Compressed air outlets should be provided for pneumatic tools and equipment.
3.6.5 GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS (1994)

Plumbing codes usually dictate the size of gutters and downspouts required for various roof areas. Where
possible, all roof drainage should be connected to the area storm sewer system. Heat tracing systems may also
be necessary in cold climates to prevent pipe damage.
3.6.6 SEWERS (1994)

a. Roof drainage and area drainage should be disposed of through the storm drainage system.
b. Drainage from shop floors and areas where industrial wastes may be encountered should be properly
treated before being discharged to a storm or sanitary sewer. Sanitary sewers should be connected to a
city sewer where available. Where city sewers are not available, the installation should conform to local,
state, county or parish health codes.
3.6.7 SEPARATION, RECOVERY OR DISPOSAL OF OIL (1994)

Special studies will be required for this subject and it is important to call upon the services of the
environmental engineer.
SECTION 3.7 FINISH
3.7.1 INTERIOR (1994)
A wide variety of finishes may be applied to the interior of the building. Lining materials, particularly in shop
areas, should be high impact, abrasion resistant and reflective, low initial cost and easy to maintain.
3.7.2 EXTERIOR (1994)
The exterior finish is left up to the discretion of the designer. It is highly desirable to use products that require
little maintenance. Metal siding, brick, concrete blocks, and concrete are all commonly used. It is advisable to
use metal siding below 8-0 above the top of rail. Buildings which are heated should be properly insulated.

SECTION 3.8 MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS
3.8.1 WALLS (1994)

Except in exceptional circumstances, a totally enclosed building is desirable. Walls adjacent to tracks can
frequently be equipped with a multiplicity of truck doors, which will facilitate the spotting or moving of
material or portable equipment.
3.8.2 WINDOWS AND SKYLIGHTS (1994)

Windows in shop areas are of questionable value. They cannot take the place of adequate artificial lighting, but
may supplement it. Glass is easily broken and windows should be installed with suitable plastic type glazing
materials. Skylights should be considered for additional natural light. Windows should be placed so that the car
mover operator can see through the building to observe car movement, etc.
3.8.3 FIREWALLS (1994)

Applicable building codes should be checked carefully and complied with concerning the location of firewalls.
3.8.4 DOORS (1994)

3.8.4.1 Personnel Doors
The use of truck or track doors for personnel movement is not economical, and is wasteful of time, heat and
power. Properly sized personnel doors should be provided at strategic locations to meet code requirements. 1
Doors should be installed with extra heavy hardware and door closers. Heavy steel doors are most economical
in the long run.
3.8.4.2 Truck Doors
Overhead-type doors are the most common and desirable. Size should be at least 12 feet high and 10 feet wide,
with 14 feet high and 12 feet wide optimal. Post mounted outside controls should be provided for fork lift 3
operation. Post protection should be provided for corners and doors.
3.8.4.3 Track Doors
Minimum size is 14 feet wide and 22 feet high. Recommended type is rolling steel doors with lifting speed of
2 feet per second. Automatic start/stop interlocks, both inside and outside the building, are necessary for
protection of equipment and door mechanisms. All governing clearance laws should be checked before the doors
are selected.
4
SECTION 3.9 MECHANICAL
3.9.1 JACKING SYSTEMS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT (1994)
3.9.1.1 Portable Jacks
These jacks are either electric/hydraulic or air operated and jacking pads are required. Pads should extend the
full length of the shop so that jacking can be performed at any location. Pads are constructed of reinforced
concrete of sufficient depth as determined by applied loads and soil conditions.

3.9.1.2 Electric Jacks
These are furnished in pairs of two 40 to 50 ton outside jacks with no center jack. The jacking speed is 4-1/2 feet
per minute unloaded and 2-1/4 feet per minute loaded. Jacks traverse under different widths of cars and under
the side frame for repacking, etc. Each pair of jacks is a self-contained unit.
3.9.1.3 Hydraulic Jacks
These jacks are built-in and are installed in sets composed of two 75 ton outside jacks and a 150 ton center jack
with raising speeds approximately 8 feet per minute. The outside jacks are used for standard jacking,
repacking, spring removal, etc. The center jack is used for center sill jacking of the cars and jacking under the
bolster for repacking, spring removal or other miscellaneous jobs. A single pump unit will usually handle
several tracks.
3.9.1.4 Tie Downs
Tie downs are required for straightening and pulling draft gears and should be installed whether portable or
built-in jacking equipment is used.
3.9.2 JIB CRANES (1994)
Two jib cranes are required per track where built-in jacking equipment is used, normally about 16 feet center to
center of support posts and offset 12 feet to 18 feet to allow spring plank removal. A support post is required,
and latches in the “open” and “closed” positions. In the closed position they should be designed to have a
capacity of 3 to 5 tons and are not designed for loading in the open position. Single column jib cranes may also
be used.
3.9.3 HOISTS (1994)
Three hoists are required for each jib crane and are used for truck disassembly. The two outside hoists lift side
frames and the center hoist raises the truck bolster. These hoists are usually one ton electric or air with
hoisting speeds of 8 feet per minute.
3.9.4 HOSE REELS (1994)
a. Hose reel mounting plates are welded to the jib post or a support post or both. The number of reels may
vary with the requirements of each shop. Shops may have one or more of the following reels:
(1) air.
(2) journal oil.
(3) solvent.
(4) oxygen-acetylene.
(5) roller bearing grease.
b. The supply piping may be either overhead or under the floor in accessible trenches. If piping is located
beneath or within the floor, protection must be provided around the base of the jib for these pipes.

3.9.5 BINS (1994)
Storage bins should be provided and located as conveniently as possible to supply equipment to all tracks.
Double bins may be placed between two tracks in order to supply both tracks. Care must be taken in locating
bins to prevent interference with the efficient movement of wheels and other heavy equipment into the repair
area. If possible, bins should be on the same side of the track as the control panels for the pullers, jacks and the
jib crane booms. Bins should be set at a height above floor level to permit easier access. Ergonomics should be
considered in all work areas to reduce employee fatigue and enhance productivity.
3.9.6 CAR MOVING EQUIPMENT (1994)
3.9.6.1 Automatic Car Moving Equipment
This is a closed cable system with a car moving device mounted between the rails to contact the axle of the car.
An axle contact arm is in the up position when traveling forward to move the cars, and either ratchets under
the cars or lowers in its reverse direction. Movement is remote controlled from a push button panel at the
repair position. Maximum travel positions of the pulling device are controlled by either rotating cam limit
switches or track limit switches with various interlocking features incorporated. For example, car pullers will
not operate when doors are closed; jacks are up; or jib cranes are across the track. Protection must be provided
for car mover control panels to prevent damage from fork lift trucks. Signal protection should be used in
conjunction with car moving equipment.
3.9.6.1.1 Two Puller System

1
This is the most efficient system available and is recommended for high-production light-repair facilities in
classification yards. The inbound puller brings cars into the repair facility and the outbound puller moves cars
through the shop and to the outbound storage area.
3.9.6.1.2 Single Puller
Recommended for low-production shops or areas where sufficient trackage is not available for the two puller 3
system. A single puller is used to bring the cars into the facility, position them in the repair spot, and then move
them out.
3.9.6.2 Manual Type Pullers
This is basically the same electric winch type equipment as used with the automatic pulling device above,
except cables are exposed above the floor and a hook is attached for car movement. 4
3.9.6.3 Mobile Equipment
On- or off-track car movers such as off-track tractors, trackmobiles and cranes are utilized for moving cars.
This equipment couples to the car and moves each car in and out of the facility and normally requires one or
two men for operation. On-track movers have the advantage of being able to negotiate switches.
SECTION 3.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
There are many wastes generated by this type of facility that must be disposed of, such as car refuse, lubricator
pads, wood, paper grain doors and oil. Applicable codes, appropriate governing bodies and the company’s
environmental control engineer must be consulted for methods of handling.

SECTION 3.11 SUMMARY
a. Spot repair systems are the most efficient way to handle light repairs to freight cars. The more trackage
available, the lower the switching cost. Two to three-and-one-half man hours are generally required per
car for repairs. Automatic car moving equipment requires less manpower to operate than any other type
of equipment. Built-in jacking equipment can normally be justified if the shop works at least 16 hours a
day. Track centers should not be less than 26 feet, with 30 feet to 40 feet preferable.
b. For layout and design of existing spot repair facilities refer to Table 6-3-1 and Figure 6-3-1, Figure 6-3-2,
Figure 6-3-3, Figure 6-3-4, Figure 6-3-5, and Figure 6-3-6.
Table 6-3-1. One Spot Car Repair Facilities
Edmunston Cheyenne Hinkle Harvey Saint John Cumberland

New Wyoming Oregon Illinois New Maryland
Item Brunswick Brunswick
(Figure 6-3- (Figure 6-3- (Figure 6-3- (Figure 6-3- (Figure 6-3- (Figure 6-3-
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Year Built 1977 1978 1980 1981 1986 1988
No. of Tracks 2 3 2 2 2 2
Length 168-0 222-8 220-0 180-0 129-11 202-8
Width to First Track 20-8 20-0 20-0 15-0 20-0 18-2
Center Line of Tracks 25-0 24-0 35-0 30-0 25-3 36-0
Height Clearance 26-0 ?
Above Rail
Door Opening Width 14-0 14-2 14-0 17-4
Door Opening Height 20-0 22-0 20-0 ?
Offices 315 SF 1,123 SF 998 SF 1,370 SF
Lunch Room 458 SF 228 SF 571 SF 709 SF
Locker Room 252 SF 265 SF 386 SF 426 SF
Welfare Facilities 400 SF 220 SF 405 SF 1,441 SF
Material Storage 685 SF 500 SF 1,592 SF 2,521 SF
Mechanical 270 SF 221 SF 588 SF 140 SF
Equipment Room
Compressor Room … … … …
Tool Room 78 SF 360 SF 95 SF 548 SF
First Aid Room 105 SF … 141 SF
Meeting Room Lunch Room 157 SF Lunch Room Lunch Room
Heavy Repairs … … … …
Metal Shop 590 SF … 683 SF …
Wood Shop … … … …
Air Brake Room 86 SF … … …
Pipe Shop … … … …
Electrical Shop … … 495 SF …
Shop Area 10,956 SF 21,376 SF 16,500 SF 10,800 SF 21,708 SF 21,708 SF

Figure 6-3-1. Edmunston, N.B.
Figure 6-3-2. Cheyenne, WY

Figure 6-3-3. Hinkle, OR
Figure 6-3-4. Harvey, IL

Figure 6-3-5. Saint John, N.B.

3

Figure 6-3-6. Cumberland, MD

6
Part 4
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities1
— 1988 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3

4.1.1 Scope (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.1.2 Definition (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.1.3 Classification (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.2 Site Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13 1
4.3 Building Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13

4.3.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13
4.4 Equipment and Related Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13

4.4.1 Pits (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-13 3
4.4.2 Depressed Floors (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-14
4.4.3 Elevated Platforms (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-14
4.4.4 Jacking Operation (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-14
4.4.5 Drop Tables (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-14
4.4.6 Locomotive Progression Systems (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15
4.4.7 Truck Repairs and Overhaul (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15
4.4.8 Material Handling Platform (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15
4.4.9 Store Room (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.4.10 Office (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.4.11 Locker and Toilet Facilities (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.5 Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16

4.5.1 Lubricating Oil Supply (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.5.2 Lubricating Oil Drainage (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.5.3 Used Oil Filters (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
4.5.4 Water Supply Systems (Raw and Treated) (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
4.5.5 Radiator Water Reclaim System (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
4.5.6 Compressed Air (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
4.5.7 Locomotive Washing (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
4.5.8 General Washing System (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.5.9 Electrical Cleaning Solvent (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
1
References Vol. 75, 1974, p. 209; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 84. Rewritten 1988.

4.5.10 Oxygen/Natural Gas/Propane Systems (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18

4.5.11 Locomotive Toilet Servicing (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.5.12 Locomotive Deicing (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.6 Building Superstructure Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18

4.6.1 Floors (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.6.2 Walls and Roof (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
4.6.3 Track Doors (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
4.7 Heating and Ventilating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19

4.7.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
4.7.2 Ventilating (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
4.7.3 Heating (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.8 Electric Lighting and Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20

4.8.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.9 Pollution (Air-Noise-Water) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20

4.9.1 Noise (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.9.2 Air (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.9.3 Water (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.10 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21

4.10.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.10.2 Communications System (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.11 Fire Protection (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-22
LIST OF FIGURES
6-4-1 Typical Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-10

6-4-2 Typical Light Repair Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-10
6-4-3 Typical Heavy Repair Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-11
6-4-4 Typical Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-11
6-4-5 Typical Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-12
6-4-6 Typical Material Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-12
LIST OF TABLES
6-4-1 Locomotive Shop Check List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-4

Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities
SECTION 4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 SCOPE (1988)
The material presented herein is intended to familiarize the engineer and designer with the problems they will
encounter and should consider in the design of a diesel facility.
a. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
b. Definition of Light, Medium and Heavy Repair may vary among railroads but should not affect the concepts
being presented.
c. A check list of the facilities and processes necessary for the efficient operation of the diesel repair shop is
presented in Table 6-4-1 as a design guide.
4.1.2 DEFINITION (1988)
A diesel repair facility constitutes a “facility” designed to arrange an orderly progression of diesel locomotives for
repairs, maintenance, servicing and cleaning as required, and to meet inspection requirements of the
manufacturer and governmental authorities.
4.1.3 CLASSIFICATION (1988)
Diesel repair facilities are generally classified as “Heavy Repair,” “Medium Running Repair” and “Light Running 1
Repair and Servicing.” For typical site plans and flow diagrams refer to Figure 6-4-1, Figure 6-4-2, Figure 6-4-3,
Figure 6-4-4, Figure 6-4-5 and Figure 6-4-6.
4.1.3.1 Heavy Repair
Consists of any work involving truck repair and maintenance, traction motor assembly, dynamic brake grids, etc.
3
4.1.3.2 Medium Running Repair
Consists of any work involving repair, air reservoir test, brake change outs, repairs to injector, governors, turbos,
etc.
4.1.3.3 Light Running Repair and Service 4

Consists of any work involving oiling, lubricating, testing, minor adjustments and repairs, etc.

Table 6-4-1. Locomotive Shop Check List
Location
1. City: State:
2. Yard:
3. Zoning Classification:
4. Codes and Regulations:
a. Building
b. Ventilation
c. Heating
d. Fire Protection
e. Lighting
f. Railroad Operating Criteria
g. Handicapped
h. Sanitary/Industrial Waste Treatment
i. Solid Waste Disposal
j. Air/Noise Control
Trackage
1. Yard Assess
2. Storage
3. Movements
Locomotive Fleet
1. Number
2. Models
3. Production
4. Bad Order Ratios
Functions
1. Inspection
2. Servicing
3. Cleaning
4. Running Maintenance
5. Light Repair
6. Light/Heavy Repair
7. Heavy Repair
8. Component Rebuild
9. Start-up
10. Load Test
11. Stripping/Painting
12. Fueling and Sanding

Table 6-4-1. Locomotive Shop Check List (Continued)
Departments Involved
1. Administration
2. Motive Power
3. Engineering
4. Maintenance-of-way
5. Communications
6. Materials Handling
Site Constraints
1. Adjacent Tracks
2. Adjacent Buildings
3. Noise Impacts
4. Underground Utilities
a. Electric
b. Gas
c. Steam
d. Air
1
e. Communications
f. Sewers
g. Water
5. Above Ground Utilities
a. Electric
b. Gas
3
c. Steam
d. Air
e. Communications
6. Utility Easements
a. Electric 4
b. Gas
c. Sewers
d. Communications
7. Future Expansion
8. Soil Conditions
a. Bearing Capacity
b. Water Table
9. Parking
a. Employee
b. Company Vehicles
c. Visitors

Locomotive Mover
1. Traction Motor Movement from Loco Batteries
2. Hy-Rail Tractor
3. Cable Progression System
4. Hostler
Equipment
1. Cranes
a. Type (bridge, underhung, gantry, jib)
b. Size/Capacity
c. Number
d. Control
e. Hook Height
2. Drop Table
a. Size/Capacity
b. Number of Active Tracks
c. Release Tracks
d. Auxiliary Single Axle Tops
3. Jacks
a. Type (fixed: portable: )
b. Size/Capacity
c. Number
4. Washer/Cleaning
a. Type (chemical, pressure, water recirculating)
b. Size
c. Number
5. Wheel Truing
a. Access
b. Size
6. Progression System
a. Type
b. Size
7. Paint Booth
8. High Pressure Washers
9. Dust Collection

Material Handling
1. Conveyance
a. Fork Lift
b. Conveyor
c. Totes
2. Material in (list)
3. Material out (list)
4. Storage – Parts
a. Warehousing
b. Work Station
5. Storage – Tools
6. Storage (Hazardous)
Pits
1. Depth
2. Drainage
3. Services and Utilities
1
4. Lighting
5. Access
a. Ramp
b. Stairs
6. Track Support
7. Storage Items
3
8. Material Movement
Platforms
1. Height
2. Clearance
4
3. Services and Utilities
4. Access
a. Ramp
b. Stairs
5. Storage Items
6. Material Movement
7. Railings and Protection

Mechanical Services
List for each equipment and work station item.
Identify pressure, flow capacity, storage location and valving.
1. Oxygen
2. Acetylene
3. Natural Gas
4. Compressed Air
5. Cleaner
6. Bearing Oil
7. Journal Oil
8. Diesel Fuel
9. Lube Oil
10. Dirty Lube Oil
11. Treated Radiator Water/Radiator Water Treatment
12. Radiator Water Reclaim
13. Industrial Water
14. Potable Water
15. Solvents
Electrical Services
List for each equipment and work station item. Identify voltage, amps, and light level.
1. Welding
2. Receptacles for tools
3. Battery Charges
4. Special Lighting
5. Special Equipment
Building
(Identify number of users for each and number of each sex for items 3 and 4)
1. Offices
a. Administrative
b. Shop
2. Training Facilities
3. Lockers
4. Toilets/Showers
5. Lunchroom
6. Computer and Communication Requirements
7. Floor Treatments/Hardeners
8. Visual Control from Offices
9. Security

Building Environment
Identify for each space.
1. Lighting levels
2. Ventilation (Air Changes/hour)
3. Air Conditioning (Temperature/Humidity Requirements)
4. Heating
a. Fuel Availability
b. Heat Source
c. Distribution System
5. Exhaust Requirements by Specific Operations
Waste Treatment
1. Location
2. Effluent Limits
3. Collection System
Drainage
1. Surface Run Off
1
2. Sanitary
3. Industrial
4. Oil Collection
Miscellaneous
1. Corrosive Cleaners and Exhaust
3
a. In ducts
b. On Building Components
2. Interferences
a. Ducts
b. Lighting
4
c. Piping
d. Trenches
e. Structural
f. Fire Protection
g. Cranes
h. Fork Tracks
i. Hose Connections

Figure 6-4-1. Typical Site Plan
Figure 6-4-2. Typical Light Repair Facility

Figure 6-4-3. Typical Heavy Repair Facility
Figure 6-4-4. Typical Cross Section

Figure 6-4-5. Typical Flow Diagram
Figure 6-4-6. Typical Material Flow Diagram

SECTION 4.2 SITE CONSIDERATION
Traffic flow, proximity to supporting functions and material access to the facility are basic considerations to be
determined. Consultations with the operating departments should be progressed before finalizing the site location.
Consideration should be given to the relationship of the ready tracks, the fueling and servicing facilities, material
department, bulk fluid storage, and the location of the crew quarters.
SECTION 4.3 BUILDING ARRANGEMENT
4.3.1 GENERAL (1988)
a. The primary consideration in diesel shop planning is that tracks be parallel and be serviced with through
tracks where possible.
b. For greater efficiency of operation, the diesel shop is best serviced on a production line concept.
c. The size and arrangement of a diesel shop, the number of tracks and the type of equipment installed is
dependent solely upon the type of servicing to be performed and the number of units to be serviced over a
definite period of time.
d. The diesel shop design and layout should incorporate all functions required to perform major repairs, annual, 1
semi annual and monthly inspections, minor repairs, routine servicing and maintenance as required.
e. The heavy repair track should be equipped with a drop table or 250 ton overhead crane for the removal and
replacement of entire truck units, including an auxiliary table for the removal and replacement of a single
pair of wheels with axle and traction motors when it is not necessary to remove the entire truck. It is
recommended this area of the shop be furnished with at least a 30 ton overhead traveling crane with a 5 ton
auxiliary unit. Inspection pits and elevated platforms may also be helpful in some repair functions. 3
f. The light and medium repair sections should be provided with pits, depressed floors, elevated platforms and
light capacity cranes.
g. The shop should contain rooms or areas for related repairs, e.g. machine shop, electrical shop, metal shop,
air brake, truck repair area, battery shop, tool room, etc.
4
SECTION 4.4 EQUIPMENT AND RELATED FACILITIES
4.4.1 PITS (1988)

a. Inspection pits should have a minimum depth of 4 feet below the top of rail. The pit length should be a
minimum of 10 feet greater than the overall length of locomotives to be serviced.
b. The pit walls of reinforced concrete should be either carried to the height of the base of rail or to level of the
depressed floor area, with columns extended to the height of base or rail for track support. The latter detail is
preferred since it affords a positive method of draining the adjacent depressed floor and provides access into
the pit along its entire length. The distance between centers of parallel pits varies from 18 to 26 feet. This
distance is established by the desired width of the elevated platforms – except that when a truck release track

is introduced between pits, a minimum of approximately 34-foot track centers is required. The rail on
inspection pits should be of a heavy section. Pit drainage should be provided preferably by floor drains located
at proper intervals along the length of the pit. Pit drains should be directed to a wastewater treatment system.
4.4.2 DEPRESSED FLOORS (1988)

The depressed floor along the inspection pits places the mechanic at proper height with respect to the locomotive
for inspection and making repairs to trucks, braking systems and other under-body equipment. The elevation of
this depressed floor area varies from 2-6 to 3 feet below the top of rail on the inspection pits. The floor should be
well drained and constructed with a surface that is easily cleaned. The recommended slope is 1/8 inch per foot.
4.4.3 ELEVATED PLATFORMS (1988)

a. Provide elevated platforms in the areas between adjacent maintenance tracks as well as along the outer
sides of these tracks. The height of the platforms with respect to the top of rail is 4-8 to 4-11 with some
constructed at 5-6 The distance from edge of platform to center line of track must be held to the minimum
of 5-6, or for the proper clearance of the equipment. Platforms should be constructed of noncombustible
material usually consisting of steel columns and beams, or of reinforced concrete. Design loads of 250 psf are
to be used for fork lift operation and 100 psf for all other platforms.
b. Platforms should be designed to permit material handling trucks and storage of material.
c. Platforms, where deemed necessary, should be provided with removable handrails along all edges, consisting
of either pipe or a combination of pipe supports with chains between them. Access to the platforms from the
normal top-of-rail level and depressed level floors should be provided by means of stairs at the ends and at
intermediate points, where required.
d. Ramps for equipment access to platforms may be used where adequate space is available. Ramps should
have the same design loading as platforms with a maximum slope of 12% for fork lift use.
e. Where space is at a premium, hydraulic lifts may be used at platforms enabling roll-on application at the
three levels of shop levels.
f. High-level platforms, approximately 15 feet above the top of rail, are sometimes used. This platform is
particularly desirable if locomotives require removal of power assemblies, etc., through the roof hatch. The
high-level platform is usually the same width as the lower level platform, with stairs located at convenient
points between the levels.
g. Portable platforms are used in some instances where fixed elevated platforms and depressed floors are not desired.
4.4.4 JACKING OPERATION (1988)
Where truck changes are infrequent, portable electric or air jacks may be used, and jacking pads need to be
included in the floor design, located at a point 7-6 from the center line of track.
4.4.5 DROP TABLES (1988)
Drop tables are used for changing single wheelsets or complete trucks. The various types of drop table equipment
available are:
a. For dropping single wheelsets with traction motors, a table of 50-ton capacity should be used with a top 6
6 long measured parallel to the running rails. Flooring between the rails on the drop table top should be
depressed below the top of the rail at least 2-6 in order to conform to types of locomotives being serviced.

This provides room for working on motor leads and will accommodate the traction motor dolly. Equipment
for servicing complete trucks should be of the long top type.
b. If only two-axle trucks are to be handled, provide a drop table of 100 ton capacity with a top 18 feet long.
c. For three-axle trucks, the drop table should be 125 ton capacity with a top not less than 26 feet long.
d. When both single wheelsets with traction motors and complete trucks are to be dropped, a drop table with a
sectional top should be used. The drop table should be 125 ton capacity and the top not less than 26 feet
long. In one end of the main top an auxiliary top is provided that is 66 long. Tops of this type normally
have inspection pits between the rails.
e. Drop tables described in items paragraph b, paragraph c, and paragraph d above must be equipped with
locomotive body supports. These must be of the type that permits the support bar to be moved parallel to
the running rail the full length of the drop table top and extend beyond one end 7-8.
f. Drop table pits may be open, or closed with an elevating cover at the release track. If there are two active
tracks, the release track should be between them. If there are more than two active tracks, there is no
advantageous position for the release track.
g. A consolidated drop table combines the drop table top and the hoisting mechanism, resulting in a
considerable saving in pit depth. Available only in the long top type for dropping complete trucks, they do
not lend themselves well to either multiple track operations or closed pit installations. Capacities are
available from 50 to 150 tons, and top lengths can be from 15 feet to 26 feet.
1
4.4.6 LOCOMOTIVE PROGRESSION SYSTEMS (1988)
Where a large number of units must be progressed daily through the shop, a number of mechanical pulling devices,
and progression equipment are available and capable of moving diesel locomotives from the inbound position
through the servicing positions in the shop and on to the outbound position. Some railroads also modify their
diesels to move using loco batteries to energize loco’s traction motors. The following advantages are inherent in the
system: 3
a. Eliminates need to idle locomotive for progression.
b. Eliminates need for hostler engine.
c. Units can be progressed in the uncoupled position.
d. Reduced noise pollution.
4
e. Reduced heating and ventilating costs.
4.4.7 TRUCK REPAIRS AND OVERHAUL (1988)
Repairs and overhaul to trucks are made in an area somewhat removed from the area where work is done on the
locomotive. This area should be provided with a truck washing platform for cleaning prior to the overhaul.
Facilities for steam cleaning and the use of detergents should be provided. Wheel truing machines or lathe units for
turning down locomotive wheels without their removal from locomotives are being used in many shops. A means of
chip removal and handling should be an essential part of the installation. Refer to Section 4.9, Pollution (Air-
Noise-Water) for pollution control considerations.
4.4.8 MATERIAL HANDLING PLATFORM (1988)
A material handling platform capable of being served by rail and by truck should be provided adjacent to the shop
to facilitate distribution of material.

4.4.9 STORE ROOM (1988)
Repair parts must be readily available. A store room for diesel parts should be established as an integral part of the
diesel shop. As stock includes finely machined and finished parts, the room should be dry and dust-free. The
purchasing and stores department should be consulted as to direct area requirements. Locomotive assignment at
facility is directly related to the space required for material. Gang stock at platform areas in the shop itself must
also be considered.
4.4.10 OFFICE (1988)
An office area for the diesel shop supervisor and clerical staff should be located adjacent to the main shop area for proper
supervision and the maintaining of servicing records, preferably at an elevated level to oversee the shop operations.
4.4.11 LOCKER AND TOILET FACILITIES (1988)
Suitable locker, lunch, toilet and washing facilities should be provided and be so located as to be as accessible as
possible. Individual state and local codes covering sanitary facilities should govern. Drinking fountains, wash
basins, water closets, and urinals should be installed at convenient locations in the shop and repair areas. When
designing these facilities, provisions should be made to accommodate the handicapped and both male/female
facilities in office and repair shop layout. Tool and tool box storage areas may also be required.
SECTION 4.5 SERVICE FACILITIES
4.5.1 LUBRICATING OIL SUPPLY (1988)
a. Proper lubricating oil facilities are important at a diesel shop, as they make possible rapid oil changing and
normal servicing with minimum of expense in the handling of oil. Modern oil handling equipment
contributes to keeping the premises clean and minimizes fire hazards.
b. Separate storage and dispensing facilities are required for as many different kinds of oil as are to be used.
Storage tanks of such capacity as to permit purchases in tank-car or tank-truck lots are recommended
where consumption dictates. Pumps should be of suitable capacity and should be valved and piped to permit
their use for unloading tank cars and for distribution from the storage tank to the dispensing stations. Spill
containment of at least 125% of stored volume should be provided.
c. Oil dispensing stations located on the elevated platforms consist of separate hose reels for each kind of
lubricating oil with 50 feet of hose. Dispensing stations should be located on approximately 60 feet centers
and hoses provided with spring-loaded nozzles for quick action control of oil flow. Meters may be provided to
measure the quantity of oil used in servicing locomotives. Such a dispensing system is of value in adding
small quantities of oil or in making complete oil changes. In some instances lubricating lines require
heating, and pumps should be controlled from pressure tanks in lieu of dispensing stations to eliminate
short cycling of the supply pump. Heating of lines and tanks should be provided for highly viscous oils.
4.5.2 LUBRICATING OIL DRAINAGE (1988)
a. Oil drainage systems usually consist of a tank placed at a level lower than the inspection pits, with connecting
piping from the pits for gravity flow into the tank. On a gravity system minimum pipe size for good flow is 4
inches with 6 inches preferred. When possible, buried underground tanks should be avoided because the spill
containment regulations for underground tanks are very stringent. Connection should be provided at
intervals throughout the length of the pit for making hose connections with the engine drains. The dirty oil is

pumped from the gravity storage tank into tank cars and returned to the reclamation plant, or removed
directly by a scavenger. In some locales, used oil is a regulated waste requiring special handling procedures.
b. Forced oil drainage systems are preferable and are installed with pumps of suitable capacity, with storage
tanks kept above floor level.
c. Portable tanks must be provided for servicing locomotives in the repair areas not provided with the drain oil
systems.
4.5.3 USED OIL FILTERS (1988)
Provide a means of draining and disposing of used oil filters with a minimum of handling. Such filters may be a
regulated waste in some states requiring special procedures. The area where filters are handled should have means
to collect spillage.
4.5.4 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS (RAW AND TREATED) (1988)
a. Treated radiator water and raw water outlets should be provided at convenient intervals along the
maintenance tracks. These outlets are placed on the underside and above the elevated platform, as required.
b. Treated water which may be toxic in nature or detrimental to streams or municipal sewage plants may
require a separate drainage system or a means for retrieval and recycling.
4.5.5 RADIATOR WATER RECLAIM SYSTEM (1988) 1

The system for reclaiming the used radiator water may be either gravity or pressure. The flow path through the
system is the same with either method. The used radiator water is collected in a receiving tank and then pumped to
a surge or holding tank. The water then goes to a skimming basin. After skimming, the water either goes directly
to a mixing tank for the addition of chemicals or is pumped through pressure filters and then to the mix tank. After
mixing to bring the reclaimed water back to strength, the radiator water goes to a storage tank ready for use in the
locomotives. Depending upon the quality of local water, makeup water may be added raw or treated by softening or 3
additional treatment by deionizing. A careful water analysis should be made at each site.
4.5.6 COMPRESSED AIR (1988)
Compressed air outlets should be provided at convenient intervals above and below platforms for the operation of
tools, equipment and testing. Air supply should have dryers installed to remove moisture in air lines. 4
4.5.7 LOCOMOTIVE WASHING (1988)
a. Locomotive washing (exterior car body and trucks) is usually carried out in a separate automated facility
where the locomotive is sprayed with acid, alkaline and rinsed with water. Part 12, Design Criteria for a
Locomotive Washing Facility describes in detail that operation. However in areas where temperatures
require the washer to be shut down on a seasonal basis, it is necessary to provide facilities inside the Diesel
Shop building to wash locomotives manually.
b. The system should provide for the cleaning of the engine room and the engine, wheel trucks, pilots and step
wells, car body, front and rear hood ends, and cab interior.
c. The system should include the pumping, storage, and supply of water, acid solution, light and heavy alkali
solutions, including brushing action for scrubbing all unobstructed available exterior surfaces, including
walkways.

d. Drainage system should be provided with adequate treatment facilities to allow for discharge to nearby
streams or municipal sewer.
4.5.8 GENERAL WASHING SYSTEM (1988)
Approved cleaners for floor washing and small parts cleaning should include the pumping, storage and supply of
detergents, as required through hose reels or valved outlets at strategic locations throughout the shop.
4.5.9 ELECTRICAL CLEANING SOLVENT (1988)
If a combustible product is used, insure that it is stored in an enclosed and well ventilated room with explosion-proof
dispensing pump motor and electrical equipment and controls. If a vapor degreasing system is used, provide adequate
ventilation in accordance with equipment manufacturer’s recommendations. Disposal of solvent may be regulated.
4.5.10 OXYGEN/NATURAL GAS/PROPANE SYSTEMS (1988)
The oxygen/natural gas/propane system can be a central system or consist of portable units depending upon the
size of the shop.
4.5.11 LOCOMOTIVE TOILET SERVICING (1988)
Provision should be made within the shop at a designated area for servicing of locomotive toilet facilities. This can be
accomplished by flushing toilet directly to a sanitary sewer line or by means of a portable scavenging unit where sanitary
connection is not readily available. Approval of health department is usually required for sanitary sewer dump facilities.
4.5.12 LOCOMOTIVE DEICING (1988)
In extremely cold environments where icing is encountered on the units, provision should be made for thawing out
the equipment by use of steam hose or by use of fixed or portable infrared units, or industrial hot water. Provisions
for ventilation of water vapor generated by thawing operations should be considered.
SECTION 4.6 BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURE DETAILS
4.6.1 FLOORS (1988)
Concrete floors throughout the shop with anti-slip treatment and hardeners resistant to chemical floor cleaners,
acids, etc., are a very important criteria. Review repair functions in each work area to determine application to be
made.
4.6.2 WALLS AND ROOF (1988)
a. It is recommended to construct a wainscot 8 feet – 10 feet high at the perimeter walls of a material such as
concrete to reduce maintenance from abuse in work areas (i.e. hanging tools, fork lifts, material stored
against the wall, etc.). Wall construction above the wainscot should be of noncombustible classification.
b. The roof deck and framing should also be of noncombustible material due to possible fire hazard caused by
oil residue if a locomotive is run inside the building. Skylights to reduce power consumption for lighting may
be included in areas not subject to diesel engine exhaust accumulations.

4.6.3 TRACK DOORS (1988)

Diesel locomotive entrance doors recommended size is 14  18 minimum. Local clearance regulations should be
reviewed. An operating system to open and close doors should provide a means to preclude partially open doors
that can be damaged by equipment.
SECTION 4.7 HEATING AND VENTILATING
4.7.1 GENERAL (1988)
Heating and ventilating diesel locomotive shops pose conflicting demands upon the design engineer. Operation of
engines in buildings is not recommended. A locomotive shop is a large consumer of energy in cold climates because
of its large door area and high ceilings. If diesel engines are operated in the shop building, then a large outside air
heating load will also be imposed on the HVAC system to provide for ventilation. In warm climates, the heat from
the operating engines create localized discomfort to the work force as well as air quality problems. Before
specifying a solution to ventilation, the operating practices of the shop should be established with the shop
management to determine where, how many, for how long, and the type of locomotives that will be operated in the
building. It is recommended that engines in locomotives not be operated in buildings doing medium and heavy
repairs and minimized during light running repairs. Many railroads have adopted practices that drastically reduce
the total area of shops where locomotives will be operated. This is done by segregating maintenance functions with
internal partitions to reduce the impacted volume of air that must be kept environmentally acceptable. Generally 1
air contaminated with diesel exhaust will become irritating to eyes or throat long before occupational safety air
standards for nitrous oxides are reached, providing adequate warning to personnel to mitigate their exposure
without incurring personal risk.
4.7.2 VENTILATING (1988)

Two accepted methods for handling diesel emissions in a shop are dilution and local capture by hoods.
3
a. Dilution ventilation is usually employed when high ceilings and overhead cranes preclude the use of hoods.
With dilution ventilating, the total volume of space to be exchanged should be kept as small as possible.
Normally 6 air changes per hour will provide adequate dilution for locomotives that are idled in the shop at
less than 350 rpm. This ventilation rate will permit recovery if a short run at higher speed is done on
individual or multiple-unit rakes of equipment. Temperature stratification is a very important consideration
because most diesel emissions are denser than air and drop toward the floor once they lose a 40 degrees
differential with ambient. In the introduction of dilution air, this air must be either tempered or introduced
4
at a low elevation in the shop to insure the emissions are not cooled before they can be removed by roof or
sidewall ventilation equipment. In cold climates, this poses a comfort problem for work force that must
work around and underneath locomotives. In warm climates, the differential in temperature is quickly lost,
hence dilution ventilation is not a desirable solution unless prevailing winds are reasonably strong and
frequent. When the exhaust emissions cool, they tend to curl over and around the top of the locomotive and
be ingested through the radiator cooling inlets, further compounding the problem of removal.
b. In the designing of hoods to capture diesel emissions at the point of generation, care must be taken to
ascertain the physical location of stacks of different types of locomotives, and their relationship on the shop
floor to mate with other service equipment such as utility connections, jacking pads, and hoisting equipment.
The exit velocity from a locomotive stack in throttle position above Run 6 will be too high to be effectively
captured in a hood. Hood entrance velocity should normally be at least twice the locomotive discharge
velocity, which becomes impractical at the higher throttle settings. If the hood is removed further from the
top of the locomotive, the system quickly becomes a classic dilution ventilation system. Locomotive radiator
fans also cause turbulence and disrupt the capture of emissions in certain conditions. Locomotives cannot be
subjected to any significant increase in backpressure imposed by hoods or duct collection systems, hence any

hood configuration should allow large, unrestricted cross-section that duplicates a free air discharge. In the
design of collection hoods, occupational safety and railway clearance regulations should be reviewed.
c. In designed mechanical ventilation systems, long duct runs should be avoided as they serve as collection
surfaces for oily carbonous residues in the diesel emissions that eventually increase the risk of fire. In the
design of duct work adequate provisions should be made for access panels and doors at the vanes, and other
similar control devices often become coated with carbon residue which alters their aerodynamic and control
properties. In specifying fan drives, every effort should be made to keep the fan motor out of the
contaminated air stream by using belt drives. Fan bearings should be carefully checked for suitability in the
higher temperature air streams that will be experienced.
4.7.3 HEATING (1988)
a. In addition to the fresh air introduced into the building to replace that consumed by engine combustion and
exhaust units, make-up air may also be used for space heating when large volumes of make-up air are
continually required. Where the make-up air units need not be operated, it is economically justified to
provide supplemental space heating units to offset natural building heat losses. This may be a composite
system which might include under-floor warm air ducts, fin tube coil along exterior walls, unit heaters,
warm air furnaces. Air to air heat exchangers to recover heat from exhaust air may be a feasible solution to
provide some make-up air heat requirement.
b. Where codes allow, the use of direct-fired gas heaters where gas is available at a reasonable cost does not
preclude the use of other types of heating, via: steam, hot water, or even electric.
SECTION 4.8 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER SUPPLY
4.8.1 GENERAL (1988)
a. This report will not go into detail as to specific requirements since most are code requirements dictated by locale.
b. Specific requirements for outlet locations, lighting type location are user related and vary from one facility
to another.
c. For lighting in inspection pits, various types of lighting patterns and types have been used.
d. Generally pit lights should be provided only for safety purposes and not for work light, and outlets (water
proof) provided to allow use of trouble lights. The selection and placement will be dictated by applicable code
interpretations.
SECTION 4.9 POLLUTION (AIR-NOISE-WATER)
4.9.1 NOISE (1988)
In relating noise to hearing loss, six factors must be considered:
a. Frequency of the noise.

b. Overall level of noise.
c. Exposure time during a working day.
d. Duration of noise exposure during a day.
e. Total exposure time during an estimated work life.
f. Individual’s age and susceptibility.
4.9.2 AIR (1988)
Diesel locomotive effluents are coming under increasingly stringent review by public authorities. Quantitative data
on emissions from high-horsepower engines must be collected and evaluated in order to eliminate this source of
pollutant. Emissions from use of chemical cleaners, welding etc., must also be evaluated.
4.9.3 WATER (1988)
Industrial wastes generated by locomotive shop operation, such as oils, corrosion inhibitors (i.e. chromates, borates,
nitrates), detergents, etc., must be considered for treatment in pollution abatement facility whether discharging to
stream, municipal sewer, landfill, or incinerator. Consult federal, state and local regulations prior to disposal.
1
SECTION 4.10 COMMUNICATIONS
4.10.1 GENERAL (1988)
An adequate communications system between supervisor and maintenance personnel should be provided.
3
4.10.2 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM (1988)
a. Communications system can consist of loudspeaker paging system, wireless paging system, public telephone
system, short line telephone system and radio control system.
b. It is essential that the communication equipment be located in an office that has adequate personnel 4
coverage for the receiving and sending of information.
4.10.2.1 Loudspeaker Paging System
Loudspeaker paging system can be strategically located so that in essence you have a number of small speakers vs.
one large speaker so that the disturbance level is kept to a minimum. Speakers should be located within the four
corners of the shop and on the outside of the shop in areas directly involved in the shop operation. Part of the
loudspeaker system should incorporate a short line (not part of public system) to office (communication center) in
proximity of speakers.
4.10.2.2 Wireless Paging System
Wireless paging system requires use of individual personnel receivers. Here a beep is used on the individual
receiver for paging. It has the advantage of paging an individual not located within the area of a loudspeaker. The
disadvantage is that only the individuals carrying receivers can be alerted.

4.10.2.3 Public Telephone System
Public telephones should be made available for office areas.
4.10.2.4 Radio Control System
Radio control system for communication with road engines should be considered; one located in office area
(communication center) and one located at fueling and sanding facility. This system can also be used to check radio
operation in engines.
SECTION 4.11 FIRE PROTECTION (1988)
The basic fire protection should consist of fire hydrants strategically located on the outside of the building.
Dependent on local codes or insurance requirements, the use of interior standpipes, dry chemical and carbon
dioxide hand extinguishers and use of fire wall all should be evaluated. Wet pipe fire protection systems should be
freeze-proofed in the vicinity of large overhead track doors in cold climates. If the railway company has an
insurance or risk management program, the appropriate rating organization may be consulted during the design
phase. In developing a site plan, locating yard hydrants to be accessible from multiple directions in case grade
crossings are temporarily obstructed by locomotives or other equipment, is desirable.

6
Part 5
Energy Conservation and Audits1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
This part was prepared to present a comprehensive approach towards energy conservation in railway buildings
and shop facilities, not only from a technical point of view but from a railroad management perspective as well.
This report, being somewhat technical in nature, relates useful information for division operating and
corporate management personnel and local shop superintendents. Principles outlined in this report can be
applied equally by those who formulate shop policies as well as those who are responsible for maintaining
offices and shop operations.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2
5.1.1 Scope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2
5.2 Elements of Energy Conservation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3

5.2.1 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3
5.3 Strategies and Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4

5.3.1 Strategy (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.3.2 Economics (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.4 Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings and Shop Facilities . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.1 Utility Monitoring and Reporting Operations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.2 Optimizing Electrical Demand (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.3 Small Scale Cogenerational Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.4 Boiler Optimization (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.5 Microcomputer Applications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.5 Types of Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6

5.5.1 Definition (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.5.2 Cost/Opportunities (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.5.3 Categories (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
1
References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 58.

5.6 Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7

5.6.1 Auditor Qualifications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.6.2 Record Collection (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.7 Audit Survey Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8

5.7.1 Scope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.2 Measuring Railway Building and Facility Shop Losses (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.3 Measuring Electrical Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.4 Temperature Measuring Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.5 Surface Pyrometer (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.6 Psychrometer (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.7 Portable Electronic Thermometer (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.8 Boiler Test Kit (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-10
5.7.9 Measuring Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-10
5.8 Justification of Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11

5.8.1 Life-cycle Costing (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11
5.9 Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13
5.10 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-14
LIST OF TABLES
6-5-1 Example Walkthrough Audit of a Railroad Office Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13

6-5-2 Energy Savings Checklist (Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) . . . . 6-5-14
5.1.1 SCOPE (1991)
a. Railway buildings and shop facilities of the past were designed and constructed, primarily, on the basis
on initial costs and not operating costs. This has resulted in a large inventory of railroad buildings
which, by today’s standards will utilize many of the new techniques and systems which lead to
maximized energy efficiency. Conservation or saving of energy in railroad shops, offices and ancillary
buildings has become a very real concern for railroad management.
b. It has now become more practical than ever to reach beyond the obvious energy saving strategies. New
energy cost reduction technologies, in their infancy over the last decade, have now become commonplace,
cost effective and readily applicable to most railway buildings and shop facilities.

Energy Conservation and Audits
c. Energy conservation involves all employees. Principles contained in this Part can be applied equally by
those who are charged with the responsibility to formulate energy reports, building audits, and by those
who are responsible for maintaining and operating railway buildings and shop facilities.
d. Energy auditing of railway buildings and shop facilities makes good business sense in today’s energy
conscious environment. A systematic auditing program to reduce energy costs requires knowledge of
how to do an effective energy audit. Since the energy conservation field has expanded, it has brought
with it new products and helpful testing instrumentation for performing successful energy audits.
SECTION 5.2 ELEMENTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM
5.2.1 GENERAL (1991)
a. No railroad company is stronger than the commitment of senior management or the resources allocated
to it. Implementation of this type of audit program is usually carried out either by an energy manager
(coordinator) or by an energy committee.
b. The initial survey for energy losses at a railroad facility can be performed quite adequately by a walk-
through visual inspection. This kind of audit will uncover numerous opportunities for energy
conservation. Some savings can be achieved through routine maintenance and operational adjustments;
others require capital expenditures. 1
(1) Major examples of typical energy saving opportunities in and around railroad facilities are leaking
steam and compressed-air lines, shop personnel taping or wedging air valves open, uninsulated
steam lines, open doors and windows, overheated storehouses, and improper operation of ventilation
systems.
(2) Energy savings cannot be achieved until the source is identified where it is being used and when and 3
where it is being wasted.
c. In an energy saving program, we must review the energy saving opportunities and establish an order of
priority in handling opportunities based on cost, savings, and ease of implementation. Corrective
implementation can then be considered. Ask the following questions:
(1) What savings can be anticipated? 4
(2) What goals would be realistic?
d. Most railroads report reduction in energy use due to energy conservation efforts in the 10-30% range.
These savings are usually the result, not of specialized technical changes, but of ordinary modifications
in routine maintenance and operational adjustments directed at “plugging the facility leaks.”
e. The final stage of an energy saving program consists of educating railroad employees. Educating can
take many forms: literature to inform employees on energy saving practices in the office, shop, and other
yard facilities. Some railroads may use stickers, posters, signs, etc. Consequently, they should be used
randomly. Motivation at this stage is to demonstrate company support for a solid energy savings program
and to initiate it as a vital part of the railroad’s daily business.

SECTION 5.3 STRATEGIES AND ECONOMICS
5.3.1 STRATEGY (1991)
a. Conservation or saving of energy does not automatically take place. Senior management must be
strongly committed and genuinely interested. Management must be persistent in their commitment to
conserve and must communicate this commitment. Finally, energy monitoring must be built into the
checks and balances at each facility. It must be constantly monitored and the managers held accountable
for its use.
b. A program should be devised to meet all energy conserving needs whether it be routine or on an
emergency basis. This program should contain, as a minimum, the following points:
(1) Develop and implement strategies.
(2) Assure continuity of office or shop facility operations.
(3) Develop and maintain an energy profile for each office or shop facility.
(4) Monitor energy supply and costs.
(5) Manage conservation programs.
(6) Measure energy usage.
(7) Stay abreast of changing technologies.
(8) Implement financial payback analysis program.
c. Further savings will have to come through strategies in areas such as building operations, better
insulating materials and prudent use of utilities. Such savings are produced through better building
design and maximum control of utility and HVAC systems.
5.3.2 ECONOMICS (1991)
a. The primary function of building insulation is to reduce the loss of energy from a surface operating at a
temperature other than ambient. The economic use of building insulation is to reduce overall operating
cost. In determining the most economic design for an insulating system, two or more insulating
materials may be evaluated for least cost for a given thermal performance.
b. In any railroad building or shop facility being investigated for retrofit and for any energy saving
opportunities, it is desirable to analyze the past utility bills as a basis against which projected savings in
energy usage can be evaluated. Utility data is also helpful in validating the method of calculating energy
usage. If the calculations match closely the actual energy usage, then projections of energy savings
resulting from any proposed modifications can have a high degree of reliability.
c. The growing complexity of mechanical and electrical building systems has made computer,
microprocessor and automated energy management systems (EMS) essential in more and more railway
buildings and shop facilities. With larger and more complex buildings today, the need for automatic
centralized building control and optimized energy management has increased.
d. As we enter the 1990’s and beyond, more elaborate building EMS systems approach one central control
serving fire suppression systems; fire alarms; supervising and controlling security systems; operating
computer, data monitoring and audio communications equipment; HVAC operation and control; and
closed-circuit television and center command systems.

SECTION 5.4 ADVANCES IN ENERGY COST SAVINGS FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS

AND SHOP FACILITIES
5.4.1 UTILITY MONITORING AND REPORTING OPERATIONS (1991)
A well organized facility monitoring and reporting system allows the engineer to determine where energy is
going, identifies the larger users and decides which areas are likely to obtain the greater benefits from energy
saving efforts.
5.4.2 OPTIMIZING ELECTRICAL DEMAND (1991)
Some railroad facilities use on-site power to reduce operating costs. This is accomplished through peak-shaving
which calls for the application of generator power to selected loads that are shed from the normal utility supply.
This results in lower demand for power from the utility by cutting power peaks during selected 15 minute or 30
minute intervals.
5.4.3 SMALL SCALE COGENERATIONAL SYSTEMS (1991)
a. “Small Scale” cogeneration units are defined as 15-500 KW’s. The key to this size system is to utilize
both heat and power. Power can be in the form of mechanical shaft power or, with the aid of a generator,
electricity. Packaged cogeneration systems may become a major energy industry, according to studies
prepared for the Department of Energy. These systems are most attractive in areas where high
electricity rates exist, or have relatively low natural gas prices. 1
b. Types of cogeneration systems available:
(1) Internal Combustion Engines.
(2) Organic Ranking Cycle.

3
(3) Stream Ranking Cycle.
5.4.4 BOILER OPTIMIZATION (1991)
a. There are a number of energy saving applications that can be implemented to improve most small boiler
installations.
4
b. Improvements can be the installation of heat recovery equipment, turbulators, condensate recovery
equipment, high energy burners and furnace pressure controls.
5.4.5 MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS (1991)
The microcomputer can help to manage energy costs in various ways:
a. Verification and analysis of utility billing.
b. Calculations of Btu’s from kwh, therms, pounds of steam, gallons of oil, etc.
c. Calculation of Energy utilization Index in Btu’s/Square Foot/Year.
d. Graphic analysis of utility billing.

e. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) of energy saving opportunities.
f. Building energy analyses.
g. Simulation studies.
SECTION 5.5 TYPES OF AUDITS
The simplest definition for an energy audit is as follows: An energy audit serves the purpose of identifying
where railway buildings or shop facilities use energy and identifies energy saving opportunities.
5.5.2 COST/OPPORTUNITIES (1991)
There is a direct relationship to the cost of the audit (amount of data collected and analyzed) and the number of
energy saving opportunities to be found.
a. A first differentiation is made between cost of the audit which determines the type of audit to be used.
b. The second differentiation is made between the type of facility. For example, a building audit may
emphasize the railway office building envelope, lighting, HVAC requirements. On the other hand, an
audit of a mechanical shop facility may emphasize the process requirements (i.e. welding, grinding,
sanding, steam cleaning, wheel dismounting, etc.).
5.5.3 CATEGORIES (1991)
Generally, energy audits fall into three categories or types, namely, Walk-Through, Mini-Audit and Maxi-Audit.
5.5.3.1 Walk Through
This type of audit is the least costly, can be performed on the Division level and identifies preliminary energy
savings (Section 5.9, Appendix A). A visual inspection of railway buildings or shop facilities is made to
determine maintenance and operational energy saving opportunities plus collection of information to
determine the need for a more detailed energy audit.
5.5.3.2 Mini-Audit
This type of audit requires various tests and measurements to quantify energy usage and coinciding losses to
determine the economics for improvements.
5.5.3.3 Maxi-Audit
This type of audit goes one step beyond that of the mini-audit. It contains an evaluation of how much energy is
used for each function such as shop lighting, processes, etc. It also requires a model analysis, such as computer
simulations, to determine the energy use patterns and predictions on a year-round basis. This approach takes
into account such variables as local weather data.

SECTION 5.6 ORGANIZATION OF RAILROAD ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
5.6.1 AUDITOR QUALIFICATIONS (1991)
a. The auditor should have an engineering degree and be trained in the following areas:
(1) Heating, ventilating and air conditioning installation and design work;
(2) Building operations, including operation of the environmental systems;
(3) Design of the building systems which are to be modified;
(4) Be familiar with HVAC System balancing, testing and adjusting procedures.
b. The auditor should possess a working knowledge of the National Energy Conservation Act of 1978 and
subsequent amendments as it relates to energy auditing. He should be familiar with other provisions of
the Act to include grants, standards, loans, and energy efficiency labeling of industrial equipment.
5.6.2 RECORD COLLECTION (1991)
a. The first step in progressing through an audit program and applying energy conservation principles is to
establish a direction and decide where in your buildings or shop facilities to look for potential energy
saving opportunities (ESOs). This requires accurate records. The purpose of this reference is to
introduce some record keeping techniques that will apply to railway buildings and shop facilities. 1
b. Maintaining records of energy is essential to energy conservation. As an energy saving program evolves,
the kinds of records kept and the information they impart will become increasingly refined and specific.
Information indicating building or shopwide energy consumption is needed. The Accounting Department
on most railroads will probably have these figures or be able to collect them. If practicable, arrange for
compilation of data from the past three years. This will provide a useful basis on which to show building
and shop facility trends in energy consumption.
3
c. Suggested forms for compiling initial records of energy use can be found in most energy reference books.
From bills paid for utilities, such as electricity, gas, and oil, one can find the quantities of each fuel or
form of energy used. Ultimately, what is needed is a summary of total building or shop energy use. To
construct such a summary, one must first convert all the energy quantities to a common unit. The Btu is
the preferred choice. 4
d. Basically the primary assignment with this unit (Btu) is to find three to five major energy saving
opportunities in the railway offices or shops that demonstrate the need for, and the benefits of, an energy
saving program. It is important to understand that the objective in this survey is to identify the ESOs
that offer the greatest potential for saving energy. At this point, the auditor is not expected to be able to
positively identify all energy saving opportunities. We are, however, concerned instead with identifying
those ESOs that we believe have the greatest potential and warrant further study.
e. Assisting in the search of ESOs, refer to the checklist in Section 5.10, Appendix B, categorized on the
basis of end use (i.e. boilers, compressed air systems) rather than energy source (oil, gas, electricity).
This will enable us to focus on one process or operation during the survey before moving to the next.
This list of possible ESOs is not intended to be complete but to serve as an incentive in searching for
major Btu losses. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 115 (EPIC) also has a comparable checklist
that may serve a similar purpose during an audit.

SECTION 5.7 AUDIT SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION
5.7.1 SCOPE (1991)
To complete an energy audit survey it is necessary to clarify energy usage and coinciding losses. To illustrate,
various types of instruments can aid in the energy audit survey.
5.7.2 MEASURING RAILWAY BUILDING AND FACILITY SHOP LOSSES (1991)
a. Infrared (IR) energy exists naturally and can be measured by remote heat-sensing equipment.
Lightweight portable infrared systems are available to help determine energy losses. In essence, the
infrared scanning device is a diagnostic tool which can be used to determine building or shop facility heat
losses.
b. An energy scan of the building or shop facility can be made through an aerial survey using infrared
equipment. Several companies offer aerial scan services. Aerial scans can determine underground pipe
leaks, hot gas discharges, pipeline leaks, etc.
5.7.3 MEASURING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (1991)
The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, power factor meter and footcandle meter are usually required to do an
electrical survey.
5.7.3.1 Ammeters
a. To measure electrical currents, ammeters are used. Generally, for most audits, alternating currents are
measured. Ammeters used in audits are portable and are easily attached and removed.
b. Ammeters supply direct measurements of electrical current which are one of the parameters needed to
calculate electrical energy. The second parameter required to calculate energy is voltage, and this unit is
measured by a voltmeter.
5.7.3.2 Voltmeter
There are several types of electrical meters which read voltage or current. A voltmeter measures the difference
in electrical potential between two points in an electrical circuit.
5.7.3.3 Wattmeter
The portable wattmeter can be used to indicate by direct reading electrical energy in watts. It can also be
calculated by measuring voltage, current and the angle between them (power factor angle).
5.7.3.4 Footcandle Meters
Footcandle meters measure illumination in units of footcandles through a light-sensitive barrier layer of cells
contained within them. They are usually pocket size and portable and are meant to be used as field instruments
to survey levels of illumination. Footcandle meters differ from conventional photographic lightmeters in that
they are color and cosine corrected.

5.7.4 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS (1991)
a. Maximizing system performance, knowledge of the temperature of a fluid, surface, etc., is essential.
b. Temperature measuring instruments such as thermometers can be used in an energy audit. The type of
thermometer to be used is usually dictated by cost, durability, and application.
c. Air-conditioning, ventilation and hot-water service applications (temperature ranges 50°F to 250°F)
require a multipurpose portable battery-operated thermometer. Three separate probe devices are usually
provided to measure liquid, air or surface temperatures.
d. In the case of boiler and oven stacks (1000°F), a dial thermometer is required. Thermocouples are used
for measurements above 1000°F.
5.7.5 SURFACE PYROMETER (1991)
a. Surface pyrometers are instruments which measure the temperature of surfaces. They are somewhat
more complex than other temperature instruments because their probe must make intimate contact
with the surface being measured.
b. Surface pyrometers help in assessing heat losses through walls and also for testing steam traps.
c. They are divided into two classes: low-temperature (up to 250°F) and high-temperature (up to 600-
700°F). Low-temperature units are usually part of multipurpose thermometer kits. High-temperature 1
units are more specialized.
d. There are also noncontact pyrometers which measure infrared radiation from surfaces in terms of
temperature. These are suitable for general work and also for measuring surfaces which are visually but
not physically accessible.
e. A more specialized instrument is the optical pyrometer. This is for high-temperature work (above 3
1500°F) because it measures the temperature of bodies which are incandescent because of their
temperature.
5.7.6 PSYCHROMETER (1991)
a. Psychrometers are instruments which measure relative humidity based on the relation of the dry-bulb 4
temperature and the wet-bulb temperature.
b. Relative humidity is of prime importance in HVAC and drying operations. Recording psychrometer
instruments are also available.
5.7.7 PORTABLE ELECTRONIC THERMOMETER (1991)
a. Portable electronic thermometers are adaptable temperature measurement tools. The battery-powered
basic thermometers, when housed in a carrying case, are suitable for industrial uses.
b. Pocket-size digital, battery-operated thermometers are convenient for spot checks or where a number of
rapid temperature readings are taken.

5.7.8 BOILER TEST KIT (1991)
a. Boiler test kits contain the following:
• CO2 Gas Analyzer.
• O2 Gas Analyzer.
• Inclined Monometer.
• CO Gas Analyzer.
b. The purpose of the components of the kit is to help evaluate fireside boiler operation. Good combustion
usually means high carbon dioxide (CO2), low oxygen (O2), and little or no track of carbon monoxide
(CO).
(1) The Fyrite type gas analyzer differs from the Orsat apparatus in that it is more limited in application
and less accurate. The chief advantages of the Fyrite are that it is simple and easy to use and is
inexpensive. This device is used many times in an energy audit. Three readings using the Fyrite
analyzer should be made and the results averaged.
(2) The draft gage is used to measure pressure. It can be a pocket type, or the inclined monometer type
with test kit.
(3) To measure combustion completeness the smoke detector is used. Smoke is unburned carbon which
wastes fuel, causes air pollution and fouls heat-exchanger surfaces. To use the instrument, a
measured volume of flue gas is drawn through filter paper with the probe. The smoke spot is
compared visually with a standard scale and a measure of smoke density is determined.
(4) The combustion electronic analyzer permits fast, close adjustments. The unit contains digital
displays. A standard sample assembly with probe allows for stack measurements through a single
stack or breaching hole.
5.7.9 MEASURING HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) (1991)
5.7.9.1 Air Velocity Measurement
a. Smoke pellets – Limited use and low cost.
b. Aneometer (deflecting vane) – good indication of air movement with acceptable order of accuracy.
c. Aneometer (revolving vane) – good indicator of air movement with acceptable accuracy.
d. Pitot tube – A standard air measurement device with good levels of accuracy.
e. Impact tube – usually packaged air flow meter kits, complete with various jets for testing ducts, grills,
open areas, etc.
f. Heated thermocouple – these units are sensitive, accurate and expensive.

5.7.9.2 Temperature Measurement
The temperature devices most commonly used are as follows:
a. Glass thermometers – considered to be the most useful of temperature measuring instruments –

accurate, convenient, but fragile.
b. Resistance thermometers – considered to be very useful for A/C testing. Accuracy is good, reliable and
convenient to use.
c. Thermocouples – similar to resistance thermometers, but do not require battery power source.
d. Pressure bulb thermometers – more suitable for permanent installation. An accurate instrument.
e. Thermographs – used for recording room or space temperature and gives a chart indicating variances
over a week’s time. Considered reasonably accurate with low cost.
5.7.9.3 Pressure Measurement (Absolute and Differential)
Common devices used for measuring pressure in HVAC applications are as follows:
a. Draft gages – can be portable and used for either direct pressure or pressure differential.
b. Manometer – can be portable. Used for direct pressure reading and with pitot tubes for air flows.
1
c. Swing Vane gages – can be portable. Usually used for air flow.
d. Bourdon tube gages – very useful for measuring all forms of system fluid pressures from 5 psi up.
5.7.9.4 Humidity Measurement

3
Common devices used for humidity measurement are psychrometers. Basically these are wet and dry bulb
thermometers. They can be fixed on a portable stand or mounted in a frame with a handle for revolving in air.
Costs are low and they are convenient to use.
4
SECTION 5.8 JUSTIFICATION OF PROGRAM
5.8.1 LIFE-CYCLE COSTING (1991)
a. An important aspect of the audit program is to quantify the cost savings that are most likely to be
realized through the investment in an energy savings opportunity. To justify the energy investment cost,
a knowledge of life-cycle costing is required.
b. The life-cycle cost analysis evaluates the total owning and operating cost. It takes into account the “time
value” of money and can incorporate fuel cost escalation into economic modeling. This approach is used
to evaluate competitive systems. In other words, the life-cycle cost analysis considers the cost over the
life of the system rather than just the first or initial costs.
c. To compare energy savings, it is necessary to convert all cash flow for each measure to an equivalent
base. The life-cycle cost analysis takes into account the “time value” of money, thus a dollar in hand

today is more valuable than one received at some time in the future. This is why time value must be
placed on all incoming and outgoing cash flows. To convert cash from one time to another, any of the six
commonly accepted standard interest factors can be used.
d. Interest factors can be determined from computer programs and interest tables.
e. Three most commonly used methods in life-cycle costing are the annual cost, present worth and rate-of-
return analysis.
(1) In the present worth method a minimum rate of return (i) is stipulated. All future expenditures are
converted to present values using the interest factors. The alternative with lowest effective first cost
will be most desirable.
(2) A similar procedure will be implemented in the annual cost method. The difference is that the first
cost is converted to an annual expenditure. The alternative with lowest effective annual cost is the
most desirable.
(3) In the rate-of-return method, generally, a trial-and-error procedure is required. Interpolation from
the interest tables can determine what rate of return (i) will give an interest factor which will make
the overall cash flow balance. The rate-of-return analysis gives a good indication of the overall
ranking of separate alternates.
(4) The effect of escalation in fuel costs can greatly impact the final decisions. When an annual cost
grows at a steady rate, it may be treated as a gradient and the Gradient Present Worth Factor can be
used.
(5) When life-cycle costing is used to compare several alternatives the differences between costs are
important. For example, if one alternate forces additional preventative or recurring maintenance or
an operating expense to occur, then these factors as well as energy costs need to be considered.
Remember, what was previously expended for the item to be replaced is irrelevant. The only factor to
be considered is whether the new cost can be justified based on the projected savings over its useful
life.
f. Simple payback analysis is sometimes used instead of the methods previously identified. The simple
payback is defined as initial investment divided by annualized savings after taxes. The simple payback
method does not take into account the effect of interest or escalation rate.
(1) Since the payback period is relatively simple to calculate and due to the fact railroads wish to recover
their investment as rapidly as possible the payback method is more commonly accepted.
(2) Simple payback should be used in conjunction with other decision making tools. When used by itself
it may result in choosing less profitable investments which yield high initial returns over shorter
periods as compared with more profitable investments which provide profits over longer periods of
time.

SECTION 5.9 APPENDIX A
Table 6-5-1. Example Walkthrough Audit of a Railroad Office Building
Conducting an Effective Walk-Through Energy Audit

1. The Building Structure
2. The Electrical System
3. The Mechanical System
4. The Domestic Hot Water System
5. The Process Loads
Determining the Effect of Weather on your Building’s Energy Usage
1. Monthly Temperature
2. Heating Degree Hours
3. Cooling Degree Hours
4. Total Equivalent Temperature:
a. For Roofs
b. For Walls
c. Direct Solar and Diffused Sky Radiation for Single Common Glass
d. Monthly Extreme Temperature
1
e. Sky Cover
Collecting Data on your Building; its Construction, Occupancy Profile, Electrical,
Gas and Hot Water Usage
1. Building Description
2. Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer
3. Occupancy Load
3
4. Lighting Load
5. Electric Motor Load
6. Domestic Water Heating Load
7. Process Loads
8. Utility Usage 4
An Overview of Building Mechanical Systems
1. Energy Source
2. Energy Conversion Equipment
3. Mechanical Delivery System
Calculating Energy Usage
1. Climatological Data
2. Data Collection
3. Annual Energy Usage
Calculating Peak Energy Demand
Peak Demand
Identifying Retrofit and Energy–Saving Opportunities

SECTION 5.10 APPENDIX B
Table 6-5-2. Energy Savings Checklist

(Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning)
Temperature Level
1. Turn heat down to 65–85°F during the day, and 60°F at night and on weekends.
2. Use minimum heat in storehouses.
3. Turn heat down to 50°F in unused or uninhabitable areas.
4. Turn heat on later than usual each day.
5. Lower lunchroom temperature when not in use.
6. Use humidifiers to improve employee comfort at lower temperatures.
7. Use enthalpy controls or economizer cycle to recirculate inside air or use outside air, thus minimizing the
cooling load in air conditioned areas.
8. Shut down air conditioning at night and restart just before next startup.
9. Do not cool area lower than the maximum temperature required for its occupancy.
10. Install night setback controls on existing heating and cooling equipment.
Air Leakage
1. Reduce temperatures in highly ventilated areas.
2. Ensure that all outside doors are self-closing.
3. Keep doors to unheated or uncooled areas closed.
4. Close loading dock doors not in use.
5. Use dock curtains when unloading delivery trucks.
6. Use air curtains at doors that must remain open.
7. Eliminate unused roof openings or abandoned stacks.
8. Isolate areas requiring high ventilation rates.
9. Install revolving doors or vestibules at entrances.
10. Reduce ventilating air.
11. Repair loose, damaged, blocked, or collapsed ductwork.
HVAC Systems Considerations
1. Keep heaters and return-air grills clear of obstructions.
2. Redesign heating system for better control and more efficiency.
3. Pull drapes, blinds, or shades at sundown to cut heat loss.
4. Make maximum use of the sun for heating and lighting.
5. Rearrange office furniture so that desks and chairs are close to heating.
6. Consider infrared or other spot heaters in small areas where general heating can be reduced.
7. Partition or temporarily close off underutilized floor space.
8. Clean heating and cooling heat-exchange coils and fans regularly.
9. Reduce makeup air during the day.
10. Eliminate all makeup air at night.
11. Cycle ventilation equipment during the day.


(Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) (Continued)
HVAC Systems Considerations (Continued)

12. Rearrange office furniture in drafty areas or install baffles to eliminate drafts.
13. Clean or replace air filters regularly.
14. Zone cooling equipment so that greater flexibility may be realized by turning off unneeded equipment.
15. Minimize space-conditioned areas by consolidating manufacturing operations.
16. Spot-heat and spot-cool only where work stations in an area are the only locations that need heating or
cooling.
17. Reduce ceiling heights if possible.
18. Replace loose or worn belts.
Temperature Controls
1. Seal or install key-operated thermostats to prevent adjustment by unauthorized personnel.
2. Install clock thermostats or timers to control heating cycle.
3. Seal ventilation controls to prevent unauthorized adjustments.
4. Turn on ventilation later than usual each day.
5. Turn off cooling equipment before end of day’s operations.
6. Clean and maintain filters and controls to maintain peak efficiency of operation. 1
Heat Transfer – Excessive Gain or Loss
1. Inspect and repair insulation, weatherstripping, and caulking.
2. Install additional insulation, especially on ceilings and walls.
3. Investigate more or better pipe and duct insulation in unheated areas.
4. Cover windows with plastic sheet or film. 3
5. Install storm windows.
6. Cover all or a portion of windows with insulating materials and/or wall panels.
7. Install insulating glass in windows.
8. Cool buildings by the use of roof-mounted water spray systems.
9. Provide ventilation in built-up roof areas or flood flat roofs with water where practical. 4
10. Control solar gain and loss to reduce cooling and heating requirements.
11. Use heat-recovery methods on exhausts – waste heat, heat of light, heat-recovery wheels, heat pipes, and
so on.
12. Install sunscreens to reduce sun load on glass exposures.
Personnel Factors
1. Prohibit use of individual space heaters without specific authorization.
2. Instruct employees to dress warmly in winter.
3. Relax dress codes where appropriate.
4. Prohibit or curtail smoking in areas where ventilation has been reduced.
5. Provide new smoking areas where there is adequate ventilation.


Lighting – How To Improve Lighting Efficiency

1. Clean walls and ceilings to improve reflectivity.
2. Repaint dark surfaces with paints having higher reflectances.
3. Replace light-transmitting plastics that have yellowed with glass or acrylic plastic.
4. Clean light fixtures regularly.
5. Replace nonventilated fixtures with ventilated ones.
6. Use air-return fixtures, which result in cooler lamps and more efficient. (In summary, this practice reduces
air conditioning load.)
7. Deenergize some light fixtures.
8. Remove lamps and ballasts where appropriate.
9. Use lower wattage lamps where appropriate.
10. Replace incandescent lamps with more efficient fluorescent, mercury vapor, or sodium-vapor lamps.
11. Reduce indoor mounting heights where lighting levels can be maintained and number of fixtures reduced.
12. Maximize the efficient use of energy through group lamp replacement and proper maintenance of lighting fixtures.
When to Save Lighting Energy
1. Turn off lights not in use. Install reminder plates that are available for switch plates.
2. Mark panels and switches so that guards can monitor lights.
3. Turn off parking-area lights after last shift.
4. Provide separate and convenient switches for areas that have different use patterns.
5. Install photoelectric controls on lights (decorative, sign, safety) that must remain on all night.
6. Where to Save Lighting Energy
7. Restrict parking to specific lots so lights can be kept off in unused lots.
8. Put timed shut off switches on lights in closed-off areas.
9. Reduce lighting in material storage areas except where required for production, safety, and security.
10. Reduce lighting levels in corridor.
11. Improve local lighting so that overall lighting can be reduced accordingly.
12. Remove desk lamps where overhead lighting systems are sufficient.
13. Rearrange office furniture so that desks and chairs are close to sunlight.
14. Make maximum use of the sun for heating (in winter) and for lighting by opening blinds or drapes on
bright days.
15. Transfer lighting heat from the warm interior of a building to the cooler perimeter (in winter).
General Electrical – Equipment Suggestions
1. Deenergize excess transformer capacity whenever practical.
2. Clean transformer heat-exchanger surfaces.
3. Shift loads to maximize the use of transformer capacity.
4. Take unused transformers off line to reduce transformer losses.


General Electrical – Equipment Suggestions (Continued)
5. Investigate scheduling the use of power to reduce demand charge.

6. Reduce power demand by charging forklift batteries, heating water, making ice, etc., during the night (or
other off-peak hours).
7. Install demand-control devices where practical.
8. Use the most efficient equipment first; then use less efficient equipment, as needed, for peak
manufacturing periods.
9. Use automatic controls so that production equipment operates only when needed.
10. Turn off production equipment when not in use.
11. Replace grossly oversized motors, since motors operate more efficiently near rated capacity and with a
better power factor.
12. Use motors with a high power factor.
13. Check power factor of equipment and install capacitors as close to the equipment as practical.
14. Check for blown fuses on existing capacitor banks.
15. Use synchronous motors where practical to increase power factor.
16. Adjust drive belts.
1
17. Reduce driveshaft lengths.
18. Check for loose connections on fuse buses, bus ducts, motors, and other electricity- distribution
components to reduce system losses.
19. Provide adequate wiring to reduce losses in electricity-distribution systems.
20. Maintain switch gear and wiring to reduce losses.
21. Bundle or twist open conductors (where they have good insulation) to reduce reactive losses. 3
22. Practice good maintenance.
Process Equipment Combustion
1. Check windbox pressure.
2. Check fuel pressure (for oil- or gas-fired units).
3. Check excess air for operating conditions, such that air supplied is sufficient for complete combustion but 4
not in excessive amounts (which would waste energy).
4. Maintain, repair, or replace inefficient burners.
Heat Loss through Structure
1. Check closure of furnace doors and other openings. On balanced-draft boilers, check for a draft of 0.1 in
H2O in furnace, thus keeping air leakage into furnace at a minimum.
2. On pressurized boilers, check for leakage of hot gases from furnace.
3. Repair furnace lining.
4. Inspect insulation for periodic maintenance.
5. Schedule work to reduce heatup and cooldown periods.
6. Reduce holding temperature during idle time.


Heat Recovery from Combustion Gases

1. Check temperature of flue gases dumped into the atmosphere.
2. Investigate the feasibility of using the hot flue gases to preheat the combustion air through a heat
exchanger.
3. Investigate the feasibility of using energy in the hot flue gases to provide steam, hot water, or hot air for
other office or shop uses.
Process-Heat-Distribution Systems
1. Insulate steam, steam-condensate, and hot-water lines.
2. Repair leaks in lines, valves, and steam traps.
3. Shut off or remove unused lines.
4. Use plastic spheres on hot liquids in open-top tanks.
5. Determine efficient “hold” temperatures on process tanks for nights and over weekends.
6. Reduce temperature of processing fluids, where practical.
7. Eliminate heat treating if it is a marginal operation, and subcontract the work.
8. Meter consumption on a regular basis to identify unusual charges.
Energy Recovery from Heat-Rejection Processes
Check that cooling towers or evaporative coolers are not drawing air from railroad buildings or shop facilities
during heating season.
Exhausts over Vats, Tanks, Grinders, and Other Operations
1. Turn off process exhausts when operation is off.
2. Schedule work so process exhausts are used less.
3. Improve the efficiency of exhaust systems by redesigning hoods.
4. Substitute less toxic chemicals so that fewer air changes are required.
5. Transfer heat from exhaust air to makeup air, if practical.
6. Install covers over vats and tanks.
Compressed-Air Systems
1. Locate and repair all compressed-air. (An ultrasonic leak detector can be used.)
2. Operate at the lowest required air pressure.
3. Eliminate the use of compressed air for cooling equipment or personnel.
4. Survey air tools and spray equipment; upgrade to reduce usage of compressed air.
5. Study the feasibility of using heat from the aftercooler for supplementing the plant space heat.
Scheduling
1. Turn off machinery, test equipment, ovens, and the like when not in use.
2. Unplug soldering irons and other small tools whenever practical.
3. Use submetering to monitor power usage within certain areas of the office or shop.
4. Reschedule work to minimize use of motors and fans.


Water Heating
1. Reduce water use where possible.
2. Reduce hot-water thermostat setting to the lowest acceptable temperatures.
3. Size water heater and number of heating units to match hot-water requirements.
4. Place water heater close to point of use.
5. Insulate water heaters, storage tanks, and pipelines.
6. Use recoverable waste heat and tempering tanks to preheat water. (Waste hot water is a source of waste
heat.)
7. Reduce power demand by heating and storing water at night, off peak, using automatic controls.
8. Eliminate hot-water circulation systems where possible.
9. Repair leaks in hot-water. Consider automatic-cutoff faucets.
10. Repair leaks in hot-water lines.
11. Separate hot-water systems from each other.
12. Clean and flush water heaters periodically.
General
1. Eliminate weekend overtime. 1
2. Limit overtime to specific nights.
3. Reschedule janitorial services for regular hours.
4. Appoint energy monitors in all office or shop areas.
5. Train security guards and night watchmen to recognize and report wasteful energy use.
6. Emphasize energy-consumption requirements in product components make-or-buy studies. 3


6
Part 6
Locomotive Sanding Facilities1
— 1975 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2

6.1.1 General (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2
6.2 Sanding Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-7

6.2.1 Capacity (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-7 1
6.2.2 Storage and Service Tanks (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-7
6.2.3 Unloading (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-8
6.2.4 Transfer from Storage to Servicing Tanks (1975). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-8
6.2.5 Dryers (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-8
6.2.6 Elevating Pipe (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9
6.2.7 Air Pressure (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9 3
6.2.8 Elevating Tanks (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9
6.2.9 Sand Cocks (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9
6.2.10 Gravity Loading Lines (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9
6.2.11 Nozzles (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
6.2.12 Air Loading (1975). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
6.2.13 Platform (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
6.2.14 Track (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
6.2.15 Lighting (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
6.2.16 Location (1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-10
LIST OF FIGURES
6-6-1 Service Building Addition to Existing Diesel Repair Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2

6-6-2 Diesel Service Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-5
6-6-3 Typical Sand Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-6
1
References, Vol. 76, 1975, p. 169. Adopted 1975.

6.1.1 GENERAL (1975)
6.1.1.1 Types
a. Predried sand. This sand is delivered to the servicing station, dried at some central drying plant or
purchased from a sand plant.
b. Green sand is delivered in bulk form to the servicing station and must be dried before it can be used as
engine sand.
c. Waste from granite quarries should be considered as a source of engine sand.
d. Design. The type of sand used will dictate, to a point, the type of sand facility to be installed.
e. An example of a service building addition to an existing diesel repair shop is shown in Figure 6-6-1. A
floor plan for a diesel service building is shown in Figure 6-6-2 and a typical sand tower is represented in
Figure 6-6-3.
Figure 6-6-1. Service Building Addition to Existing Diesel Repair Shop

(Sheet 1 of 3)

Locomotive Sanding Facilities
Figure 6-6-1. Service Building Addition to Existing Diesel Repair Shop (Sheet 2 of 3)
Figure 6-6-1. Service Building Addition to Existing Diesel Repair Shop (Sheet 3 of 3)
Figure 6-6-2. Diesel Service Building

Figure 6-6-3. Typical Sand Tower

SECTION 6.2 SANDING FACILITY
6.2.1 CAPACITY (1975)
a. The sand requirement at a location is an important factor affecting storage capacity. Availability of the
material should be considered in determining storage capacity.
b. In green sand storage plants, wet sand should be placed in storage during the summer months in
amounts sufficient to carry through freezing weather, thus avoiding the results of freezing conditions.
c. Dry sand storage plants, even with sand readily available, should preferably have a capacity in excess of
one carload.
d. In outlying sections where the demand is light, it may be found desirable to provide a bin with a capacity
of less than a carload, so that a carload of sand can be distributed among several locations.
e. Carrying bulk dry sand in storage in too large quantities is not recommended where the turnover is slow
and the humidity is high, as condensation is a factor. The sand under such conditions tends to take up
moisture, resulting in an unsatisfactory condition for flowing. Where there is a quick turnover of sand
the absorption of moisture is not serious.
f. The disadvantages of extensive green sand storage are that considerable space for bins is required and
that handling sand to the drier with hand labor is costly, especially as the material in storage lessens,
except where overhead storage is used. 1
6.2.2 STORAGE AND SERVICE TANKS (1975)
a. Concrete or steel storage tanks will render satisfactory service for dry sand.
b. The service tank at track side is generally of steel construction mounted on a steel column or as an
integral part of the sand storage silo, at a suitable elevation to permit loading sand into locomotive sand
3
boxes by gravity through pipe and hose connections. Capacities of 5 to 10 tons are satisfactory for these
latter tanks, the size being determined by the quantity of sand handled.
c. Service tanks into which sand is loaded by the use of air should be equipped with approved dust arrestor
to release the air and retain the dust within the tank.
4
d. The tank should be equipped with approved signals to indicate when the tank is full and when the point
of depletion is approaching.
e. Equipment is available to transfer sand automatically from the dry storage tank to the overhead smaller
servicing tank. This obviates the necessity of assigning labor to keep sufficient sand in the servicing tank
or delaying the sanding of a locomotive because of an insufficient supply of sand in the servicing tank.
The importance of the operation should determine if such a refinement is justifiable.

6.2.3 UNLOADING (1975)
a. Green sand may be unloaded from cars either by hand shoveling into bin, by clamshell bucket, or by a
belt conveyor system elevating the sand from a pit beside or beneath the car into the green storage bin.
The choice of operation will be determined by the importance of the servicing point.
b. Bulk dry sand may be unloaded from box cars either by hand shoveling, or by the use of wheelbarrows or
large scoops mounted on casters. The sand is pushed from the car into a hopper outside the car door and
is elevated by a conveyor into the storage tanks. This is an expensive method of unloading.
c. The most economical method of unloading dry bulk sand is from totally closed hopper-bottom cars or
from box or rebuilt tank cars with hopper bottoms. These cars can be spotted over a hopper built into a
pit, into which the sand can be discharged.
(1) A simpler method whereby the pit, etc., is eliminated is to draw the sand from the car by the use of
air-operated vacuum devices and discharged directly into the sand elevating tank.
(2) On very large installations a sand crane should be included. This crane usually has a 10-ton hopper
on it which is filled by gravity from the elevated sand tank. The crane operator fills the engines with
sand while standing on a platform suspended from the crane. From this platform, which is movable,
all the openings in the diesel can be reached. With the crane runway 280 feet long, 4 engines can be
sanded without uncoupling.
d. If air is used in elevating the dry sand, the elevated tank used in such an arrangement should be
equipped with a small air release at its top to relieve the air as the tank fills with sand.
e. Tank cars may be rebuilt with inside hoppers to discharge sand through a valve or valves in the bottom
of the car either to an underground elevating drum by gravity, or by air direct to the dry sand storage
tank.
f. Mechanical shovels are available for removing sand from a box car to a hopper at the car door, but such
equipment should be thoroughly investigated for the specific conditions under which it is to be operated.
g. Obviously, the unloading of sand should not be undertaken in the open in wet weather.
6.2.4 TRANSFER FROM STORAGE TO SERVICING TANKS (1975)
This operation is handled by installing the dry sand storage tank at an elevation sufficient to permit the sand to
discharge by gravity into an elevating tank for distribution to the servicing tanks. This operation can likewise
be handled automatically, thus reducing labor costs.
6.2.5 DRYERS (1975)
Stove dryers, steam dryers, and oil and gas-fired dryers of the hopper or rotary cylinder type are available, and
each has its place, depending upon the demands of the station.

6.2.6 ELEVATING PIPE (1975)
a. It is obvious that sand handled under air pressure is abrasive to the pipe carrier. For such lines 2-
1/2 inches flanged pipe should preferably be used. At connections the pipe ends should butt so that no
space whatever exists between them which would permit cutting action to begin and wear down the pipe
to a point where it enters the fitting.
b. At points in the line where sharp bends are necessary, either a heavy T or, preferably, a Y connection
should be used with a short piece of pipe plugged and fastened to the dead end of the fitting. This forms
a pocket which fills with sand for deflection purposes. It has been determined that where the direction of
flow is changed the ricochet of sand just beyond the fitting causes a greater wear in the pipe there than
elsewhere. It is a good practice to introduce a flanged replacement pipe section not less than 18 inches
long immediately beyond the T or Y fittings. All pipe should be installed so it is accessible for
replacement.
c. Certain conditions may require placing a section of elevating pipe so as to offset some obstacle, or space
may permit a long-radius curve in the change of direction. Specially manufactured hose is available for
such locations and in some installations has outlasted pipe. If such material is used the life of the hose
will be extended if it is rotated a quarter turn at intervals.
6.2.7 AIR PRESSURE (1975)
a. The minimum air pressure that can be used to move sand is desirable, as lower pressures materially
reduce the wear in the pipe. Therefore, it is desirable to place an air reducing valve in the air supply line 1
and cut the pressure to the minimum required to move the sand.
b. Dry sand can be moved through 2-1/2 inches pipe for horizontal distances up to 300 feet at 70 lb air
pressure.
6.2.8 ELEVATING TANKS (1975)

3
Elevating tanks should be of the approved unfired pressure type with suitable valves for admitting sand and air.
The tank should be fitted with a relief cock to release the pressure after the elevating operation when the
handling of sand is manually controlled.
6.2.9 SAND COCKS (1975)

4
Where necessary to use sand shutoff cocks in an elevating line to change the flow of sand from one servicing
tank to another, care should be exercised in selecting a suitable cock, as these units will quickly be worn by the
sand if they are not rugged enough in design and material.
6.2.10 GRAVITY LOADING LINES (1975)
a. Gravity loading lines should be not less than 2-1/2 inches pipe leading at an angle of 45 degrees from the
overhead servicing tank to the sanding platform. These pipes should be installed so as not to encroach on
the clearance lines. These delivery pipes are generally supported on posts above the platform. A Y
connection is desirable at the platform end to permit a cleaning or rodding of the line in case of stoppage.
b. Valves should be placed in these lines at the service tank connection to permit shutting off the sand when
necessary to work on the delivery pipe, hose or nozzle. Suitable lines should be provided for reaching top
sand boxes on certain types of switcher locomotives.

6.2.11 NOZZLES (1975)
Control of flow of sand is desirable to avoid spillage at the sand box where it is loaded. Various types of nozzles
are available. Care should be exercised to obtain a weather proof unit. The size of the nozzle should be given
consideration to be sure it will fit into the sand box.
6.2.12 AIR LOADING (1975)
At sanding points where the demand is light, equipment can be arranged for loading sand into locomotive boxes
directly from the dry sand storage tank, by use of air obtained from the locomotive. This method of loading
eliminates the need of the elevated servicing tank necessary for gravity loading. Air pressure should be
carefully controlled to avoid the dust resulting from excessive blowing into the sand boxes. While this system
has been used successfully, it is not generally accepted as the most desirable system due to the close control of
air required.
6.2.13 PLATFORM (1975)
Platforms built parallel to the track and at a suitable height conveniently to reach sand boxes on the sides of
locomotives are desirable. Light steel framing with steel open grating for the deck is a much-used type of
construction. The platform should preferably be long enough to extend from the front to the rear sand boxes of
a locomotive unit or units, depending upon the arrangement of the sand delivery pipes.
6.2.14 TRACK (1975)
a. The track for unloading either green or dry sand should be arranged so as to cause the least interference
with the movement of trains and locomotives through the yard.
b. It should be an independent track used only for that purpose.
6.2.15 LIGHTING (1975)
Suitable lighting should be provided at the sanding platform if night servicing is required.
6.2.16 LOCATION (1975)
If space is available, the sanding and fueling spots should preferably be on the same track, but not closer than
50 feet. In this way the operations may be performed quickly and in sequence without fouling one another.

Part 7
Design Criteria for
Railway Materials Management Facilities
6
— 1999 —
FOREWORD
Railway materials management facilities are warehouses which feature the latest in technology and materials 1
management controls to provide the most cost effective method for storing, shipping, receiving, and controlling
railway supplies and materials.
The intent of this chapter is to provide general guidelines and recommendations for the development and design of
a typical materials management facilities. The design criteria excludes any description or recommendation on the
materials management aspect of the operation, such as computerized inventory control, automated storage and
retrieval systems or other furnishings which are commercially available from a variety of manufacturers and 3
specialists.
There are a number of variables to consider before initiating a building design for a railway materials management
facility. Site selection most often is not in the control of the designer and must be properly assessed for effective
ingress and egress, utilization, available public utility services and expandability, if necessary.
Once these parameters have been resolved, the designer should become thoroughly familiar with the local
governing building codes. By performing an analysis of the local building code, the designer can determine the
following:
• Allowable building size based upon building construction type (i.e. exposed steel, concrete, etc.).
• Maximum allowable increase in building size for such things as the addition of sprinkler
systems, fire protection coatings, etc..
• Other special requirements such as welfare facility requirements, ventilation and special
requirements necessary for certain types of stored materials.
• Handicapped accessibility.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-2

7.1.1 Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-2
7.2 Functional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-3

7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-3
7.2.2 Environmental Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-4
7.2.3 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.4 Office, Welfare and Building Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.5 Battery-Charging Area or Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.6 Fuel Operated Lift Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.3 Fire Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6

7.3.1 Flammable and Hazardous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.4 Exterior Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.1.1 LOCATION
The location of the proposed facility and available land area will weigh heavily on the important design decisions
that must be made. For instance, depending on where the building is to be located (i.e. railroad yard, industrial
area, urban setting) accessibility to the site may be limited to only one street in the area due to weight restrictions.
Similarly, local government bodies may require improvements to the local street for ingress and egress.
Public utility accessibility must also be considered in development of the site in those areas where such utilities are
available. In areas where public utilities such as sewer and water are not available, soil testing may definitely be a
prerequisite to the planning process and may force radical changes in the design of septic systems in order to
protect potable water supplies.
In some localities, ordinances may exist requiring specific percentages of land area be dedicated for green space or
require special landscaping features such as berms to separate the proposed facility from adjacent properties.
Likewise local ordinances may require specific areas be dedicated to either detention, and/or retention areas and in
some cases both.
Parking requirements and circulation within the site are critical matters to be considered. In most, if not all
communities, set aside space for handicap accessibility must be provided. In addition, many communities require
parking based upon the total square foot area of the building rather than actual employee/visitor need and this
type of requirement must be dealt with early on in the project development.
Circulation is equally important to the effective utilization of the site. Truck traffic, storage space and loading and
unloading of materials for either internal and/or external storage must be considered, as well as, rail access and the
number of tracks required to serve the facility.
Finally, site planning must also take into consideration the need for future expansion either of the building and/or
open storage space.

Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities
7.2.1 GENERAL
There are four basic planning goals to be addressed in the functional planning of material handling facility. These
basic planning goals are: a) adequate and efficient office space; b) organized storage space; e) material receiving area,
and; d) material shipping area. Each of these areas must recognize the need for effective and efficient work flow.
In addition to the planning goals mentioned above the decision to build a new Material Distribution center must be
based primarily on sound economics taking into consideration the following important considerations:
(1) The total annual volume of shipments to main shops, running shops and line points. This volume must
be examined in terms of cost, weight and frequency of service.
(1) The percentage of total annual weight shipped to each railway shop and line point.
(1) The various sources of material supply and/or manufacturer.
(1) Location of and service levels required for the user.
Since the primary purpose of the building will be to store materials for distribution throughout the system, a floor
plan must be developed which provides for adequate uniform storage and aisle space. Any proposed structural
scheme must be planned around these considerations in order to meet this criteria. In considering storage space, it
is essential to know how materials are planned to be stored such as pelletized material, bulk materials, bin storage
and shelf storage. Transporting these materials either into their respective inventory locations or to remove same
1
for distribution purposes will require an understanding of the methods to be employed for this purpose such as lift
trucks (either manually driven or by automated system); overhead crane, and; manual placement and retrieval.
Aisle space for each of these activities will require different space considerations. As storage and circulation
problems become resolved a structural system can then be developed to address these needs.
The following guidelines should be considered before beginning the actual layout:
3
(1) Will or should an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) be implemented? A higher stacking and
storage arrangement will result in less land required for future expansion than with standard storage space.
Higher floor loads will, however, require close floor level tolerances.
(1) A rack supported roof may be an attractive option instead of erecting columns in the warehouse where
floor space is valuable. There is, however, a disadvantage in this approach since there is no flexibility in
4
changing or moving the racks.
(1) Intermediate density storage systems are also available which are based upon people and/or computer pick.
Dock space for both rail and truck shipping and receiving will be determined on the volume of material
expected to flow through the facility.
Rail loading and unloading may be either inside or outside of the building. If more than one track is planned to
serve the building the orientation for the track to the building will be critical. If a single track is planned to serve
the building, access to the cars for removal and placement of materials is easily obtained from one side. However,
when two tracks are to be provided, access to cars spotted on these tracks should be provided from both sides.
Consideration should be given to one track being utilized for outgoing material and the other for incoming
material. This arrangement may affect how truck shipping and receiving is also orientated to the building.
In addition, consideration should be given to the following criteria:

(1) If a spur or additional trackage for rail traffic is needed, where is the most advantageous location for it
to be constructed?
(2) Is it intended to load and unload rail inside or outside of the building? In either case, the size of the rail
car and the clearances inside and outside the building respectively should be considered. The height and
the width of the doors for rail cars entering the building or along the siding can then be determined
accordingly. The same considerations must be given to a parallel loading dock with a canopy over one or
two tracks.
For truck dock areas, the following guidelines should be considered:
(1) The total number of truck bays needed.
(1) The kind and size of doors to be installed.
(1) Recommended dock height.
NOTE: The installation of automatic dock levelers would be advantageous to accommodate the variations
in trailer floor heights.
(1) Sufficient yard space or street frontage for easy maneuvering of tractor-trailers.
(1) The location of the building in relation to the main roadway.
(1) Controlled access.
Within the storage area proper other considerations should also be made such as the following:
(a) Soil conditions beneath the floor and whether or not a more solid base must be provided.
(b) Amount and type of traffic that will be handled.
(c) Abrasion resistance of the floor, including the finished floor surface treatment.
Other factors influencing the design are initial cost versus maintenance cost; dust control; durability, and;
adequate reinforcing to support intended loads and possible overloading.
7.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
Heating and ventilation of the warehouse area will be important. A comfortable working environment must be
provided and these requirements will vary according to each respective geographic location. In northern climates,
the interior ambient temperatures should be a minimum of 60 degrees F at a minus 10 degrees. However, a lower
interior temperature may be desirable for other reasons but in no case should the temperature be below 40 degrees
F at a minus 10 degree F in order to protect sprinkler piping and valuable stored materials easily damaged by
freezing temperatures.
Insulating the building envelop will aid in minimizing the required heating and provide year round comfort. For
maximum summer comfort, it will be necessary to provide mechanical ventilation with noticeable air movement in
the work areas. In warehouse areas where dust is not a problem, it may be advantageous to install ceiling fans for
year round comfort and energy savings.
In warmer climates, even greater comfort may be achieved by adding spray cooling over the roof area. This method of
cooling can reduce the roof surface temperature several degrees thereby reducing ceiling radiation inside the building.

Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities
7.2.3 LIGHTING
Automated storage and retrieval systems do not require high level lighting in the storage areas except for
maintenance purposes. Man aboard stock picking machines have an integral lighting system for the operator and
can reduce the required amount of lighting needed along the aisles areas.
Due to the variables of automation selection of lighting requirements will be dependent upon how the facility is to
be used and actual needs.
7.2.4 OFFICE, WELFARE AND BUILDING SERVICES
Planning of the facility must also take into consideration adequate office space for the administrative staff. The
office area will require some permanent type office areas while the remainder of the office space should remain
open space. Use of moveable office partitions should be considered in cases where privacy is a concern or when
seeking to compartmentalize department areas.
If major computer hardware is to be located within the facility, it should be segregated from the main office area.
This area will require certain other features which will not be common to the general office. Those features to be
considered are raised computer floor, HVAC systems, lighting, telephone and fire suppression systems.
Employee welfare areas should be provided for in the storage area in order to minimize employee travel time to and
from these facilities. Washroom facilities for both male and female employees plus vending space should be
considered in the planning process. Primary welfare areas for lockers, toilets and shower space (if required by local
and/or state code) can be provided for in a central area either away from or above the storage area and preferably
closer to the main office area. Lunchroom and vending space can also be provided adjacent to these facilities.
1
Building services such as electrical and mechanical should be consolidated into a single area if possible with access
to this space both from within the building, as well as, from outside.
Further information and useful guidelines for the design of the general office area can be obtained in the AREMA
Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 7, Part 7.
3
7.2.5 BATTERY-CHARGING AREA OR ROOM
Battery powered materials handling equipment is common in modern distribution centers and require an area or
room for daily battery charging. The battery-charging room must be well ventilated since acid fumes are present
in high concentration levels in the air and act as asphyxiants. The location and layout of the battery charging room
should allow for the installation of an exhaust hood arrangement over the battery charging area. The battery 4
chargers should be selected on the basis of the size of batteries to be charged. Individual chargers are normally
installed for each powered fork lift truck. The battery charging room or area must have floor drains, acid traps and
separators installed in the floor where batteries are being cleaned.
For safety reasons an emergency eye wash unit must be installed in the battery room near the working area even
though employees charging the batteries may be wearing protective clothing and goggles.
7.2.6 FUEL OPERATED LIFT TRUCKS
Powered lift trucks using gasoline, propane, and other flammable fuels are often used inside warehouses. Proper
ventilation is necessary to alleviate the buildup of CO and other noxious or poisonous fumes. The basic design
ventilation rates for fuel powered lift trucks can be found in the Manual of Recommended Practice, Industrial
Ventilation, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. The operation of fuel operated lift
trucks inside buildings may also be covered under federal, state and local codes.

For environmental reasons, it is recommended that gasoline powered fork lift trucks or other types of gasoline
powered vehicles be prohibited to operate inside the Material Distribution Center.
SECTION 7.3 FIRE PROTECTION
The storage of railway materials covers a broad range of non-combustible and combustible commodities. For
public safety and insurance purposes proper fire protection means must be provided for the building and its
contents, including the storage of gases, chemicals, paints and other flammable liquids. Sprinkler systems and
other fire protection systems appropriate to the area must be designed in accordance to the latest local codes,
NFPA codes and guidelines.
7.3.1 FLAMMABLE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Flammable and/or hazardous materials should be identified and stored separately from regular materials. Holding
areas and disposal of hazardous materials or waste must meet all codes and regulations of the local Environmental
authorities.
SECTION 7.4 EXTERIOR STORAGE
Outside storage space shall be of sufficient size to allow for materials storage. This space shall take into
consideration the need for open storage space as well as secured storage space as specified for the material being
stored. Consideration shall also be given to materials that must be stored in designated containment areas.
Vehicular access to these areas must be available as well as the possibility of off-loading from rail cars.

6
Part 8
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations1
— 2001 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-2

8.1.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-2
8.1.2 Types of Stations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.2 Site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3 1

8.2.1 Selection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.2.2 Development (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3

8.3.2 Inter-city Passenger Stations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-7 3
8.3.3 Commuter Stations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-11
8.3.4 Intermodal Stations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-12
8.3.5 Combination Freight and Passenger Stations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13
8.3.6 Historic Buildings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13
8.4 Building Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13

8.4.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13
8.4.2 Interior Finishes (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-13
8.4.3 Structural Types (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-15
8.5 Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-15

8.5.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-15
8.5.2 Plumbing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16
8.6 Electrical Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17

8.6.1 Lighting (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.6.2 Power (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.6.3 Escalators/Elevators (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.6.4 Train Information Systems (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.6.5 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.6.6 Communications Support (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
1 References, Vol. 76, 1975, p. 185; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 18.

Building and Support Facilities
8.7 Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19

8.7.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.7.2 Platform Dimensions (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.7.3 Platform Access (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20
8.7.4 Platform Lighting (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20
8.8 Station and Platform Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-21
LIST OF FIGURES
6-8-1 Intercity Ticket Counter Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-10

6-8-2 Bus Loading Dock Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-14
6-8-3 Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-22
6-8-4 Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-23
6-8-5 Communter Station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-24
6-8-6 Intermodal Passenger Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-24
6-8-7 Commuter Passenger Station - Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-25
LIST OF TABLES
6-8-1 Parking and Curb Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-5

6-8-2 Passenger Service Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-6
6-8-3 Interior Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-7
6-8-4 Illumination Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.1.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. A passenger station comprises the building(s), site access, parking, tracks, platforms, and all appurtenances
necessary to conduct transportation. The following portions of this Section will provide the guidelines for
developing a comprehensive station design program.
b. Various government agencies and/or public supported corporations have for the most part, assumed
providing passenger services in North America. Service is provided over existing-freight railroad lines
and/or lines owned by the local government agency or public supported corporation. As a result, the local
government agency or public supported corporation funds new passenger station facilities. The facilities are
distinct from those facilities required for freight operations.

Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations
c. Traditionally, railway stations have served as a gateway of commerce into and out of a community and as
the origin/destination source of passenger traffic. In the early 1900’s, during the peak of private railway
station construction, the railway station was viewed, in some cases, as a marketing tool and in other cases as
a source of pride and identity to the community.
By the late 1990’s, many of the privately built railway stations have been demolished and/or utilized for
purposes unrelated to railroad transportation. Of those early 1900 stations that remain in use, many have
been restored to their earlier grandeur while others have simply been reasonably maintained. Overall,
however, two new station types have appeared. These are the suburban/commuter stations, financed
through government grants, and inter-city stations, which have been built with funds from a publicly
supported corporation.
Of the two new types of stations mentioned above, most have pre-established design criteria to be followed.
Only when outside interested parties become involved are departures from the established standards
considered and only, in some cases, where cost increase is covered by the outside parties.
8.1.2 TYPES OF STATIONS (2001)
Stations are classified (as follows) by the type of transportation services offered:
a. Inter-City. Service generally characterized by travel distances in excess of 100 miles by passengers who
journey less frequently than once a week and usually require personal services such as checked baggage, on-
board food, and, in some cases, reservations for seats or sleeping accommodations.
b. Suburban/Commuter. Service characterized by travel distances less than 100 miles on a repetitive daily 1
schedule, which is usually oriented in one direction during the morning and evening hours.
c. Intermodal. Service characterized by a combination of Inter-City and/or Suburban/Commuter rail service

plus additional public transportation modes, such as long distance and local bus routes, marine ferry
service, heavy/light rail rapid transit, airport ground access, and centralized private auto parking.
SECTION 8.2 SITE
8.2.1 SELECTION (2001)

4
Factors affecting the selection of a station site include passenger convenience, availability of land, access to
mainline tracks, access to local streets and roads, mass transit, utility services, favorable soil conditions, suitable
zoning, and visibility. In selecting a site, efforts should be made to avoid sites within interlockings or with
extensive communication pole lines in order to avoid related signal relocation costs.
8.2.2 DEVELOPMENT (2001)
8.2.2.1 Parking
a. The most land intensive requirement for a new railroad station is parking. Parking for passengers and/or
“meeters and greeters” must be convenient to the station. Where convenient parking is in short supply
nearest the station, parking may have to be controlled to ensure space turnover and/or availability.
b. The number of parking spaces to be provided at each station will vary according to the type of station (i.e.,
commuter vs. inter-city) being considered. For instance, inter-city passenger station parking provisions will

generally be governed by local building codes and/or ordinances. Commuter station parking, on the other hand,
will be determined on the basis of a large percentage of inbound passengers during the peak hour(s) travel period.
c. In designing a parking facility, adequate space should be provided to permit expansion of the parking facility
should ridership increase and to accommodate storm water detention requirements were appropriate.
Planning should include adequate land area for these detention requirements to meet the initial size of the
lot including any planned or anticipated expansion. These detention areas, in many cases, may serve as
buffer strips and/or means to accommodate any green space requirements.
d. Provisions for employee parking must be made. These provisions must be consistent with existing labor
agreements, past practice, and functional needs. Parking should be situated in a manner that will
discourage passengers from utilizing the employee spaces. Assignment of employee spaces should not
preempt the most convenient passenger spaces adjacent to the station. In determining the number of
employee spaces, required, approximately 150 percent of the largest shift should be provided to allow
arriving employees to park before the others have left.
8.2.2.2 Roadways
a. Access to the station building should be unimpeded to permit late arriving passengers to quickly reach drop
off locations in front of the building. Onsite roadway systems should establish a counterclockwise
circulation pattern in front of the station building. Onsite roadways should be a minimum of 20 feet wide
and 30 feet wide in front of the station building in order to permit passing of double parked or tailed out
vehicles in the passenger drop off area. Roadway radii should not be less than AASHTO recommended
standards for 40 foot buses.
b. Curb length for the drop off area should be as shown in Table 6-8-1. Where curb length exceeds the station
frontage by 200%, a separate arriving and departing area with a loading island in front of the station
building should be provided.
c. Onsite roadways should be configured to permit recirculation without leaving the station property when the
peak hour passenger count exceeds 150. This will permit a driver to drop a passenger off then proceed to
the parking area. Conversely, a driver can remove a parked car from the parking area to pick up an arriving
passenger at the station curb.
8.2.2.3 Building Location
a. Locating the station building onsite can be affected by a number of factors. These factors can be such things as
the length of platform, location of “at-grade” pedestrian crossing, visibility of the station from the public right-
of-way, and primary street accessibility. Preferably, the station should be situated in a manner that is visible to
the public from a distance of 500 feet when approaching the station from a public sidewalk and/or street.
Platform access from the station may be attained directly or by means of grade separated passenger access.
For “at-grade” access to passenger platforms, stations may need to be located to coincide with major “at-
grade” crossings, which will permit the positioning of trains on the inner tracks without cutting off access to
the outermost tracks. In situations such as this, it may be necessary to establish drop off curb areas and
parking beyond the station building.
When grade separated access to the platform(s) is employed, the station can be located at any point along
the platform. However, the most desirable position would be at the center of the platform. Access to the
platform should be in both directions.

Table 6-8-1. Parking and Curb Requirements

(All units are number of spaces unless noted otherwise.)
Curb Length Drop Off Short Term Daily Long Term Vacant Land For
Location
in Feet 5-15 Min. 1-2 Hrs. 2-12 Hrs. 12+ Hrs. Expansion
Intercity
Rural or
Suburban 0.8 (PHP) 5% PHP 10% PHP — 60% DAP
Location PHP < 100
100%
Downtown 30% DAP
1.2 (PHP) 30% PHP 20% PHP —
Location (Note 1)
Express and
— — PHP + 20 — — —
Mail Delivery
Commuter
Suburban 50%-80% DAP
1.2 (PHP) 20% PHP — — 50% DAP
Location (Note 2)
Downtown
0.8 (PHP) 5% PHP 10% PHP — — —
Location
Note 1: Off-site commercial parking within 300 yards of station entrance may be applied to this requirement
provided it is available at reasonable hours before and after train times.
Note 2: Contingent upon residential density in three-quarters of a mile of the station and the availability of feeder 1
public transit.
Key:
(DAP) = Daily Average Passenger
(PHP) = Peak Hour Passenger
b. When passenger stations must be constructed on sites that have substantial overhead utilities, an attempt 3
should be made to have these utilities relocated and buried, as part of the station project.
8.2.2.4 Landscaping and Signage
a. Sufficient land area must be set aside for greenspace, as required by most local codes, ordinances, and/or
other regulations. Greenspaces, in most cases, can include retention sites. If no requirements exist
regarding greenspace allocations, provisions should be made to allow for landscaping. In some locales,
4
garden clubs may request approval to maintain certain designated plots.
In general, landscaping should be the type and size of ground cover that requires low maintenance.
Evergreens are preferable to deciduous trees to reduce grounds maintenance. Care should be taken, when
locating evergreens and/or shrubs near intersections and/or crosswalks, not to obstruct line of sight for
drivers approaching these areas.
b. Traffic signage, which is located on site, should conform to the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices,
as modified. Some city, state, and/or local provinces may have additional requirements or other standards to
be used as well. This subject should be carefully investigated.
c. Identification and directional signage, located on site, must conform to local codes and ordinances. Signs
should be fabricated to a uniform graphic standard featuring bold typefaces of a character size adequate for
the speed of the approaching reader. Good contrast, such as light colored characters against a dark
background are easiest to read. Signage located at the entry to the property should be illuminated. Non-
illuminated signs should be fabricated with reflective-type background and characters for easiest reading.

a. In general, the layout of a station must carefully consider passenger circulation as well as the movement of
supplies and location of equipment. All of these elements must be thoughtfully planned in order to
maximize the efficiency of the workspaces and convenience of the passenger. Careful thought must also be
given to safety for the passenger as well as the employee. Stations facilities should be arranged in order of
need to the arriving passenger. Walking distances should be kept as low as possible and when peak hour
passenger counts exceed 300, consideration should be given to separating inbound and outbound
passengers’ conflicting lines of travel.
b. Inter-city and commuter passenger needs differ significantly, as illustrated in Table 6-8-2. If at all possible,
inter-city and commuter passengers should be separated either by duplicating facilities, directing
commuters away from and around inter-city waiting areas and ticketing locations or through separate
concourses on different levels.
c. All new station construction and major renovation work will require provisions be made for handicap
accessibility. In the USA refer to Part IV, Department of Transportation, 49CFR Parts 27, 37, and 38 (for
stations) and 28 CFR Part 36 (for commercial facilities).
d. Distinctive architectural design and uniform graphics can be an effective marketing tool. Consideration
should be given to standardized architectural elements that can be applied to all stations on the
transportation system. Standardization can be an effective method of reducing design costs as well as
overall maintenance costs.
e. Where a passenger station is but one tenant located with many other commercial enterprises, careful
consideration should be given to the accessibility of the station space, especially during noncommercial
hours. A passenger station that is buried within a multi-use occupancy may cause confusion to the
infrequent traveler. Access routes to the station and boarding areas should be direct and convenient.
Ideally, a passenger should be able to reach a ticketing counter and/or information area within 100 feet after
entering the building.
Table 6-8-2. Passenger Service Characteristics
Inter-City Commuter
• Frequently a stranger. • Generally familiar with the station after
first trip.
• Occasionally is not used to travel.
• Is self-reliant.
• Often uncertain in movement.
• Definite and brisk in movement.
• Sometimes elderly or infirm and often
accompanied by children. • Active and mature.
• Generally carrying baggage. • No luggage other than small briefcase.
• Occupies more space on platforms and for • Moves promptly from train to exit.
longer average time.
• Requires no aid and wants none.
• Requires waiting room, toilets, ticket
sellers, concession, and vending services. • Requires ticket seller infrequently to
purchase multi-ride ticket.

8.3.2 INTER-CITY PASSENGER STATIONS (2001)
a. Space requirements for the various rooms and spaces in a passenger station are shown in Table 6-8-3. The
values shown are typical and adjustment may be necessary based upon local operating conditions as justified
in the design criteria. Local climatic conditions may also influence the amount of indoor space provided for
passenger operations.
b. Waiting room sizes may vary by geographic location. Square foot areas are often dictated by local codes,
ordinances and/or regulations and these should be checked for applicable requirements.
c. Restroom areas should be provided in all stations. For inter-city stations, local codes, ordinances, and/or
regulations will govern the number of fixtures to be provided. In commuter stations, it is generally
acceptable to provide one restroom each for male and female use. Each restroom may contain one fixture
each of the appropriate type.
Table 6-8-3. Interior Space Requirements
Inter-City
Function Area Unit Inter-City Downtown Commuter Downtown
Suburban or Rural
Seating EA. 0.70 × PHP 0.70 × (PHP+V) 0.10 × PHP
Ticket Queue L.F. 15 Max. 10 Max. 15 Max.
Ticket Positions P/Hr. 25-35 (Note 1) 25 55
Baggage Claim (Note 2) 1
Frontage L.F. 25/150 Pass. 10/100 Pass. None
Claim Area S.F. 50/150 Pass. 40/100 Pass. None
Baggage Make-up
Storage PCS. 0.10 × PHP 0.15 × PHP None
Sort S.F. 0.015/Yrly. 200/100 Pass. None 3
Boarding Gate (Note 3)
Queue L.F. 30 15 35
Area S.F. 6 × PHP 3 × PHP 9 × PHP
Station Services
Office S.F. 200 + (1 × PHP) 150 + (2 × PHP) 200 4
Note 1: Number of ticket transactions per hour - varies with type of train service offered and whether advance
reservations are required. Also the number of credit/check vs. cash payments will affect the transaction
rate. In larger stations, separate windows for different types of transactions can keep the total number of
positions reasonable. For commuter operations, the peak is established during the first and last days of
the month as opposed to the daily ridership. For inter-city passengers, it is assumed that 25% of the PHP
is pre-ticketed and does not require ticket counter service.
Note 2: Number of passengers - based upon PHP detraining with checked baggage. Under 100 passengers,
baggage should be dispensed manually without self-claim.
Note 3: PHP is the maximum number per gate.
Key: PHP= Peak Hour Passenger
V = Visitors with passengers
Pass. = Number of Passengers (using the specific service)
Yrly. = Yearly
d. Corridor width in any station will be governed by local codes, ordinances and/or regulations.

8.3.2.1 Waiting Room
A waiting area is a place where passengers wait for trains prior to queuing or proceeding to the platform. Waiting
areas are normally located away from the primary travel path between the ticket counter and the boarding areas.
Passengers going directly from the station entrance or ticket counter should not have to disturb passengers seated
in the waiting area. Seating units should be modular and arranged in clusters.
In large stations, separate waiting areas can be provided off of the primary travel paths between ticket counters
and boarding areas. In these locations, furnishings should be provided to enhance the comfort of the passenger.
8.3.2.2 Concourses
Concourses are areas where passengers walk to and from trains and where passengers queue in anticipation of
boarding trains. In large stations there may be several concourses, particularly if arriving and departing
passengers are separated. Where boarding gates for many tracks are employed, the concourse must have adequate
depth and length to hold approximately 75 percent of the normal peak passenger count for each train. Concourse
size may be controlled through use of passenger information systems that do not post track and/or gate numbers
until the train is ready to board, discouraging long queues in front of boarding gates.
Concourse width should be a minimum of 15 feet in order to accommodate passengers carrying luggage and/or
pushing carts. Local codes, ordinances and/or regulations, however, should be reviewed to confirm allowable
minimum requirements.
Concourses which are to be lined with or are lined with concessions or other services must contain additional width
in order to maintain an unobstructed walkway in the middle of the concourse.
Where concourses are more than 150 feet in length, graphics should be installed to repeat destination messages in
bold, clear typefaces that will not require the passenger to stop or slow down in the travel path. Video display units
should not be placed in the center of concourse travel paths, if at all possible, in order to avoid passengers stopping
and/or slowing to read information.
8.3.2.3 Ticketing
Ticketing areas will vary according to the size, location, and other activities being conducted within the station.
The following criteria are applicable as noted:
a. The ticket area should have an appropriate number of window positions available in order to keep ticket
queue waiting time to no more than five minutes during normal times and no more than eight minutes
during peak times. When more than three positions are operated, consideration should be given to a single
serpentine line so that passengers are served on a first come, first served basis.
If specialized train services are offered, a separate window position(s) may be required to give expedited
service to these passengers.
Average transaction time to ticket a passenger will vary from 30 seconds for unreserved coach travel to four
minutes for multi-segment reserved travel. Ticketing transaction time will increase by at least 90 seconds
when credit card transactions are handled.
b. A ticket sales counter area is illustrated in Figure 6-8-1 showing recommended distances between the
counter and the backwall. The ticket counter should be designed in standard modules that will permit
flexibility. If possible, an information position should be located at the most accessible end of the ticket
counter in order to permit sales agents to provide this service during slack periods of business. This position
can also serve as an overflow ticketing position during peak periods.

c. Where security considerations mandate the use of ticket counter glazing for personnel protection, vertical
speaking slots should be provided. Passenger checking of baggage should be accomplished at the ticket
counter to expedite the movement of passengers through the pre-boarding process.
d. The ticketing area will require a back office for agents to handle their administrative duties out of sight of
the passenger. A storage room for spare forms, a safe for money and ticket stock, and an area for placement
of communications, teleprinters and computer reservations equipment should be provided. It may be
desirable to provide a combination coatroom/lunchroom and toilets for ticketing employees. The ticket back
office should be the most secure area in the station with access closely controlled.
8.3.2.4 Baggage Facilities
Baggage facilities will vary in size according to the number of pieces of baggage arriving and/or departing per train.
The following criteria are applicable:
a. The movement of outbound baggage from the ticket counter to the baggage make-up area may be manual or
automated depending upon the distance and baggage quantities involved. Baggage checked within three to
four hours prior to train departure should be placed in a secure baggage holding area.
Bulk users of package services should deliver their loads directly to the baggage room via an outside door. A
truck dock type arrangement would be appropriate when significant amounts of bulk shipments are
processed through the baggage facility.
The baggage facility should contain space for the storage of unclaimed baggage as well as the storage of carts
and baggage tractor(s). 1
b. Inbound baggage from a train may be dispensed on the platform at the station building when the quantity of
baggage is small. When the platform claim is not used, a dutch door separating the baggage facility from the
ticket queue area can be effectively useful.
In larger stations, a self-claim baggage facility should be provided to expedite passenger service. Where the
number of pieces of luggage is between 30 and 50, a simple stainless steel gravity rack will suffice. A wall 3
separating the baggage claim area from the baggage room should be provided in order to block off viewing
back into the baggage room. When arriving baggage is above 50 pieces per train, an automated conveyor
self-claim device should be provided with claiming frontage as shown in Table 6-8-3.
8.3.2.5 Restrooms
Public restrooms should be provided according to local codes, ordinances and/or regulations. Restrooms should be 4
located in the line of sight of the ticket counter in order to permit employees to monitor and exercise control over
access, if necessary.
8.3.2.6 Support Facilities
Other administrative support services may be required in the station such as on-board services, commissary,
mechanical, and security. In large stations where the peak hour passenger count exceeds 300, a passenger service
area within the baggage claim area is recommended. Support facilities, however, will vary according to station size,
location of the station or line, and other ancillary facilities available.
Vending areas in stations should be grouped into a singular area in order to maintain cleanliness and to
concentrate plumbing, mechanical and electrical services into a singular area.

Figure 6-8-1. Intercity Ticket Counter Layout

8.3.3 COMMUTER STATIONS (2001)
Commuter stations differ significantly from inter-city train stations in a number of ways. Depending on a number
of factors, commuter stations can be a building and/or a simple open and/or enclosed shelter.
8.3.3.1 Waiting Room
Generally, commuter passengers will use a waiting room during inclement weather or when it is extremely hot and
the waiting room is air conditioned. The size of the waiting room will be dependent upon the peak passenger load
in a 15 minute period. Local building codes, ordinances and regulations will then stipulate the square foot area to
be provided for each passenger.
Waiting room furnishings should be hard, durable, utilitarian-type furniture, which can be safely secured to the
floor or walls. Waiting rooms may be locked during periods when the station agent is not present.
In terminal facilities, commuter waiting rooms can be relatively small, since most commuters will time their arrival
at the station close to train departure time. Earlier arrivals will board their trains rather than sit in waiting areas.
8.3.3.2 Ticketing Facilities
In commuter stations ticketing is generally handled through the station agent’s office, located at one end of the station.
The office should be large enough to accommodate a desk, ticket counter with ticket window and storage cabinet. The
ticket window should be equipped with a rolling shutter door and lock for use when the ticket agent is not present.
In some commuter service corridors, vending machines issue tickets. Also, proof of payment systems may be used 1
and the station platforms may be part of the paid area of the system. Where these systems are employed,
provisions must be made for vending/cancellation machines at the entrance to the platforms from the station
building and/or at any other access point to the platform.
In terminal facilities, ticketing areas should be separated from inter-city ticketing areas. Commuter ticketing will not
require baggage check-in modules nor any extensive computerized issuing machinery. At least six ticket window spaces
will be necessary for end of month ticket purchases and one additional window for information and lost and found use. 3
8.3.3.3 Restroom Facilities
Restroom facilities within commuter stations are generally minimal. Separate restroom facilities may be provided
for males and females or a single restroom may be provided. It is recommended that the local building code,
ordinances and/or regulations be consulted to determine the type and size of restroom facilities to be provided.
4
Commuter restroom facilities may be defined as “agent use only”, in some cases. When public access is required by
local code, ordinance and/or regulation, the station agent should have control over use of the facilities.
In terminal facilities, no additional spaces are required for commuter use. Consult local code books, ordinances
and/or regulations for determination of facilities to be provided, if any.
8.3.3.4 Support Facilities
In commuter stations a mechanical equipment room and janitor’s closet will be needed. Separate space to
accommodate concessions can be provided but care should be taken to avoid disrupting passenger flows and/or
passenger waiting space.
In terminal facilities space will be required for lost and found articles, Stationmaster’s Office (to operate Train
Information Systems), storage lockers, employee locker rooms, janitor’s closets, supply rooms and storage areas.
In addition, shop space will also be needed for mechanical personnel assigned to the station.

Concession space may also be desired. These spaces should not be located in a manner that will constrict and/or
disrupt the function of the station.
8.3.3.5 Concourses
These are areas within major stations, which direct passengers to and form the platforms to the street. Concourses
must be wide enough to rapidly convey the hundreds of commuters that unload simultaneously. When concessions
front on the concourses, five feet of concourse width in front of each establishment must be subtracted from the
effective width of the concourse. In planning travel paths through a commuter station, care should be exercised to
avoid conflicting travel paths of major groups of passengers. In many instances, routing large numbers of
passengers on a more circuitous route to avoid conflicts will provide faster ingress and egress. Concourses, which
provide queue space at track gates, must be widened to permit other passengers to pass. Graphics in the
concourses should use bold characters with the least amount of wording possible. The use of graphic symbols and
color coding are also effective means of conveying information without causing the stranger to stop or slow down to
read messages. Where video display units are used, these should be mounted out of the main stream of travel to
preclude obstructing the concourse passage. Where vending machines and control gates are used, the station must
be designed with paid and non-paid concourses. Adequate queuing space must be provided on both sides of the
control gates. If escalators are employed, the impacts of having one of the devices out of service for maintenance
should be considered in sizing the concourse areas near the escalators and alternate stairs and ramps.
8.3.3.6 Graphic and Advertising Standards
In developing a major commuter station, clear graphic and advertising standards should be established early to ensure
concessionaires do not erect uncoordinated signage that makes essential directional signage ineffective. A uniform
graphics band in the station will assist passengers in finding the services and transportation facilities desired.
8.3.4 INTERMODAL STATIONS (2001)
a. Intermodal stations are effective in promoting use of public transport since they reduce the time lost
transferring from one mode of travel to another. Each carrier participating in an intermodal station
benefits from the potential increased revenue resulting from connecting traffic plus reduced operating
expenses by sharing common facilities such as the waiting room, restrooms, parking, and building
maintenance personnel. Each carrier rarely imposes a peak passenger hour at the exact same moment as
the others; consequently, adequate capacity should exist in a station.
b. An effective intermodal station unifies all transit options in a manner that permits the passenger to move
easily from one mode of transport to another. The station peak hour passenger count should be determined
by superimposing all carrier loads. The common circulation concourse or waiting room should have a
unified graphics band to direct passengers to their respective carriers and concession preferences. In larger
stations, each carrier may have its individual waiting area immediately adjacent to the departure point of
the transit vehicles.
c. The majority of intermodal stations involve transfers between some type of rail carrier or bus operator. Rail
services, in many areas, have interline agreements with bus companies that permit passengers to travel on a
through ticket and on intercity routes with through checked baggage. Where intercity service is provided,
the intermodal station should have service corridors connecting the rail and bus baggage rooms to facilitate
the transfer to luggage and other materials. Bus companies generally will have individual standards for
loading docks. However, Figure 6-8-2 shows a 45 degree configuration. Right hand loading should be
employed whenever possible. City transit buses may load on a scalloped curb platform with a tail out
condition. A typical platform configuration is shown in Figure 6-8-2.
d. Other types of intermodal stations may be planned but it is not possible to cover every conceivable
combination in this Chapter. The principles of handling passengers are similar regardless of mode.

8.3.5 COMBINATION FREIGHT AND PASSENGER STATIONS (2001)
a. In developing the scope of work for a combination freight and passenger station, it is important to recognize
that each facility may be operating at different hours and some degree of separation and isolation is
desirable. Access to the passenger portion of the station should be very prominent, when compared to the
freight agency, to preclude rail passengers from entering the freight office.
b. As with the other types of stations, the using departments should itemize their requirements on a design
criteria questionnaire. The designer should then apply the needs independently at first, then seek to
identify those project elements that are common and can be shared to reduce capital and operating costs.
8.3.6 HISTORIC BUILDINGS (2001)
Buildings, which have been listed on the National Register of Historic Buildings, must be maintained with the same
general exterior appearance. Benefits of reusing such older stations are public recognition of the railroad station
location and community pride. When a developer acquires a railroad station for rehabilitation, the transportation
areas in the station should either be tastefully restored or modernized as much as possible. It is possible to
aesthetically combine modern materials with historic buildings for an attractive and functional station facility.
1
SECTION 8.4 BUILDING SYSTEMS
8.4.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. The exterior appearance of a rail passenger station should be attractive, fit into the community it serves,
and convey a sense of permanence. The use of distinctive architectural elements in all stations of a
transportation system can serve as marketing tool, promote public recognition, and be a source of 3
community pride.
Exterior materials such as masonry, precast concrete, stone or similar hard durable products should be used.
Windows and doors should be made of high quality commercial grade storefront elements. Where metal and
wood panels are employed, they should be kept away from the grade line to prevent corrosion and rot.
b. The selection of exterior finishes should result in low maintenance costs by using only materials that do not 4
require work at less than eight year cycles. Where platform canopies are employed, the exterior finishes of
the station should be utilized to whatever extent possible in order to create a unified appearance.
A good rule of thumb would be to employ no more than three types of exterior materials.
c. In order to minimize solar heat gains, overhangs above windows will help to reduce air conditioning loads.
Also, the selection of glass type for windows and doors can also contribute to energy savings. However,
glazing may be more a function of geographic location and climate conditions.
8.4.2 INTERIOR FINISHES (2001)
a. Public and employee spaces in station buildings should be constructed of hard durable surfaces that reduce
maintenance, are vandal resistant, and still maintain an attractive appearance. Walls within the station
should utilize, if possible, the masonry of the exterior wall, painted concrete block, glazed block, and/or
plastic laminated wall products.

Figure 6-8-2. Bus Loading Dock Layouts

b. Floor finishes can be quarry tile, terrazzo or terrazzo epoxy tile. In non-public areas, the floors can be
treated concrete floors. Ceilings can be of a variety of materials depending on the architectural look desired.
In public areas as well as in non-public areas, ceilings will have to meet building code requirements or
regulations. When suspended ceilings are employed, access to the ceiling space should be provided.
c. If gypsum wallboard is used in the station, it should be backed up with plywood to prevent puncturing. In
restroom areas, partitions should be constructed of masonry, if possible. In large intercity stations,
consideration should be given to utilizing softer finishes in order to control noise and to enhance the
comfort of the passenger. Carpeting should also be considered for use in waiting room areas.
d. In commuter stations, wall finishes should be of a hard durable surface and vandal resistant. Floors can be
treated concrete, terrazzo, and/or terrazzo epoxy tile. Ceilings can be lay-in acoustic metal tile or gypsum board.
e. In non-public spaces, commercial office finishes may be used. Baggage areas and storeroom walls can be
painted concrete block or metal stud partitions. In baggage areas, a plywood wainscot should be utilized if a
metal stud and gypsum wallboard is used for partitions.
8.4.3 STRUCTURAL TYPES (2001)
a. The type of construction will be influenced by the size and location of the station building. Small stations
may utilize exterior bearing walls with clear span joists, or pre-engineered building systems. Larger
stations will likely employ structural steel or reinforced concrete frames.
In selecting a structural system, the station designer and structural engineer should collaborate on the most
economical structural system possible to complement the intended design. In addition, the structural
system employed should allow for expansion of the station in the future, if necessary. If expansion occurs, it 1
will most likely be parallel to the railroad tracks. Areas most likely to require expansion in a station are the
waiting room, baggage room, and ticket counter area.
Interior columns and bearing walls should be placed such that they do not limit expansion.
b. Design loads for floors and roofs will be dictated by local codes and/or regulations.
3
SECTION 8.5 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
8.5.1 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (2001) 4

a. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems can be supplied in variety of forms in order to
meet the desired design needs. Prepackaged systems and/or individual equipment may be utilized based
upon the size of the areas to be served. The optimum choice would dictate that the system be highly energy
efficient, provide low cost operation, and be easily maintained. Consideration should be given to purchasing
the same type of equipment for each station, in order to minimize maintenance parts and standardizing
service.
b. Before designing an HVAC system, the designer should review local building codes and/or regulations for
specific requirements. Assistance in sizing system requirements can be found in the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning (ASHRAC) handbook.
c. When designing the heating and air conditioning system, consideration should be given to establishing zone
control of the system. Each area served would then be controlled by individual thermostats. Thermostats

should be tamper-proof and key-controlled, in order to avoid having numerous individuals attempting to
adjust the thermostat to meet their own individual criteria.
d. Ventilation can be provided by introducing make-up air into the primary air handling equipment. When
food preparation areas are present, adequate tempered make-up air will be necessary in order to replace
exhaust hood air. Restrooms will require independent exhaust air systems. Outside air intakes should be
located away from railroad tracks and roadways in order to avoid sucking in exhaust fumes from
locomotives and motor vehicles.
8.5.2 PLUMBING (2001)
a. Sanitary facilities located within a station must be sized in accordance with local building code requirements
and/or regulations. Where possible, restrooms should be placed back to back with a common pipe chase in
order to minimize cost. The size of the chase should consider future maintenance. Also, piping should be
run in pipe chassis wherever possible and accessible clean outs provided.
b. Fixtures selected for use in the station should be of the highest commercial grade. Hot water heaters should
be located near the fixtures being served, but not accessible to the public.
c. In some stations, it may be necessary to have two water systems: one system, providing potable water, to
service public facilities; a second system, providing service water, to service equipment needs and possible
train service watering. In these cases, it is important to consult local building codes and/or regulations
concerning preventive devices that must be provided. When train service watering is required, refer to
Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals for the requirements for train watering systems.

SECTION 8.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
8.6.1 LIGHTING (2001)
a. Illumination levels are shown in Figure 6-8-4. These values are typical and may have to be adjusted to suit
local conditions, codes, and/or regulations. Where values are not shown, the recommendations of the
Illumination Engineering Society should be followed. Lighting levels on boarding platforms are discussed in
Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals.
Table 6-8-4. Illumination Levels
Exterior Interior
Around entire periphery of building Waiting Areas 20–30 fc
25 feet from exterior walls: 5 fc. Restrooms 30 fc
Increase level to 10 fc at Primary public
entrances.
Ticket Sales 100 fc
Ticket Back Office 100 fc
Corridors 20 fc
Stairways and Elevators 20 fc
Baggage Sort Area (Bag Room) 50 fc
Baggage Storage (Bag Room) 20 fc
Baggage Claim Area 50 fc
1
General Clerical Offices 75 fc
Crew and Locker Rooms 20 fc
Storage Areas (Any Dept.) 10–20 fc
Public and Employee Lounges 10–20 fc
Other areas not specified unless shown to be higher 20 fc
in IES Handbook. 3
Note 1: Where ranges are shown, lighting should be adjusted to tasks performed in specific portions of the space.
A balance between light sources, i.e. incandescent accent lighting with HID or fluorescent general
lighting, can provide a pleasing environment without significantly increasing overall wattage per square
foot. Indirect lighting in lounges and portions of waiting areas can also be effective at providing a
comfortable environment.
b. The control of lighting should be accomplished from the ticket office. In waiting rooms, fixtures should be 4
alternately wired to permit a 50% reduction of lighting levels during periods when natural lighting is
available. Platform lighting should be controlled from the ticket office.
c. Efficient light sources should be used. Where ceiling heights are less than 12 feet, fluorescent lamps should
be used. Where ceiling heights exceed 12 feet, color corrected HID lamps should be used.
8.6.2 POWER (2001)
a. The general distribution scheme for power will be dictated by the service available from the utility company
and the maximum connected load. Most railroad stations require electric service reflective of commercial
businesses of like size. The location of power distribution equipment should be placed in an accessible
location in the station. In small buildings, this can be in the baggage room. In larger stations, a separate
electric distribution room and/or transformer vault may be necessary. All electrical work should be designed
and installed in accordance with local codes and electric utility company rules.

b. Where train standby power is required to serve passenger cars on the station tracks, a significant increase in
electric service will be required. Refer to Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals for details on 480 volt and 220
volt train standby power.
c. Since most railroad stations are classified as places of public assembly, emergency lighting for the
evacuation of the building in the event of power failure is often required. The use of unitary nickel-
cadmium or lead acid battery packs strategically placed around the building will provide at least 30 minutes
of light. Where a large number of units are required, consideration should be given to a central bank of
lead-acid batteries.
d. Tractors and small vehicles used in the station are often electrically powered. Provisions for charging
batteries should be made. If batteries are lead-acid types, provisions for positive ventilation should be
coordinated with the mechanical designer.
8.6.3 ESCALATORS/ELEVATORS (2001)
a. Elevators should be installed in multi-level stations and/or where multi-level areas cannot be reached by
ADA compliant ramps. Elevator cab size should be sufficient to accommodate wheelchair access. The entire
elevator installation must meet current ADA requirements. When elevators are used in a station,
consideration must be given to service interruptions required for routine inspection and service. Elevators
used to move baggage between levels should be of sufficient size to accommodate baggage carts. Local
building codes and/or regulations should be consulted for specific requirements.
b. Escalators used in stations should be sized to meet peak passenger loads. Escalators should be located
adjacent to stairways serving the same levels.
8.6.4 TRAIN INFORMATION SYSTEMS (2001)
a. Public address systems should be provided to make announcements of train arrivals and departures.
Speakers should be low power types, closely spaced to reduce reverberation. The microphone locations
should be at the ticket counter, information counter, and in the boarding areas. Where multiple platforms
are constructed, consideration to zoning the PA system to permit targeted announcements should be made.
In intermodal stations, a common public address system should be provided with all carriers having access
to make announcements in the common areas of the station. One method to accomplish this is the use of
telephone tone access input to the PA amplifier.
b. The display of train arrival and departure information should be accomplished using annunciation boards or
video display units (CRTs). In small stations, manually operated menu or slat board behind the ticket
counter is adequate. In larger stations, a central display system manipulated by the stationmaster or a
computer microprocessor can display the same information at many locations throughout the station.
Newer computer based systems can also synthesize speech for train announcements.
8.6.5 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) (2001)
In some passenger station locations, CCTV may be useful for crowd management as well as security. Within the
station, CCTV can be used to cover public waiting areas, stairways, corridors and ticket window locations. CCTV
can also be used to monitor parking lots and passenger drop-off points.
Monitors can be installed in the ticket agent’s office and in the local police station and railroad security office if
necessary. Each monitor should be equipped and/or linked to a recording device capable of recording events on
demand 24 hours per day.

8.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS SUPPORT (2001)
a. A raceway system for installation of telephone wiring should be designed into the station building.
Raceways should be routed to a telephone backboard in accordance with phone company requirements. In
addition to the business phones, the raceway system should also include public telephones, data lines to
modems, and special occupant phone services such as motel/hotel reservation centers and car rental
concessions. If a large number of tenants are located in the station building, consideration must be given to
a private exchange or electronic switching unit to provide phone services from the local phone company
service point to the individual tenant. If private railway telephone systems are routed through the building,
adequate space for frame rooms and wiring routes must be provided. Private railway communications
systems often employ microwave of fiber-optic transmission equipment. Adequate space and support
facilities such as emergency standby power and ventilation should be considered.
b. If any of the personnel in the station require a radio base station, consideration should be given to the
installation of an antenna mast on the roof of the station with a standard electrical weatherhead. This mast
will preclude later cutting and patching of new roofing by personnel not experienced as roofing mechanics.
SECTION 8.7 PLATFORMS
8.7.1 GENERAL (2001)

1
A platform is a structure or area adjacent to tracks for passenger boarding or alighting. Platforms are located on
single track lines and multiple track lines. On single track lines platforms are provided on the same side of the
track as the station building. In commuter territories where no station may exist, the platform is located nearest
to public access and parking. On single track lines, platforms are generally located on the “inbound” side of the
track which would allow for a second track to be built in the future.
Along multiple track lines, platforms are located on the “inbound” track and “outbound“ track and always to the 3
outside of the track. When three or more tracks are used for passenger services island platforms are used. Island
platforms are also used where site conditions and/or station configuration make outside platforms difficult to build.
To facilitate movement of passengers, platforms should be situated considering the location of the station, shelters,
parking areas and points of public access. When platforms are located near existing roadways and grade crossings,
interruption of traffic at crossing gates should be minimized if at all possible, and boarding trains across active
tracks is to be avoided. Appropriate signage should be provided to identify the station and direct passengers to 4
parking areas, pickup locations and other helpful information. Refer to 8.2.2.4 for additional signage information.
Platforms should be located on tangent track whenever possible in order to provide the train crew with a full view
of the passengers, and to allow the passengers a view of oncoming trains. When curved platforms are unavoidable,
a limitation of 1o40’ of curvature or one inch in elevation of outer rail is desirable. If curvature or elevation of the
outside rail exceeds this limit alternative platform locations should be considered. Also, platforms should be
located clear of switches and outside of signaled areas of an interlocking.
8.7.2 PLATFORM DIMENSIONS (2001)
Platform lengths are based upon car length, plus number of cars and a margin of 40 feet for braking. Actual
platform lengths will vary according to site constraints and train operational requirements. Platforms will vary in
length depending on the service being provided and whether or not the station is served by either diesel or electric
type motive power. Minimum platform lengths may vary from 210 lineal feet in length (3 cars for diesel, 2 cars for
electric) to 890 lineal feet (11 cars for diesel). Along some lines platform lengths may be longer.

Platforms are also defined as high level platforms, low level platforms, side platforms and island platforms. Each
platform type is also governed by minimum standard platform dimensions such as shown in the following chart.
Minimum Standard Platform Dimensions

Low Level Platforms 8” above top of rail
5’-6” from centerline of adjacent track to edge of platform
High Level Platforms 4’-3-1/2” above top of rail
5’-7” from centerline of adjacent track to edge of platform
Side Platform Width Minimum 10’-0”
Island Platform Width Minimum 15’-0”
NOTE: Minimums may vary according to individual railroad standards, state and/or regulatory
requirements.
For additional information regarding setback requirements for such things as buildings, shelters, columns and
platform furniture refer to Chapter 28 Clearances of this manual.
8.7.3 PLATFORM ACCESS (2001)
Passenger access to the platform area may be through the station and at other points away from the station itself.
Stairways, handicap accessible ramps and elevators may need to be provided in order to accommodate both
arriving and departing passengers. Access points to the platform should be clearly visible and/or signed in order to
allow for swift and safe passenger movement to and from trains. At stations where tunnels are used to access
platforms, tunnel widths should be wide enough to accommodate the largest peak flow of passengers and void of
obstructions. When tunnels are used for platform access, tunnel ramps must be designed for handicap access. In
the event adequate space is not available, elevators may be used for handicap access.
Tactile strips must be located along the edge of platform adjacent to the tracks. In high speed rail territory other
measures may be necessary to prohibit passengers from standing too close to the edge of platform. All access
points to the platform must consider these restrictions.
Platform fencing and guardrails should be located along the back side of the platform where there is a vertical drop
of 30 inches or greater, or where active freight tracks are located behind a platform, where there is a sloped
embankment and/or at any location deemed unsafe.
8.7.4 PLATFORM LIGHTING (2001)
Platform lighting is essential to safety and security at station facilities. When platforms are properly illuminated it
will enhance station safety as well as its security. Passengers will perceive greater security when platforms are
properly illuminated and such illumination will provide for increased safety of the passengers as they board and
deboard trains.
Fixtures used for platform lighting should be waterproof and vandal resistant. Fixtures should preferably be pole
mounted and canopy fixtures should be recessed if possible. Lamping used for platform lighting should be
identical, as should the lamping used for canopy fixtures.
Wiring for platform fixtures should be run underground in PVC ductbanks and in conduit above grade. All wiring
should be copper and conform to requirements of the National Electric Code and local codes and ordinances.

Platform lighting should be situated in a manner to illuminate station identification signage and any other useful
passenger information signage. For added safety and security closed circuit television cameras can be installed
along the platform. Effective use of the cameras at night will be dependent upon the level of illumination on the
platform. When closed circuit television is used for added safety and security monitors should be installed in the
local police department as well as railroad security office. Monitors should be accompanied by recording devices
capable of recording any incident on command 24 hours per day.
SECTION 8.8 STATION AND PLATFORM EXAMPLES
The following are examples of stations and platform types used around the United States.

Figure 6-8-3. Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 1
Figure 6-8-4. Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 2
Figure 6-8-5. Communter Station
Figure 6-8-6. Intermodal Passenger Station

Figure 6-8-7. Commuter Passenger Station - Example 1

6
Part 9
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
Equipment Repair Shops1
— 1995 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2 1

9.1.1 Foreword (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
9.1.2 Scope and Purpose (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
9.1.3 Operations (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.4 Location (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.5 Organization (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.6 Design Considerations (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
3
9.2 Machine Maintenance Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.1 Small Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.2 Medium Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.3 Large Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.4 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3 Other Workshop Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5

9.3.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.2 Paint Shop (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.3 Carpentry Shop (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.4 Motor Car Repair (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.5 Shop Equipment Repair and Maintenance (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.6 Engine Rebuild Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.7 Machine Shop (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.8 Hydraulic Repair (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.9 Electrical Machine Repair Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.10 Steel Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.11 Electronic Equipment Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.3.12 Wash Bay (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.3.13 Test Bay (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
1
References, Vol. 96, p. 35.

9.4 Machine and Material Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8

9.4.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.5 Support Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9

9.5.1 Office (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.2 Special Requirements (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.3 Lunch and Locker Rooms (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.4 Toilet Facilities (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.5 Tool Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.6 Materials Management Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.7 Flammable Storage (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.8 First Aid Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.9 Typical Facility Arrangements (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
LIST OF FIGURES
6-9-1 Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-11

6-9-2 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-12
6-9-3 Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-13
6-9-4 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-14
6-9-5 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – North Bay, Ont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-15
9.1.1 FOREWORD (1995)
a. A maintenance-of-way equipment repair complex provides a facility for the overhauling, rebuilding and
modifying of railway machines, work equipment and specialized power tools, which are used in
maintenance-of-way operations.
b. The shop may also be used to directly support field operations with the supply of parts and technical
expertise.
9.1.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE (1995)
a. The purpose of these criteria is to provide a description and layout of facilities for a centralized work
equipment shop and to recommend equipment service areas. Figure 6-9-1 through Figure 6-9-5 are shown
as an aid in visualizing typical repair shops and the layout of equipment and service areas.
b. Heating, lighting, plumbing and other incidental mechanical items would be a part of these buildings;
however, they are not included in these criteria.

Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way of Equipment Repair Shops
9.1.3 OPERATIONS (1995)
a. The major operations performed in a centralized maintenance-of-way repair complex are dismantling,
cleaning, repairing, reassembling, quality control, testing and painting of overhauled machines.
b. These operations are supported by other incidental services, such as carpentry, steel fabricating, forging,
welding, hydraulic component repair, testing, etc., in order to make it possible to perform minor repairs to
small tools, as well as major overhauls to self-powered equipment.
9.1.4 LOCATION (1995)
a. For small or medium size railways, the location of a centralized work equipment shop should be as close to
the center of the railroad as practical, with consideration being given to the availability of suitable land, rail
service, available manpower, housing, etc.
b. For large railroads, a network of two or three shops may be required. Considerations that would determine
the shop network and locations are:
• cost of movement of equipment to the shops;

• travel and support cost for field inspection and repairs;
• savings from consolidation of the spare parts inventory;
• land values and building construction costs, including conversion costs if existing buildings can be used.
1
c. Depending on the methodology used for track maintenance, it may be desirable to locate the shop adjacent
to the yard where “work trains” are assembled. In this case, adjacent storage and facilities are required for
boarding cars, spare parts cars, and flat cars to transport machines to the work site.
9.1.5 ORGANIZATION (1995)
a. The shop is normally a part of the engineering department and operates under the jurisdiction of the chief
3
engineer, with the superintendent of work equipment as the immediate supervisor.
b. On a large railroad the superintendent and staff will operate an organization of 200 employees, more or less,
of various crafts.
c. On a small railroad fewer employees are required to perform the necessary operations; however, the
organization would remain essentially the same.
4
9.1.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (1995)

a. The scope of the shop functions. These may vary considerably from one railway to another, and in addition
to on track maintenance-of-way equipment, might include maintenance of:
• Non-rail equipment: bulldozers, diggers, rubber tired cranes and tractors.

• Hy-rail trucks and equipment.
• Boarding cars.
• Track geometry testing cars and equipment.
• Hand held power tools.

b. The operating plan for the railway’s track maintenance activity. This may be an all year operation, or may
be a seasonal activity with the equipment receiving detailed inspection, repair and overhaul at the shop
during the winter period.
c. The extent of contracting out for repair or overhaul of components and sub assemblies.
d. The split of field and shop maintenance and repair activities, and the support to the field activities given
from the shop.
e. The mix of equipment in the railway’s fleet. In general, on track maintenance-of-way equipment falls into
the following categories.
(1) Small machines, dimensions not exceeding 10 feet, weight less than 7,000 lb. Adzes, spike pullers,
spikers, tie drillers are examples of this category of machines
(2) Medium machines, up to 35 feet long and 60,000 lb weight. Most tampers, ballast regulators, scarifiers,
tie cranes and tie inserters are in this category.
(3) Large machines. These may be up to 200 feet long and 160 tons weight. Large tamping machines, large
ballast compactors and multi-function machines such as rail changeout machines and ballast
undercutters/cleaners are examples of this category.
(4) Small and medium machines normally travel to the work site on flat cars. Large machines can usually
travel at 50 mph or faster using their own traction power, or be incorporated in a train consist.
SECTION 9.2 MACHINE MAINTENANCE AREA
9.2.1 SMALL MACHINES AREA (1995)
a. Direct rail access is desirable but machines may be lifted off of the track for maintenance. Short lengths of
rail embedded in the floor may be provided for the work locations. Pits are not required, and a flat floor is
desirable for maximum flexibility in the use of this area. A 10 ton crane should cover this area.
b. Jib cranes of 2 ton capacity may be used at each work location but shop operating procedures must deal with
the risk of conflict between the shop overall craneage and the jib cranes.
9.2.2 MEDIUM MACHINES AREA (1995)
Direct rail access is required. Pits should be provided between the rails for a proportion, generally less than 50% of
the tracks in this area, depending on the requirements of the machines to be maintained. 30 ton cranes with 10 ton
auxiliary hoists should cover this area. Jib cranes as in Article 9.2.1 may also be provided.
9.2.3 LARGE MACHINES AREA (1995)
Direct rail access is essential. Pits should be provided between the rails and pedestal track 20 – 26 above the
floor may be considered, depending on the type of equipment being maintained. 50 ton overhead craneage with 20
ton synchronized jacks is also desirable. Jib cranes as in Article 9.2.1 may also be provided.

9.2.4 GENERAL (1995)
a. Minimum crane hook height should be 30 feet to allow one machine to be lifted over another.
b. Tracks should be at 20 feet centers adjacent to columns and 25 feet between columns to allow for fork lift
truck movement down a center aisle.
c. The floor loading should be sufficient to allow use of boiler synchronized jacking.
d. Compressed air, (100 CFM) 110V AC electricity and 480/575V AC outlets for electric arc welding should be
provided throughout this area.
e. Piped in lubrication systems engine/hydraulic oil, grease and engine coolant, with hoses on self reeling
drums are desirable in these areas, together with waste oil and water systems. Distribution systems may
also be considered for Oxygen and cutting/welding gases.
f. Exhaust ventilation at each machine spot is essential. This may take the form of an outlet to which a large
diameter hose may be attached or exhaust hose reels. Four, five or six inch diameter hoses may be required
depending on the engine size.
SECTION 9.3 OTHER WORKSHOP AREAS

1
9.3.1 GENERAL (1995)
The requirements of these areas are stated, but the necessity of some of the areas will depend on the railways’
policy for contracting out of repair and overhaul of components and subassemblies. The requirement for
component or subassembly repair shops should be based upon Economic Level of Repair Analyses for all
repairables, with consideration given to the quantity to be repaired, transportation cost, inventory costs, repair 3
times, setup costs, including shop space, tools and test equipment, training and quality. Also, for smaller facilities,
many of the functions of these shops will be combined into general workshop areas. The sizes of the areas when
given indicate typical sizes of single function shops, as they might be found in a large facility.
9.3.2 PAINT SHOP (1995)
a. Machines, when repaired, are painted and stenciled in this shop. It should be equipped with a pit to allow 4
painting the underside of machines.
b. The painting should be performed in a booth of sufficient size to accommodate, within reason, the largest
piece of equipment expected to be repainted plus space to work around the machine. The shop should also
have air filtration equipment to capture the paint fog to prevent its being exhausted into the atmosphere.
c. A sprinkler or fire-suppression system, explosion-proof lighting, heating and ventilating equipment should
be provided, as required by local codes and regulatory agencies.
d. It is desirable that the paint shop should have an exterior wall.
9.3.3 CARPENTRY SHOP (1995)
a. All wooden assemblies for roadway machines and work equipment are fabricated, or repaired in this area,
including repairs to wooden portions of motorcar decks.

b. All boxes and crates are made in this area for items requiring them, and wooden shields installed on
windshield glasses to protect them from vandalism during shipment.
c. All replacement of glass and repairs to seats and canvas items are made in this area, which should contain a
canvas rack, large cutting table and an industrial type sewing machine.
d. Minimum size of a separate Carpentry Shop would be 400 square feet.
9.3.4 MOTOR CAR REPAIR (1995)
a. In this area motor cars are stripped, repaired and reassembled. Area should be equipped with a single dry
pedestal grinder, solvent vat, test stands, work bench and hydraulic press.
b. Minimum size of a separate Motor Car Repair Shop would be 50 feet by 30 feet.
9.3.5 SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE (1995)

a. This area should have adequate work benches and material storage bins for the maintenance machinist in
charge of repairs to shop machines, cranes, power plant and other terminal facilities.
b. The area should be equipped for storage of small items and components from work in progress. Major
components should be stored within the stores.
c. Electrical assemblies from light plant and electric welders, electric power tools, etc., would be repaired in this area.
d. Minimum size of this area would be 400 square feet.
9.3.6 ENGINE REBUILD AREA (1995)

a. All large gasoline and diesel engines are stripped repaired, reassembled, and such items as carburetors, fuel
pumps, and air cleaners are rebuilt in this area.
b. Machine work is performed in this shop, such as reboring cylinders, line boring of main bearings, grinding
and fitting of pistons, fitting and applying wrist pins, facing of valve seats, grinding of valves, and
reassembling block and internal engine parts.
c. One and two cylinder air-cooled engines, rail saws, small light plant and other such items are repaired and
tested in this area on an engine test-out stand.
d. A 50 ton hydraulic press and engine rebuilding stands should be provided to facilitate the handling of engine
units while they are undergoing repairs and testing.
e. A separate area is required for the testing of large gasoline and diesel engines on engine dynamometer test
stands and fine adjustments made before engines are released from the shop. Engines should be broken in
at full operating RPMs for approximately four hours before being taken off the test stands. For
small/medium size engines, dynamometer capacity of 100–200 hp is required. Large machines may require
500 hp. Noise insulation is essential for this area. An external fuel tank with a fuel supply to this area is
desirable.
f. Noise and air pollution are important factors in the design of this area, which must be in compliance with
local codes and regulatory agencies.

9.3.7 MACHINE SHOP (1995)
This shop should be equipped with various types and sizes of lathes, boring mills, drill presses, grinders, milling
machines, hydraulic press with capability of handling any and all types of machine work required by centralized
work equipment shop. A typical size for this shop would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.8 HYDRAULIC REPAIR (1995)
a. Hydraulic assemblies and component parts removed from machines should be held in the stores. Work orders
should be generated for those that are repairable and these sent to the Hydraulic Repair Area or a contractor.
b. The Hydraulic Repair Area should be easy to clean so that dust will be kept to a minimum.
c. This area should be equipped with a hydraulic test stand on which rebuilt assemblies can be tested before
they are released for reinstallation on the individual machines undergoing repair, or placed in the hydraulic
unit storage area.
d. Hydraulic hoses used in connection with repairs to the equipment throughout the entire complex may be
fabricated in this area. The area should be equipped with adequate hose and fitting storage bins, band saw,
hydraulic press, drill press, grinders, a hose cut-off machine and hose fitting application machine.
e. A typical size for this shop in a large facility would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.9 ELECTRICAL MACHINE REPAIR AREA (1995) 1

a. Provision may be made for the rebuilding of all electric vibrator motors and main tamping generators from
track maintainers and tamping power jacks. The area should have an overhead trolley system to allow the
motors and generators to be stripped, reassembled and tested on an “assembly line” basis.
b. Provision should be made for hydraulic presses, double dry grinders, stator coil cutter and sandblast cabinet
for cleaning stator housings after the coils have been removed. 3
c. A vibrator motor test stand should be provided that will permit several motors to be tested simultaneously.
d. If rewinding of electrical machines is contemplated, space should be provided for a large and small
insulation cutter, insulation folder, coil winder drives, coil taping machine, stator hold stands and an
approved type furnace for removal of insulations from scrap stator coils.
4
e. Provision should be made for vacuum impregnation of rewound stator, armatures and field windings.
f. A typical size for this facility would be 600 square feet.
9.3.10 STEEL FABRICATION, WELDING AND SHEET METAL SHOP (1995)
a. Space should be provided for use as a repair and test area for all types of radiators and fuel tanks. A cleaning
and test vat should provided.
b. Adjustable booths should be provided for steel fabrication or repair of assemblies. Individual 5 feet high
canvas or plastic shields should completely surround each booth to protect other employees from the electric
flash created by wire fed welders.
c. Space should be allocated for storage racks for bar steel, sheet steel, angle iron and pipe.
d. An electronic eye semi-automatic shape cutting machine may be located in this shop.

e. A large heating furnace and a machinist welding booth if tamping tools are reclaimed in-house may also be
located in this shop.
f. A forge, metal shear and hole punching machines, a large and small hammer, double dry grinder, welding
booths, exhaust ducting, normalizing furnace, and other equipment and storage areas, may be located in
this area. This area should be covered by an overhead crane of 5 ton capacity.
g. A typical size for this shop would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.11 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT ROOM (1995)
a. This area is provided for the testing of electronic modules, cards, etc., to assess whether they are defective,
before sending them to a contractor or doing the repair in-house.
b. Clean room conditions are required with non-absorbent finishes to wall and flooring and a filtered air supply.
c. Depending on the equipment being tested, various test voltages will be required. Particular consideration needs
to be given to electrical safety as local code provisions may not cover the circumstance experienced in test rooms.
d. The area should be securely locked and access only allowed to designated personnel.
9.3.12 WASH BAY (1995)
A wash bay is required for cleaning of machines prior to maintenance. This should have a depressed floor and
center pits to facilitate access. A packaged boiler unit and plug-in locations for a wash wand should be provided.
9.3.13 TEST BAY (1995)
In northern climates a test bay is desirable. The test bay is a length of ballasted track in a covered, partially heated
area. It is used for functional testing of overhauled machines, such as tampers, tie inserts, spikers, etc. In southern
climates a length of track adjacent to the building may be used.
SECTION 9.4 MACHINE AND MATERIAL HANDLING
9.4.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. An off-loading ramp should be provided to remove machines from flat cars. Entrance to shop tracks may be
provided by switches or a traverser. It is impractical to construct a traverser to handle very large machines,
so these should be provided with dedicated tracks to the facilities they would use.
b. In cold climates, an off-loading gantry to unload and transport machines into the shop should be considered
in view of the difficulty of starting engines and possibility of damage to hydraulic equipment at low
temperature.
c. Within the shops, large machines must be moved on rail tracks. Medium and small machines may be moved
using overhead cranes.
d. It is not expected that an automated materials handling system can be justified for this type of shop.
e. Internal materials handling should be by:

• Tow tractor and trailer for items up to 50 lbs weight.

• Forklift or overhead crane for larger items.
SECTION 9.5 SUPPORT AREAS
9.5.1 OFFICE (1995)
a. Offices will be required for:
• shop supervisors.
• stores supervisors and clerical personnel.
• shop manager.
• general office personnel.
b. These offices should comply with Part 2, Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings. Noise insulation
may be necessary for offices abutting shop floor operations.
9.5.2 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS (1995)

1
a. Shop Supervisors’ Offices should be adjacent to the shop floor area and have a door and a window with a
serving hatch into the shop floor area. Space should be provided for storage of drawings and equipment
manufacturers’ technical information.
b. The stores office should be adjacent to and open direct to the stores area.
c. If possible, the Shop Supervisors’ and Stores Office should have direct access to the General Office area. 3
d. Direct access should not be provided between the Office Reception Area and the Shop Floor.
e. A Conference Room should be provided.
f. A training room should be provided with video facilities and room for storage of training materials. For
smaller shops, this may be combined with the Conference or Lunch Room.
4
9.5.3 LUNCH AND LOCKER ROOMS (1995)
Lunch and Locker room facilities should be provided as required by applicable codes, and provision should also be
made for lunch tables and vending machines. The lunch room should have outside windows.
9.5.4 TOILET FACILITIES (1995)
a. Toilet facilities and water coolers should be provided for shop forces at centralized locations to minimize the
away-from-workstation time.
b. The number of fixtures required is governed by applicable codes and will vary depending on the location.

9.5.5 TOOL ROOM (1995)
A tool room with required security is necessary and should stock all power and hand tools used throughout the
various areas. It should be located adjacent to the store serving hatch to permit issue of tools by stores personnel at
time of low demand.
9.5.6 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AREA (1995)
a. The Store area should be located as near as possible to the center areas of the Workshop areas.
b. Proper attention should be given to providing adequate security.
c. The Stores should have a serving hatch, a personnel door and a forklift truck door adjacent to each other
and forming the only communication to Workshop areas.
d. An external Reception/Dispatch area should be provided with:
• at least one truck dock.
• provision for delivery in light vans.
• a loading/unloading dock for rail cars and parts cars.
e. An analysis of the optimum method of storage and distribution around the shop should be done before design
of the Stores area. However, it is expected that only very large facilities would be able to justify automated
picking systems. Provision should normally be made for small bin, shelving and pallet racking storage.
9.5.7 FLAMMABLE STORAGE (1995)
a. Flammable materials should be stored in a room on the outside of the main building. An open, secure
storage area may also be required for bottled gases, flammable or toxic materials.
b. Particular attention should be given to this area with regard to insurance requirements and local fire
regulations.
c. A sprinkler system or fire-suppression system may be necessary.
9.5.8 FIRST AID ROOM (1995)
A first aid room and eye wash facilities are required, according to local regulations, codes, and agreements.
9.5.9 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENTS (1995)
a. In view of the many different design considerations, there is no universal ideal solution and these facilities need
to be tailored to the specific requirements of the railway. Figure 6-9-1 and Figure 6-9-2 show site and building
plans for purpose-built shops for a class 1 railway. Figure 6-9-3 and Figure 6-9-4 show site and building plans
for a major extension of a facility. Figure 6-9-5 shows the building layout for the shop of a smaller railway.
b. In many cases, an existing building is converted for use as a maintenance-of-way equipment repair shop. In
considering buildings for this conversion, the most important factor is the provision of sufficient overhead
cranes.

Figure 6-9-1. Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN

Figure 6-9-2. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN

Figure 6-9-3. Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC

1

Figure 6-9-4. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC

Figure 6-9-5. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – North Bay, Ont.

3


6
Part 10
Design Criteria for Observation Towers
— 2002 —
FOREWORD
An observation tower is an elevated structure from which supervisory personnel can visually supervise yard crews
and yard engine operations. Observation towers are located in classification yards, intermodal facilities, auto
loading/unloading facilities and coach yards.
The observation tower permits the yardmaster not only to visually supervise yard crews but also to develop greater
switching efficiency through better switch crew utilization. Towers are generally located at the switching end or
lead end of the yard for rail operations and near the middle of the yard for other types of facilities. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2

10.1.1 Site Consideration (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2

10.2.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.3 Tower Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3

10.3.1 General Construction Materials (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3
10.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Facilities and Equipment (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-4
10.4 Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5

10.4.1 Tower Size (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.2 Tower Roof Overhang (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.3 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.4 Tower Furnishings (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.5 Towers (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5

LIST OF FIGURES
6-10-1 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-6

6-10-2 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-7
6-10-3 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-9
6-10-4 Prefabricated Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-8
6-10-5 Tower Constructed as Part of Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-10
6-10-6 Automobile Mixing Center Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-11
6-10-7 Typical Glass Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-12
10.1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION (2002)
a. The primary function of the observation tower is to observe yard operations and to better supervise
switching operations. Location of the observation tower is a very important consideration. The optimum
height from the top of rail or pavement to the observation tower floor is generally 30 to 40 feet for rail
operations and 15 to 25 feet at other locations. The site location for the yard tower should be determined by
the track geometry of the particular yard location. As a rule, the tower should be 50 feet back from the
switching lead to permit observation of switching operations, and at the centerline of the classification
tracks to permit maximum observation down the line of classification tracks. Towers for other types of
operation should be located near the center of the operation for good observation of the entire facility.
b. Many rail yards are located within urban areas and are bisected by overhead structures carrying vehicular
traffic. These structures often make it difficult to determine the appropriate height and location for the
construction of a tower. In these cases, it may be advantageous to secure a bucket truck with a high reach
boom and with the local operating supervisor determine both an appropriate height and location for the
tower based upon actual observation. Once a location and height have been agreed upon the tower floor
height can then be determined by actual field measurement.
SECTION 10.2 TYPES
10.2.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. Observation towers may be constructed as independent structures, as a part of a multi-story building, or as

an addition to an already existing building.
b. Independent towers are purely functional structures, and economic considerations generally dictate that
they be constructed of the most economical materials available. The size, height and location as well as
other considerations may also contribute to the choice of materials selected for the tower construction.
c. When constructed as a part of a new facility and/or an addition to an already existing building, the choice of
materials used to construct the tower may be dictated by the building that will support the tower. In any event
the location of the tower under these circumstances is extremely important to the effectiveness of the tower itself.

SECTION 10.3 TOWER CONSTRUCTION
10.3.1 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS (2002)
a. The construction and aesthetics of the overall building structure will determine materials used in the
construction of a tower. Lightweight, fire resistive, standard components should be used at all times. Material
types to be considered for the construction of an observation tower should be structural steel, aluminum tube
framing, masonry, concrete, standard window wall components, and metal flooring and roof decking materials.
Interior finishes and materials chosen need to recognize that acoustical treatment must be of the utmost
consideration, since the tower will contain large areas of reflective surfaces and equipment such as printers
and radios which will (may) generate significant noise levels. Consequently, carpeting may be better suited
than vinyl tile on the floor and acoustic tile ceilings may be more effective than ordinary dry wall ceilings.
Wall coverings as well also need to be considered.
b. State, provincial, local, ANSI, and ADA codes and regulations will require the inclusion of an elevator in the
design of the tower in order to accommodate handicap accessibility. Stairways leading to the tower floor
level may be interior and/or exterior. However, local codes may require that the tower floor be served by at
least two stairways. Interior stairways may be concrete filled metal pan stairways while exterior stairs
should be open metal stairways with open grating type treads.
c. Glazing should be located only on the faces of the tower where yard operations are to be observed. This is
usually on three tower walls with the fourth wall used for a toilet room, service panels, heating/cooling
equipment and other essential services.
1
The lower and upper glass line should be dictated by line of sight. The lower glass line should be as close to
the floor as possible, allowing sufficient space for heating baseboard units, service outlets, conduit, etc. The
upper glass line should be located above the eye line for a 95th percentile man who is standing. In most
cases, points of observation are all below eye level in the yard and glass above this point is unnecessary and
will help to reduce sun glare and sky brightness.
Use of thermal break frames with thermopane or triple pane glazing with low E glass for all observation
3
windows will reduce solar gain, heat loss and help to eliminate the possibility of condensation and fogging of
the glass surface.
Glare reducing glass is not recommended for use in observation towers. This type of glass reduces night
visibility at a time when visibility is most critical. Additional heat gain that may result from not using this
type of glass can be compensated for during the day by providing increased air conditioning.
4
Tower glazing may be installed vertically or sloped. Use of sloped glazing does have some disadvantages even
though it is used widely. Sloped glazing places additional stress on the glass making the glass more susceptible to
cracking which is especially true of insulating glass. Sloped glazing also tends to reflect the overhead lighting and
to increase distortion and reduce vision as the sight line passes through a greater thickness and density of glass.
Where vehicle bridges are close by and/or a history of shootings is present at the site, it may be prudent to
consider bulletproof glazing on those sides of the tower most vulnerable to these types of incidents.
d. For observation towers the maximum standard size sash should be used. Use of vertical mullions is not a
problem; however, care should be taken not to locate mullions in the center of critical viewing areas. Corner
columns can create a visual problem and should be avoided. Use of sealed corner glazing should be used
rather than mullions at corners.
Use of vertical pivoted sash for towers is desirable since this type of sash would permit window washing
from the inside of the tower. If fixed sash is used, a catwalk should be provided for washing windows.

10.3.2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT (2002)
a. Towers whether independent structures or an integral part of another structure should have easily
accessible toilet facilities. The number and type of fixtures to be provided should be derived from the local
building code and/or regulations. The toilet facility(ies) must also be ADA compliant.
In independent towers, toilets should preferably be accessible to personnel at the observation level. Additional
facilities may be included at a lower level to accommodate other personnel. Towers located in other types of
buildings should be equipped with at least one toilet or facilities in the immediate vicinity of the tower itself.
Water and drain lines serving towers should be well insulated and in some cases equipped with heat tracing
in order to prevent freezing. Water supply lines, drain lines and interior downspouts located in pipe chases
on outside walls in cold climates should be insulated and heat traced in order to prevent freezing.
Drain lines should be equipped with cleanouts that are easily accessible. All plumbing shall meet state and
local codes.
b. Towers should be adequately heated, ventilated and air-conditioned. Ventilation requirements should be in
accordance with current ASHRAE recommendations.
Heating and air conditioning systems should be provided which will adequately heat and cool the tower.
Special consideration must be given to the exposure factor and the large amount of glass area within the tower.
Almost any type of fuel and heating system can be used for heating the tower. Electric heating is
particularly suited to independent tower structures. Heating can be combined with cooling in rooftop units
and/or unit heaters if adequate wall space is available. Baseboard heating is also suitable if through wall
package air conditioning units are considered.
Use of economizer cycles should be considered in the air conditioning design. However, careful
consideration should be given to its effect on humidity control.
c. The tower electrical system design must conform to the latest edition of the National Electrical Code, state
or local code. The designer should make use of products which are tested and certified by qualified and
recognized testing laboratories such as the Underwriters Laboratory (U.L.).
Conduits, raceways, boxes, conductors and feeders should be sized according to current requirements along
with additional capacity for the addition of equipment. Spare conduits should be considered for future use.
A standby system should be provided as a backup for vital equipment and/or computer systems. In addition, surge
protection should be utilized where appropriate (computer equipment) and should conform to NEC Article 280.
Communication equipment should be powered through dedicated circuits and have an emergency backup
power system. This emergency power system could be a UPS system, generator and/or secondary utility
company power source.
Communication, telephone and any large electrical equipment items should be located either below the
main floor level of the tower or in a separate well-ventilated room and in some cases air conditioned space.
Design of the interior tower lighting must take into consideration any adjustment and/or flexibility needed
to produce the most ideal conditions possible in order to carry out outside observance tasks at all times of
the day or night and in all types of weather.
Appropriate general lighting must be provided as well as spot or individual shielded lighting for reading
panels, consoles, switch lists, etc. Lighting fixture rheostats should be installed on all general lighting to
furnish the required contrast between inside and outside natural lighting conditions.

Outside yard lighting must be designed and located in conjunction with the tower design and location in
order to avoid blinding the tower occupant and augment his task.
SECTION 10.4 SPECIAL FEATURES
10.4.1 TOWER SIZE (2002)
a. The actual tower size will be determined on the basis of the number of employees who will be in the
observation portion of the tower during a work shift, and; the amount and size of consoles, cabinets, CCTV
monitors, and type of radio equipment used in this area.
Adequate if not minimal space must be provided around the equipment to either repair and/or replace that
equipment without totally disrupting operations. Location of the equipment in a manner that will not
impair in any way the maximum visibility factor.
10.4.2 TOWER ROOF OVERHANG (2002)
a. Towers should be constructed with adequate roof overhang in order to reduce sun glare, sky brightness and
heat transfer. In some cases, installation of venetian blinds and/or transparent solar screens may be
necessary in order to reduce glare.
1
10.4.3 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) (2002)
a. CCTV has been used for the supervision of yards associated with maintenance facilities where the
accessibility of the yard supervisor to the rest of the management team may override the desirability of
direct line of sight observation of the yard. It may also be used where shop and yard supervisory functions
are the responsibility of the same person.
3
CCTV may also be used to extend the area that may be observed from an observation tower, particularly
when observation of critical areas may be obstructed by physical features such as bridges. If and when
CCTV is used to extend the vision of the yard from the tower, care should be taken to ensure visibility of the
CCTV monitor under all conditions of natural and artificial lighting.
10.4.4 TOWER FURNISHINGS (2002) 4

a. Countertop work areas specifically designed for the tower area work stations are particularly advantageous
over standard office type furniture. Cabinetry can be constructed beneath the countertop to meet the needs
of each work station. Drawers for files, paperwork and supplies can be provided along with specially
designed computer monitor niches and keyboard sliding trays.
The use of counter type work stations will help to consolidate staff and provide free movement for
supervisors within the observation area. Countertop surfaces should have a matte type finish in order to
reduce glare during the day and light reflection at night.
10.4.5 TOWERS (2002)
a. The following figures are examples of details used for various tower arrangements along with floor plans
and elevations of tower facilities.

Figure 6-10-1. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample A

Figure 6-10-2. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample B

Figure 6-10-4. Prefabricated Tower

Figure 6-10-3. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample C

Figure 6-10-5. Tower Constructed as Part of Coach Shop

Figure 6-10-6. Automobile Mixing Center Facility

Figure 6-10-7. Typical Glass Sections

6
Part 11
Design Criteria for CTC Centers1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
A centralized dispatching facility houses Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) equipment and the personnel to
operate and maintain it. In its broadest sense, CTC is the control center of a transportation network. It
monitors, directs, and controls all train operations, while keeping in almost constant communication with every
activity in its territory. We will be mainly concerned with the building that houses this “Nerve Center.”
Basic design preparation begins with ascertaining the proposed method of operation of the particular facility. A
detailed design program must be prepared with major input from the Operations, Signal and Communications 1
Departments. Since the communication network required is very extensive, it is often decided to include other
functions at this location. These other functions may include crew management, locomotive dispatching and
car distribution. These departments provide design criteria in the development of the design program.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 Site Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2

11.2.1 Control Consoles (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2.2 Overview Displays (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-3
11.2.3 Auxiliary Functions (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-3

11.3.1 Supervisory Offices (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.2 Relay Racks and Computer Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.3 Service Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.4 Dispatcher Location (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.5 Locker Facilities (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.6 Lunch Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.7 Smoking Area (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
1

11.4 Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4

11.4.1 Lighting (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.4.2 Communications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.3 HVAC Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.4 Fire Protection (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.5 Wiring Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.6 Uninterruptible Power Supply (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.5 Room Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6

11.5.1 Console Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
11.5.2 Computer and Technician’s Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
11.5.3 UPS and Battery Room (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
11.5.4 Offices (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
SECTION 11.1 SITE CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
The facility location is determined by the particular circumstances of the territory to be served and the signal
communication systems to be used. A sophisticated data link may permit the facility to be far removed. A
simpler arrangement using cable connections may require that the facility be within a prescribed distance. The
concerns relative to location must include availability of an ultra reliable power supply, soil stability, highway
accessibility, protectable area, adequate parking space, drainage, sanitary sewer and water systems.
SECTION 11.2 EQUIPMENT
11.2.1 CONTROL CONSOLES (1991)
Control consoles may be hardwired pushbutton, stylus select device CRT, or keypad CRT or any combination of
those types.
11.2.1.1 Hardwired Pushbutton
This rather conventional system is best described as one large console (or several smaller consoles) which
present a schematic of the territory to be controlled, with pushbuttons located at strategic points on the
schematic which define the entrance and exit locations used for route control. In addition there exists a
separate matrix of unit lever type switches (either toggle or lever type) which can force switch position in the
NX mode, and provide unit lever capability.
11.2.1.2 Stylus Select Device CRT
This term applies to a color monitor with an SSD overlay on the face of the monitor which responds to either
pressure or the intersection of infrared light beams which produce a signal to activate a device. Each CRT
presents a schematic or a portion of the territory to be controlled. Sensitized areas called “Poke points” are
located at strategic places on the schematic. These “Poke points” are poked with a stylus in order to effect NX

Design Criteria for CTC Centers
control. Since only a portion of the controlled territory can be displayed on a CRT, a “Search and scroll”
function is necessary to first “Call up” the location to be controlled. An alternative to the “Search and scroll”
technique is to have a bank of CRT’s in sufficient number to cover the entire controlled territory.
11.2.1.3 Keypad/CRT
This term applies to a color monitor which is linked to a function type keypad device which is used to enter
entrance/exit type commands for route control. The CRT presents a schematic of a portion of the territory to be
controlled, and as commands are entered on the keypad the CRT dynamically indicates field conditions. A
“Search and scroll” function is also necessary with this system.
11.2.2 OVERVIEW DISPLAYS (1991)
Overview displays include the following types multiple CRT’s, mneumonic wallboards and projected overviews.
11.2.2.1 Multiple CRT’s
These provide only a limited overview in that they cannot be read from a distance. They are usually clustered
around each dispatcher, with each screen showing a particular territory.
11.2.2.2 Hardwired Mnemonic Wallboards
These are either a mosaic or phenolic type schematic display of the controlled territory which employs lighted
track segments, and defines switch and signal indications by use of colored light bulbs. 1
11.2.2.3 Projected Overview
This system uses a series of projection units to project the schematic of the controlled territory on a series of
large screens. Dynamic indications of switch, signal and train status are conveyed through the use of colors,
changes of color and also shapes and images of field apparatus. Projection can be from front or rear.
3
11.2.3 AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS (1991)
Auxiliary functions which may be performed at this same location are listed in the following.
a. Crew calling/dispatching.
b. Passenger information systems.

4
c. Telecommunications control.
d. Motive power control and assignments.
e. Hot box monitoring.
f. Television train consist monitoring if the facility is in a yard location.
g. Facility security.

11.3.1 SUPERVISORY OFFICES (1991)
Supervisory offices will include private offices for the chief and assistant chief dispatchers frequently
overlooking the dispatchers and the display.
11.3.2 RELAY RACKS AND COMPUTER EQUIPMENT (1991)
Relay racks and computer equipment should be housed in computer room environment space. Close control of
temperature and humidity combined with a relatively dust free atmosphere ensures optimum operation and life
for electronic gear.
11.3.3 SERVICE SPACES (1991)
Service spaces should include a technician’s room for minor repairs and equipment monitoring. Wall display
systems require sufficient space behind the display to permit service and adjustment of the equipment.
11.3.4 DISPATCHER LOCATION (1991)
The location within the building of the dispatchers space ideally is in the central core since this space should be
without windows and be well insulated thermally and sonically. The electronic equipment and associated power
conditioning units are best located remote from the dispatchers for isolation of the noise and heat generated by
this gear.
11.3.5 LOCKER FACILITIES (1991)
Locker facilities for each individual should be provided in a space easily accessible to the dispatching theater.
11.3.6 LUNCH ROOM (1991)
Lunch room with microwave ovens, refrigerator, kitchen sink, coffee maker, storage cabinets and vending
machines is required.
11.3.7 SMOKING AREA (1991)
Smoking lounge may be required if the theater area is made a non-smoking area as recommended.
SECTION 11.4 SUPPORT SYSTEMS
11.4.1 LIGHTING (1991)
Lighting is required to be of low intensity for general area with hidden light source to minimize reflections.
Dimmer control of general lighting is essential. Task lighting must be tightly controlled beams with dimmer
control of intensity. The use of indirect lighting with long life low maintenance sources is most practical in the
dispatchers room. Lighting in the other spaces has no special requirement although use of long life low
maintenance sources is very practical to minimize security risk of frequent required service.

Design Criteria for CTC Centers
11.4.2 COMMUNICATIONS (1991)
Communications by the dispatchers creates certain acoustical problems which require a compromise. Radio
contact with trains usually brings a noisy atmosphere into the space with a great deal of cross talk and some
static. Headphones are a solution to the problem but that affects the viability of alarm sounds used in
conjunction with the overview display.
11.4.3 HVAC SYSTEMS (1991)
HVAC systems in the computer and technician spaces should be the computer room type with a downflow air
distribution using the access floor space as a supply air plenum. Conditions in this space should be designed to
72 FDB and 50% relative humidity. Systems in the dispatcher area should be designed to normal office
standards with zone control to permit some individual temperature control. Draft conditions in these areas
must be carefully controlled since these individuals must remain at fixed positions for extended time periods.
Fresh air supply should be brought in through the HVAC equipment and filtered to limit dust. Adequate
exhaust and some air purification through activated carbon filters should be given consideration in the design.
Redundant HVAC equipment is essential for both reliable operation and for routine maintenance of equipment
during system operation since downtime is not available.
Fire protection is an absolute requirement with the detection system being of paramount importance. Halon
fire suppression is the current best system for electronic equipment areas. Individual ABC extinguishers should
be provided at each console and in service spaces. Water sprinkler systems should be avoided if the code 1
permits, since the equipment being protected will usually be destroyed by the water damage. Ionization type
detectors should be installed using a cross zone plan to trigger halon discharge. An annunciator panel with
mimic board should be installed to indicate actual location of any sensor in alarm. Abort switches to prevent an
unnecessary halon discharge should be provided in a central location.
11.4.5 WIRING SPACES (1991) 3

Wiring spaces and routes to consoles and displays from the computer should be through a raised access floor
system. Signal and communication cable should enter the building through a splicing chamber. If the entrance
is remote from the computer room, an access floor route is preferred for cable runs. Lacking an access floor
system cable horizontal runs should be in oversized cable tray run overhead. Power wiring should be shielded
cable or in metal conduit.
4
11.4.6 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (1991)
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is required for computers and communications as well as any other critical
real time process being powered by the electrical system. Redundant power supplies are essential to reliable
operation and may consist of standby generators, batteries and multiple primary power sources from the utility
company. A typical UPS system should have 20 minutes of battery backup with an emergency generator sized
to carry the battery charger, air conditioning and lighting systems. The fuel storage supply should be capable of
sustaining full load generator operation for a three day minimum.

SECTION 11.5 ROOM FINISHES
11.5.1 CONSOLE ROOM (1991)
The console room or dispatchers space should have acoustical absorption on all surfaces; e.g. anti-static carpet
tiles over raised access floor, carpet or sound soak type material on walls and acoustical ceiling tile. Non-
reflective colors should be considered for all surfaces to reduce glare.
11.5.2 COMPUTER AND TECHNICIAN’S ROOM (1991)
The computer room and technician’s room should have hard smooth non-dusting surfaces; e.g. laminated
plastic tiles for raised access floor, painted or vinyl covered dry wall and vapor barrier ceilings. Sub floor must
be sealed against dusting and vapor dispersion.
11.5.3 UPS AND BATTERY ROOM (1991)
The UPS and battery room should have light colored acid resistant finishes on the floor and walls.
11.5.4 OFFICES (1991)
The offices need no special finishes although the sound absorption wall and ceiling treatments in the
dispatchers room are frequently carried over into the offices.

6
Part 12
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility1
— 1979 —
FOREWORD
A locomotive washing facility provides functions for the washing of locomotive exteriors for safety, inspection,
appearance and FRA requirements. In addition it may provide for the cleaning of cabs and engine compartments
for line haul and local use.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2

12.1.1 Scope and Purpose (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2 3
12.1.2 Operations (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.1.3 Location (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.2 Washing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2

12.2.1 Typical Facility Arrangement (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.2.2 Washing System (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-3
12.2.3 Washer Building (1979). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-3
12.2.4 Drip/Clean-up Area (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-5
12.2.5 Service Equipment (Support Area) (1979). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-5
LIST OF FIGURES
6-12-1 Locomotive Washing Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-4
1

12.1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE (1979)
a. The purpose of these criteria is to provide a layout and description for a locomotive washing facility and
necessary support functions. Figure 6-12-1 is shown as visual aid in depicting a “Typical” layout of work
areas and a schematic of supporting utilities.
b. Environmental aspects of final wastewater disposal will be a necessary part of this project; however, it is not
included in any detail in this report.
12.1.2 OPERATIONS (1979)
a. Typical progression through a wash facility involves high-pressure pre-clean (pre-wet in certain climates),
wash, rinse, and outbound drip (blow-dry in certain climates), hand-wash and touch-up operations.
b. This straight line process flow is supported by necessary mechanical functions utilizing chemical tanks,
pumps, piping, clarifiers, brushes (if required), dryers, etc.
12.1.3 LOCATION (1979)
a. Generally, washing capability is desirable at every diesel locomotive service area; however, it is only at the
major servicing complexes that large, automated systems are economically justified.
b. The washing facility should be located adjacent to the service platform for minimum manpower usage; it
may be located directly ahead or behind the service platform depending on the operation. An ideal layout
would be a linear arrangement with service (fueling) area, washing facilities, and ready tracks.
c. Because of the desired linear configuration, available property may present a problem in obtaining a
reasonable layout for the optimum number of consists in various stages of the flow line without doubling
back. Length accommodating four to six locomotives is recommended.
d. The washing facilities should be located somewhat remote from adjacent properties as there is always a
possibility of overspray if wind conditions are unfavorable. The facilities should be positioned or shielded so
that vapors, chemicals, odors, etc., would not interfere with railroad personnel, equipment or any operation
in its vicinity.
SECTION 12.2 WASHING FACILITY
12.2.1 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENT (1979)
a. The facility, as indicated on Figure 6-12-1, is comprised of four main functions or areas.
b. Area 1 is the inbound storage area. This is generally open but may have to be partially enclosed and heated
if climate is severe. The length is determined by the number of locomotives to be moved into position for
washing. The number of tracks required is also dependent on the volume of units to be washed as well as the
number of tracks at the service area. This area requires nothing special in the way of roadbed or utilities as
it is only short term storage with no work activities. If this area is located behind the service area, some
consideration may be given to an impervious surface for containing any spillage.

Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility
c. Area 2 is the washing area. It could be an open area for small manual washing but generally an enclosed
open-ended building is desirable for larger facilities. Because of the configuration of the diesel units, a
chemical spray system is the most feasible type of arrangement; however, mechanical brushes under certain
circumstances could be used. A low-volume high-pressure water, one-spot-type washing building could be as
short as 80 feet but for a high-volume continuous operation, a shelter of 200 feet would be required to
contain the pre-wet/pre-clean, acid wash, alkaline wash, chemical rinse, final rinse and drying operations.
d. Area 3 is the drip area for locomotives after the washing has been completed. This area is generally open but
would have to be enclosed and heated for severe climates. The drip area should be equipped with medium
pressure hot water/soap or steam/soap hoses for manual spot cleaning of surfaces not properly cleaned.
e. Area 4 is the support area, containing equipment, tanks, separator, etc. This area is specifically for the
washer facility. The unusable waste water is piped to a central yard treatment plant.
12.2.2 WASHING SYSTEM (1979)
a. The first phase of the washing system is a high pressure pre-clean (pre-wet) wash to remove some of the
loose material as well as cool down hot metal in summer or warm pre-clean to remove snow and prevent
freezing in winter.
b. The second phase is the acid wash.
c. The third phase is the alkaline wash.
d. The fourth phase is the chemical rinse. 1

e. The fifth phase is the final rinse. This rinse is recycled for use as a pre-clean.
f. Rate of movement of units through the washer is critical in relation to the spacing of the spray arches to
achieve chemical manufacturer’s recommended dwell time. The speed of the diesel units could vary from 50
to 150 feet per minute depending on chemical combination used.
3
g. There are several acid/alkaline cleaning agent combinations on the market that are satisfactory. The type
selected would depend on availability, frequency of washing and adaptability to be neutralized into an
acceptable waste material for final treatment and disposal.
h. Spray arms and nozzles are mounted independently of building structures. The nozzles should be positioned
to provide proper clearance and avoid spraying into exhaust stack and through louvers.
4
i. Various types of sensing devices or other controls are available to activate the numerous sprays during the
washing cycle. These include track mounted switching devices, radio control, electric eyes, etc.
12.2.3 WASHER BUILDING (1979)
a. Concrete track slabs with acid-resistant treatment should be provided full length of the washing area with a
minimum 30-foot treated approach slab. The rails should be sufficiently elevated to allow the various
cleaning/rinse agents to freely pass under. All track fastenings should be corrosive resistant.
b. The entire floor should be properly sloped, curbed and drained to provide for proper waste collection. All
concrete surfaces should be coated with an acid/alkaline resisting material to preclude severe deterioration.
c. The building structure may be precast or poured acid/alkaline-resisting concrete, pole construction with
plastic sheathing or standard steel prefabricated building provided the exterior panels are of a fiberglass
plastic material or factory precoated with long life synthetic enamel. An acid-resisting coating shall be field
applied to the structural frame and any other exposed steel. All fasteners shall be stainless steel.

Figure 6-12-1. Locomotive Washing Facility

Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility
d. Piping should be acid/alkaline-resisting PVC plastic. For long spans and/or pressure requirements fiberglass
pipe should be used and properly supported.
e. Lighting of a minimum of 30 foot candles at floor should be provided. This may be achieved by roof and/or
side lights and interior illumination.
f. Sufficient roof type ventilators should be provided over the tracks to prevent buildup of fumes. If a portion
of inbound storage and drip/clean-up area is enclosed for climatic conditions, a greater emphasis should be
placed on ventilation, including make-up air.
12.2.4 DRIP/CLEAN-UP AREA (1979)
a. Properly drained and treated concrete track slabs should be provided full length of drip area for ease of
“touch up” cleaning of undercarriage. Cab and engine compartment cleaning may also be performed here.
b. Utilities required for finish washing are 175 psi hot water at 180 degrees F or steam with separate supply of
detergent so that hot soapy water or clear water (steam) may be used at will. Pole-mounted hose reels
should be installed to facilitate operation.
c. Overhead lighting of 20 foot candles should be satisfactory for night-time operations. Spaced poles between
tracks would be satisfactory for both lighting and running overhead piping. Pipe trenches should be avoided
in this wet area. All piping should be protected against freezing.
d. In severe climates, it may be necessary to enclose the drip/clean-up area. The diesel units would be cleaned
and actually dried before moving outdoors. The enclosure would be well insulated and heated. Ventilation is 1
important when units are standing at idle until dry.
12.2.5 SERVICE EQUIPMENT (SUPPORT AREA) (1979)
a. Provide building adjacent to washer building to house necessary chemical, preclean and rinse water tanks
and pumps as well as heaters and electrical switch gear to provide power for equipment and lighting. 3
b. If available water is of poor quality, consideration should be given to a water conditioning system so that the
mixed chemical cleaning and rinse will be most effective.
c. Recycling of waste water should be given consideration. The cost of a recycling plant with necessary filters
and equipment should be evaluated against the type of chemical used, the availability of water and the
availability of a waste disposal system. The final rinse can be recycled easily for pre-wash, but the 4
acid/alkaline wash and chemical rinse would require more treatment depending on the final pH result.
d. Final liquid/solid waste disposal requires a holding sump with pipeline to acceptable treatment plant.


6
Part 13
Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance,
Repair and Servicing Facilities
— 2003 —
FOREWORD
a. Passenger rail (coach)/locomotive maintenance, repair and servicing facilities are designed to serve both
commuter and inter-city passenger rail needs. These facilities are used to maintain, repair, and service
whole train consists (locomotives included) and/or individual passenger train equipment only, such as, 1
commuter coaches, inter-city coaches, diners, and baggage cars.
b. Part 13 has been prepared to provide guidelines on the variety of needs which must be addressed in order to
service a fleet of passenger rail equipment.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-2

13.1.1 Location (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-2
13.1.2 Code Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.3 Parking (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.4 Landscaping (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.5 Remodeling/Expansion (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.2 Functional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3

13.2.2 Train Configurations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.2.3 Building Configuration (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-4
13.3 Special Requirements – Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5

13.3.2 Staff and Administration Facilities (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5
13.3.3 Crew Facilities (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5
13.3.4 Commissary (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6

13.3.5 Stores (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6

13.3.6 Craft Shops (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6
13.3.7 Maintenance and Repair Areas (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6
13.4 Special Requirements – Combined Coach Locomotive Shop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7

13.4.1 General Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.4.2 Coach Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.4.3 Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8
13.5 Special Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8

13.5.1 Paint Spray Booths (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8
13.6 Structural Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9

13.6.1 Coach Shop and/or Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.7 Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9

13.7.1 Coach Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.7.2 Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.8 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10

13.8.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.9 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11

13.9.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11
13.1.1 LOCATION (2003)
a. The preferred site location would be reasonably close to the terminus of the service being provided. This
can vary according to the type of service. For instance, inter-city passenger trains would require
maintenance, repair and servicing facilities at the terminating points of the services. On the other hand,
commuter rail maintenance, repair and servicing would ideally be located at the end point of service where
the greatest amount of layover time is available.
b. On commuter rail lines with multiple service routes maintenance, repair and servicing facilities may not be
practical or cost efficient. In these cases, one primary daytime facility may be more practical.
c. Maintenance, repair and servicing facilities ideally are all located on the same site and within the same
building. However, in many cases, this may not be possible due to site constraints or the existing
infrastructure of the railroad providing the service.
d. In the event that a new site has been selected for a new maintenance, repair and servicing facility it will be
necessary to coordinate the yard layout with the actual location of the facility. Chapter 14, Part 6,
Passenger Facilities of the AREMA Manual should be consulted for more detailed information on the
requirements for the yard.

Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities
13.1.2 CODE REQUIREMENTS (2003)
Zoning requirements as well as building code requirements will become a major consideration in the design of the
facility. Fire and life safety issues including sanitary requirements may have a strong influence on the type of
construction materials used and allowable square foot area of the building itself. It is strongly recommended that
these requirements be researched thoroughly before proceeding into design. ADA requirements will need to be
addressed as well.
13.1.3 PARKING (2003)
In many locales, required parking spaces are determined by the classification type of building as determined by the
local building code and/or zoning ordinance. Sufficient parking must be provided where multiple shifts are
worked, including handicap parking.
Many communities have local ordinances governing landscape requirements for various types of buildings and/or
zoning districts. These requirements are seldom negotiated and must be taken into consideration in the overall
development of the site.
13.1.5 REMODELING/EXPANSION (2003)
Facilities which are being remodeled and/or expanded may fall under all of the above requirements due to the
proposed nature of the work. It will be of extreme importance to the project to research all of the above particulars 1
in order to determine what effect, if any, these types of requirements have on the project.
SECTION 13.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS 3

a. Facilities must be designed to accommodate the specific features of the equipment to be maintained,
repaired and/or serviced. In addition, the design of the facility must also recognize the railroad’s servicing
and maintenance practices.
4
b. Overall, the type of facility to be designed can vary significantly. For instance, some railroads may choose to
maintain an entire consist (locomotive(s) plus cars) intact, while another railroad may maintain cars in one
area of the facility and locomotives in another area.
c. Electric operated equipment will require a facility which will differ from either a coach shop or combined
coach shop and diesel service facility.
13.2.2 TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS (2003)
a. Train configurations can vary significantly according to the type of service being provided. To illustrate this
point, the following consist combinations are presented:
(1) Locomotive + auxiliary power vehicle + passenger cars.
(2) Locomotive + auxiliary power vehicle + passenger cars + cab car.

(3) Locomotive (capable of supplying electrical hotel power) + passenger cars.
(4) Locomotive (capable of supplying electrical hotel power) + passenger cars + cab car.
(5) Locomotive + passenger cars + locomotive (locomotives capable of supplying hotel power).
(6) Locomotive + passenger cars + auxiliary power and control vehicle.
(7) One or more self-propelled rail diesel cars.
(8) One or more electric multiple units. Each electrical multiple unit may consist of one or more passenger
cars semi-permanently coupled.
b. Recognizing the above possible combinations, the following table has been prepared to identify the typical
maximum train lengths:
Typical Maximum Train Lengths

Long Distance Trains Commuter Trains Rail Diesel Cars Electric Multiple
Unit Trains
Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars
3 20 2 10 - <6 - 10
13.2.3 BUILDING CONFIGURATION (2003)
The size of the building will vary according to the nature of the maintenance, repair and servicing to be performed.
Other factors will also influence the building size and may in some cases require separate facilities. Questions
which must be addressed early on in the design process are as follows:
• What administrative activities will be conducted in the facility and will they be centralized and/or
dispersed?
• Will crew facilities be required?
• Will a commissary be needed?
• Will trains be totally serviced within the building (fueling and sanding facilities need to be on the same
track as the consist being serviced)?
• What form of maintenance will be performed, light or heavy maintenance of cars/locomotives?
• Will inspection and heavy maintenance of locomotives be performed in the building?
• Is a paint spray booth required?
• How much space must be devoted to stores? Any special requirements?
• What types of workshops will be required and will they be enclosed and/or open?
• Occupancy load and employee welfare facilities to be provided.
• ADA requirements.

SECTION 13.3 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS – COACH SHOP
a. Once all of the above factors have been explored, there should be a reasonable estimate of the amount of
space required in order to house the proposed work activity.
b. Actual space requirements will be determined by five basic guidelines:
• Nature of the work to be performed.
• Nature of the space required.
• Need for enclosures and/or privacy.
• Accessibility.
• Allowance for expansion.
Each of the above issues must be addressed for each railroad department/craft to be located within the building.
13.3.2 STAFF AND ADMINISTRATION FACILITIES (2003)
a. Office facilities to accommodate the administrative function of the facility will be necessary. It may also be 1
necessary to accommodate other departments as well. The number of private offices, meeting rooms, size of
the open office space (or cubicles) to be provided and amount of storage and copying space must be
determined. In addition, adequate space must be allocated for employee welfare facilities and training areas.
b. In general, 250 to 350 square feet of office space is generally allocated to individual management personnel
while 120 to 200 square feet is allocated to office personnel, or according to the railroad’s standard.
3
c. Duplicating equipment and telecommunications equipment generally require additional space and should
be provided for accordingly. File space and storage space for records, drawings, paper supplies, etc., will also
require additional space beyond the standard square foot allocation for office spaces.
13.3.3 CREW FACILITIES (2003)
a. In some locales, train crews may access their trains at the facility. The facility therefore may require 4
accommodations for the crews. If such a requirement is necessary, the facility may have to provide space
for:
• Booking in facilities
• Office
• Locker rooms
• Washroom facilities and showers
• Bedrooms
b. Should such accommodations be required within the facility, it will be essential to minimize noise impacts
on the crew quarters. Also, the accessibility to the crew quarters should be controlled and accessibility to
the train storage area convenient.

13.3.4 COMMISSARY (2003)
a. If long distance inter-city trains are to be maintained, serviced and/or repaired at the facility, it may be
necessary to provide commissary space for the storage of mattresses, linens, cutlery, food and other supplies
for these trains.
b. Accessibility to the commissary by roadway will be critical since considerable truck traffic to and from the
commissary by suppliers will be common. Roadways serving the commissary should, if at all possible, avoid
rail crossings in the yard.
13.3.5 STORES (2003)
a. An interior, as well as an exterior stores area, will likely be needed for the facility. The stores area should
include sufficient space to accommodate an office for the clerks, tool crib for specialized tools and/or test
equipment, bulk storage space, and bin storage. Toilet facilities can be provided in this area. Facilities must
be handicap accessible.
b. The entire stores area should be secured and have controlled access. Dock space for off truck loading and
unloading must be provided. In the bulk storage area, aisle space should be provided to allow for use of a
fork lift truck.
In the event that the stores area encompasses two floors, a freight elevator should be provided which will
accommodate a lift truck.
13.3.6 CRAFT SHOPS (2003)
a. Craft shop space will vary according to the tasks being performed in each particular shop area. Overall, the craft
shop space is generally located in a large open area and easily accessible to the repair tracks within the building.
b. Movement of assembled material, furnishings and/or equipment between the shop area and the cars within
the shop is critical and sufficient aisle space must be allocated for this type of movement in addition to the
workspace provided.
c. Air brake shop space will generally be enclosed and access into the space by man doors. The shop space
must be sufficient to accommodate work benches, parts, and test equipment. Double doors used to access
the space are desirable. An outside truck door may also be required.
d. Welding areas within the shop should be confined to a single area and somewhat shielded from the rest of
the open shop space.
13.3.7 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR AREAS (2003)
a. Maintenance and repair areas are going to vary according to the type of operation planned for the particular
facility. For instance, will car inspections be performed in the yard or will the consist be pulled or pushed
through the facility. If the latter is the case, then how many tracks must be provided and how should the
track pits be configured? Will wheel change outs be performed on the same track or on a separate track? Will
car renewal/overhaul tracks be required? Will a track be needed for major collision/damage repair? All of
these factors will weigh heavily on the total tracks within the building and their orientation to the shop area.
b. The size of the area should not only be large enough to accommodate the number of tracks required, but
also must include space for clearances, walkways, work areas and cantenary supports, if necessary. The
length of the shop area will be dependent on either the consist size to be accommodated or the number of
cars to be worked on per track, at any time. In addition to these factors, the designer must also take into
consideration the following other factors:

• Crosswalks outside the shop have a recommended width of 26’-3” (7.88M).
• Crosswalks at each interior end wall have a minimum recommended width of 16’-5” (4.94M).
• Crosswalks between cars and/or consists be at least 6’-7” wide (2M).
• Full pit depth clearance beyond the last car or end of consist should be 3’-3” (0.97M).
• Recommended center to center track distance is 24’-0” (7.2M).
c. Overhead cranes are also a necessity for these shops and are generally located over renewal/overhaul tracks
and collision/damage tracks. The size of the overhead crane will vary according to the equipment to be
handled. The crane should be able to operate from one end of the shop to the other end. A pendant control
system is most suitable for this type operation.
In shops where catenary is involved an analysis of the proposed operation should be performed in order to
assess the extent of the catenary in the shop.
d. Pits are required for inspection tracks and running repair track (RIP Track). These pits may vary in width.
Pits may be center pit only (located between rails) or center pit plus side pits (rails extend over length of pit
on post supports).
e. In shops where car lifts are to be built-in, pits may still be required for some portion of the operation. When
lifts are employed, access to the car interior may be necessary and raised walkways adjacent to each car side
will be required. These walkway structures must also be able to accommodate ground floor access to the car 1
interiors when the car or consist is not elevated.
For shops where electric traction systems are worked on, elevated platforms will be required in order to access
roof mounted electrical equipment, such as pantographs. These elevated platforms may be fixed and/or mobile.
3
SECTION 13.4 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS – COMBINED COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP
a. Coach shops can also be combined with locomotive shops. As referred to in Article 13.3.7 the number of 4
tracks to be provided will also determine how the shop is to be operated. In some combined coach and
locomotive maintenance, repair and servicing facilities, entire consists are brought into the shop, inspected,
cleaned, and serviced on one or more tracks. Heavier repairs are conducted on other tracks that will require
the disassembly of the consist. In these cases, coaches would be repaired on one or more tracks, while
locomotives would be repaired separate on their own tracks.
b. In other types of combined coach and locomotive maintenance, repair and servicing shop consists are
disassembled before entering the shop. Coaches are attended to on certain designated tracks while
locomotives are serviced in another area of the building separated from the coach shop.
13.4.2 COACH SHOP (2003)
a. The special requirements for the coach shop are very similar to those outlined in Section 13.3.

13.4.3 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. Locomotive shops are generally constructed with raised work platforms and pits below the running rails.
The running rails are supported on piers or posts/pedestals over the length of the pits. The locomotive shop
must be equipped to do the following:
• Change out locomotive wheel sets and traction motors.
• Change out trucks.
• Change out RDC engine and transmissions (if applicable).
• Change out locomotive power units.
• Change out steam generators (if applicable).
• Wreck repairs.
• Major on-site engine repairs.
• Change out of major components.
• Toilet waste tank emptying system.
• Lubrication systems and service water.
b. Aside from the track area, the locomotive shop must have sufficient craft space to work on various
components of the locomotive. This space will vary in size depending upon how much repair work is
contracted out. In either case provisions should be made for welding, electrical, and mechanical type
repairs. In addition, sufficient space must be allocated for truck and wheel storage and removal. A drop
table will be required for truck removal. Refer to Chapter 6, Part 4, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair
Facilities for more detailed information on locomotive shop design criteria.
c. An overhead crane will be required in the locomotive shop. The size of the overhead crane may vary
depending on its intended use. Generally the size of the crane will be from 10 to 50 tons with an auxiliary
hook with a three-ton capacity. If an entire locomotive is to be lifted a 250-ton crane will be required.
SECTION 13.5 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
13.5.1 PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS (2003)
a. In some facilities, paint spray booths are an integral part of the overall maintenance program, particularly
where large fleets are involved. These paint spray booths are housed in a completely separate portion of the
building. Most building codes classify paint spray areas as hazardous use areas and, as such, require a
higher building construction classification than the rest of the shop building.
b. Paint spray operations are generally located at the end of major overhaul tracks, since this is usually the last
step of a car renewal project. The paint spray area must be adequately sized to accommodate the car to be
painted, the out to out width of the paint spray booth, traveling rails for the booth and aisle space for
personnel circulation and material movement. Vertically the paint spray area must be able to accommodate
the highest car in the fleet plus the overall height of the booth and exhaust hood(s). Additional ventilation

may be required for this area. Adequate space must be allocated to accommodate all ventilation
requirements.
13.6.1 COACH SHOP AND/OR LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. In the shop area, as well as the stores area, the floors should be designed to accommodate wheel loads from
forklift trucks, in addition to any material they may be carrying. Equipment loads from drills, presses,
cutting machines, jib cranes, and tie down for frame straightening should also be included.
b. In the stores area, concentrated loads from materials stored on pallets, in boxes or on shelves or bin storage
should be considered.
c. In the track areas, special track slab designs will be required and must include provisions for jacking a car
above its truck assembly and holding the car in place for an indefinite period of time. These jacking
locations should be anticipated to be at any location along the entire length of track inside of the shop.
d. In addition to the track slab design, consideration should also be given to truck and/or wheel removal pits
and any special foundations needed to support the truck/wheel removal equipment.
e. In the track areas, columns should be designed to accommodate the maximum length of free space girder, to
1
allow for an unobstructed ground floor work area. In addition, these same columns must be able to support
the additional loads from the overhead crane, along with the overhead roof loads.
3
SECTION 13.7 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
13.7.1 COACH SHOP (2003)
a. An ample compressed air supply will be a necessity for the shop. A compressor of sufficient capacity will be
needed along with a dryer filter and compressed air reservoir tank. Compressed air lines will be needed
throughout the craft shop area. It is recommended that these airlines be run overhead with drops at designated 4
workstations. Drops should be equipped with quick coupling connections, shut-off valves, and drips.
b. Service water in the craft shop area may not be required, however, in the event service water is desired at
certain work stations it must be separate from the potable water system.
c. Adequate heating and ventilation systems will be necessary in the craft shop area. Heating should be
supplied to provide a minimum 60 degrees at minus 10 degrees below zero. Ventilation shall comply with the
local building codes. Areas of the craft shop requiring special ventilation would be the welding shop area.
d. In the track areas, compressed air lines should be extended down the overhead crane columns and through
trenches between tracks. At the overhead crane columns quick-coupling connections should be provided
along with shut-off valves and drips. Compressed air lines located in trenches between the tracks should have
a shut off valve at the start of its longitudinal run between tracks and at least every 100 feet. The compressed
air line should be pitched to a low point at the end of its run and a drip provided. Quick coupling connections
should be located every 50 feet in the trench. At each coupling connection a shut off valve should be supplied.

e. Service water drops for the shop and equipment cleanup should be provided at every other overhead crane
column. Each service drop should have a gate valve installed to control the flow of water. Hose connections can
be either quick couplers or ordinary hose bibbs. If ordinary hose bibbs are used gate valves will not be necessary.
f. Service trenches will be needed between tracks in order to provide air and service water to the workstations
in the shop. These same service trenches may also be used for drainage purposes as well. The trenches will
need to be pitched and grit collection will be a necessity. Open gratings covering the trenches will allow for
run off of snow, ice, rainwater and ordinary shop clean up.
g. In shops where coaches are being serviced in a consist, it would be necessary to provide for toilet dumps,
service water for cleaning crews and potable water for refilling of on-board drinking and passenger use.
13.7.2 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. In the locomotive shop, a toilet dump station may be required if not provided for outside of the building.
Aside from this possible need, the locomotives will be spotted along the length of track at workstations.
Fore and aft of the locomotive, walkways will be lower, allowing for maintenance personnel to move from
one side to the other of the locomotive.
b. At each work station, compressed air and quick coupling outlets will need to be provided at the working
platform level and in the service/inspection pit. Each outlet should also include a shut off valve.
c. Each workstation should also be equipped to supply journal oil, diesel engine lubricating oil, and coolant
supplies. A lubricant oil recovery system will also be necessary.
d. Above each workstation an effective exhaust system must be provided in order to remove exhaust fumes
from the work area.
e. In the service pits, leaking sand and grease from the locomotive will cause drain lines to clog if no measures
are taken to intercept this sand and grease before it enters into the drainpipe. An effective grit collection
system will be necessary.
f. At only one workstation, a drop table must be provided in order to allow for the change out of a truck
assembly. This drop table assembly may be on one or more tracks.
g. When locomotives are brought into a combined service and maintenance line, where the consist is intact, no drop
table assembly would be required on that track. Truck assemblies would best be removed on a separate track.
SECTION 13.8 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS
13.8.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. Electrical power supplies will be required throughout the facility. These power supplies will be in the form
of ordinary 120V to as much as 480V. Power supply receptacles for portable lighting, tools, and coach power
will be needed. These receptacles will need to be located according to the planned operation of the shop and
individual workstation needs.
b. Sufficient lighting throughout the building will be necessary in order to provide a conducive working atmosphere.
c. Battery charging systems may be required at some facilities and should be accommodated in a room
separated from the workstations.

d. Consideration should be given to the installation of an audible and visual warning system to alert the
personnel within the facility of rail movement. Such a warning system is particularly important where
overhead catenaries are located inside of the facility in order to warn personnel that the catenary is "hot” or
about to be energized.
SECTION 13.9 ILLUSTRATIONS
13.9.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. The following illustrations indicate the variety of shop types typically found on many railroads today.


6
Part 14
Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems1
— 1982 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this report is to assist in the selection of roofing systems, analyze the advantages and disadvantages
of these various systems and have a better understanding of the inherent problems and methods of their
maintenance and repair.
It is necessary to understand the roofing systems that have been used for many years in order to evaluate them and
logically compare them to the new generation of roofing systems.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2
14.1.1 History of the Roofing Problem (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2
14.2 Built-up Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3

14.2.1 Hot Asphalt and Coal Tar Pitch Roofs (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.2.2 Built-up Roofing Problems (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.2.3 Built-up Roofing Solutions (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4
14.2.4 Built-up Roofing Inspection and Maintenance (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-5
14.3 Roofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-9

14.3.1 Single Ply Roofing Systems (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-9
14.3.2 Liquid Roof Coating Systems (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-10
14.3.3 Roofing Characteristic Comparison (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-10
14.3.4 Metal Roofing Systems (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-10
14.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-13

14.4.1 General (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-13
1

LIST OF TABLES
6-14-1 Roofing Inspection Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-6

6-14-2 Comparison of Roofing Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-11
14.1.1 HISTORY OF THE ROOFING PROBLEM (1982)
14.1.1.1 An Evolution In Roofing
a. The forces acting on roofing from nature have not changed. The materials, systems, roof deck designs, and
application methods have changed. The result of the changes is an era of roofing problems. For example, in
a recent roofing magazine some experts predicted that of new roofs constructed today 15% will fail within
five years, and of these failures 9% to 13% will fail within 60 days.
b. Prior to World War II a roof was a sound investment for all, designed to last 20 years and often did. Railroad
buildings had roofs of all types; metal, built up, shingles, slate; not all were free of problems of course but
mostly they proved satisfactory. What has happened?
14.1.1.2 The Pricing Spiral
a. Since World War II major changes have taken place. With rising prices, many innovations were attempted to
simplify the system or reduce the labor. Many of these failed miserably. Roof decks became lightweight and
flexible. Roof shapes and buildings became complicated. Environmental requirements restricted the use of
some products.
b. With inflation, roofing felts and bitumens were modified and quality of these basic materials became
uncertain. Roofers attempted to cut costs wherever they could, some workmanship was substandard and
distrust set in, not unlike the used car business.
14.1.1.3 The Energy Crunch
a. Prior to the 73 oil embargo, asphalt products were inexpensive and consistent in performance. When
shortages came many suppliers bought crude oil from new sources and the resulting asphalt did not perform
as expected.
b. Insulation requirements created complicated systems and separated the roof membranes from the heat of
the building, putting much greater stress on the roofing membrane.
c. Owners and roofers looking for solutions created a demand for change. More new roofing systems have
appeared in the last ten years than over the last century.

Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems
SECTION 14.2 BUILT-UP ROOFING
14.2.1 HOT ASPHALT AND COAL TAR PITCH ROOFS (1982)
14.2.1.1 General
a. In a built-up roof, the asphalt or coal tar pitch bitumen provides the waterproofing, the felts simply hold the
bitumen in place and add strength. Asphalt is petroleum product and coal tar pitch comes from coke and the
steel industry.
b. In recoating an existing building, it is important that the correct bitumen be used: asphalt over asphalt and
coal tar over coal tar.
14.2.1.2 Testing for Bitumen
While there are methods for obtaining satisfactory blends of coal tar pitch and asphalts, (particularly small
percentages of asphalt dissolved in coal tar), the results of a field mixture are unpredictable and should be avoided
whenever possible. There are several methods to determine which bitumen exists. Listed below are several tests
which can be easily made in the field.
14.2.1.2.1 Odor
Asphalt, when heated has a strong odor characteristic of fuel oil, while coal tar pitch, when heated, has a strong
odor with no resemblance to that of fuel oil. 1
14.2.1.2.2 Solubility
Asphalt is readily soluble in aliphatic solvents, such as gasoline, mineral spirits, and kerosene. Coal tar pitch is not
soluble or only slightly soluble in these materials. A cloth or paper wiper soaked in an aliphatic solvent and rubbed
vigorously on asphalt will transfer a film of asphalt to the rag or wiper and make the asphalt surface very tacky to
the touch. However, when rubbed vigorously on pitch, the cloth or wiper will become discolored, but will not 3
transfer a film of pitch. The pitch will not become tacky to the touch.
14.2.1.2.3 Float Testing
Prepare a 16% solution of common salt (sodium chloride) in water. This can be obtained at a drug store, or can be
roughly prepared by adding 1.7 pounds of salt to one gallon of water. Drop a small piece of the bituminous material
into the salt solution. Asphalt will float whereas pitch will sink. Caution should be exercised not to include any 4
foreign material, such as slag or dirt, in the specimen of bituminous material being tested. The salt solution can be
reused if the container is kept tightly closed.
14.2.2 BUILT-UP ROOFING PROBLEMS (1982)
How can we identify problems that developed in built-up systems? Moisture entering a roofing system can freeze and
cause splits and delamination at felts, insulation, and decking. Moisture also deteriorates roofing materials and causes
insulation to lose its insulating values. So it is necessary to design to prevent cracks, splits and other sources of moisture.
a. Roof spans have increased and lightweight decks have replaced solid, heavier ones. Roof areas have
increased, requiring more concern with expansion joints. More mechanical equipment has been placed on
the roof increasing problems of flashing. Lightweight decks are more flexible than the old concrete decks
and the increased deflections increase the strain on the roofing membrane.

b. Temperature variations cause expansion and contraction of all elements of the roof system, including the
deck, flashings, insulation and membrane. Any differential movement causes stresses between elements
which can lead to delamination, separation and splits.
c. Pressures to reduce construction time can result in inconsistent coating of the roof deck with asphalt. If the
adhesion to the deck is incomplete, the insulation boards move separately and if other sections are adhered
to the deck, the result is splits in the membrane, the insulation, and the flashings. If asphalt is not solidly
mopped between plies leaving dry spots, “holidays”, blisters will result.
d. Another problem is the storage of roofing materials during construction. Subjecting the felts and insulation
to rain, wind and weather without proper protection results in wet materials being built into the roof. Also
the concentrated weight of materials stacked on the roof can damage the roof deck.
e. Another major cause for concern is poorly drained roofs which leave water standing and can only lead to
accelerated deterioration, especially if the waterproofing membrane is asphalt. Once the waterproofing
breaks down, moisture enters the roofing system and a multitude of problems results.
14.2.3 BUILT-UP ROOFING SOLUTIONS (1982)
If we know what causes these problems, how can we prevent them? Here are a few simple rules that can help.
a. Keep your roof shapes simple. An expansion joint should be installed every 150 linear feet. In addition, any
change in direction should have a control joint installed.
b. A quarter of an inch per foot minimum slope should be built into every roof. Water should be gone in 24
hours after a rain, especially with asphalt or aluminum coating.
c. 80% of early roofing problems originate at the flashings. The major condition which affects all metal-edged
flashings is movement: movement is caused by thermal change, wind, and in some installations, vibrations.
Most metal-edged details have wood, nails, bitumen, felts, and metal, each with its own coefficient of
expansion and contraction which in turn adds to roof stress. Consequently, a proper design should include a
flashing made up of a rubberized material which will withstand the different levels of expansion and
contraction. In addition, when the roof mat starts to oxidize, the felts have a tendency to shrink, possibly as
much as 20%. The shrinkage can then be absorbed in the flexible membrane flashing, thereby eliminating
the cracks and splits which normally occur during the first five years.
d. Make sure that the waterproofing membrane is applied strictly according to the manufacturer’s
specifications, including the deck. Specify decks with increased stiffness to reduce deck deflection. Do not
exceed recommended deck spans. The waterproofing membrane should be no less than 4 plies, and
preferably 5 plies. In addition, roofing materials must be protected, and at the end of the working day, a
water cutoff must be applied to protect the insulation.
e. Under no circumstances allow “phased construction” that is to build a ply or two of the roof to get the
building “in the dry”. It is almost impossible to gain adhesion in phased roofing.
f. Try to keep machinery off the roof. If required they should be set with proper curbs and pitchpans. Include
walkways for maintenance personnel.
g. Inspect the installation. Make sure that the bitumen is not overheated or underheated (This can cause loss
of adhesion), that the felts and insulation are dry and fully adhered to the roofing deck, and that the roofing
plies and floodcoat are properly applied.
h. On existing roofs apply roof coatings and make repairs before serious deterioration occurs. Allow asphalt to
weather before aluminizing and don’t apply aluminum roof coating over coal tar.

NOTE: Don’t apply emulsion type roof coating over old dried out roofs without first priming.
14.2.4 BUILT-UP ROOFING INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE (1982)
14.2.4.1 General
a. Take frequent looks at your roof. Good care of a roof begins with regular inspection of the roof premises for
signs of weakness or repair. The biggest step in holding down maintenance expenses is to correct roofing
problems as soon as possible.
b. You can expect any person to find the bad leaks, but it takes a qualified person to spot the small leaks. Your
inspector has to know what to inspect and what to look for. Competent inspection includes many points –
openings, parapets, flashings, skylights, ventilators, inside and outside walls, ceilings, etc.
c. Inspect the roof every six months, preferably in the early fall to anticipate winter weather, and in the early
spring in preparation for the hot summer sun.
d. Special inspections of the roof should be made after a violent rain or windstorm, or after a nearby fire, or
after workmen have been on the roof.
e. A drawing showing the roofs of all buildings in a location can be a big help in making roof inspections. Show
on this plan the location of each roof, and when installed. Also state who did the job, the guarantee (if any)
and approximate dimensions. Set up an inspection chart. After each inspection enter brief notes on the
condition of the roof and the general nature and cost of repairs. This data will prepare you for the next
inspection, and guide you on future repairs and choice of new materials and methods to be used. 1
f. One helpful technique is to note any weak points on the roof you feel does not need repair at least until after
the next inspection, but must be checked at that time.
g. The best way to make sure that you do not overlook an important detail in roof inspection is to arm yourself
with a checklist. You can easily make up your own form, or you might get one from a leading contractor. Use
a separate sheet for each roof. Refer to Table 6-14-1 for a sample roofing inspection guide. 3
h. A typical checklist shows all major roof items in the left column, such as copings, parapets, roof deck, roof
covering, drains and gutters, skylights, and penthouses. Under each item is a subdivision of the point to be
checked. For example, under roof covering you might list blisters, loose or torn seams, cracks, old patches,
condition of mat. Across the top of the page are headings for vertical columns – condition okay, number of
defects, repair at once, repair when convenient, check next inspection, and special comments.
4
i. A good roof inspector will look at many things besides the roof mat for clues to actual leaks or those in the
making. Obviously, the first thing to do is ask the people occupying the building if there are any known
leaks. Such reports help pinpoint other symptoms later on.

Table 6-14-1. Roofing Inspection Guide
Location: Date:
Building: Inspector:
Roof Maintenance Record:
Reroofed or Recoated with:
When:
Roof Description
Age of Roof: Area in Squares:
Roof Shape:  Flat  Gable  Arched Roof  Other
Roof Mat:  Tar and Gravel  Asphalt and  Smooth  Mineral  Other
Gravel Asphalt Surfaced
Roof Deck:  Wood  Concrete  Steel  Other:
Insulation:  None  Fiberboard  Fiberglass  Rigid Glass
 Other:
Insulation:  Wet  Dry%  Vapor Barrier
Drainage:  Water Ponds on surface% Area  Dead Level (No Drainage)
 Less than 1 inch rise per foot  1 inch to 2 inch rise per foot
 Over 2 inch =rise per foot
Water Resistance:  No Leaks  Leaks under heavy rain  Leaks every rain
Cause of Leaks:  Deteriorated membrane  Wind damage  Hail damage  Faulty material
 Poor design  Improper  Rooftop traffic  Improper rooftop installations
construction
 Ponding in low spots  Flashing  Gravel stop failure
failure
Vandalism Other causes
Aggregate Adhesion to Surface:  Good  Fair  Poor
 Percentage of membrane area exposed%
Surface Condition:  Smooth  Alligatored  Cracked  Exposed felts
Felt Condition:  Disintegrated  Curled edges  Buckles  Fishmouths  Blisters
If blistered, what size and how many per square
Cracks:  Admit water Insulation: Wet Dry
Briefly describe condition of roof membrane:

Table 6-14-1. Roofing Inspection Guide (Continued)
Flashings and Parapets

Base Flashings:  Sagging  Separated from parapet wall  Buckled  Cracked
Failure from weathering  Mechanical  Disintegration of surface coating
failure
 Improper cementing of vertical  Other defects
laps
Counter-  Not firmly embedded into wall  Deteriorated  Open reglet joints
Flashings  Inadequate covering of base flashing
Metal Edges:  Cracked felts  Not anchored  Other
tightly
Flashing Block:  Insufficiently pointed groove  Flashing slipped out
Parapet Walls:  Deteriorated mortar joints  Cracks  Open coping joints
 Porous Comments
Rooftop Installations:  Skylights, broken glass  Leaks at penthouse
Mechanical Equipment:  Liquid leakage  Vapor condensation
 Inadequate walkways  Improper or deteriorated curbing
Projections:  Faulty anchorage  Repair or replenish pitch pockets 1
Drains:  Clogged  Damaged  Relocate to low spots
Gutters:  Plugged  Sagging  Separated  Loose
This roof repaired (date):

The following product name brands and application rates were used: 3

14.2.4.2 Roof Structure Symptoms
We have grouped these symptoms into convenient parts of the roof structure.
14.2.4.2.1 Exterior Walls of the Building
Look for settlement cracks or other evidences of building movement that might have strained the flashing or
displaced drainage facilities. Efflorescence – that whitish, powdery excretion from mortar joints – may mean there
are leaks in the coping or parapet up above.
14.2.4.2.2 Interior Walls
Stains or seepage indicate leaking walls or roof. Damp walls, chipped or discolored paint are clues to roof leakage.
14.2.4.2.3 Underside of Roof Deck
a. Look for any signs of deterioration from leakage above. If the deck is of wood, list rotted or warped boards
for replacement. Make a note to check roof above any watermarked boards.
b. If the deck is of concrete or gypsum, look for cracks and stains. Spots of rust might come from wet
reinforcing rods. In a gypsum deck, leaking water usually causes spalling. In metal decks, rust spots mean
trouble with condensation or leaks.
14.2.4.2.4 Topside
Only a few defects are apparent in a topside inspection. A sharp indentation or break at right angles to the boards
in a wood deck points to a sprung board. If the roof mat gives under you, the board may be rotted. But there are
secondary clues. Cracks in roofing felt may be due to cracks in the roof deck. It is always a good idea to check the
roof deck from below wherever you find leaks or holes in the roof mat.
14.2.4.2.5 Drainage
Check for any changes in the original slope of the roof. Has any part of the deck sagged, to produce hollows for
standing water?
14.2.4.2.6 Drainage System
Make sure that no rain water accumulates on the roof during a rainfall. Slow acting drains and gutters may cause
a backup of water above the parapet flashing. See that all drains are sound, flush to the roof, and clear of debris. If
settlement or expansion has worked a drain above the roof level, reinstall it.
14.2.4.2.7 Copings
Coping troubles are mostly of two kinds, either the coping material loses its water repellency and absorbs moisture;
or the mortar in the coping joint cracks. In either case, water drains down into the parapet, and where it will finally
come out is hard to tell. Often you can see the effects on the outside facing as you approach the building. More than
likely, however, the leak will drain out of the inside facing, because of poor masonry work. Once frost gets in,
mortar and bricks may be pushed out of the wall.

SECTION 14.3 ROOFING SYSTEMS
14.3.1 SINGLE PLY ROOFING SYSTEMS (1982)
14.3.1.1 General
a. In order to avoid failures we need to understand the new generation of roofing systems being promoted.
Before you specify or apply, know the limitations of the type of single ply system you are dealing with.
b. There are different kinds of single ply systems. The types of materials presently in use include PVC,
synthetic rubber membrane systems and modified bitumen.
14.3.1.2 P.V.C. (Polyvinyl Chloride) Membrane Systems
P.V.C. is a thermoplastic polymer synthesized from vinyl chloride and a member of a larger group of polymers
designated as “vinyls.” P.V.C.s are rigid materials which through plasticizing and proper formulation can show
elastomeric properties and resistance to weathering. P.V.C. sheets are manufactured in approximately 34 mil, 48
mil and 60 mil thicknesses. Sheet sizes are fabricated up to approximately 665.
14.3.1.3 Synthetic Rubber Membrane Systems
a. The major chemical formulations of synthetic rubber membranes sold are: Neoprene, E.P.D.M. (Ethylene
Propylene Diene Monomer), Hypalon, and P.I.B. (Polyisobutylene). They are single ply sheet rubber systems
in thickness from 60 mil for an adhered system to 45 mil for a loose laid ballasted system. 1
b. Physical Properties – E.P.D.M. Sheet Membrane: E.P.D.M. demonstrates superior ozone resistance and
remains elastic through wide temperature fluctuations. E.P.D.M. is impermeable and resistant to ultraviolet
radiation and weathering in general.
14.3.1.4 Modified Bitumen

3
a. Asphalt (blown or unblown).
b. Rubberizers may be added.
c. Other additives.
14.3.1.5 Applications of Single Ply Systems 4

A single ply membrane can be applied in four different systems:
a. Attached over insulation or approved roof deck using adhesives.
b. Laid loose over approved roof deck or insulation, which is also laid loose, and ballasted with smooth stones
or pavers.
c. Mechanically attached over deck or insulation using rigid metal or rubber strips and flashed to make it
watertight.
d. Applied in any of the above methods with approved insulation on top and then ballasted.

14.3.2 LIQUID ROOF COATING SYSTEMS (1982)
14.3.2.1 General
Liquid applied roof coating systems are one of the newest generations of roofing to appear on the scene and hold
the potential for taking a large share of the roofing market, in particular, roofs of unusual configuration. Because
of the newness of the liquid coating systems, there are still some questions which do not have firm answers, such
as: How long will they withstand weathering, how often will they require recoating, will mechanical damage due to
hail, thrown objects, dropped tools, or foot traffic be of much concern? According to the manufacturers, their
coatings in some instances have withstood 8,000 hours in a weatherometer with no loss of protection and no
detrimental changes in properties. If these findings are true and if mechanical damage is determined to be
insignificant, then they may become a viable alternative to other roofing systems. Most of these systems
incorporate the use of a spray-on urethane foam insulation over the roof deck or over the existing roofing
membranes. Since the urethane foam insulations today are highly susceptible to damage from ultraviolet
radiation, they require a coating to protect them from U.V. and other elements.
14.3.2.2 Spray on Coatings
Spray on coatings to protect urethane foam insulation include acrylic latex, silicone and urethane. Other types are
appearing but this report will cover only these three.
14.3.2.2.1 Acrylic
Low abrasion resistance and tensile strength, thus is more susceptible to hail and mechanical damage–lowest in
weathering resistance, also, lowest in cost. Will freeze in can.
14.3.2.2.2 Silicone Rubber
Low impact resistance and tensile strength, thus susceptible to hail and mechanical damage. Good weathering
properties. Requires roof drainage.
14.3.2.2.3 Urethane
Higher tensile strength and abrasion resistance, thus greater protection against hail. Resistant to ponded water.
14.3.3 ROOFING CHARACTERISTIC COMPARISON (1982)
For a comparison of Roofing characteristics refer to Table 6-14-2.
14.3.4 METAL ROOFING SYSTEMS (1982)
a. Major changes have been made in metal roofing systems in recent years, primarily the use of standing
seams and concealed fasteners which eliminate most through-roof fasteners, thus eliminating the majority
of potential leaks. Aluminized steel greatly reduces corrosion.
b. With the use of roof purlins over existing roofing systems metal or otherwise, a new metal roof can be
applied over an existing system quite easily and insulation can be added in the purlin space, thus making it
possible to insulate while installing a new roof covering.

Table 6-14-2. Comparison of Roofing Characteristics
Single Ply Membrane Liquid Roof Coating

Item To Be Compared Bituminous Roofs
Systems System
1. Tear Off Can usually be used over Usually requires tear off for Not usually required.
existing roofing. reroofing.
2. Vapor Barrier Usually not required as Required in high moisture Not required.
system breathes. building or blisters will occur.
3. Slope Can be dead level. Needs tapered insulation or Some need drainage.
sloped roof structures.
4. Insulation Can use the least expensive Requires more expensive Use spray on urethane
“Bead Board” insulation. insulation and more care. insulation any thickness
and can slope to drain.
5. Limitations to Can be applied in almost Must be dry and not too Must be dry and warm.
Installation any weather. cold.
6. Weight Unballasted = 1/2 lb/SF Unballasted = 1-4 lb/SF Very lightweight.
Ballasted = 10 lb/SF Ballasted = 5-8 lb/SF
7. Ballast Must be smooth to prevent Can be gravel. None required but granules
puncture 3/4 inch to 1-1/2 often applied over coating.
inch size
8. Wood Blocking Must not be creosote treated. Any treatment is acceptable. Not required.
9. Expansion and Not required. Required. Not required except over
1
Contraction Joints building joints.
10. Handling Material and rolled Many rolls of felts and hot Spray on with hoses from
membranes can be lifted to bitumen containers. ground.
roof in fewer pieces.
11. Flashings Flexible and easy. Not a Primary location of leaks Monolithic, sprayed in
weak point. requires mixture of place, self-flashing, no 3
materials that move metal corrosion, conforms
differently. to walls and penetrations.
12. Shrinkage Rubber: Generally not a Will shrink when bitumen Must be taken into account
problem. drys out. especially in valleys where
PVC: Some brands lose shrinkage can cause
plasticizer causing separation or loss of bond. 4
shrinkage.
13. Workmanship Critical as membranes, can Materials must be applied Critical, requires
be damaged during dry and flat with solid experienced applicators.
installation, seams must be bituminous adhesive and
kept clean and properly coatings.
sealed.
14. Installation time Large, clean sheets reduce Many plies and coatings. Can be rapid installation
installation time. depends on good weather.
Two step application.
15. Conform to Shapes Conforms easily to most Not easily conformable. Very readily conforms to
shapes but must be difficult shapes. Major
adhesively or mechanically advantage of this system.
bonded as ballast can not be
used on steeply sloping roofs.

Table 6-14-2. Comparison of Roofing Characteristics (Continued)
Single Ply Membrane Liquid Roof Coating

Item To Be Compared Bituminous Roofs
Systems System
16. Problems Sheets are flexible and Subject to splits, cracks, Flexible and elastic but
remain elastic. alligatoring, and blisters. subject to mechanical
damage and hail.
17. Seams Fewer seams, sealed with Must be solidly mopped, No seams, monolithic.
adhesive, solvents or tapes. sealed and coated.
Seams can be a source of
problems if not properly
made.
18. Locating and repairing Difficult to locate. Easy to Difficult to locate and Easy to locate and easy to
leaks. repair by patching or sealing. difficult to repair. repair applying new coating.
19. Maintenance None required. Must be recoated and Many need recoating.
repaired regularly.
20. Factor of Safety Single ply has no factor of Several plys. Some factor of Monolithic with insulation
safety. safety. often will stop leaks until
damage is repaired. Good
factor of safety.
21. Quality Control Factory quality control better, More difficult to control. Manufacturing quality can
also less effect of petroleum More field labor intensive. be controlled.
quality fluctuations.
22. Contamination Membranes can be damaged Damaged by solvents Generally resistant to
by contact with gasoline, oils, gasolines or oils. chemicals and solvents.
asphalt or coal tar unless
specially formulated.
23. Combustibility Can be Class I fire rated Can be Class I fire rated Can be designed to meet
system when properly system when properly factory mutual or other fire
designed. designed. codes.
24. Color Can be light colored, black Black or color of ballast. Light colored or color of
or color of ballast. coating granules.
25. Reusable Can be rolled up and reused. No No
26. Effect of Ultraviolet Rubber: Most are stable Stable, but will dry out Many are stable, some
PVC: Many are stable with exposure. require granules or other
coatings.
27. Contractor Preference Most roofers prefer because Hot kettles, fumes, messy, No mess, quick clean
of ease and quickness of environmental problems. system.
system and no mess. Possible overspray with
wind.
28. History Some systems have, some Long history. Relatively short history.
not, check individual
product.
29. Life Expectancy Major brand products With proper maintenance With recoating and repair
expect 20 years minimum, 15 to 20 years. can be indefinite.
perhaps up to 40 years.
30. Warranty 5 to 10 years readily Normal 2 year warranty. 5 to 10 year available.
available.
EPDM 15 year material
warranty available.

SECTION 14.4 CONCLUSIONS
14.4.1 GENERAL (1982)
a. Proper maintenance of existing built-up roofs can extend their useful life many years, but without
maintenance life expectancy is greatly reduced.
b. Whether the roofing system selected for use is a built-up asphalt or tar roof, a single ply membrane roof, a
liquid applied membrane roof, or a metal roof, there are products on the market which will give a successful
result. There are good products and poor products in each category, thus caution is advised.
c. Some of the products in the new generation of roofing either reduce or possibly eliminate most
maintenance. The life cycle costing of some newer products can often be lower.
d. Proper selection of the new or replacement roof to be used, care in its installation, and diligence in
maintenance will greatly reduce the small leaks that are such a headache and the large failures that are so
costly.


6
Part 15
Inspection of Railway Buildings1
— 2003 —
FOREWORD
a. Railway buildings represent a significant capital investment and should be properly maintained in order to
protect that investment. There are two types of maintenance functions that can be accomplished on a
building. The first type is reactive maintenance, which repairs and/or replaces an immediate problem; the
second type of maintenance, is a program of maintenance needs, which can be scheduled over a period of
time. A maintenance program for a building is generally based upon an inspection program once a year or
not less than once every five years.
1
b. The inspection program is generally carried out in order to identify problems which may be occurring that
would affect the structural soundness of the building and/or its function. The program is also used to
identify potential safety hazards which may pose a threat to the employees and/or visitors who may be using
the building.
c. Finally, a building inspection program can be used to identify short term and long term costs associated with
the items appearing in the inspection report. These costs can be utilized to establish capital budget for 3
repairs within a given year(s).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15.1 Organization and Inspection Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.2 Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.3 Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.4 Conducting an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.5 Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-5
1
References Vol. 85, 1984, p 29

LIST OF FIGURES
6-15-1 Building Inspection Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-6
SECTION 15.1 ORGANIZATION AND INSPECTION PREPARATION
a. A building inspection should be performed in an orderly fashion. The exterior of the building should be
checked from the visible foundation level to the top of the walls or underside of the eaves. The roof must
also be checked along with any parapet walls or other structures on the roof. On the interior of the building,
the basement and/or crawl space and each floor above the basement level must be checked, including any
attic space. On each floor level, each room must be checked, including ceiling spaces were dropped ceilings
are used.
b. In addition to the building inspection, the inspection team should also inspect the ground surface area
surrounding the building. The inspection should cover such things as grading, drainage, lighting,
walkways, crosswalks, warning devices, parking and accessibility.
c. If original construction drawings are available, they should be used to verify the current configuration and
conditions of the building. Sketches should be made of any changes which may have been made to the
building layout, plumbing and electrical characteristics.
d. At the time of the inspection an interview of the person(s) in charge of the building should be conducted in
order to ascertain if any unnoticeable conditions may exist that warrant further investigation.
The person in charge of the overall building inspection should, if at all possible, arrange to have the area
Buildings and Bridge Supervisor and/or his representative accompany the inspection team.
SECTION 15.2 INSPECTORS
a. Persons assigned to the inspection of a building should be thoroughly qualified in their particular area of
expertise. A typical inspection team should consist of a structural engineer, architect (and/or architect
alone), mechanical engineer, and electrical engineer. Other qualified individuals are equally acceptable.
b. Upon completion of the physical inspection of the building, the inspectors should record their inspection
notes in a format which can be easily read and used by non-technical persons. Figure 6-15-1 is an example
of a form which could be used for this purpose. Entries on the form should be legible, and easily understood.
Where conditions exist which require more detailed information, this information should be attached to the
form as a separate sheet.

Inspection of Railway Buildings
SECTION 15.3 INSPECTIONS
a. Building and facility inspections in some cases are conducted on a regular annual basis and in many cases
never at all. In the latter case, inspections are called for only when a problem occurs which requires
immediate attention. In either case however, the process of conducting the inspection should be the same.
b. Annual or bi-annual inspections are an important resource for monitoring the condition of the buildings and
facilities and a valuable tool for identifying potential major problems which may be developing. In some
cases, these inspections can serve to identify potential environmental problems, as well as energy
inefficiencies that may exist. Through the inspection process, buildings and facilities can be maintained in a
manner which will assure their design life and possibly prolong that life.
SECTION 15.4 CONDUCTING AN INSPECTION
a. The following paragraphs of this manual are not intended to serve as a comprehensive guide on what to
check when inspecting a building and/or facility. The information provided is intended only to serve as a
guide and a reminder to those charged with the inspection duties to be mindful of these potential conditions.
Structural inspections of a building and/or facility should begin at the foundation level. The visible portions
of the exterior foundation should be checked for cracks and/or other forms of damage. Concrete stairs,
stoops and/or ramps attached to the building should be checked for settlement and/or separation and 1
assessed as to whether or not remedial measures are necessary. If steel framing is involved bolted
connections should be inspected for corrosion, or; if welded joints are used, for cracking and/or separations.
The steel framing should also be checked for corrosion and stress due to possible overloading or damage due
to impacts.
Inside of the basement or crawl space, walls should be checked for cracks and water infiltration, as well as the
floor surface. If there is a concrete ceiling, check for cracking and/or spalling along bearing points. Also 3
inspect columns for spalling concrete and/or other damage. Inspect concrete pits for cracking in the floor and
walls. Note if any water infiltration is present. Check concrete piers, columns for cracking and/or damage.
Where timber framing is used, check wood joists for splitting and stress due to overloading. Also, ensure
that no decay is visible due to water damage and/or insects such as termites. Similar checks should also be
made on the other floors of the building if applicable, as well as the attic. In the attic, also check for damage
to the roof sheathing due to leaking. 4
b. The architectural inspection will deal with the exterior condition of the building, as well as the interior
areas. On the exterior, the inspection must examine the condition of the masonry, metal skin, concrete, or
wood surfaces, whichever is applicable. For masonry work, mortar joints should be checked for possible
deterioration. Metal skins should be checked for loose panels, trim or possible damage. Concrete walls
should be checked for cracking and spalling, which could potentially allow water to penetrate into the
building interior. Wood surfaces should be checked for decay and/or other types of damage.
Window exteriors should be checked to ensure caulking is intact or hasn’t dried out and pulled free of its
contact surfaces. Also note any broken glass or seals which may be leaking on double glazed windows. For
wooden sash, check for possible decay.
Eaves and fascia boards should be checked as well. For wood trim, check for decay. On metal trim, check
separations and/or loose pieces. Inspect gutters and downspouts for damage due to freezing and/or other
factors, such as rust and/or abuse. Inspect copings for looseness, decay and/or other types of damage.

On the interior, inspect floors, walls, and ceilings for possible damage and/or worn out conditions. Be
mindful of possible waterspots, indicating possible water infiltration and/or leaks. Ensure that the
hardware on doors and windows are working properly. Check stairs and stairwells for possible safety
violations and/or unsafe conditions. In areas where ceramic tile, glazed tile and/or other masonry products
may be employed, check for joint decay or other possible damage.
On the roof, inspect flashings for separation and/or other types of damage. Check the condition of the roof
surface itself for bubbles, tears or other potential trouble spots.
c. The mechanical inspection is intended to cover both the heating and air conditioning and exhaust systems,
as well as the plumbing and possible fire protection systems. In some cases, it may be necessary to have two
people conduct this inspection. One to cover the heating, air conditioning, and exhaust systems and the
other to check the plumbing and fire protection system.
The heating and air conditioning systems checks will vary according to the types of systems used and only
those persons familiar with the operation of these types of systems should be used for the inspection. In
general, heating and air-conditioning systems should be checked for clean filters, proper belt tension on
fans, clean fan wheels, clean coils, clean strainer baskets, if applicable, and that traps, valves, pressure
reducing stations, condensate pumps, and air vents are all operating properly. Boilers and hot water
generator burners should be inspected, fuel filters inspected, relief valves checked and work reports checked
to ensure that maintenance requirements are being met. Finally, air compressors should be checked, as well
as the air receivers, relief valves and coolers.
Thermostats should be inspected to ensure that they are operating properly and are not damaged.
Motorized dampers, intake grilles, and exhaust fans should also be checked for proper operation. Inspection
and/or service reports should also be checked, if available, for re-occurring problems.
d. A plumbing inspection should start in the basement and/or crawl space. Piping for sewer and water should
be checked for damage and/or leaks. Cleanouts should be easily accessible. Toilet areas should be checked
to determine if faucets are working properly, water closets flush correctly, and hot water tanks are operating
accordingly.
Sprinkler systems should be inspected for damaged sprinkler heads, leaks in the piping (on wet systems)
and that the fire pump, if applicable, is being exercised according to the manufacturers directions.
Building drainage systems should be checked for clogging. Oil/water separators, triple basins and other
waste type holding tanks should also be checked to ensure they are operating properly and being serviced on
a regular basis.
e. Electrical inspections should determine if adequate power exists in the building and that panel board
directories are up to date. Fuse and/or breakers should be checked on each circuit in order to verify that
they are properly sized. Groundfault interrupters should be tested. Outlets should be checked for damage
and/or the need to replace same. Emergency lighting should be checked to ensure that the system is
operating properly.
Lighting should be checked to determine that the proper amount of foot-candles exist in work spaces. Note
if the fixtures lenses are clean and/or in need of replacement. Check to see if motor operated circuit
breakers are functioning properly. Note if improper or unauthorized extension cords are in use, and if any
wiring appears to have been added to the facility which does not meet local electrical code requirements.
Environmental inspections are also a necessity on many buildings and facilities where asbestos, lead paint,
and/or other hazardous chemical/substance may have been used and/or are expected to be found.
If an environmental inspection is deemed appropriate for the building and/or facility a qualified environmental
engineer and/or consultant should be employed. This individual and/or firm should then conduct a thorough

Inspection of Railway Buildings
investigation of the building and/or facility to determine if any hazardous materials, chemicals and/or
substances are present. A full report should be provided outlining the findings of the inspection.
In the event that hazardous materials, chemicals and/or substances are found, proper documentation of the
findings should be prepared. Documentation should consist of what specifically was found, extent of the
material, identification of the substance and/or chemical, photographs, and; the approximate cost for abatement.
f. As noted earlier in this section, the above is not intended to serve as the criteria for an inspection, but merely
to alert the reader as to the many items which need to be considered when conducting a thorough building
and facility inspection. While many of the above referenced items will be common to almost any building
and/or facility, each building and/or facility will have their own unique needs and inspection requirements.
SECTION 15.5 INSPECTION REPORTS
a. Once the inspection has been completed, a report should be prepared which identifies any of the problems
found. Any items, which were identified which represent a hazard to personnel or to the safety of the
structure, should be brought to the immediate attention of the responsible person in charge of the
inspection and official in charge of the building or facility.
b. Each discipline should categorize the results of their individual inspections in order to assist those receiving
the information to identify immediate and long-term needs. When requested, estimates of costs should be
prepared for the work on an individual line item basis. This will allow the person gathering the information 1
to provide an overall cost to correct deficiencies on an immediate and long-term need.
c. A suggested rating system is proposed which can serve as a guide for determining the importance of the
repairs needed. This rating system is as follows:
(1) Potentially hazardous to personnel and/or personnel safety.

3
(2) Compromises structural integrity of the building and/or facility.
(3) Requires major maintenance and if not attended to promptly will cost substantially more at a later date.
(4) If corrected will reduce building and/or facility operating cost.
(5) Corrective action will improve image, appearance and/or personal comfort.
4
(6) Regular maintenance has been neglected and/or performed improperly.
(7) No work required.

Figure 6-15-1. Building Inspection Report
6
Part 16
Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2

16.1.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
1
16.2 Site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2.1 Macro Site Selection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2.2 Micro Site Selection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.3 Types of Main Line Fueling Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3

16.3.1 Direct Truck Loading (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3
16.3.2 Fixed Facilities (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3 3
16.4 Services Provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.1 Facility Size (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.2 Services (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.3 Platform Design Criteria (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.4 Overhead Structures (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-6
16.4.5 Equipment (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-6
16.4.6 Piping Systems (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-7
16.4.7 Electrical (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-8
16.4.8 Environmental Protection (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-8
LIST OF FIGURES
6-16-1 Platform Configuration - Platform 1’-4” Below Top of Rail - No Inspection Pits . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-9
6-16-2 Platform Configuration - Inspection Pits and Gantry Sanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-10
6-16-3 Locomotive Service Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-11
6-16-4 Clifton Forge Fueling Platform, CSX Transportation Company - 4 Tracks - Fuel Dispensed on all
Tracks - Sand, Lube Oil and Water Dispensing on Center Two Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-11
6-16-5 Lincoln B2 West Fueling Platform, BNSF Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-12

LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
6-16-6 North Platte Fueling Facility, Union Pacific Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-12
16.1.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. Fueling facilities are defined as facilities for adding fuel to locomotives, tenders or self propelled cars. In
most cases, additional fluids and services are supplied.
b. Fueling facilities can be divided into two classes- main line and service. Mainline facilities are designed to
fuel locomotives in transit, i.e. while attached to trains. Service facilities are designed to fuel locomotives in
locomotive consists or individually, while uncoupled from trains. Service facilities generally offer more
services than mainline facilities. They provide for locomotives that are being prepared to haul trains. They
are often associated with locomotive maintenance facilities.
c. These criteria are intended for main line facilities. They also pertain only to the fueling facilities
themselves. Pumping stations, tank farms et cetera are excluded from these criteria.
d. Chapter 14, Article 5.2.1 of AREMA standards also gives some guidance on the design of fueling facilities.
SECTION 16.2 SITE
16.2.1 MACRO SITE SELECTION (2002)
a. In broad terms, the location of a site is based on railroad operating plans. The number of trains passing a
given location, the status of their fuel supply and the time in schedule available for fueling are factors that
enter into macro site selection. Also entered into consideration are the availability and cost of fuel.
16.2.2 MICRO SITE SELECTION (2002)
a. Once the general area for a fueling facility are determined, micro site selection is governed by the following
factors:
Availability of space for the train. Main line fueling facilities are either on the main line or on sidings
adjacent to it. The train will trail the locomotives being fueled. Present day train lengths, including
locomotives, can approach 8,000 feet. This space must be available without fouling adjacent tracks. The
fueling facility must be at the end of the site in the direction of travel. For example, if the train is east
bound, it should be at the east end of the site. If trains traveling both directions are to be served, there must
be space for trailing trains in both directions.
Site Selection must also consider continuing railroad operation during construction. Tracks may have to be
taken out of service to facilitate construction of the facility. Also, temporary tracks may be necessary to
provide a path around the new fueling facility during construction.

Ideally, the fueling facility and one locomotive length each side of the facility should be on tangent track.
The facility and the trailing track should be on substantially level land. The site should be graded and
structures provided so that storm water drains away from the platform.
Space must be available at or near the site for ancillary facilities such as access roads, pipelines, fueling crew
facilities and support facilities such as pumps and tanks.
Conventionally, locomotives are located at the front end of trains. If distributed power is used, the presence
of locomotives at the rear or other positions will have to be accommodated. Typically, the facility design will
permit fueling the front end locomotives only. The other locomotives can be added at strategic locations
already fueled and can be detached for fueling. An alternative is to fuel the front end locomotives at a fixed
fueling facility and the distributed locomotives by some form of truck fueling.
Geotechnical considerations may also indfluence site selection.
Chapter 14 of the AREMA Manual gives guidance for track design in yards and terminals.
SECTION 16.3 TYPES OF MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES
16.3.1 DIRECT TRUCK LOADING (2002)

1
a. Direct truck loading (DTL) is defined as fueling directly from a fuel truck, rather than from a fixed facility.
It can be used where frequency of fueling is low enough that investment in a fixed facility is not warranted,
or where the location of the fueling cannot be determined precisely ahead of time. The latter case is
occurring with increasing frequency with increase in the use of distributed power. Trains with distributed
power can be positioned so that one locomotive consist is at a fueling facility, but the position of the
remaining locomotives depends on train length and configuration. 3
b. Fuel oil trucks can be equipped for fuel oil only, or can dispense lube oil, radiator water and sand in addition.
See Figure 6-16-3 for an example.
c. If the DTL location is fixed, the truck should be parked on a concrete pad and track pans should be provided
under the locomotive. Both should drain to an industrial waste system.
4
d. Even if the DTL location can be only approximated, track and signal design must accommodate the parked
train and an adequate all weather truck access road must be provided.
16.3.2 FIXED FACILITIES (2002)
a. Fixed facilities provide a permanent location for fueling. See Figure 6-16-3. They require more investment,
but generally provide quicker fueling, easier coordination and better environmental protection. They are
well suited to high volume fueling. Most main line fueling facilities are of this type.

SECTION 16.4 SERVICES PROVIDED
16.4.1 FACILITY SIZE (2002)
a. The size of a fueling facility is determined by the frequency of fueling and by the size of the locomotive consists
being serviced. Consists of five locomotives are common. With the advent of higher powered locomotives and
distributed power, the number of locomotives in a consist will tend to diminish. The number of tracks in a
facility depends on train traffic. The most common number is two. Facilities with eight tracks exist.
b. Facility length should be sufficient to fuel all locomotives in the maximum anticipated consist
simultaneously. At present, the maximum length of an individual locomotive is approximately eighty feet. If
five of these locomotives are anticipated, a total platform length of 425 feet is indicated, allowing some space
on the ends for crossings, ramps, sanitary dumps and so on.
c. Track spacing for multi track facilities is dictated by the requirements of fuel oil cranes and traffic on the
platform. The most common track spacing is twenty six to thirty feet. Fuel column standards fit track
spacing between 18 and 32 feet. Wider track spacing results in a reduction of the track length that can be
covered by an individual fuel crane. These considerations apply only to platforms where the fuel cranes are
located between the two tracks. Some railroads find it convenient to place the fuel cranes outside the two
tracks. In this case, track spacing can be more flexible.
16.4.2 SERVICES (2002)
a. By definition, a fueling facility dispenses fuel oil. Fixed main line facilities can also dispense lube oil and
radiator water.
b. Sand is also often dispensed. See Chapter 6, Part 6 for further information on sanding.
c. Locomotive sanitary waste removal is also often provided.
d. Inspection pits for access to the underside of locomotives are sometimes provided. They may be necessary if
the facility provides required periodic locomotive inspections.
e. Rarely, journal oil is despensed. It is only practical if inspection pits are provided.
f. Provision is also sometimes made for minor running repairs.
g. Brake shoe change out.
16.4.3 PLATFORM DESIGN CRITERIA (2002)
a. Fueling platforms have the following functions:
• Provide a safe working platform for personnel
• Protect the environment against contamination by fuel and other fluids
• Provide support for equipment
b. Platform length has been covered in Article 16.4.1(b).
c. The following configurations for platforms are common. Choice among them depends on the frequency of
fueling operations and on the locomotive inspections and repairs that will be performed during fueling. A

mix of configurations can be used on individual platforms. For example, inspection pits need not be placed
on all tracks nor are they necessarily for the full length of the platform:
Platforms without inspection pits:
• Concrete track support continuous with concrete platform
• Track ballasted-Track pans-Concrete platform
• Track on deep stone fill – fueling equipment on concrete slab
Platforms with inspection pits:
• Pits between rails
• Pits between rails and on field side of rails
d. Track pans can be steel, plastic (e.g. fiberglass reinforced plastic) or concrete.
e. If the platform supports the tracks, it should be designed for loading by trains. It should be recognized that
some trains will not stop for fueling. Therefore, the platform will be designed for the train speed desired.
Cooper E80 loading is a common criterion. See AREMA Manual, Chapter 8, Part 27 for information on the
design of track support. Special attention may need to be paid to the transition between the rigid concrete
support and the ballasted track at the needs of the platform. Depending on geotechnical conditions, the
track slab might be directly supported from the ground or pilings might be required. 1
f. Track spacing has been covered in Article 16.4.1(c). Platform width must be coordinated with that
parameter.
g. Space on the platform needs to be allocated to equipment and usually to a utility trench providing piping
and electrical cables to the equipment. Piping and electrical cables are sometimes mounted on overhead
structures. It may be necessary to provide for forklift or motorized cart traffic on the platform. 3
h. If a gantry sanding system is used, space on the aprons must be allocated for gantry rails. Supports are
necessary for electrical supply to the gantry.
i. The most convenient platform level for fueling operations is at the top of rail. This position places the
locomotive fueling port about four feet above the platform. If minor repairs are to be made on the
locomotive trucks, platform level is often placed 16 inches below top of rail. (see Figure 6-16-1) 4
j. Concrete aprons should be provided on the field side of the outside tracks. They may be necessary to
support sanding equipment, for motorized cart traffic or for personnel performing inspections or repairs.
k. Inspection pit depth under the locomotive is usually about four feet six inches below top of rail. This depth
is a compromise between many conflicting requirements. Other depths have been used. If service pits are
provided on the field side of the rail, depth is usually about three feet below top of rail.
l. Freeze protection for water piping is necessary in most climates. Electric heat tracing is most common.
m. Cold protection for oil piping is necessary only in very severe climates and in cases where the oil can sit
stagnant for long times. The pour temperature of the oil should be determined and an estimate made of the
minimum oil temperature in piping.
n. The utility trench can be covered with grating if heating is not required. Alternatives are steel or concrete
covers. Traffic requirements should also be considered.

o. In cold climates, glycol heating of the platform can be provided. Glycol heating systems consist of plastic
piping buried in the platform, with pumps and a heater located adjacent to the platform.
p. Expansion joint material and water stop material must be oil resistant.
q. Some fueling facilities place track on stone fill approximately three feet deep. The bottom of the stone fill is
sloped toward a drain connection to an oil water separator. The stone fill is contained by a plastic liner.
16.4.4 OVERHEAD STRUCTURES (2002)
a. A canopy can be provided over the fueling platform. The primary function of the canopy is to prevent rain
water from getting on the platform and increasing flow in the industrial waste system. If a canopy is
provided, it must have a large ventilation system to prevent locomotive exhaust fumes from being inhaled
by fueling personnel.
b. An overhead structure is also often provided to support piping (especially sand piping) and electrical
conduits.
c. A gantry for sanding, if that system is used, constitutes an overhead structure.
d. Overhead structure must not impinge on the train clearance envelope. See AREMA Manual Chapter 28 for
minimum clearance requirements.
16.4.5 EQUIPMENT (2002)
a. Diesel fuel cranes almost universally conform to the pattern shown in Figure 6-16-1. Operators position the
fuel nozzle in the locomotive fueling port and start fuel flow by operating a local pushbutton. The nozzle is
designed to shut off automatically when the tank is full. Such cranes can operate within a radius from the
crane position. The radius is determined by crane size. The designer must determine what portion of the
platform fuel cranes should serve and position cranes accordingly.
b. The AAR has developed a fuel nozzle to increase fueling rate and to decrease the incidence of fuel spills. It
depends on a matching fuel port on the locomotive and level measuring provisions on the locomotive. The
fuel crane nozzle must be selected to fit the locomotives to be fueled.
c. Lube oil, radiator water and compressor oil are generally dispensed from hose reel cabinets. They are
designed so that an operator can grasp the dispensing nozzle while standing on a locomotive walkway. Hose
reel cabinets are generally heated to keep radiator water from freezing and oil from congealing. Cabinet
location must be coordinated with expected locomotive position.
d. Cabinets may also be provided for platform flushing water. If provided, they are usually integrated with the
boom cabinets. Such cabinets are also heated to prevent freezing.
e. Sanitary waste can be dumped directly from the locomotives to sanitary dumps, usually located at the end of
the platform. This operation will require positioning the locomotive at the dump and repositioning it for
fueling. To avoid the repositioning operation, a transport wagon (“honey wagon”) is often provided.
f. Sanitary waste can also be dumped to a vacuum disposal system. Such systems consist of hoses at the
locomotive, piping from the hose to a vacuum tank, vacuum pumps, filters and a mechanism to dump the
vacuum tank to a sewer.
g. Emergency eye wash stations are often provided on the platform.
h. Wash down capability.

16.4.6 PIPING SYSTEMS (2002)
a. The following materials are recommended for piping on the platform. Piping in support systems off the
platform, such as oil supply piping, may be different because such piping is in a less well controlled
environment. Railroad piping systems work in a harsh environment with loadings from passing trains. Pipe
materials which would be satisfactory in other environments, particularly buried pipe, may not be suitable
for railroad service due to ground transmitted vibration.
Oil systems: Carbon Steel ASTM A53 Underground oil piping should be double wall or
wrapped and cathodically protected.
Sanitary Waste: Ductile Iron AWWA C151 (below ground)
PVC (vacuum sewage system)
Industrial Waste: Ductile Iron AWWA C151 or
PVC with glued joints
Wash Water: Carbon Steel ASTM A53
Potable Water (e.g. eye wash): Copper ASTM B88
Radiator Water: Carbon Steel ASTM A53
Platform Heating: Plastic Hose (in platform)
When selecting gasket or joint sealant material, consideration of the chemical composition is needed. Diesel
fuel will typically contain portions of “aromatics” such as benzene, toluene and exylene. These aromatics 1
are agressive in their reaction on most typical gasketing materials so care will need to be exercised.
b. Fuel oil systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Conventional fuel oil nozzles are positioned in the locomotive by an operator. The nozzle is opened by the
operator, and turns off automatically when the tank is full. The fuel oil nozzle may be unattended when
fueling. The operator may also have to push a button to turn on the fuel oil pumps.
3
• If an AAR Standard fueling system is used, the operator latches the fuel nozzle to the locomotive and also
attaches the signal module.
• Emergency fuel oil shutoff buttons should be provided on the platform to control accidents. These
buttons should be clearly identified.
4
c. Lube oil systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Lube oil nozzles are usually manual. Operator attention is required during filling.
• In most climates, lube oil piping must be heat traced and dispensed from heated boom cabinets.
d. Radiator water systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Radiator water is usually softened water with sodium borate as a corrosion inhibitor. It does not usually
contain antifreeze. Accordingly, heat tracing and heated boom cabinets are necessary. The designer should
check the type of locomotive to be fueled to ensure that antifreeze is not required.
• Since radiator water is not potable water, a back flow preventer must separate the water supply system (if
it is potable) from the radiator water system.

16.4.7 ELECTRICAL (2002)
a. Lighting should be provided on the platform to obtain a level of 10 foot candles measured at the sides of the
locomotives.
b. A control panel should be provided adjacent to each fuel oil crane and set of house reel cabinets to control
the dispensing pumps and DFO shutoff valves. Lube oil and radiator water booms should include on/off
control at the end of the booms.
c. Electrical panels must be provided on the platform to provide power to the following items. This list is
typical. Not all loads may exist on a given platform and some additional ones may:
control panels platform heating

DFO shutoff valves lighting
hose reel rewind motors 120V receptacles
hear tracing hose reel cabinet heating
d. If a sanding system is provided, it will have its own control and power systems, electrical power must be
provided to them.
e. The control system on the platform provides signals to the overall fueling facility control system. The latter
is usually provided in the pump house or the pump area. The control system should provide annunciation of
abnormal conditions to supervisor’s office and/or locally (horn and flashing light).
16.4.8 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (2002)
a. Minimum requirements for protection of the environment from oil pollution are presented in the Code of
Federal Regulations, 40CFR112, although Appendix A of 40CFR112 specifically exempts locomotive fueling
systems from its requirements.
b. Complying with environmental rules will require a waste system draining all area subject to oil
contamination. This system should include an oil water separator. Oil from the separator should be
disposed of off site. Generally, a recovered oil tank will be provided to contain the water oil. If water from
the separator is discharged to the environment an NPDES permit in accordance with 40CFR122 will be
required. If discharged to a water treatment facility, the requirements of the facility and 40CFR403
“General Pretreatment Regulations for Existing and New Sources of Pollution” must be respected.
c. Areas of the facility which are subject to rainfall are also subject to 40CFR122.
d. An impermeable membrane should be provided under the fueling platform, with provision to remove
contaminants from the area directly above the membrane.

Figure 6-16-1. Platform Configuration - Platform 1’-4” Below Top of Rail - No Inspection Pits

Figure 6-16-2. Platform Configuration - Inspection Pits and Gantry Sanding

1
Figure 6-16-3. Locomotive Service Truck
Figure 6-16-4. Clifton Forge Fueling Platform, CSX Transportation Company - 4 Tracks - Fuel
Dispensed on all Tracks - Sand, Lube Oil and Water Dispensing on Center Two Tracks

Figure 6-16-5. Lincoln B2 West Fueling Platform, BNSF Railway
Figure 6-16-6. North Platte Fueling Facility, Union Pacific Railroad

6
Chapter 6 Glossary
The following terms are used in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities and are placed here in alphabetical
order for your convenience.
Chimney
A vertical shaft enclosing one or more flews.
Daily Average Passenger (DAP)

The total number of passengers using a facility on a daily basis derived from five day average of at least four
randomly selected weeks during the year.
Downtown Location
A station site in the Central Business District (CBD) where the primary mode of travel to and from the
station is in the CBD.
Exterior Chimney
1
A chimney built outside the walls of a building and having lateral support from the building.
Flue
An enclosed passageway in a chimney for removing products of combustion from solid, liquid, or gas fuel.
Interior Chimney 3
A chimney built within the walls of a building and having a lateral support from the building.
Isolated Chimney
A chimney which receives no lateral support from the building. Guys or stays shall not be considered lateral
support.
Multi-Occupancy Development
A station site occupying a small portion of a larger facility such as a shopping center or office complex. The
rail station is a tenant and shares common areas of the Development with the other tenants. This type of
station may be either a Downtown or Suburban location.
Peak Hour Passenger (PHP)

The maximum number of passengers and accompanying visitors using the facility during any given hour on
a sustained basis.
Smoke Pipe
A pipe or breeching connecting a heating appliance and a flue.
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-G-1

Suburban Location
A station site which serves a medium to low density population center requiring the use of private
automobiles as the primary mode to reach the station. The site may be a small central business district, but
because the final destination of most travelers is not this business district, the location is classified as
“suburban.” Suburban locations are usually found in commuter operations and as satellite facilities in
intercity markets to capture additional ridership.
Vent Pipe
As applied to heating, a pipe for removing products of combustion from gas appliances.
6-G-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

6
References1
— 1986 —
The following list of published reports and presentations (1965-1983) used in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support
Facilities is placed here in alphabetical order for your convenience.
1. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 342–350 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
2. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 493–498 (D.A. Bessey). Presentation at Annual
Conference.
3. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 373–381 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
4. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 456–459 (D.A Bessey). Presentation at Annual
Conference. 1
5. Automobile Handling Terminals, Facilities for, Vol, 68, 1967, pp. 294–298 (O C. Denz). Published as
information.
6. Caulkings, Joint, and Sealants, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
3
7. Ceiling Systems for Air Supply and Sound Control, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 286–287 (A.W. Charvat). Published as
information.
8. Chairman's Report, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 187–188 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 315–316 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 68,
1967, pp. 293–294 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 385–386 (W.C. Humphreys); Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 601–602
(W.C. Humphreys); Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 515–516 (W.C. Humphreys); Vol. 72, 1971, pp. 419–420 (D.A. Bessey);
Vol 73, 1972, pp. 493–494 (D.A. Bessey); Vol 74, 1973, pp. 275–276 (D.A. Bessey); Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 539–540
(F.D. Day); Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 299–300 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 77, 1976, p. 341 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 78, 1977, pp.
371–372 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 79, 1978, pp. 281–282 (T.H. Seep); Vol. 80, 1979, pp. 271–272 (E.P. Bohn); Vol.
81, 1980, pp. 227–228 (E.P. Bohn); Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 210–211 (T.H. Seep); Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 278–279 (T.H.
Seep)
9. Computer Room Design, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 310–314 (R. Hale). Published as information.
10. Computer uses for Railway Building Design, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 894–895 (J.A. Penner). Presented at Annual
Conference.
11. Computer uses for Railway Building Design, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 964–965 (J.A. Penner). Presented at Annual
Conference.
1
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-R-1

12. Concrete, Prestressed, for Railway Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 202–210 (W.R Hyma). Published as
information.
13. Container-on-Flat Car Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 106–114 (G.J. Chamraz). Manual
Recommendation, Part 5.
14. Conveyor Systems, in floor, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 540–546 (D.F. Logan). Published as information.
15. Crew Housing, Portable, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 301–310 (J.A. Comeau). Published as information.
16. Critical Path Method for Architects and Engineers in the Railway Field, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 333–334 (I.G.
Forbes). Published as information.
17. Critical Path Method for Railway Engineering, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 721–742 (F.J. Raskopf). Special feature at
Annual Conference.
18. Curtain-Wall Construction for Railway Buildings, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 325–332 (R.J. Martens). Published as
information.
19. Diesel Service and Repair Shops, Design Criteria for, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 209–231 (A.R. Gualtieri). Manual
20. Elevated Yard Office Buildings, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 172–180 (W.C. Humphreys). Manual
21. Fixed Obsolescence, Designing Railway Buildings for, Vol 68, 1967, pp. 298–301 (F.D. Day). Published as
information.
22. Freight and Passenger Stations, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
23. Freight Forwarding Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 81, 1980, pp. 94–110 (S.D. Arndt). Published as
information.
24. Freight Forwarding Facilities, Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 168–180 (S.D Arndt). Manual Recommendation, Part 13.
25. Heating, Infrared, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 222–223 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
26. In-Floor Conveyor Systems, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 540–546 (D.F. Logan). Published as information.
27. Infrared Heating, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 222–223 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
28. Inspection of Railway Buildings, Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 91–103 (J.N. Michel). Published as information.
29. Joint Caulkings and Sealants, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
30. Locomotive Sanding Facilities, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 169–178 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 6.
31. Locomotive Washing Facility, Design Criteria for, Vol. 79, 1978, pp. 283–289. Manual Recommendation,
Part 12.
32. Manual, Revision of, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 890–892 (W.C. Sturm). Presented at Annual Conference.
33. Manual, Revision of, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 963–964 (W.C. Sturm). Presented at Annual Conference.
6-R-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

References
34. Maintenance of Way Equipment Repair Shops, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 162–171 (J.G.
Robertson). Manual Recommendation, Part 9.
35. Metal Buildings, Pre-Engineered, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 178–184 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 7.
36. Obsolescence, Fixed, Designing Railway Buildings for, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 298–301 (F.D. Day). Published as
information.
37. Office Buildings, Design Criteria for Railroad, Vol. 72, 1971, pp. 120–135 (W.C. Sturm). Manual
38. Office Buildings, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 167–168 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part
2.
39. Office Planning, Design Criteria for Railway, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 602–609 (R.J. Martens). Published as
information.
40. Paint and Coating Products, New Advantages, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 199–202 (A.F. Langmeyer). Published as
information.
41. Passenger and Freight Stations, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
42. Passenger Stations, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 188–191 (W.G Harding). Revision to manual.
43. Passenger Station, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 185–204 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation,
1
Part 8.
44. Piggyback – Its Development and Its Future, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 701–714. Panel discussion at Annual
Conference.
45. Piggyback Terminals, Facilities for, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 892–894 (C.R. Madeley). Presented at Annual 3
Conference.
46. Piggyback Terminals, Facilities for, Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 516–523 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
47. Plastic Materials in Railway Buildings, use of, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 210–221 (H.R. Helker). Published as
information.
4
48. Pneumatic Tube Systems, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 547–556 (H.R. Helker). Published as information.
49. Portable Crew Housing, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 301–310 (J.A. Comeau). Published as information.
50. Portable Prefabricated Buildings, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 276–286 (P.W. Peterson). Published as information.
51. Portable Prefabricated Buildings, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 97–101 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 11.
52. Portable Station Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
53. Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 179–184 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 7.
54. Prefabricated Buildings, Portable, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 276–286 (P.W. Peterson). Published as information.
55. Prefabricated Buildings, Portable, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 97–101 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation. Part 11.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-R-3

56. Prestressed Concrete for Railway Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 202–210 (W.R. Hyma). Published as
information.
57. Relocateable Structures, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 588–592 (T.R. Arnold). Special Feature at Annual Conference.
58. Roofing Systems, Selection and Maintenance of, Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 180–191 (K.N. Kearns). Manual
59. Sanding Facilities, Locomotive, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 169–178 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 6.
60. Sealants, Joint Caulkings and, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
61. Specifications for Buildings for Railway Purposes, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 200–218 (W.C. Sturm). Manual
Recommendation, Part 1
62. Specifications for Railway Buildings (Portable Station Buildings), Vol 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley).
Published as information.
63. Spot Car Repair Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 115–125 (T.H. Seep). Manual
64. Station Buildings, Portable, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
65. Stations, Freight and Passenger, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
66. Stations, Passenger, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 188–191 (W.C. Harding). Revision to Manual.
67. Stations, Passenger, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 185–204 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation,
Part 8.
68. Synthetic Resins for Adhesives, Use of, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 195–198 (H.A. Shannon). Published as
information.
69. Trailer-on-Flat-Car Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 106–114 (G.J. Chamraz). Manual
70. Unit Costs for Various Types of Railway Buildings, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 316–324 (T.S. Williams). Published as
information.
71. Yard Office Buildings, Elevated, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 172–180 (W.C. Humphreys). Manual

0
CHAPTER 11
COMMUTER AND INTERCITY RAIL
SYSTEMS1
FOREWORD
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
NOTE: This chapter is being developed by Committee 11, which was formed in 1998. Additional
material will appear in future Manual Revisions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
2 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-1

2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-5
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.4 Corridor Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.7 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
1

2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
3 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-1

3.2 System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
4 Facilities and Structural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-1

4.2 Passenger Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-1
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
5 Vehicle Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1

5.2 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-2
6 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-1

6.2 Operations Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-1
6.3 Signal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.5 Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
7 Maintenance of Way Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1

7.1 General Informaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation and Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3

INTRODUCTION
The chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all 1


30
Part 1
Introduction
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1

1
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION 3
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 1.2 SAFETY/SECURITY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems

30
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1.1 Under Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2-1
2.1.2 Under Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2-1
2.1.3 Environmental (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2-1
1
2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-5
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6

3
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.7 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
SECTION 2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION
2.1.1 UNDER DEVELOPMENT
2.1.2 UNDER DEVELOPMENT
2.1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL (2009)
2.1.3.1 The Environmental Process
Commuter and Inter-City rail transportation supports the economic vitality of the nation’s urban centers and is
therefore generally considered to be environmentally desirable. Over the years numerous laws have been enacted to

protect communities and their natural resources during major rail construction projects. Chief among these laws is the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) which established a national policy of preserving and enhancing
the human environment for future generations while meeting the transportation needs of the present generation.
NEPA regulations direct Federal agencies, planners and designers to integrate into their planning and decision
making the natural and social sciences, environmental amenities and values, and the design arts along with the
necessary engineering and economic considerations. In addition to NEPA, and where federal funding is not
involved, the provisions of other statutes, regulations and executive orders affect the decision making on
transportation projects. These mandates and considerations cover such concerns as air and water quality, historic
preservation, parklands, protection, habitat preservation, civil rights and social burdens of transportation
investments. It is important to note that NEPA is a significant environmental law but is only one of many laws
that may be applicable and govern the environmental process. It is suggested that an environmental professional
be consulted regarding environmental issues that affect planning, construction and operation.
SAFETEA-LU permits States that "re-engineered" their environmental review process to streamline transportation
decision making under the provisions of §1309 of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) to
request a grandfathering exemption to continue operating their program under those processes.
The Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the operating agency (applicant) will perform the work
necessary to complete a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) or an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and
comply with related environmental laws and regulations to the maximum extent possible during the NEPA process.
This work included environmental and related engineering studies, agency coordination and public involvement.
In accordance with 23 CFR, typically final design activities, property acquisition, purchase of construction
materials or rolling stock, or construction will not proceed until the following have been completed:
a. The action has been classified as a categorical exclusion (CE), or
b. A FONSI has been approved, or
c. A final EIS has been approved and available for the prescribed time period and a record of decision (ROD)
has been signed.
2.1.3.2 Air Quality
Commuter and Inter-City rail projects that are funded with federal funding must meet the requirements of the
Clean Air Act in addition to NEPA. The Clean Air Act contains detailed transportation conformity requirements to
ensure that federally funded rail projects conform to the applicable State (air quality) Implementation Plan which
documents the measures taken to attain the national air quality standards. The conformity is governed by a
regulation issued by the Environmental Protection Agency 40 CFR Part 93.
Mass transit or rail projects that are federally funded must meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act in addition
to those required as part of the NEPA process. This act contains “conformity” requirements the purpose of which
is to ensure that the projects conform to the applicable State (air quality) Implementation Plan (SIP) to attain
national air quality standards.
2.1.3.3 Endangered Species
U.S. federal law protects critical rare animal and plant species and their habitats. The Endangered Species Act of
1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531) provides for the protection of species that are at risk of extinction throughout all, or a
significant portion of their range, and for the protection of ecosystems on which they depend.
The Federal Transit Administration (FTA), in consultation with Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or National
Fisheries Service (NMFS) ensure that no federally funded commuter rail projects will jeopardize the continued
existence of any listed species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. Agencies,

planners and designers should contact the FWS and NMFS during project scoping for information about listed
species that may be present.
2.1.3.4 Environmental Justice
Under Executive Order 12898 (EO 12898) and the U.S. Department of Transportation’s order, consideration of
environmental justice issues must be considered during preparation of alignment alternatives and Environmental
Impact Statements (EIS). Some principles are as follows:
a. The composition of affected areas to determine whether minority populations, low-income populations, or
Indian tribes are present should be considered as to whether there may be a disproportionately high and
adverse human health or environmental effects on these populations.
b. Develop effective public participation strategies that assure meaningful community representation.
c. Where a disproportionate and adverse environmental impact is identified, consideration should be given to
relevant demographic, public health and industry data concerning the potential for exposure to human health
or environmental hazards in the affected population to the extent that this information is readily available.
d. The relative impact of alternatives should be considered, and measured to avoid, minimize, and mitigate
impacts should be evaluated.
2.1.3.5 Floodplains
A floodplain is the lowland adjacent to a river, lake or ocean and is likely to be designated by the rarity of the flood 1
that is large enough to inundate them, i.e. 10-year or 100-year. Executive order 11988, “Floodplain Management”
places special importance on floodplains and avoids conducting, allowing or supporting actions on a floodplain.
When planning a rail project, maps of the Federal Insurance Administration should be consulted to determine if
the proposed project site is located within the 100-year floodplain. Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) are usually
available for review at local zoning or planning commission office and if they are not available for a particular area,
a flood hazard boundary map should be reviewed. If the proposed project is located within a floodplain, a detailed
analysis should be included in the environmental assessment document as specified in the US Department of 3
Transportation Order 5650.2. “Floodplain Management and Protection”, April 23, 1979.
2.1.3.6 Hazardous Materials & Brownfields
The uncontrolled disposal of industrial waste creates adverse impacts on public health and the environment.
Materials that may constitute hazardous waste include petroleum products, pesticides, organic compounds, heavy
metals, or other compounds injurious to human health and the environment. The nature and extent of 4
contamination can vary widely, and early detection, evaluation, and remediation of hazardous waste is essential to
minimize project delays.
Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and commercial properties where improvement or
redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived contamination.
Generally, every project that includes the purchase of new right-of-way, excavation, and/or structure demolition or
modification will at least require an initial or preliminary site assessment to determine if any potential hazardous
waste is within the project limits as part of the FTA process.
Several federal laws have been established to ensure remediation of contaminated sites including the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or “Superfund”). The
Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA), the Oil Pollution Act (OPA), the Underground Storage Tank (UST)
program and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA )and FTA Policy on Brownfields Economic
Redevelopment Initiative.

2.1.3.7 Historic, Archeological, and Cultural Resources
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 requires projects that include federal participation to
take into account the effects on any properties listed, or eligible for listing, on the National Register of Historic Places.
Historic properties may include districts, sites, buildings, structures, or objects older than 49 years old. Archeological
sites are also protected under this Act and the process is applied in a similar fashion when excavation for a transit
project is required. Properties impacted by a project are also subject to Section 4(f), see “2.1.3.10 Parklands”.
2.1.3.8 Navigable Waterways and Coastal Zones
Navigable waterways are those waters of the U.S. that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide shoreward to the
means high water mark, and that are presently used, have been used in the past, or may be susceptible to use for
transport of interstate or foreign commerce. Commuter rail projects that affect navigable waterways are subject to
permitting and review. The River and Harbor Act of 1899 requires that the Secretary of the Army issue permits for
various activities. Section 9 of the Act requires authorization from the US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) prior
to construction of a dam or dike across a navigable waterway. Section 10 of the Act requires USACE authorization
prior to construction of any structure over, excavation from, or disposal of materials into navigable waters.
Coordination with the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the appropriate state wildlife agency is required when a
project impounds, diverts, channelizes, or otherwise controls or modifies the waters of any stream or body of water.
If a project will directly affect the coastal zone of any state, the environmental assessment document must show
whether the project will be consistent with the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Plan.
2.1.3.9 Noise and Vibration
The Federal Transit Administration recently published updated guidance on how to assess noise and vibration
impacts of proposed mass transit projects, “Transit Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment, May 2006”. Project
sponsors seeking funding from the FTA must address these impacts during the environmental review process and
this guidance sets out the procedures for accurately predicting and assessing the magnitude of these impacts. For
speeds over 90 mph refer to the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) “High Speed Ground Transportation Noise
and Vibration Impact Assessment:, October 2005.
2.1.3.10 Parklands
The Section 4(f) compliance process as described in 49 U.S.C. 303 states that a special effort must be made to
preserve the natural beauty of the countryside and public park and recreation lands, wildlife and waterfowl
refuges, and historic sites. A transportation project or program requiring the use of such land will be approved only
if there is no prudent and feasible alternative to using that land and if the project or program includes planning to
minimize harm to the land and resources.
2.1.3.11 Social & Economic Impacts
If land is to be acquired for a rail project, the project’s environmental assessment documentation should contain a
description of the land to be acquired. Where the acquisition displaces businesses or individuals, there is a social
impact that must be analyzed as part of the process. The analysis identifies the characteristics and needs of
persons and businesses to be displaced, describes inventory available of comparable replacement dwellings and
sites, discusses potential relocation problems, and describes methods to mitigate adverse impacts. Federal
regulations implementing “the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970”
are contained in 49 CFR Part 24.
Rail projects affect the social environment and may change the physical layout, demographics, and sense of
neighborhood in local communities. As part of the NEPA process, project sponsors and engineers should work with
local planning agencies and conduct public outreach to determine the impacts of a proposed project on
communities and identify methods to avoid, minimize and mitigate impacts such as creating physical and

psychological barriers; changes in land use patterns; circulation patterns; access to services; changes in population
densities; and effects on neighborhood cohesiveness.
Sections 3 and 5 of the Urban Mass Transportation Act require that federally funded transit projects be consistent
with official plans for the development of an area as well as the community’s goals and objectives.
2.1.3.12 Transportation Impacts
Construction of new rail facilities and/or expansion of services may affect existing rail operations. The impacts
should be analyzed and discussed as part of the environmental assessment documentation. Rail considerations
include: changes in geographical areas of service; travel times and reliability; frequency and hours of service;
changes in patronage and demand; changes in transit mode; changes in station access and circulation; and
increased traffic around stations and depots.
2.1.3.13 Water Quality
Wastewater generated by rail system maintenance and storage facilities can contain a number of pollutants that
through improper handling and treatment, can be released into stormwater systems. The project environmental
documents should discuss any activities that could generate wastewater (e.g. vehicle washing and floor wash-downs)
ands the provisions for containing possible pollutants. Stormwater runoff from parking areas may contain pollutants
and if a project changes the existing runoff pattern and analysis should evaluate the magnitude of any impacts.
Mitigation measures should be used to control chemical and detergent use and to remove oil grease, and solid
materials at the source. A National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued under Section
402 of the Clean Water Act may be required if wastewater is discharged into the stormwater system. 1
2.1.3.14 Wetlands
Wetlands are lowland areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency that, under
normal circumstances, supports a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas that tend to be highly productive in
providing habitat for many species of plants, fish or waterfowl. The USDOT “Order on Preservation of the 3
Nation’s Wetlands” and the planning process require that an analysis of potential wetland impacts be performed
and included in the environmental assessment documents. If the analysis shows significant impacts on wetlands,
an Environmental Impact Statement will usually be required.
Any mass transportation or rail project that involves discharge of dredged or fill material to waters of the US,
including wetlands, is subject to the “Section 404” permitting process, established under the Clean Water Act and
jointly run by the USACE and the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 4
2.1.3.15 Essential Fish Habitat
The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act requires consideration of impacts to Essential
Fish Habitat (EFH). The consultation generally applies to anadromous or salt water species. It requires
consultation with the National Marine Fisheries Service whenever a project impacts waters and substrate
necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to maturity.
SECTION 2.2 PLANNING
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 2.3 DATA COLLECTION
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.4 CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.5 CORRIDOR EVALUATION
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.7 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

30
Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2 System Design Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2

3.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.2.2 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger and Freight (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.2.4 Speeds (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-3
3.2.5 Cant Deficiency (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-3
3.2.6 Passenger Comfort (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.7 Vehicle/Track Interaction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.8 Propulsion System (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.10 Environmental Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.11 Reliability Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.12 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5

3.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.2 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.3 Passenger Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.4 Freight Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.5 Fixed Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.6 Movable Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.7 ADA Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5

3.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4.2 At Grade Crossings (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.3 Drainage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.4 Vegetation Control (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.5 Environmental (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6

3.5.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6

3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-13
3.5.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.5 Gage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.6 Track Structure (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.7 Horizontal Geometry (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.8 Vertical Geometry (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-20
3.5.9 Signal Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
3.5.10 Grounding (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
3.5.11 Turnouts and Special Trackwork (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
3.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
The design of the track and roadway is a fundamental part of the entire rail system. It is seldom possible to design a
track system in isolation, therefore the designer must optimize an existing or proposed corridor using design criteria
that meet the service objectives with reasonable economy. Several of the track design criteria interact strongly with
the overall system design and the designers must maintain contact with all stakeholders so that expectations of the
planners, funding agencies, regulatory agencies, governing boards, and operating departments are met.
Design criteria and specific standards should never be regarded as a completed work, but rather a set of guidelines
that are open to refinement from knowledge gained by actual operating experience, from peers, from suppliers, or
due to regulatory change.
For further discussion of corridor planning considerations, see Part 2 of this Chapter.
3.2.2 SAFETY/SECURITY (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER AND FREIGHT (2006)
Track design considerations on mixed use passenger and freight lines will be dependant to a large degree on the
ownership of the corridor. Where the commuter agency owns the corridor and operates the majority of the trains,
the track design can be optimized more for the passenger operations.

On corridors where a freight railroad is the owner, the commuter agency is typically bound to the track design
considerations of the freight railroad. The design considerations can be adjusted based on the split between the
number of freight trains and passenger trains, but commuter agencies should be prepared to negotiate
reimbursements for increased maintenance costs to the freight railroad for trackwork features and parameters
beyond those needed for the baseline freight operations.
3.2.4 SPEEDS (2006)
Train speeds control many of the designer’s choices. The corridor’s characteristics are likely to impose speed
constraints due to:
• track alignment,
• track conditions,
• track crossings,
• public and private roadway crossings,
• freight train performance,
• passenger equipment characteristics,
• right of way and site conditions,

1
• regulatory requirements or restrictions.
Geometric and train dynamic limits are expressed as the maximum speed permitted on varying combinations of
curvature, actual superelevation, cant deficiency, length of transition spirals, length of reversing tangents, and
speed through diverging turnouts, as expressed in AREMA Chapter 5. These limits may also be dictated by the
design standards of the property owner.
3
On shared use corridors, freight operations may impose somewhat lower limits on maximum actual superelevation
and therefore possibly reducing the maximum speeds on those curves. Actual freight speed may be limited by
horsepower and/or braking. Good design practice equates the actual speed on curves with the equilibrium speed
plus an unbalance elevation of 1½ or 2 inches.
Curvature design criteria is governed by the speed and superelevation considerations discussed above, with the
maximum permissible degree of curve being defined by the rolling stock. As a practical guide for mixed use 4
corridors, curves of 10 degrees result in an operating speed in the 20-35 MPH range (depending upon
superelevation and cant deficiency). These sharp curves may impose track and wheel wear costs on the operation
of the system. Curves up to 12º 30’ may be used, for example, to access yards and terminals. Wherever possible,
the designer should design the alignment to allow the greatest flexibility for future speed and capacity
improvements at a minimal cost.
Operations simulation with computers has two strong effects on the speed design aspects of corridors. First, train
operations on several trial alignments of varying refinement and cost can be used to quantify the time savings vs.
the cost of the more refined designs. Second, as the actual design is refined the simulated running times will guide
those responsible for operating, marketing, and coordination with other transportation modes.
3.2.5 CANT DEFICIENCY (2006)
To be Developed

3.2.6 PASSENGER COMFORT (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.7 VEHICLE/TRACK INTERACTION (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS (2006)
Signal and train control system (legacy or newly constructed) criteria may also control maximum speeds. The track
alignment designer must coordinate with the signal designers throughout the planning and design process. In a
new or wholly reconstructed corridor, the train speed criteria will guide signal system design, however incremental
improvements to an existing corridor may result in the signal system setting maximum train speeds due to higher
acceleration rates by passenger equipment.
Signal spacing, preview, and block length are functions of both the speed and signal system design. The signal
spacing must provide adequate distance to make the appropriate speed reductions or stop between the signals.
Three aspect signal systems (Clear, Approach, Stop) without cab signals require blocks that provide stopping
distance from maximum allowable speed to stop in two blocks. Four aspect signal systems (Clear, Approach
Medium, Approach, Stop) without cab signals require blocks that provide stopping distance in three blocks. Cab
signals further modify the block length requirements.
The signal spacing and stopping distance will often be governed by the heavier and longer freight trains rather
than the commuter equipment.
Generally, a short length of higher speed will be more beneficial to passenger trains than it will be to freight trains.
A passenger train may benefit from a higher speed over a distance of 0.6 mile while freight train may only benefit
if the higher speed extends for a distance of 2.0 miles or more. In a shared use corridor, an increase in the design
speed for any segment of track, coupled with higher speed sidings, will have beneficial results in cases of increased
freight and passenger service.
3.2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.11 RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.12 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS (2006)
To be Developed

SECTION 3.3 CLEARANCES
3.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
Clearances from the track to obstructions must be established by the property owner to meet local regulatory
requirements, to meet passenger platform interface needs, and to allow for future installation of an overhead
catenary system. Local exceptions to these criteria that will provide greater clearances to enhance visibility at
crossings and signals should be controlled by the designer.
Track spacing must be selected to meet the minimums of the applicable regulatory agencies and Corridor Owner,
with greater track spacing being highly desirable in order to permit maintenance operations on one track to
continue under Roadway Worker regulations while trains operate on adjoining tracks. Wider track spacing may
also be required to provide clearance for inter-track fences at stations.
To be Developed
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS (2006) 1

To be Developed
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS (2006)
To be Developed
3
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS (2006)
To be Developed
3.3.7 ADA REQUIREMENTS (2006)

4
To be Developed
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
The number of tracks in the corridor, both present and future, is a vital planning and design criteria. Designers
and planners must have a decades-long vision of the corridor.
The design of the corridor should anticipate the probable growth trends for passenger and freight traffic and a
sense of the number of tracks needed to meet both existing and future demands. This plan should be adopted by
the corridor owners and used to defend the corridor against encroachments and to plan major infrastructure
projects (typically grade separations).

For the more immediate term, designers should use the future multiple track configuration to guide the layout of
station platforms, junctions, and signal facilities (e.g. place signal enclosures far enough from the first track that
the second track can be installed without moving them.) Some corridors may be considered for shared mode use
with other transportation (e.g. a parallel transit or Maglev line) or utility facilities, which may control whether the
entire width of the right of way is available for future tracks or track realignment.
The designer should also consider the need to coordinate and integrate with electric traction system design
requirements should an electric traction system be planned for the future operation of the rail system.
3.4.2 AT GRADE CROSSINGS (2006)
To be Developed
3.4.3 DRAINAGE (2006)
To be Developed
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL (2006)
To be Developed
To be Developed
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY (2006)
Right of way uses in the corridor should be controlled by the property owner so as to not interfere with the
maintenance or operation of the rail line, nor obstruct future expansions of the railroad facilities. Planners and
designers must carefully consider whether certain public uses of the corridor (e.g. recreational trails) are an
acceptable risk and can be located so as to meet the maintenance, operation, and expansion needs of the owner.
Generally, utility occupancies within a corridor are a potential revenue source for the property owner, and
designers must establish compatible location and installation criteria. Transverse underground utility crossings
are often best designed for railroad loading across the whole width of the right of way in order to avoid future
impacts due to adding tracks, performing realignment of existing tracks, or performing heavy maintenance with
off-track equipment. Master agreements between the property owner and the major utilities within the corridor
are useful in establishing agreement for design criteria and financial responsibility for large numbers of crossings.
Refer to AREMA Chapter 1, Part 5 for guidance, however, Owners are encouraged to develop their own
requirements for third party occupancies.
SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.1 GENERAL (2007)
3.5.1.1 Design Criteria
Consideration should be given to a peer review of the design standards or criteria that are adopted for a passenger
corridor. Much of the practice of railroad maintenance and engineering is specific to sites and a review by nearby
incumbent senior designers and managers may prevent any inappropriate local use of a general standard.

3.5.1.1.1 Curvature
As with conventional freight corridors, setting speed for a series of varying curves is a process, best done as a series
of trial solutions for groups of curves rather than an attempt to maximize the speed for each curve in isolation. In
consideration of potential speed increases (e.g. pending installation of improved signals and controls) the
horizontal alignment may be set for a future higher speed (e.g. length of spirals) and curves superelevated for an
interim, lower speed. This minimizes future expenses for track realignment due to eventual speed increases.
3.5.1.1.2 Grades
Grade profiles for shared passenger corridors may be restricted by consideration of freight operations. Generally,
the ruling grade of a subdivision should not be exceeded by the grade of a new passenger facility. Grade design of
exclusive passenger corridors (or with only slow speed and short length freight trains) will benefit from the shorter
vertical curves permitted by AREMA Chapter 5. The short “passenger” vertical curves in those tables have
demonstrated good ride quality and train handling characteristics.
Maximum grades for the corridor (exclusive of freight considerations) are governed by tractive effort and braking
performance of the trains to be used. Grades on mixed freight and passenger lines are usually solely governed by
the more conservative freight train requirements. For lines that will be exclusively operated with passenger trains,
the designer has more flexibility. Grades (particularly those for flyovers and short distances) can be set
considerably higher than on mixed use lines to comply with site, environmental and economic constraints. The
lowest possible grade is always desired, but where necessary grades above 3% have been used successfully,
sometimes with special instructions for brake recharging if the train has to be stopped while on a downgrade. In
general, grades up to 3% for passenger trains can be used without limitations, while grades between 3% and 4%
should be used only when other options are not available and in consultation with the operating department to 1
assure acceptance of any special operating rules. Trains intended for use in territory with sustained grades over
1% should have an independent dynamic brake control.
Designers should be aware that climate affects the maximum grade desirable for a territory. Falling leaves on the
head of the rail significantly reduce the adhesion available for braking and moving a train even on light grades.
Frost, ice, freezing rain, snow, and fog also have negative effects on the adhesion available for safe operations.
Several properties in the northeastern United States use dedicated equipment to control dropped leaves on the rail, 3
or run non-revenue equipment to sand and clear the rail prior to revenue operations. The cost of any of these
options should be included in the economic analysis of a gradient design.
The use of sand to overcome the adhesion reduction caused by environmental conditions is not without secondary
problems. Sanding can result in the loss of signal system shunt on shorter and lighter commuter vehicles and
trains. Loss of shunt can lead to improper warning time at grade crossings and other undesirable conditions.
Sanding also leads to premature ballast fouling in ballasted track and can block subgrade drainage systems. 4
3.5.1.1.3 Economic Considerations
Track structure design is governed by economic conditions. Designers may find that a considerable part of an
existing corridor does not need any reconstruction provided that routine maintenance cycles are followed. In this
case, the standards for that existing track must be adopted (probably in parallel with new standards for newly-
constructed track).
New track is typically specified as 115 pound to 141 pound continuous welded rail (CWR). Heat-treated or head
hardened rail is generally justified for curves of three degrees and sharper. Heat-treated or head hardened rail may
also be considered if warranted by the operating speeds, type of traffic, tonnage and frequency of traffic.
Crossties should be chosen based upon an economic evaluation of life cycle costs and applicability to specific site
conditions. Generally, concrete ties provide superior long-term gage control and are not affected by removal and
replacement of rail, so they may be cost effective when used in curves, in new construction and in major
rehabilitation projects. Wood ties with elastic fasteners may provide some of the benefits of concrete ties at a lower

cost. Designers should consult with track owners in their region to understand the contracting, durability,
environmental, freight costs, and field performance of ties before specifying their track design.
Ballast should be specified per AREMA recommendations. Refer to Chapter 1, Part 2 of the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering.
Special trackwork is usually specified as following AREMA recommendations or major railroad practices, with
special emphasis on elements that enhance ride quality (curved or tangential switch points, spring rail or movable
point frogs, fully welded layout). The designer should use the largest cost effective turnout (i.e. the lowest frog
angle) possible, and is reasonable with anticipated speeds, in order to make the alignment more compatible with
future higher speed operations. This may be most cost effective if completed in the early stages of construction.
If the owner can obtain rights to use special trackwork designs adopted by adjoining major railroads, there may be
economies of scale and familiarity by vendors and employees and contractors to consider.
The designer may consider the use of a train performance calculator tool to “optimize” curve/speed design features
and benefits.
3.5.1.2 Maintenance Criteria
Track maintenance criteria are underpinned by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) Track Safety and
Roadway Worker regulations, however most property owners establish specifications for maintenance that exceed
the regulated minimums. Many of the repair and rehabilitation criteria will be guided by the Maintenance
Philosophy decisions indicated in Article 3.5.3 below. This section is not intended to guide an entire maintenance
program; it is intended to identify the track maintenance criteria that may be unique to passenger corridors.
The owner must adopt schedules for inspections, consistent with FRA requirements as a minimum (track visual,
rail flaw, track geometry, structures, and ride quality), and working schedules for inspectors and repairers (e.g. day
or night). These scheduled activities have the potential to affect passenger train performance. Policy (and
philosophy) will guide the extent to which passenger service will be permitted to be affected by maintenance
activities. Rail passenger systems generally are often intolerant of any more than modest delays to trains.
Below are listed several inspection procedures or requirements that the corridor owner should consider:
• Visual track inspection per FRA 213.233 and 213.235
• Visual inspection of CWR under thermal stress per 213.119
• Rail flaw detection per 213.237
• Special condition inspections (e.g. storms, earthquakes) per 213.239
• Annual fall and spring inspections (for freezing climates)
• Track observation by supervisors, managers, and inspectors riding trains for subjective ride quality and
visual observation of conditions.
• Accelerometers or ride quality measurements
• Track geometry car
• Gage Restraint Measurement System
• Rail cross section “light slice” to evaluate rail wear conditions

• Tribometer (coefficient of friction) rail measurement device
In addition to the above inspections the owners and managers of a corridor may elect to have a peer review
inspection policy on a regular basis. This peer review provides the managers with an opportunity to observe
practices and conditions of other properties and to have a fresh set of inspectors evaluate their property.
Refer to Article 3.5.1.3 below for discussion of comfort criteria effects of the maintenance standards.
3.5.1.2.1 CWR Thermal Adjustment
CWR thermal adjustment policies must be adopted to conform to weather conditions in the corridor, with a high
regard for stability of the track in hot weather. These policies are often included in the Owner’s design criteria and
maintenance manual.
3.5.1.2.2 Rail Profile
Rail profile criteria must be adopted in consideration of the wheel profiles used by the operator(s) on the corridor
and optimized to minimize wheel flange contact and gage face wear. In some cases a small top radius rail head may
improve signal shunting by narrowing the contact band and increasing contact pressure. This is a consideration
for rail lines with relatively light axle loads or total daily traffic and with atmospheric conditions that lead to rust
formation on the rail.
Rail profile maintenance consists of three steps: establishment of criteria, measurement of existing conditions, and
correction of profile by grinding. Smaller properties generally use contractors for these services, larger owners
may keep grinding and rail profile measurement functions in-house. 1
3.5.1.2.3 Running Rail
Refer to Article 3.5.3 for discussion of the maintenance philosophy on the use of second hand rail. Maintenance
managers must carefully distinguish between used (but serviceable) rail and condemned rail (removed from track
due to flaws) and have maintenance procedures to clearly mark condemned rail so that it will not inadvertently be
placed back in the track. 3
One sub-set of the maintenance criteria for used rail is the balancing of wear in curved track. Curve rail
replacement and transposing can follow two patterns:
• The traditional pattern is to install new rail on both rails of the curved track and when gage face and head
wear reaches limits specified in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 5, the rail is removed
and transposed. The high rail is placed in the position of the low rail, and vice-versa. After the designated 4
amount of wear occurs on the transposed rail, both rails are replaced with new rail.
• An alternate pattern is “high to low”. In this pattern of curve rail replacement a new rail is installed on
the high rail of the curve, then that rail is installed in the low rail of the curve and the existing low rail is
removed from the track.
The practical differences between transposition of rails and “high to low” replacement methods are:
• If an inside rail has a significant amount of metal flow it may not be suitable for use on the outside rail
position because traffic is likely to break off chunks of the overflow and because the gage will be tight
until the overflow is worn or broken off. Therefore transposing the rail is not an option.
• The “high to low” operation can be done in shorter individual time increments. Trains can be operated
after each individual rail is installed instead of having to install both rails at once. The tradeoff is that
multiple short track outages may be required to complete the rail replacement operation instead of a
single longer outage.

3.5.1.2.4 Gage
Track gage (with rare exceptions) is typically designed to be 56-1/2 inches in North America. Subtle adjustments to
this gage can be made in two special conditions:
• First, the gage can be increased by up to (3/8”) in curves of 8 degrees and over in order to assist wheels
and truck assemblies to negotiate the curves.
• Second, track gage can be reduced to 56-1/4 inches on tangent track with operating speed above 55 MPH.
This “tight” gage helps to eliminate truck hunting at higher speeds.
Gage in special trackwork shall conform to the design of the special trackwork. AREMA standard drawings,
dimensions, and details should be used wherever possible for special trackwork. The design of special trackwork
shall consider the relationships between the back of flange, face of worn wheel, and worn flange limits when
establishing design gage.
On shared use track, track gage wider than 56-3/4” will allow truck hunting oscillation amplitudes for freight cars
to increase to unacceptable levels at speeds above 55 MPH.
Track gage deterioration is generally due to deterioration of wood ties, gage face wear of rail, crushing of insulators
(on concrete ties), or missing or inadequate fasteners. Track maintenance personnel must be trained to observe for
these conditions before gage standards are exceeded.
3.5.1.2.5 Special Trackwork
Special trackwork requires specific maintenance and inspection procedures, which should be adopted by the
owners to guide maintenance managers, employees, and contractors. Regular joint inspection of turnouts (with
the signal maintenance managers) includes detailed visual inspection and measurement of key dimensions and test
operation of switches. Some specific maintenance tasks to have defined and scheduled include:
• grinding switch points, stock rails, and frogs to remove metal flow,
• frog and crossing bolt tightening,
• adjusting operating and detection rods,
• restoring metal loss on manganese steel frog inserts by welding and grinding,
• cleaning and lubricating slide plates,
• maintaining surface and alignment,
• maintaining and adjusting switch heaters, and
• cross-cutting and maintaining insulated joints.
Reliable execution of these maintenance tasks will greatly extend the service life of special trackwork components.
3.5.1.2.6 Right of Way
Right of way maintenance criteria will be influenced by the property owner and by local codes. Right of way
conditions, including signs and fencing, have a strong influence on both the security and safety of the rail corridor.
Signs to control trespassing and trash dumping must contain language that complies with applicable codes.

Generally, a program of pre-emergent herbicide; mechanical removal of grass, brush, trash, and overhanging limbs;
post-emergent herbicide “spot” treatment; and a limited amount of graffiti abatement is sufficient to keep the
right of way in a condition that is acceptable to riders, owners, and local public health and safety agencies.
Local political pressures may require some “zero tolerance” graffiti and trash maintenance.
Right of way fencing, if installed, must be fully maintained in order to protect the owner from liability exposure.
Right of way management depends, to some extent, on the observations of the maintenance inspectors. They
should be instructed on the limits of the right of way and leases, and to report encroachments, chronic trespassing,
damaged fences and gates, trash dumping, or discharges of pollutants onto the right of way.
Natural or planted vegetation may either enhance or aggravate right of way maintenance. Vegetation generally
aids erosion resistance of the embankment, provided it can be maintained within visibility, clearance, fire
transmission, and vector refuge limits. Right of way managers should control the selection of planting within the
right of way. Inappropriate vegetation, which may impact the track structure, sight distances, drainage and
clearances, may be removed either with herbicides or by mechanical means consistent with local practices,
ordinances and conditions.
3.5.1.3 Comfort Criteria
Passenger comfort is affected by several design criteria choices including the amount of cant deficiency in curves,
the length and shape of transition spirals, length of vertical curves, speed through and design of turnouts, and
tilting mechanisms for carbodies. Comfort is also affected by the maintenance standards, often expressed as a
range of permitted track geometry deviations between zero and the FRA exception levels. 1
Ride quality can be monitored by accelerometers mounted (temporarily or permanently) in passenger cars; most
accelerometer systems can report exceptions by wireless links.
Rail conditions including corrugations, dry flange contact, engine burns, and rail end joint batter affect passenger
noise and acceleration.
3
Passenger corridor designers and maintenance managers must adopt maintenance criteria that meet passenger
expectations of quality transportation in addition to meeting minimum economical maintenance standards.
3.5.2.1 Federal Regulatory Requirements

4
Rail projects can be broken down into five broad categories that will help define the Federal regulatory
requirements:
• Commuter and Intercity projects operating on the general railroad system of the United States (whether
or not connected to the rest of the network).
• High Speed ground transportation systems that connect metropolitan areas without regard as to whether
those systems use new technologies not associated with traditional railroads.
• Projects that use magnetic levitation irrespective of speed.
• Shared corridors (See Paragraph 3.5.2.1.1).
• Urban transit systems (including rail rapid transit, light rail, and people movers).

The first four categories are subject to the regulation of the FRA irrespective of the sources of funding. If a freight
railroad or Amtrak is involved, then the regulation of access and compensation for use is also under the administration
and oversight of the Surface Transportation Board (STB). Services operated by a state or regional authority on its
own tracks may not be subject to the Board’s review unless there is an issue of freight service on those tracks.
The fifth category is exempt from FRA and STB oversight, but may be subject to local and/or state public utility
commissions.
All projects are subject to environmental review using the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) processes if
Federal funds are involved. Many agencies opt to follow NEPA procedures even if federal funds are not being used
in order to preserve the ability to seek federal grants at a later date for subsequent parts of a project. If federal
funds are not being used, then state and local regulation applies, many of which mimic the federal requirements
and may actually be more stringent. Also, all projects are subject to Corps of Engineers permitting for impacts to
wetlands and to actions involving the navigable waterways of the United States.
The source of federal funding will normally determine the lead agency for preparing and reviewing the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) should one be required. Railroad projects on existing rights-of-way often
can be addressed using the FRA exclusionary provisions that allow normal maintenance and expansion of capacity
within the right-of-way limits. Many projects initiate action through a “Finding of No Significant Impact”
(FONSI) that allows a project to proceed without a full EIS.
3.5.2.1.1 Shared Corridors
Rail transit operations may be involved with FRA rules if their lines utilize corridors shared with FRA regulated
lines or through a “Memorandum of Understanding” executed between the FRA and the rail transit system for use of
those corridors. Issues such as track center spacing, fouling in the event of a derailment, grade crossing protection,
and signaling interfaces with freight railroads bring a local transit operation under the review of the FRA. Also
involved is the interaction of vehicles designed under different structural requirements and braking systems.
Passenger rail vehicles not complying with 49CFR Part 238 may not be operated on the general railroad system
unless the FRA has issued a waiver. Most rapid transit vehicles and light rail vehicles do not comply so a safe plan
of operation on shared corridors is mandatory. This is often solved with “time of day separation” schemes and
physical barriers or supervised intrusion systems to isolate non-complaint vehicles or provide warning of a fouling
of the passenger tracks.
The Memorandum of Understanding appeared in the July 10, 2000 Federal Register and can be found at
www.gpo.gov (cite 65CFR 45529). While some of the issues in the MOU are formally promulgated in the Code of
Federal Regulations, many are not and involve project specific negotiations that ultimately lead to a waiver. It
should also be noted that all parties to a shared corridor project must co-sign the waiver application with the actual
FRA recognized “railroad of record” being the principal applicant. This means that early communication with
parallel users such as a freight railroad is highly recommended.
Each waiver is judged on its own merits and assuming that a waiver will be approved simply because another property
received a similar waiver may impact the project. The FRA Office of Safety evaluates all factors in an application,
precedent being only one of those factors. Applicants should base their waiver application on technical solutions and
operating practices that systematically identify risks and corresponding mitigation structured to indicate whenever
possible that the proposed solution is at least equal in safety to a fully compliant solution. On a shared corridor
project, the FTA will not make grants until the FRA has agreed to the terms and conditions of a waiver.
3.5.2.1.2 Infrastructure Regulations
The Federal regulations that govern the design and operation of infrastructure are contained in Title 49 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, Part 200. Activities such as signal design, track standards, worker protection, and
rolling stock requirements should be reviewed and the parameters of operation for a specific corridor or project

established to optimize the performance of the corridor. These regulations are available on the Government
Printing Office website www.gpo.gov.
The maximum operating speed of a system is especially critical, as infrastructure requirements with regard to
structures and rolling stock change as speed increases. Train speeds above 125 mph require the use of Tier II rolling
stock, which impose significant added expense in the vehicle acquisition as well as the train control requirements.
3.5.2.2 State and Local Regulatory Requirements
To be Developed
3.5.3 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY (2006)
Corridor owners must establish comprehensive guidelines for maintenance of the property. Designers and
planners can use these guidelines to develop maintenance standards and practices that obtain the maximum useful
life from the track components while delivering high quality transportation. This section reviews the planning and
budgeting for a life cycle maintenance planning process, and is followed by several specific maintenance decisions
that the owner’s philosophy will direct.
There is not a single “right answer” to these philosophical considerations, each property owner will have to make
decisions based upon the economic realities, which vary over time. The role of the design professional is to
quantify the costs and impacts (to the limited precision of such forecasts) of these decisions so that planners and
owners can make decisions fully informed as to current and future costs.
The maintenance philosophy is also driven by the operational requirements and will necessarily involve close 1
cooperation and coordination with operating staff to create and control working windows.
The most desirable maintenance philosophy is to maintain the track and infrastructure to a level that provides
high levels of passenger safety, reliability, comfort, and speed while budgeting a replacement stream of
rehabilitation work that keeps the nominal average life of all components within an acceptable range.
Implications of the first half of this philosophy leads to more than the minimum number of inspections and 3
inspection and repair personnel so that:
• problems are detected before they are defects,
• repairs are performed so as to minimize or eliminate delays to trains (e.g. track fully stabilized and
thermally adjusted after each maintenance or construction disturbance instead of tolerating temporary
speed restrictions),
4
• surfacing track well before geometry deviations approach FRA exception levels, and
• an aggressive right of way maintenance program.
This “high quality” standard may drive track design choices that favor long-life, but more expensive components.
Under this philosophy, heavier rail sizes, larger and/or concrete cross ties, deep ballast sections, premium rail on
curves and in turnouts, premium turnout and crossing components, aggressive rail lubrication, and fully welded
track would be specified in order to produce the best-riding track with the longest interval between maintenance or
rehabilitation activities that affect train performance. A maintenance philosophy focused closely on the service
quality may force most inspection, repair, and rehabilitation to be performed at night or on weekends.
The second half of this philosophy leads to a planning and programming process for track rehabilitation that
evaluates the economic life of components, compiles the amount of each component in the property, and then
computes an annual rehabilitation budget that keeps the infrastructure continually maintained with replacement
components and services so that there is no net deterioration of the infrastructure. Note that this philosophy

supports the GASB 34 Modified Fixed Asset Reporting requirements for public agencies, which account for
maintenance expenses compared to the projected costs to maintain the assets at a constant level of maintenance.
Within this broad answer of how much money to allocate to rehabilitation, the maintenance criteria can be set to
have considerable latitude in selecting particular areas for concentration within each year of budgeting.
Traditional railroad maintenance practices would be followed in the matters of prioritizing rail replacement based
upon failure records, percent of metal loss, and tonnage, prioritizing tie replacement based upon number of failed
ties per mile and coordination with other programs (e.g. ballast cleaning), and adjusting rehabilitation programs to
install upgraded components (e.g. higher speed turnouts, heavier rail) to gradually move the property toward the
design criteria for new construction (which is continually evolving as the industry standards advance).
Maintenance managers would typically group projects of a similar scope of work into economical programs for
either dedicated internal work units or for requests for bids sent to contractors.
Maintenance managers and owners have flexibility in deciding whether some portions of the maintenance tasks
are performed on a continuing series of smaller “routine” tasks or whether to let work accumulate until a large
work force is used to systematically do a more comprehensive rehabilitation. An example of this choice is turnout
repair and replacement. Small work units can incrementally change out the switch ties, frogs, plates, rails, points,
etc., usually with no impact to train traffic, or a larger work unit can prefabricate a replacement turnout panel and
within an overnight track occupancy change the whole unit. Managers must decide which approach to take while
balancing both the economy of maintenance and a quality of service criteria.
Rail maintenance management can be proactive or reactive. A proactive philosophy requires detailed knowledge of
the amount of wear and the defect history of the rail; a rigorous program of inspections and monitoring conditions;
and reporting on traffic and tonnage levels. This in turn requires a (preferably automated) method to measure rail
head configuration and compare it to original section(s), a detailed database inventory of the in-track asset, and
detailed records of rail flaws (both service failures and internal flaws) and train tonnage. In practice, particularly
with active freight corridors purchased for passenger development, the tonnage history does not exist and the
inventory must be confirmed by field checking. However gathered, this knowledge about replacement rail can be
programmed and budgeted and rail profiles can be adjusted by grinding. The corridor designers should establish
(or work within established) criteria for wheel and rail profiles.
In practice, a repetitive budget item may be used to carry out an annual cycle of measurement and grinding, with
rail replacements made in larger increments as warranted by the economical application of work units or
contracts. This means that rail may be replaced a year or more before it is theoretically “worn out” due to the
economies of managing the work and the confidence of changing the rail before it fails.
One aspect of rail maintenance philosophy is the establishment of criteria for the use of second hand rail. Practical
railroad management has always included the use of “relay” rail of varying quality for less critical track. Storage
and yard tracks, bridge and tunnel guard rails, and storage tracks for maintenance equipment are all suitable
places to use rail no longer fit for main track service. Article 3.5.1.2 above discusses the use of second hand rail as
a sub-set of rail maintenance in curves, by transposition or by “high to low” rail replacement policies.
Proactive rail maintenance philosophy includes lubrication of the gage corner of curves and possibly some
lubrication of the head of the inside rail on extremely sharp curves. Automated devices to apply lubricant, the
lubricants, and placement and carrying distances of the devices are changing and the corridor designers should
research the best current practice. In closed systems lubrication may be performed by vehicle mounted devices,
however in mixed use corridors, managers will have no control over many of the trains and must rely on wayside
devices to deliver lubrication to the wheel/rail interface.
3.5.3.1 Ballast maintenance
The nature of some maintenance activities may be determined by the form of contract used by the owner to
accomplish the work.

To be Developed
3.5.5 GAGE (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.6.1 Subgrade
To be Developed
3.5.6.2 Subballast
To be Developed
3.5.6.3 Ballast
To be Developed
1
3.5.6.4 Other Support Systems
To be Developed
3.5.6.5 Ties
To be Developed 3
3.5.6.6 Other Track Materials
To be Developed
3.5.6.7 Rail
4
To be Developed
3.5.6.8 Inner Track Guard Rail
To be Developed
3.5.6.9 Negative Return Bonding
To be Developed
3.5.7 HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY (2006)
The design of Horizontal Geometry of Track for Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems is essentially similar to that
of any rail system. This Section describes the various aspects of Horizontal Geometry as they relate to Commuter

and Intercity Rail Systems, highlighting, where appropriate, differences and concerns as compared to geometry for
typical freight service.
The designer has two distinct types of design tasks. One is to design for an Agency who is the Owner of the track
in question. The other is to design for an Agency who will be performing work in conjunction with the Railroad
who in fact owns the track. The Railroad may be a freight carrier or other entity.
In all cases the applicable design criteria of the specific Railroad or Agency must be consulted and applied.
Frequently, the conservative design criteria commonly in use results in unreasonable constraints. To provide a
method of addressing this, some criteria allow for a “minimum” and “preferred” condition, as well as exceptions
that can be granted by the proper authority. It is important for designers to address any criteria deviations that
may be necessary early in the design process to avoid unnecessary delays and costly revisions at later stages.
3.5.7.1 Tangents
The preferred track alignment is to be as tangent as possible, with few intervening curves. Since this is rarely the
case in reality, for the purposes of this section, “tangent” refers to a section of tangent track that must be placed
between other elements, such as curves, spirals, and turnouts in order to achieve the desired quality of track
alignment.
These track elements should be separated by a suitable length of tangent whenever possible in order to allow
rolling stock to leave the first element and be allowed to pass completely onto tangent track before encountering
the next element. This will minimize the adverse effects of end overhang on coupler angles, superelevation runoff,
and the undesirable train dynamics that could otherwise occur. Considering that Commuter and Passenger rolling
stock is frequently the longest and fastest operating on a given line, due regard shall be paid to incorporating the
appropriate tangent lengths.
3.5.7.1.1 Reversing Tangents
Reversing tangents refers to tangents placed between reversing curves. (Refer also to AREMA Chapter 5
Section 3.5.)
The most basic requirement for reversing tangents is that the minimum length should be equal to the longest
truck center of a car or locomotive, plus the length of one truck. The actual length of tangent should be as long as
possible.
This basic minimum does not account for speed of operation or degree of curvature. Since these two elements do
have an impact on the practical operation of equipment over reversed curves, it is reasonable that they be taken
into account.
Length of Tangent between Reversed Curves – Commuter Tracks
60 mph and higher – 240 feet
40 mph through 59 mph – 180 feet
25 mph to 39 mph and below – 150 feet
25 mph and less – 85 feet
Reversing Tangent standards vary somewhat by Commuter Agency. Freight railroad standards typically are longer.

3.5.7.1.2 Tangents Between Track Elements
Tangents Between Track Elements refers to the use of minimum horizontal tangent lengths between turnouts and
curves when they are constructed in proximity. As with the requirements for reversing tangents, the goal is to
minimize the undesirable operational effects on rolling stock.
In addition to the geometric aspects, turnouts typically incorporate a number of specialized trackwork components.
It is desirable to configure each turnout as an isolated unit, free from interference or interaction with others.
Therefore, a minimum length of tangent is required.
The recommended minimum length of tangent between a point of switch or point of frog and a horizontal curve is
200 feet.
Facing point turnouts require minimum length of tangent considerations as well. The absolute minimum would be
the distance required to install the necessary headblock ties, switch stands, and other components without those of
one interfering turnout with those of the other turnout. For most turnouts this distance could be 25 feet or less.
However, in almost all cases, other factors in addition to the physical layout of the switch components will govern.
Typically, insulated joint layout, standard stock rail configurations and signal clearance distances will govern. The
overall length of the control point and the universal configuration of the crossovers should also be a consideration.
3.5.7.2 Curves
Properly designed, geometrically correct curves are used to connect tangents in horizontal alignment design.
Railroad curves may consist of only a simple circular curve, or may be composed of spirals, circular curves, and
superelevation. These three components work together in determining the safe operating speeds for curves. Refer 1
to Chapter 5, Article 3.1.1 through Article 3.1.7 for a detailed discussion of the Railroad Spiral Curve.
The railroad circular curve is a true circular curve with constant radius. In traditional railroad engineering, the
curve is specified by the degree of curvature, using the chord definition of curvature, whereas other engineering
disciplines traditionally have used the arc definition of curvature. There is a slight difference between the results
obtained by these two definitions, but for the larger radii typically used in railroad work there was no practical
difference. However, with the extreme accuracies produced by Computer Aided Design methods, and the reality 3
that most rail engineering work is now performed with commercially available software, the discrepancies between
arc and chord defined curves should be understood. The designer should refer to the design criteria of the Owner
to determine which definition is appropriate for use.
The discrepancies arise from the fact the Chord definition is an approximation, while the Arc definition is
mathematically correct. Therefore, as the various calculations are performed slight differences will appear. These
are not serious, but the designer should be aware of this situation so as to minimize confusion over any 4
inconsistencies encountered.
The DEGREE of curve is the fundamental description and it determines the allowable speeds that can be achieved.
This basic description of curvature is essentially the same for freight, commuter, and passenger system design.
3.5.7.3 Spirals
The spiral curve provides a uniform transition between tangent track and curved track so that a train will be
gradually directed into the curve, rather suddenly forced into the curve. The spiral curve is also used to run out
the superelevation of the curve.
The length of spiral is the fundamental description. The length of the spiral is determined by the speed of
operation and by a combination of actual and unbalanced superelevation. Higher speeds may require longer
spirals due to reduced runoff rates for speeds over 60 miles per hour and 125 miles per hour.

The AREMA formula for determining required length of spiral is summarized as follows (the formula for a specific
property should be verified with the owner):
The longest of
Ls = 1.63 x Eu x V
or
Ls = 62 x Ea
Where
Ls = length of spiral in feet
Eu = unbalance elevation in inches (cant deficiency)
Ea = actual elevation in inches
V = train speed in miles per hour
Reference - Chapter 5, Article 3.1.1
If approved by the owner through a design exception process, shorter spirals may be used due to physical
characteristic restrictions.
3.5.7.4 Superelevation
Mainline curves intended to be operated at reasonable speed require the incorporation of superelevation, that is, the
outer rail is set higher than the inside rail on curves. In railroad work the term “elevation” is frequently used in place
of “superelevation”. As applied to railroad curves the term “elevation” refers to superelevation and not “height above
sea level” or some other definition. Refer to Chapter 5, Article 3.3.1 for a detailed discussion of superelevation.
The formula for equilibrium superelevation is summarized as follows:
E = 0.0007 x V2 x D
Where
E = Equilibrium elevation in inches
V = train speed in miles per hour
D = degree of curve (Chord Definition)
Reference – Chapter 5, Section 3.3.
3.5.7.5 Unbalance (Cant Deficiency)
Elevation of railroad curves consists of two components:
• Actual Elevation, Ea; and

• Unbalanced Elevation, Eu.
Ea is the actual amount the high rail is set above the low rail.
As a practical matter, Ea should not equal E for successful operation. When Ea equals E the train is at dynamic
equilibrium and the trucks will hunt between the high rail and the low rail. To reduce truck hunting an to improve
ride quality an allowance, Eu, determined by practical experience and railroad and agency policy, is used to reduce
the Ea to a value below the E determined by the formula:
Ea = E - Eu
Eu is sometimes referred to as "cant deficiency" or "underbalance".
For conventional freight and commuter systems, Ea is typically limited to between 4 and 5 inches.
In freight rail work Eu is typically limited to 1.5 or 2 inches, while for passenger rail Eu is commonly 3 inches. In
certain cases Eu may be 4 or 5 inches for conventional passenger equipment and 9 inches for tilt equipment. The
designer should reference the design criteria for the standard.
Selection of the Eu is critical in mixed freight and commuter systems. High Eu values will cause the wheels to be
forced against the high rail causing accelerated wear at design speeds. Low Eu values place greater weight on the
low rail resulting in higher crushing forces, and field side metal flow. On a system where the speed differential
between the passenger and freight trains is great, selecting the Eu is an economic balance between the low rail
damage caused by the heavy freights and the high side gage face wear caused by the passenger trains.
1
3.5.7.6 Practical Design of Curves
The foregoing elements of curves are applied to design the proper curve. In main line work it is typical practice to
use the flattest (greatest radius) curve that right of way and other constraints will permit, regardless of the
intended speed of operation. The maximum speeds desired will dictate the minimum radii required. And
conversely, if the desired radii cannot be used, the curve geometry will limit maximum speeds.
3
Typically the radii of the curve will be governed by project geometric constraints. Once the radius is established
the suitable elevation can be determined, considering the anticipated speed of operation.
Once the curve, elevation, and speed is known, the minimum length of spiral can be calculated. In keeping with
designing for increased corridor speeds in the future the ultimate spiral length for maximum speed, Ea, and Eu for
the curve should be checked. Wherever possible, the ultimate length of spiral should be used.
4
In the case of any main line curve the geometry should be reviewed with ultimate future corridor operations in
mind. Care should be exercised to avoid building future speed constraints by designing curves that are too slow.
Conversely, unnecessary expenditure to construct curves that are faster than future operations will require should
also be avoided.
3.5.7.6.1 Main Line Offsets or “Doglegs”
A common type of reversed curve that is encountered is the offset or “dogleg”. The purpose of a dogleg is to adjust
the position of otherwise tangent (and/or parallel) tracks within the R/W. This is frequently necessary when track
centers are adjusted for bridges, grade crossings, stations, or crossover installation.
The typical dogleg consists of two very large radii (0 deg. 30 min. or less), relatively short curves, separated by the
appropriate length of reversing tangent, as described earlier. It is preferred to use very flat curves in order to avoid
the need to apply spirals and superelevation onto very short curves, and to force the length of curve to be long
enough so that it can be properly constructed and maintained in the field. Due to the typically short lengths of
curve, these doglegs often appear to be “kinked” in the field even when properly designed and constructed.

While a properly designed and constructed dogleg is perfectly safe and functional, their use should be minimized.
Often, if the work is in conjunction with other track rehabilitation work the tracks can be lined into a preferred
configuration for some distance to avoid additional doglegs. In other cases, if a dogleg is proximate to an existing
full curve, portions of that curve can be realigned to achieve the required adjustment, and the dogleg avoided.
3.5.8 VERTICAL GEOMETRY (2007)
The design of Vertical Geometry of Track for Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems is essentially similar to that of
any rail system. This Section describes the various aspects of Vertical Geometry as they relate to Commuter and
Intercity Rail Systems, highlighting, where appropriate, differences and concerns as compared to geometry for typical
freight service. The combined elements of vertical geometry are commonly referred to collectively as the track profile.
The designer may deal with two distinct types of design tasks. One is design for an Agency who is the Owner of the
track in question. The other is design for an Agency who will be performing work in conjunction with the Railroad
who in fact owns the track.
In all cases the applicable Design Criteria of the specific Railroad or Agency must be consulted and complied with.
Frequently, the conservative design criteria commonly in use results in unreasonable constraints. To provide a
method of addressing this, some criteria allow for a "minimum" and "preferred" condition, as well as exceptions that
can be granted by the proper authority. It is important for designers to address any criteria deviations that may be
necessary early in the design process, to avoid unnecessary delays and costly revisions at later stages.
3.5.8.1 Vertical Curves
The preferred track profile would be as level as possible, with a minimum of changes in grade. Since this is rarely the
case in reality, the changes in grade of vertical tangents must be made gradually through vertical curves (Vc) of correct
length, rather than abruptly by "grade breaks" or "angle points". Properly designed vertical curves will minimize
adverse effects on coupler angles, vertical acceleration, rolling stock suspension, ride quality, and train dynamics.
Refer to Chapter 5, Section 3.6 for a discussion of the design of vertical curves. The reader is encouraged to review
the complete Section 3.6.
Chapter 5, Section 3.6 requirements for lengths of vertical curves is summarized as follows:
The minimum length of vertical curve is (except no Vc should be less than 100 feet):
2
V K
L = D
-----------------------------
A
Where:
A = Vertical acceleration in feet/sec/sec (0.10 for freight operations; 0.60 for passenger and transit
operations)
D = Absolute value of the difference in rates of grades expressed as a decimal
K = 2.15 (conversion factor to give L in feet
L = Length of vertical curve in feet
V = Speed of the train in miles per hour
For convenience the lengths of vertical curves used are typically rounded up to the next 50 or 100 feet.

The vertical curve criteria presented here and in Section 3.6 represents a relatively recent revision to traditional,
more conservative vertical curve criteria. Many railroads still maintain the traditional criteria and require its use
wherever practical. For designers familiar with the traditional criteria the lengths of vertical curves determined by
the revised criteria may seem very short indeed.
The differences in criteria will have minor effect on most track design where the changes in grade are small.
However, in projects such as flyovers and grade separations where a substantial change in track elevation must be
designed in limited areas the differences can become dramatic. Therefore, in those cases it is especially important
that the required criteria and its impact on the design be analyzed as early in the design process as possible.
3.5.8.2 Grades
The grade (or gradient) of the profile is expressed as a percent of rise over run. That is a 1% grade represent a rise
of 1 foot vertically for every 100 feet traversed horizontally.
The grade of the track has a profound effect on train operation, typically much more so than in highway design
where the longest truck may be three sections compared to a 150 car freight train. The ideal grade would be 0%,
from a train handling perspective. In reality, appropriate grades must be incorporated into the profile to
accommodate topography and other factors.
For freight operations, a 1% maximum is typically specified. However grades of 2% and slightly more are fairly
common on many existing lines. For freight service, it is important to consider the overall territory and not add a
grade so steep as to change the operational characteristics of the line.
For Commuter service, where trains are typically much shorter and are operated at greater horsepower per ton 1
ratios the impacts of gradients are considerably less. However, many Commuter lines carry at least some freight
traffic and this needs to be considered.
The following is a general guideline for grades:
• 0.0% to 1.0% - generally considered acceptable for freight and passenger service.
3
• 1.01% to 2.0% - acceptable for freight and passenger service if they are similar to maximum grades
elsewhere on the line.
• 2.01% to 3.0% - generally not acceptable for through freight service, may be used in passenger only lines
and for short ancillary freight service.
• 3.01% to 4.0% - not acceptable for through freight service, may be used in passenger only lines, preferably 4
only for short distances such as flyovers.
• 0% to 0.2% - preferred for maintenance and layover facilities.
3.5.8.3 Practical Design of Profiles
The foregoing elements of vertical curves and grades are applied to design the proper profile. In main line work it
is typical practice to use the flattest (lowest gradient) profile that the topography and other constraints will permit,
regardless of the intended speed of operation. The maximum speeds desired will dictate the minimum lengths of
vertical curves. And conversely, if the desired profile cannot be used, the lengths of vertical curves will limit
maximum speeds.
Once the grades and operating speeds are known, the minimum length of vertical curve can be calculated. In
keeping with designing for increased corridor speeds in the future the ultimate length of vertical curve for
maximum speed should be checked. Wherever possible, the ultimate length of vertical curve should be used.

In the case of any main line vertical curve the geometry should be reviewed with ultimate future corridor
operations in mind. Care should be exercised to avoid building future speed constraints by designing vertical
curves that are too short. Conversely, unnecessary expenditure to construct vertical curves that are longer than
future operations will require should also be avoided.
3.5.8.4 Other Considerations
In addition to the vertical geometry, some additional factors should be considered.
• Turnouts, station platforms, and at-grade road crossings should not be placed in vertical curves.
• It is desirable to not place vertical curves within the limits of a horizontal curve.
• An undulating profile consisting of many short vertical curve and tangents should be avoided. Frequently,
such profile can be "improved" by using longer vertical curves to "smooth out" the profile.
• It is generally considered poor practice to design an erratic profile for the purposes of balancing earthwork
or to "hit" a series of existing elevations along the track.
• Vertical clearance to overpasses and other overhead structures must be considered. It is recommended to
allow 0.5 – 1.0 foot additional clearance to account for future track maintenance, i.e. surfacing, which
typically raises track somewhat.
• In the cases of ballast deck railroad bridges, the effect of raising track must be considered in terms of the
added dead load of the additional ballast, and whether the ballast shoulders and slopes of the raised track
can be properly contained by the existing structure and ballast retainers.
• In the case of a proposed lowering of track, the potential effects on existing structures must be considered.
Will sufficient ballast section remain on any ballast deck bridges? Will pipelines and other utilities
crossing under have sufficient cover? Will adjacent structures, foundations, or footings be undermined?
3.5.8.5 Compensated Gradients
Train resistance increases on a curve, therefore a train on a grade that is on a horizontal tangent will encounter
even greater resistance when moving onto a horizontal curve. In order to keep train resistance more uniform, the
grade can be reduced slightly in the horizontal curve to account for increased resistance of the horizontal curve.
This known as a "compensated gradient". As with other profile considerations, this is more critical in heavy freight
operations than in Commuter service. Again, since many Commuter lines also carry freight service, this should be
considered. The reader is referred to Chapter 5, Section 3.7, for a discussion of Compensated Gradients
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.10 GROUNDING (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.11 TURNOUTS AND SPECIAL TRACKWORK (2006)
To be Developed

3.5.11.1 Geometry
To be Developed
3.5.11.2 Secant
To be Developed
3.5.11.3 Tangential
To be Developed
3.5.11.4 Switches
To be Developed
3.5.11.5 Frogs
To be Developed
3.5.11.6 Guard Rails
To be Developed
3.5.11.7 Switch Machine Arrangements 1

To be Developed
3.5.11.8 Turnouts and Crossovers
To be Developed
3
3.5.11.9 Crossing Diamonds
To be Developed
3.5.11.10 Track Layouts and Interlocking Plants

4
To be Developed


30
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-1
4.2 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-1
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2 1
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.6 Crash Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2 3

4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 4.2 PASSENGER FACILITIES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 4.3 MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 4.4 YARDS AND SHOPS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 4.5 BRIDGES AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 4.6 CRASH WALLS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

30
Part 5
Vehicle Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1 1
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-2
SECTION 5.1 GENERAL INFORMATION 3
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 5.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 5.4 ROLLING STOCK
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

30
Part 6
Signals, Communications, and Propulsion
Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-1 1

6.2 Operations Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-1
6.3 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2

3
6.5 Propulsion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.2 OPERATIONS CENTERS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 6.3 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.4 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.5 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

30
Part 7
Maintenance of Way Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 General Informaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation and Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2 1
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2 3

7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
SECTION 7.1 GENERAL INFORMATON
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 7.2 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION AND PLANNING
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.4 RIGHT OF WAY MAINTENANCE
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.5 TRACK MAINTENANCE LIMITS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.6 TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.7 STRUCTURES MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 7.8 SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.9 PROPULSION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.10 FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT


0
CHAPTER 12
RAIL TRANSIT1
FOREWORD
Chapter 12, Rail Transit is intended to serve as a guide and offer insight for planning, design and maintenance
of a rail transit system. Recognizing the importance of the technical considerations required in the design,
construction and maintenance of a rail transit system, the well informed choices of the engineering professional
are of utmost importance. The available methods, components and applications are many and varied, therefore
concise and clearly defined criteria are essential when developing goals and objectives. This chapter endorses
the AREMA recommended practices from other chapters when possible, and recognizes that many of the topics
within require extensive coordination with other chapters in the manual. Various techniques, components and
methodologies for construction and maintenance must be evaluated fairly and accurately in order to consider 1
alternative concepts on an equal basis. The reader is encouraged to evaluate the methods and effective practices
utilized by the many operating rail transit systems in North America, and to utilize this manual and chapter as
a basis for the work.
NOTE: This chapter is being developed by Committee 12, which was formed in 1986. Additional
material will appear in future Manual Revisions.
3
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3

2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.6 Selection of Rail Transit Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.8 Corridor Implementation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
3 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-1

3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-7
3.4 Right-of-Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-9
3.5 Track and Roadway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-15
4 Facilities and Structural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-1

4.2 Passenger Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-4
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.8 Segmental Girder Guideways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94
4.9 Direct Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96

5.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2
5.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2

6.2 Operations Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.3 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5 Propulsion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2

7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
Chapter 12 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-G-1

INTRODUCTION
The chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents
information.

12
Part 1
Introduction
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1.1 Use of Chapter 12 (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-2
1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3
1.2.1 Safety (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3
1.2.2 Security (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3

Rail Transit
Chapter 12, Rail Transit, is one of three chapters comprising the Passenger and Transit sectors of the rail
industry. The other two are Chapter 11, Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems and Chapter 17, High Speed
Rail Systems. The three chapters are tied together by the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail
Section that describes those aspects of the three modes that apply to all three, covering the following broad rail
disciplines and features.
• Civil and structural engineering
• Mechanical and electrical engineering
• Train control and communication systems
• Track and related infrastructure
• Passenger stations
• Maintenance shop and yard facilities
• Rail vehicles
The Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section should be used by planners and engineers
evaluating the introduction of new service, be it a new system or new line of an existing system.
Chapters 11, 12 and 17 should be used with the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section to
refine the mode selection. Depending upon which mode is selected, the corresponding chapter is used to design,
construct and maintain the new system for long-term operations.
Respectively, each chapter provides information useful for improvement projects.
The Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section and Chapters 11, 12 and 17 have been
developed with a universal outline and format to help make direct comparisons between the various passenger
modes possible.
1.1.1 USE OF CHAPTER 12 (2007)
This chapter generally is used for rail systems that carry only passengers on dedicated or closed rights-of-way
and that fall under the purview, in the United States, of the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) of the
United States Department of Transportation (USDOT). In some systems, the right-of-way is shared by freight
railroads and the passenger rail transit vehicles. In these circumstances, both the Federal Railroad
Administration (FRA) and the FTA are involved.
Chapter 12 is for the following rail transit systems.
• Rapid Transit, some times called Heavy Rail or Subways
• Light Rail Transit and Street Cars
• Automated People Movers

Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations
Safety and security should be integral to the design, construction, maintenance and operation of rail transit.
Each system will have its own inherent security requirements based on the type of system designed, type of
Right-of-Way available, access to the system and other factors that must be considered before executing a
security plan. Safety and security criteria should be developed and employed in conjunction with the design and
operating criteria of the rail transit system.
1.2.1 SAFETY (2007)
Safety is to prevent injuries and proscribe action upon the incidence of injury. Safety applies with equal
importance to the people who provide service and the people who utilize rail transit. Safety is part of the daily
procedures and policies that apply to the following people:
• Construction workers, supervisors and periodic visitors
• People and vehicles adjacent or near the construction sites
• Rail maintenance-of-way, station, train, shop, yard and office workers
• Passengers and retail customers on trains and in stations
• Passengers and the public as they enter or pass by the transit system
1
Sources of injury are numerous and can be some of the following:
• Every day actions such as walking
• Using tools and operating machinery
• Rain, ice and snow 3
• Storms
Preventative measures that should be developed may include the following:
• Policies and procedures

4
• Initial and periodic peer review of safety training and drills
• Evacuation and treatment plans
1.2.2 SECURITY (2007)
Security is similar to safety in that it requires consideration in the planning, design, construction, maintenance
and operations of rail transit, every day and all day. Security is different in the sources of security issues.
These sources can include the following:
• Customer, passerby and employee vandalism
• Planned criminal activity such as robbery
• Terrorist activity such as bombing and sabotage

Rail Transit
While such matters are commonly the responsibility of police and other security professionals, it requires direct
involvement of the planning, design, construction, maintenance and operations rail transit professional to
ensure sound, reasonable and economical security solutions that compliment the short and long-term goals and
fiscal constraints of the rail transit system, such as the following:
• Initial and long term cost
• Cost of prevention versus cost of repair
• Cost of loss of service

12
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4

2.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4
2.2.2 User Needs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-5 1
2.2.3 Economic Acceptance (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.4 Environmental Acceptance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.5 Social Acceptance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.6 Safety (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.7 Institutional Issues (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-7
3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.2 Demographic Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.4 Zoning Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.5 Environmental Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-9
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10

2.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.3 Operations Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.5 Route Identification (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.6 Constraints (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.7 Land Availability (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.8 Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
1

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2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11

2.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.2 Selection of Route within Corridor (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.4 Land Availability (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.7 Community Relations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.12 Shared Right-of-Way (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.5.13 Shared Trackage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.5.14 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6 Selection of Rail Transit Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13

2.6.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6.2 Vehicle Technology Types (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6.3 Track Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-15
2.6.4 Propulsion Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-16
2.6.5 Signal Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-17
2.6.6 Communications Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-17
2.6.7 Safety and Security Technology (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-18
2.6.8 Fare Collection Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-18
2.6.9 Stations and Facilities (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-19
2.6.10 Route Technical Constraints (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-20
2.6.11 Electric Traction Characteristics (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22

2.7.1 General – Interface with Other Transportation Modes (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.7.4 Central Business District Stations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8 Corridor Implementation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23

2.8.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.2 Operations Simulation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-24
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-24

LIST OF TABLES
12-2-1 Typical Vehicle Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-14

12-2-2 Typical Control Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-17
12-2-3 Typical Minimum Radius Curvature Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-21
12-2-4 Typical Maximum Gradient Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-21
12-2-5 Typical Maximum Speed Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
12-2-6 Typical Station Spacing Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
a. This section covers an area best described as conceptual engineering. It builds upon the planning discussion
presented in the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section and describes the steps and
considerations which are normally addressed when identifying and analyzing rail transit corridors. The rail
transit modes addressed in this section are rapid transit, light rail and automated guided transit (AGT). A
general synopsis of transit-related planning considerations is included to familiarize the engineer with the
overall concepts for studying a potential corridor and selecting the most appropriate rail transit mode.
b. A rail transit corridor evaluation study is typically performed by a multi-disciplined team. It is important that 1
engineers be included on this team so that practical engineering considerations are recognized from the earliest
stages of project development. This team must work closely with the agency sponsoring the study, as well as the
different levels of government and agencies involved in the area to be studied. The study team staffing plan
should include environmental impact specialists, financial analysts, and government representatives. In an
area with an existing transit system, representatives of the operating authority should also be included.
c. The first step when starting an analysis is to define clear project goals. Some goals will be set by the sponsor 3
and some will be self-evident. Other goals need to be defined by the project team before an effective study
can proceed. Included in this section is a discussion of what the most common goals are and how to achieve
them. Once the goals are set, the gathering of data and projections can begin.
d. Some types of planning data will be readily available. Other data must be specifically developed for the
project, and will take a period of time to produce. Ridership projections and economic analyses, in particular,
can take long periods of time to obtain, especially if they are to be accurate. Ridership estimates must be 4
based on reasonable assumptions and lead to realistic projections.
e. The viability of corridors to be analyzed should be assessed early in the process, so that data collection can
proceed effectively without wasting time and effort on non-viable corridors. Corridor studies are often
broken down into conceptual and preliminary phases. The conceptual study phase attempts to look at all
choices, but this is done only with the amount of detail necessary to eliminate the worst options. The
preliminary study phase then proceeds with a more in-depth analysis to arrive at the evaluation team’s
recommendations for selecting the preferred corridor(s).
f. The criteria for evaluating the potential corridors and routes need to be set by the entire study team, with due
regard for the sponsoring agency goals. In the case of an initial line in a location with no previous transit
experience, local decision makers may be unfamiliar with rail transit planning issues. In these circumstances,
the responsibility of the planning team is increased and the assignment of the best qualified people is essential.
g. The decision to build a rail transit corridor will have extensive and long-term impacts on the region. Due to
these long-term effects, the choice of rail transit technology must be closely related to the potential

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ridership and the perceptions of the public. The proposed rail transit system must be perceived as bringing
social and economic benefits to the community. It must also interface with and improve the existing regional
transportation system. Finally, it must serve the future transportation needs of the area.
h. Major areas to be addressed in identifying rail corridors go beyond engineering and include:
• Planning
• Urban Land Economics
• Environmental Issues
• Financing
• Operations
• Politics
i. Engineers working on corridor studies need to be familiar with the above disciplines, and recognize that
they will have strong effects on the eventual selection of corridors and routes. Likewise, the choice of
corridor/route and vehicle technologies often affect one another.
j. The corridor evaluation section includes a discussion of some of the factors which are important when
selecting a vehicle technology. Alignment, station locations, passenger loadings and travel time are obvious
factors. However, technology changes, such as those in car design, control and power systems, can also be
important considerations.
k. Lastly, the strategy for the implementation of the rail transit plan needs to be developed. This includes
phasing, land purchases, financing, approvals, public relations and design/construction planning.
2.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
In planning for rail transit corridors, it must always be kept in mind that the central purpose is to move people.
More particularly, the purpose is to move people efficiently, safely and securely with an appropriate degree of
comfort. In defining a rail transit project, practical trade-offs must be made between ideal planning objectives and
adherence to rigid design criteria. Many other sub-goals and criteria must also be considered, but their relationship
to the central goal of efficiently, safely and securely moving people must always be kept in mind. Examples of major
criteria include the following.
2.2.1.1 Capacity
a. The characteristic of rail transit that gives it special significance is its ability to move volumes of people on
minimal rights-of-way. There are systems operating that move as many as 60,000 persons per hour per track in
the peak travel direction. Utilizations of 500-700 persons per track per minute may be more reasonable to avoid
unfavorable public reaction to crush loading. However, the 1,000 person per minute capability can be obtained.
b. Rail transit’s high volume capabilities suggest that its primary advantage is to move large volumes of
people, particularly during peak travel hours. Various operating patterns (local, express service, zone
service, skip-stop service) may be considered to tailor the system to passenger demand. Capacity to handle

future demand increases requiring additional tracks and ability to bypass stations (e.g. express or zone
service) should be considered in the planning process.
2.2.1.2 Land Usage
a. Due to rail transit’s high volume capability, it is particularly well suited to serve areas of high density land
utilization. In these situations, other vehicles move about only with difficulty and large amounts of land and
structures are necessarily devoted to streets, highway structures and parking.
b. A central goal for rail transit corridors is to feed or link these areas of high density land usage, or to act as a
catalyst for high density development. Rail transit allows much more dense commercial, business, and
residential development than is possible with other transportation technologies. As such, rail transit can be
an asset in planning and stimulating development in accordance with community land use goals.
2.2.1.3 Energy
High capacity rail transit uses much less energy per passenger-mile than the single occupant automobile.
Therefore, an important goal is to couple highway systems to rail corridor systems using fringe or suburban
parking developments. In this manner the energy-inefficient automobile portion of the trip can be shortened, and
lower cost land can be utilized for parking.
2.2.2 USER NEEDS (2006)
The success of any rail transit corridor will depend on its ability to attract riders. The service must be convenient,
predictable, pleasant, safe and economical to the user. Both the infrastructure and the rolling stock must support these 1
needs. Categorized below are various attributes that may be considered important to the attractiveness of service.
2.2.2.1 Convenience
a. Rail corridor stations must be convenient to destination points and facilities such as station parking lots.
Pedestrian mobility to and around stations must be direct and without obstruction. The practical pedestrian
radius will be influenced by length of walk, surroundings, climate, and local preferences.
3
b. For destinations beyond walking distance, convenient interface facilities with connecting transportation
systems are a must. Timing of connections at interface points is particularly important.
c. Frequency of service and perceived speed are other important characteristics affecting convenience. High
density systems commonly operate on as little as 90 second headways. Moderate ridership densities can use
10-15 minute headways, while longer headways are often used in commuter rail service. Various types of
4
operating patterns (express, zone, skip-stop, etc.) may be used to reduce travel times.
2.2.2.2 Reliability
a. Of all the characteristics that will make a rail transit corridor attractive, reliability of service may be the
most important. Transit riders do not have a sense of control. The system must not frustrate them or make
them want to regain control (i.e., return to a private auto). Significant variations from expected
performance cannot be tolerated.
b. Reliability starts with dependable, maintainable mechanical equipment, electrical facilities, and
infrastructure. To the extent possible, maintenance must be accomplished without disrupting or altering
service. The system must also be resistant to adverse weather conditions such as snow, heavy rain, or fog.
c. Another aspect of reliability occurs at connections. Undependable or overly long connections are annoying,
fare machines or turnstiles that don’t work are frustrating, and inadequate parking facilities make the trip

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difficult. Techniques such as timed transfers, dependable machines, and user-friendly designs that promote
the sense of reliability must be included in system goals.
2.2.2.3 Ambiance
a. The ride quality, rail vehicles, stations, and station access must be pleasant. Station designs should provide
shelter from wind and weather, and provide a feeling of security. Stations (and their neighborhoods) must be
“pedestrian friendly”. Activity centers such as small shops can be integrated into station designs to improve
the appearance and vitality of the station environment.
b. While there is a necessary level of reliability and attractiveness to generate the volume of passengers
required for support of the rail corridor, overspending on details that add little to convenience, reliability,
general ambiance, utility of construction or efficiency of operation and maintenance should be avoided.
2.2.2.4 Reasonable Fare Structure
a. Studies are required to suggest an appropriate fare structure and to designate the sources of additional
funding. This additional funding typically supports from 15% to 65% of the cost of operations. The
additional funding must be derived from a dependable long-term source.
2.2.3 ECONOMIC ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Only a portion of the population will ride the rail transit corridor. Yet, the presence of the rail transit corridor will
affect the whole community through its influence on highway traffic volumes and density of land usage. It is
important that the rail transit service be understood and accepted by the community as a whole, because of the rail
line’s impact on the surroundings and its need for some form of public subsidy. A definite effort should be made to
quantify the costs and benefits of all transportation modes in the community, including rail transit.
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Environmental acceptance goes well beyond the common restrictions on air and water pollution. It encompasses
the question “is the proposed rail corridor compatible with the character and feelings of this community?” A goal of
the rail corridor development is to pass this community test. A number of factors must be considered, including air
quality, noise, vibration, visual appearance, travel time, traffic congestion, blocking of streets, taking of property,
dislocation of neighborhoods, blocking of views, construction disruptions, etc.
2.2.5 SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Modern society requires that certain social goals be met when providing transit services. These generally require
an equality of mobility for all persons in the community. Communities are unique and the relationship of their
social goals to the rail transit corridor must be aired and decided.
2.2.6 SAFETY (2007)
The corridor safety goal is that it must be, on a per trip basis, at least as safe as the existing alternatives. A number
of particular details for attention are categorized below.
2.2.6.1 Train Movement
By far the most important safety matters in rail corridor operations are speed and control of train movement. The
irrevocable goal is that safe separation distances be maintained at all times and that there be no collision or hazard
of accident between trains.

2.2.6.2 Infrastructure
Design and engineering of tracks, bridges, and tunnels utilize well-developed safe practices and codes. The goal for
infrastructure is that it be safe, maintainable and in accordance with all applicable codes.
2.2.6.3 Electrical Hazards
Systems employing overhead or third-rail power distribution must include protective designs for both the public
and their own employees. Access to overhead wires must be denied at bridges; third-rail should employ covers, and
be located on secure right-of-way.
2.2.6.4 Vehicular Conflicts
Grade crossing accidents are the principal cause of human injury with respect to rail operations. Collisions
between highway vehicles and rail vehicles must be prevented. Systems employing automatic train operation must
be isolated from all uncontrolled activity such as vehicles and pedestrians at grade. This isolation includes the
system’s own maintenance activities.
2.2.6.5 Pedestrian Safety
a. Stations, station platforms, stairways, and escalators must include safety considerations in their design.
Problems of car door safety and platform gap awareness are important focuses for safety on high density
systems. Designs must also recognize the safety considerations posed by persons with physical disabilities.
The goal is to avoid personal injuries from stumbling, slipping, falling, running into objects, or being pushed
into a dangerous situation. 1
b. Trespassers form a second consideration for pedestrian safety. Rail rights-of-way should be designed to be
relatively inaccessible and warning signs should be used.
2.2.6.6 Security
Along with general pedestrian safety, security of individuals must also be considered. The problem is as much 3
perceived security as it is any actual threat to persons using the transit system. Designs should attempt to keep
persons in full view of others and avoid solitary paths of movement in and around stations. The goal is to avoid
security problems by keeping people together and within sight of one another. Proper use of Closed Circuit
Television (CCTV) systems with centralized security and communications bears consideration.
2.2.6.7 Fire
4
The primary source of transit fires is electrical systems, both in trackside power systems and onboard the cars
themselves. The infrastructure must allow for evacuation of passengers quickly and safely and must allow access
and safety for fire fighters. Designers are well advised to know their local fire safety codes and, in particular, NFPA
130, “Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit Systems”. The goal is to avoid injury or loss of life due to fires
occurring on the rail transit system.
2.2.7 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES (2007)
A wide range of institutional issues must be addressed throughout the planning process. The impact of a rail transit
line will cut a wide swath through a variety of institutional interests at the federal (national), state (provincial) and
local levels. Each of these institutions will have their legitimate interests and all must be satisfied to some reasonable
degree if the project is to move toward construction. These institutions will include entities both public and private,
with political, financial, public policy, business, environmental and community development interests, among others.

Rail Transit
The interests of these institutions and their constituencies should be identified early and considered throughout
the planning process. Typically, a wide variety of issues will be brought forward by the various institutions. Some
organizations will be supportive, some with be critical, and all will have their own items of particular significance.
Each major player should feel that they have a place at the table; there is much to be gained by keeping all parties
engaged. The planner needs to understand these various interests and accommodate as many as possible given the
constraints of technical, schedule and financial feasibility. These interests should always be respected even if they
cannot always be accommodated.
In addressing sometimes competing and conflicting interests, the planner should stress the overall benefits of the
rail project and seek to bring these benefits to as wide a constituency as possible. Conversely, the planner should
seek to mitigate problems associated with the project through effective planning, review of available options, and
thorough analysis of site-specific concerns.
Many concerns will focus on disruption to the local community during construction activities. Much benefit can be
gained by effectively addressing construction-related concerns through careful attention to work zones and staging
plans to minimize disruption to local communities and roadways.
2.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
A complete set of data and information is needed early in the rail corridor planning process. This data ranges from
the demography of the human populations to be served to the physical characteristics that will govern engineering
and design of the system. This section suggests the variety and scope of data to be collected and considered.
2.3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA (2006)
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section.
2.3.3 ATTITUDE SURVEYS (2006)
2.3.4 ZONING DATA (2006)
2.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA (2006)
2.3.6 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA (2006)
Transit lines, particularly LRT lines, can offer the designer a wide range of route location options thanks to their
flexibility and adaptability to a variety of right-of-way types. Transit routes can utilize a variety of existing land
uses, including “green field” and “brown field” sites, highway medians and shoulders, city streets (i.e., street-
running LRT), utility easements, and active and abandoned railroad rights-of-way. This is in contrast to commuter
rail route planning, where route options are generally limited to existing, pre-defined rail lines and there is little, if
any, scope for expansion beyond existing railroad rights-of-way.

Data needs for transit-oriented planning will typically be more extensive than for commuter rail, both in terms of
the quantity of the information required and the amount of research necessary. The greater number of route
options available inherently creates a need for planning data for each option. The research effort required will
vary depending upon existing land uses. Existing railroad and utility corridors typically have well-defined, well-
accepted boundaries and the data needed for planning purposes can often be obtained from a single source (e.g.,
company records). In cases involving highway rights-of-way and land not currently used for transportation
purposes, however, project boundaries may be tentative and planning information must be gathered from a variety
of sources (or taken from field surveys) and interpreted in terms of the intended rail use.
a. Route planners should carefully review the data that may be available from public authorities, utilities, and
private companies. Geographic and physical data are often available from previous surveys and databases.
Data sources include:
• Topographic maps.
• Development maps.
• Geologic data.
• Climatic records.
• Hydrological records.
• Utility maps and records.

1
• Railroad right-of-way maps.
• Track and signal diagrams.
• Other right-of-way maps.
• GPS-based mapping. 3
• Graphic-based geographic management information systems (GIS).
2.3.7 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA (2006)
a. The beginning of a rail corridor investigation should be a literature search of published population and
economic growth projections. Public records and utility records are good sources of growth information. 4
b. The following points should be considered to assess the validity of the growth projections:
• What are the underlying assumptions?
• What assumptions are missing?
• What are the sources of the base data?
• Are the assumptions and base data adequate?
• Do the projections make sense?
c. Next, evaluate the projections themselves. Are they relevant to the rail corridor? What will be their effects?

Rail Transit
d. Missing projection data must be developed. It is important that the corridor agency participate in
development of projections so that other agencies’ observations and knowledge are incorporated. A
consensus is important; all parties should formally agree on the population and employment forecasts. Also,
these forecasts should indicate a range of results (low, medium, and high) using appropriate statistical
measures, such as means and standard deviations.
2.3.8 TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA (2006)
a. Accurate knowledge of current transportation patterns is indispensable to any rail corridor plan. The data
desired is accurate origin-destination pairs by mode and by time of day.
b. Once the current transportation patterns are known, population, employment, and activity projections can
be considered and the range of future demand forecast. The first transportation forecast assumes no changes
in transportation infrastructure and forecasts the impacts of future increases in transportation demand.
c. If high density land use is present or projected, rail transit corridors should be considered. It is very
important that once a rail corridor has been defined, it must be integrated into an overall regional or local
area transportation plan. This plan must include highways, local roads, parking, and public transit.
2.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
2.4.2 RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA (2006)
2.4.3 OPERATIONS CRITERIA (2006)
2.4.4 TRAFFIC SOURCES AND DESTINATIONS (2006)
2.4.5 ROUTE IDENTIFICATION (2006)
a. Once identified, a corridor will broadly define the location of a proposed rail transit line within its boundaries.
As corridor characteristics are analyzed, the rail line location will be further defined in terms of a general
route or alignment. Characteristics defining a route may be the traffic demand pattern, existing transport
facilities (rail lines, highways, power lines), or the natural topography. In some cases where a candidate route
is delineated by existing or projected travel demand, there may not be an obvious physical route available.
b. These situations should be evaluated at an early stage so that their impact on project cost and feasibility
may be determined.

c. In some situations, there will be two or more alternate (parallel) routes possible through all or part of the
corridor. In these cases, an analysis must be conducted to rank candidate routes.
2.4.6 CONSTRAINTS (2006)
2.4.7 LAND AVAILABILITY (2006)
a. The availability of land suitable for rail transit development within a selected corridor may be limited. Often,
land and right-of-way availability become the crucial issues in rail corridor development. The planning
process should explore creative use of existing public and private rights-of-way to mitigate these problems.
b. The purchase of land to create a new transportation corridor where none exists is an expensive, time-consuming
activity. It is a highly public endeavor requiring multiple review processes. As an alternative, it may be desirable
to analyze the rail transit potential of existing transportation corridors, such as railroads, highway medians,
utility rights-of-way, etc. The presence of a relatively inexpensive, existing right-of-way may make a rail project
practical and economically justified, even if it is not among a region’s most densely traveled corridors.
c. The use of existing rights-of-way is subject to two caveats: The conversion cost to rail transit use must be
reasonable, and the project must serve a meaningful level of transit demand.
d. Public agencies may also wish to preserve existing unused rights-of-way or actively assemble individual
parcels into new corridors for future transportation use. Otherwise, these opportunities may be lost through 1
uncoordinated land development.
2.4.8 RAIL LINE / NEIGHBORHOOD INTERFACE (2006)
2.4.9 REGULATORY INTERFACE (2006) 3
4
2.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
2.5.2 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR (2006)
2.5.3 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE (2006)

Rail Transit
2.5.4 LAND AVAILABILITY (2006)
2.5.5 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES (2006)
a. The relationship of the location of stations to the highway network, and in particular, the freeway system
and arterial road network, must be considered. If the purpose of the line is to serve a large area beyond the
corridor itself, then the design of the station/highway interface may include modifications of the freeway
interchanges to facilitate intermodal coordination.
b. The total travel time of the passenger is a very important consideration in route selection. However, this
factor should not be calculated simply from one rail station to another; rather it must be calculated from the
passenger’s origin (home) to his/her destination (work, school, entertainment). For example, total travel
time may include walking or driving to the station, parking, waiting, transfer, travel on bus and/or rail
transit, walking, and elevators to the final destination.
2.5.6 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES (2006)
a. In an urban area, the route, type of construction (at-grade, aerial, underground), and selection of sites for
stations, storage yards, and maintenance shops must conform to the nature and character of each
neighborhood that the line serves.
b. Station design should be integrated into the fabric of the individual neighborhood being served. From the
engineering and operation standpoints, stations may be standardized but from the aesthetic standpoint,
they should be assets and an integral part of the area. Properly designed and built, the new stations will
become the hubs in their local area and will attract development around them. Where possible, substations
may be integrated with passenger stations, shop facilities, or other project-related structures.
c. In the urban zone, proper integration with existing distributor systems will reduce the need for large
parking areas.
2.5.7 COMMUNITY RELATIONS (2006)
2.5.8 JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES (2006)
2.5.9 SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS (2006)
2.5.10 PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS (2006)
2.5.11 ROLLING STOCK REQUIREMENTS (2007)

2.5.12 SHARED RIGHT-OF-WAY (2006)
2.5.13 SHARED TRACKAGE (2006)
SECTION 2.6 SELECTION OF RAIL TRANSIT TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The central issue in the selection of the best-suited rail transit technology is the selection of the vehicle
technology or type.
b. The functions of service goals and vehicle type/technology are closely interrelated. Service goals set the level of
service frequency, transit time, station spacing, comfort levels, and amenities, as well as the nodes to be served.
1
These, in turn, determine the power and propulsion requirements, station size, and vehicle configuration for
expected loadings. Finally, the requirements for the vehicle type are reflected in the infrastructure (curvature,
grade, and speed capabilities), need for grade separation, and other design characteristics of the track and
structure.
2.6.2 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY TYPES (2007) 3

a. There are three general types of rail transit technology that can be considered:
• Rapid Transit
• Light Rail (including streetcar)

4
• Automated Guided Transit (AGT)
b. While each type has some flexibility in application, the technology must be compatible with the selected
route alignment. As a result, from a technical standpoint, the selection of transit technology is
interdependent with the choice and design of the route alignment.
2.6.2.1 General
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail.
2.6.2.2 Factors Relating to Choice of Equipment
a. Vehicle configuration is a variable of the technology selected, expected patronage loadings, and planned
travel times.

Rail Transit
b. Rapid transit vehicles typically have a seating capacity of 40 to 80 passengers and can accommodate crush
loads well in excess of 100% additional standees. Rapid transit operates in high-capacity trainsets with high
platform loading/unloading capabilities and minimum headways.
c. Light rail employs single-vehicle seating capacities of approximately 50 to 85 passengers and utilizes three
or four vehicle trainsets for peak operations. Because of operating philosophies and the street-level
boarding/disembarking of the light rail vehicles, a 50% standing capacity is calculated for load analysis.
When loads for light rail vehicles exceed this factor, a decision must be made as to accepting crush loads,
adding more vehicles to trains, or by reducing headways. Each of these options must be looked at from a cost
effectiveness standpoint.
d. Automated Guided Transit (AGT) is a suitable mode for major activity centers such as aiports, universities,
hospitals and central business districts. These systems are typically designed for full automated operation
and without the need for personnel on-board the vehicles or at stations. AGT systems may be designed to
operate relatively small cars, seating only six to ten passengers per vehicle, while AGT cars in airport and
urban service may be designed to accommodate 50 passengers or more per vehicle.
e. Systems can be planned for all persons seated, all standees, or a mix. Table 12-2-1 shows the wide variety of
vehicle designs.
Table 12-2-1. Typical Vehicle Characteristics
Accel. Decel.
Seating Maximum Rate Rate
Category Capacity Capacity (mph/s) (mph/s) Cars/Train
Rapid Transit 40-80 100-175 2.5-3.0 2.8-3.2 6-10
Light Rail 50-85 110-175 3.0 3.0-4.0 1-4
AGT 30-50 75-160 2.2-3.0 2.5-3.0 1-8
2.6.2.2.1 Rapid Transit
a. If the designated corridor has characteristics suggesting the need for a trunk line rapid transit system, the
selection of such factors as car length, platform height, and door pattern affect the length of stations, the
required running and station dwell time, and the number of cars in the fleet.
b. In turn, the selection of the route alignment may require cars that can negotiate small radius curves and
steep grades. The height of the car becomes a factor in the cost of construction if extensive tunneling is
involved. The weight of the car becomes a factor if extensive aerial structures are required.
c. The capacity of the cars, the size of the door openings, and the minimum spacing between trains strongly
affects the design of the station platforms, staircases, escalators, and other station design elements relating
to capacity.
2.6.2.2.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT)
a. Vehicles designed for use on lines which will include a combination of private rights-of-way, aerial
structures, tunnel, and running in public streets with automotive traffic must be designed to accommodate
an additional series of criteria.
b. In order to negotiate curves required when turning corners in an existing street pattern, vehicles must be
capable of negotiating extremely short radius curves. If the route under consideration has steep grades,
these must also be accommodated.

c. Street running with automotive traffic requires that the braking rates and systems for vehicles in such
service be capable of much shorter stops than other rail systems.
d. In order to obtain high productivity, many LRT lines utilize trains of several cars under control of one
operator. The total train length must be determined such that the rear of a train stopping for a traffic light
at one intersection will not interfere with traffic flow at adjacent intersections.
e. The design of stations within the city streets will be affected by, and will affect, the design of the car.
f. Basic route selection of all transportation facilities includes the factors of travel time, initial cost of
construction, initial cost of locomotives and vehicles, operating costs over the life the system (life cycle cost
of system), feasibility of construction and political acceptability. All of the factors enumerated above must be
considered before the final evaluation is made.
2.6.2.2.3 Automated Guided Transit (AGT)
Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems are typically employed in passenger circulator and distributor roles. In
some cases these systems may have a short line-haul mission as well.
AGT systems are typically supplied by a manufacturer on a turn-key basis using proprietary technologies. The
various elements (vehicles, guideway, power, and control systems) and their functional interfaces are set and
controlled by the manufacturer. AGT systems may be based on steel wheel/steel rail or rubber-tire technologies.
AGT systems feature automatic, unmanned operation. As a result, they require use of dedicated, grade-separated
guideways compatible with unattended operation. Design of AGT infrastructure and control systems must provide 1
safety and passenger information features for use in the event that automated systems fail.
AGT guideways may be aerial, at-grade or underground. Station and guideway design must provide facilities for
passenger evacuation during service failures or emergencies.
In reviewing AGT options, the planner is well-advised to consider the carrying capacity, maximum speed, clearance
envelope and vertical and horizontal geometry capabilities of each proprietary AGT system. AGT performance and 3
guideway geometries need to be well-matched to the intended service and available alignment options.
Route selection will depend primarily upon passenger demand, but must also include access to a suitable location
for a maintenance facility.
2.6.3 TRACK TECHNOLOGY (2007)

4
A wide range of service-proven track technologies is available for use in rail transit applications. The selection of
track technology will be driven by a variety of factors, chief among them location, service life, initial capital cost
and on-going maintenance frequency and cost.
Conventional tie and ballast construction dates from near the dawn of railroad development and remains the most
widely-used track type even today. It is best suited for at-grade construction but can also be viable for aerial and
subway applications. In current practice, rail will be continuously welded, while ties may be wood or concrete, with
the choice of tie made based on life-cycle cost analysis. Rail fasteners will be of either the direct fixation type, or
conventional tie plates and cut spikes, adequately anchored, if wood ties and stone ballast are to be employed.
Street trackage may be built using conventional tie and ballast construction with a paving layer or through
reliance on specialized construction types, such as concrete track slabs. Rail may be conventional T-rail or girder-
type. Rail securement may be by means of mechanical fasteners or poured-in-place construction elastomers.
Track slabs utilizing direct fixation of rails may also be the economical choice for use in aerial and subway construction,
where the reduced weight and lower vertical profile associated with this type of construction can be of benefit.

Rail Transit
Special low-noise and low-vibration track forms are available for use in sensitive areas such as hospitals,
laboratories, and concert halls to mitigate the effects of transit operations. These track types are generally
complex and make extensive use of elastomeric elements to isolate the track structure from the surrounding
environment. Their use is restricted to areas of high sensitivity where the additional expense can be justified.
Special trackwork (turnouts, crossings, restraining rails and the like) can generally be found in the same variety of
options as the basic track construction. Generally, the type of construction employed in the special trackwork
should match the construction of the surrounding track form.
For planning purposes, the planner should quantify which portions of the route are suitable for open
(conventional) track, which portions will require street trackage, and which areas may require slab track or other
special track forms. Special trackwork requirements should also be determined. Design criteria establishing the
construction details should be established and reasonable unit cost estimates developed for each type of track
construction. Unit costs may then be applied against quantity take-offs to develop construction cost estimates for
each alignment option.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 5 for more information.
2.6.4 PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY (2007)
2.6.4.1 Electric Propulsion
Vehicle propulsion is generally accomplished through the application of electric traction motors to drive axle-
mounted gear units. Proprietary systems using Linear Induction Motors, where part of the propulsion apparatus
is mounted in the guideway in the form of a reaction rail, have also been employed in certain applications on fenced
or grade separated alignments free of at-grade crossings.
Current and anticipated trends in vehicle propulsion technology involve use of alternating current (ac) propulsion
systems employing high-performance power electronics to transform energy drawn from a wayside traction power
system into a form suitable for use by ac traction motors. System arrangements and details vary between
manufacturers and continually evolve, and on established rail systems may need to consider the presence of pre-
existing electrification systems, but the fundamental advantages of ac propulsion in the rail transit environment
are well established. These advantages include higher reliability, reduced maintenance requirements, and reduced
susceptibility to moisture-related motor damage as compared to conventional direct current (dc) traction.
Propulsion manufacturers can provide ac propulsion systems suitable for any type of rail vehicle across a wide
range of performance capabilities. Vehicles may have some or all axles powered depending upon the performance
levels desired and specific design constraints (such as weight).
Vehicle electric propulsion systems, by nature, will emit electromagnetic energy across a broad spectrum. This
energy has the potential to generate Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) that may adversely affect other on-
vehicle systems and wayside signal and communication systems. These emissions need to be strictly limited at the
most sensitive frequencies and minimized over the entire spectrum. As a result, the specification, design,
manufacture and installation of vehicle propulsion systems, signal and train control systems, and communication
systems must be closely coordinated.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 33, Part 12 for more information.
2.6.4.2 Diesel Propulsion
While LRT has traditionally been synonymous with electric propulsion, several non-electric LRT lines have been
built worldwide in recent years. These systems combine traditional light rail vehicle design concepts with a diesel
prime mover and electric or hydraulic transmissions. While less “green” than a traditional electrified system, this
approach allows construction of LRT without the associated expense of electrical infrastructure. The primary U.S.
example at the time of writing is NJ TRANSIT’s River Line between Trenton, NJ and Camden, NJ.

2.6.5 SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY (2007)
a. Signaling should not be viewed as a governing factor in the corridor selection process, but should become an
outgrowth of the technology chosen, and must be appropriate for the speeds required and traffic density
anticipated. Rapid transit, by its nature, is sophisticated and modern-day systems are highly automated.
Light rail, by its use of shared rights-of-way, does not need to be highly signaled. However, in tunnels and at
higher speeds, a minimum of a wayside signal system should be used. With the trend of having light rail
traveling down centers of boulevards and, in some cases, reverting to street running with automobiles, the
signal system is often integrated with the automobile traffic signals. Automated Guided Transit (AGT)
systems require totally automated control systems, but generally have manually-operated backup controls
for fault recovery, and for shop and yard movement.
b. Various types of control systems in use are listed here in order of increasing protection/automation and
capital cost:
• LOS – Line of Sight.
• MB – Manual Block.
• ABS – Automatic Block System.
• ATS – Automatic Train Stop.
• ATP – Automatic Train Protection.

1
• ATC – Automatic Train Control.
• ATO – Automatic Train Operation.
In addition, current trends in the signal technology applications include development of Positive Train Stop
(PTS) features and implementation of Communications Based Train Control (CBTC) systems.
3
c. Control systems typically employed on the various rail transit modes are shown in Table 12-2-2.
Table 12-2-2. Typical Control Characteristics
Category LOS MB ABS ATS ATP ATC ATO

Rapid Transit — — X X X X X 4
Light Rail X — X X — X —
AGT — — — — — X X
NOTE: Refer to AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Section 7 for more information.
2.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY (2007)
Communications technologies are rapidly evolving across a multitude of applications, with increasing levels of
capability and decreasing levels of cost. Some of these technologies are (or will be) useful in the context of a rail
transit system. The planner should be aware of the communications capabilities available during the planning for
each project and apply those that fit with project goals, requirements and budgets. Communications technologies
should be incorporated because they are useful and necessary, not simply because they are technically achievable.
Basic items that should be incorporated in communications systems planning include two-way radios, public
address systems, Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)-compliant passenger information systems, and passenger

Rail Transit
(emergency) intercoms. Except on very simple LRT and streetcar systems, Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems should be employed to support operation of wayside installations such as traction
power substations and fare collection systems.
Enhanced communications options that might be considered include GPS vehicle location systems, automated
vehicle health monitoring, automated transmission of vehicle fault reports, and CCTV coverage of vehicles,
stations, parking lots and secure areas. Other enhancements are to be expected as improved technologies migrate
into the field of rail transit.
Communications requirements should be specifically evaluated with respect to security issues associated with both
the terrorist and the common criminal.
NOTE: Refer to AREMA Communications and Signals Manual for more information.
2.6.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY TECHNOLOGY (2006)
a. Safety considerations must be given high priority in the planning process for corridor selection. Factors that
govern safety are:
• The level of signalization chosen.
• Whether grade crossings are to be considered.
• Whether the system operates on exclusive or shared right-of-way.
• Type of power source.
• Level of right-of-way security.
b. While the list is not complete, it should point out that each step of evaluating the technology should
emphasize the safety level of the alternative considered.
2.6.8 FARE COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY (2007)
System planners must establish the overall approach to fare collection to be used (barrier-based or barrier-free)
and the fare media and technologies to be employed. The entire approach to fare collection must be carefully
studied in the context of connecting routes, other non-rail modes and public policy. The overall goal should be to
integrate the fare collection system across all routes and modes so that the transit system as a whole is convenient
and economical to use.
Barrier-based systems divide the station area into “free” and “paid” areas which are physically separated by
barriers such as turnstiles. Access to trains is available only from “paid” areas and fares are collected or inspected
at the point of barrier entry.
Barrier-free systems are used in conjunction with “proof-of-payment” fare policies. No barriers are used as all
station areas are typically “free.” Fares are paid prior to vehicle boarding using ticket vending machines and the
vehicle itself becomes the “paid” area. Customers are issued a receipt that serves as the “proof-of-payment”. Fare
inspectors are employed on vehicles to inspect for fare payment and issue fines for non-payment of fares. On some
systems, especially those with grade-separated stations, boarding platforms also may be designated as “paid” areas,
as a way to enable fare inspection outside the vehicle to increase compliance and enhance security.
The decision between barrier-based and barrier-free systems will have a major impact on the architectural design
of stations. Barrier-based stations will typically be larger, more complex, and require an enclosed station building

due to the need to segregate “free” and “paid” zones. Stations built to incorporate a barrier-free system will
generally be smaller and simpler, and easier to conform to the specific constraints of each station site.
A variety of fare media and technologies are available and will continue to evolve over time. A primary driver in
selection of the fare medium is the need to accommodate the individual one-way or round-trip fare. Typical media
used for this application are cardstock tickets incorporating a readable magnetic strip and electronic stored value
“smart cards” used as a virtual “coin purse”.
Magnetic strip tickets must be passed through a reader to verify or deduct fare payment. This technology has been
available for a number of years and is still widely used. Electronic cards represent the next generation beyond the
magnetic strip and generally utilize contactless technology. Capabilities can be expanded beyond basic fare
payment to include payment for small purchases from a variety of stores and vendors. Other capabilities include
generation of origin-destination and passenger count data based on where and when the card is used.
It should be noted that the dated time-value ticket (such as a weekly or monthly pass) is a convenient, secure
medium that can readily be employed by the bulk of transit riders (i.e., regular users). Such tickets are compatible
with both magnetic strip tickets and electronic cards. This type of media reduces the number of financial
transactions required (e.g., fare is paid once per month rather than twice per day) and promotes use of credit cards
and other forms of electronic payment.
2.6.9 STATIONS AND FACILITIES (2007)
2.6.9.1 Passenger Stations
Passenger stations should be functional, attractive, economical and compatible with their surrounding 1
communities. Design criteria and the desired level of station ambiance should be determined early in the planning
process and further refined as the project proceeds. Key design factors must include the safety and security of
passengers, employees and the general public. Design concepts should recognize local concerns and be developed
with community input.
The planning of passenger station locations will be a key outcome of the planning process. Station location
decisions must strike the right balance among a number of competing factors. Station spacing should be 3
sufficiently close to capture the available ridership without imposing large travel time penalties associated with an
excessive number of station stops. Stations must have sufficient space for parking and mode transfer facilities yet
recognize community sensitivities that may object to a station that is “too large”.
Once potential station locations have been identified, baseline designs should be developed for each type of station
required (e.g., surface – side platforms; surface – center platform; aerial, etc.). All elements necessary for station
function should be included (e.g., shelters, fare machines, passenger information systems, parking, bus bays, 4
security features, etc.).
Design of station platforms and car doorways should be conducted in tandem to ensure that the geometry of the
platform/doorway interface is properly set and realistically maintainable over the life of the system.
Each baseline station design should have an associated, realistic construction cost estimate. The estimating
methodology should have sufficient flexibility to allow adjustments to reflect the impact of site-specific conditions
(e.g., number of parking spots, fare machine quantities, degree of site congestion, etc.).
2.6.9.2 Traction Power Substations
Traction power substations will typically be required at regular intervals along an electrified rail transit line.
Details will vary with the specifics of each project but spacings of 1.0 -1.5 miles are typical for dc traction power
substations. Substations must be located in proximity to the track and overhead line and suitably projected by
enclosures and fencing.

Rail Transit
Substation locations should be identified as part of the alignment review process. Sites will be relatively easy to
find on dedicated rights-of-way and in areas of industrial land use. Sites may be difficult to find in downtown and
residential areas where land is scarce and the appearance of an electrical installation may be considered
objectionable. In these cases, the planner may consult with the traction power designers to determine where some
flexibility in location may be possible. For instance, the use of larger capacity, more widely-spaced substations
supported by additional feeders may be feasible. Alternatively, the use of decorative facades and landscaping may
be considered to allow the substation to inconspicuously blend with its surroundings.
2.6.9.3 Signal Bungalows and Other Signal Infrastructure
Signal bungalows and other signal infrastructure will be needed at defined locations on the right-of-way as
determined by operating requirements and signal design principles. Typically there will be little or no latitude to
move the equipment to alternative locations. If necessary, signal bungalows can be “disguised” in a manner similar
to substations in visually-sensitive locations.
2.6.9.4 Shop Facilities
Shop facilities can present a particular challenge in site selection. These facilities typically require a substantial
“footprint” of contiguous parcels to accommodate the necessary maintenance and storage functions, plus the space
demanded by material storage and employee parking requirements. The facilities must be located close to the rail
line and in an area compatible with the “light industrial” nature of their use. Many times, the number of feasible
candidate sites is small and the list of their shortcomings is long.
Identification and preservation of possible shop sites is critical to project development and should be addressed in
the earliest phases of planning. All possible options should be considered and creative use or reuse of existing sites
should be considered. Alignment options must consider their connectivity with feasible shop sites, and lack of a
suitable site may constitute a “fatal flaw” for a given alignment.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 6 for more information.
2.6.10 ROUTE TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS (2007)
The following route characteristics form the constraints that will influence the selection of the transit technology.
2.6.10.1 Exclusive Grade-Separated Right-of-Way
This configuration represents an ideal situation for any rail technology. It is generally utilized when third-rail
power collection is used and is a requirement when automated rail systems are employed, due to safety
considerations. In addition, automated systems require fencing and should consider intrusion detection protection.
Exclusive rights-of-way are desirable for higher operating speeds, regardless of the power supply or control systems.
2.6.10.2 Dedicated Grade-Level Right-of-Way
Rail operations have often been located on dedicated rights-of-way with periodic crossings at grade for highways
and pedestrians. This arrangement is typical of most of the U.S. railroad network and many transit operations. This
configuration allows economy of development but incurs safety problems at street crossings and with trespassers.
2.6.10.3 Street Running or Non-Dedicated Right-of-Way
Automatic systems are not suitable for street running due to the inability of their control systems to react to
unsafe movement by automotive vehicles or pedestrians. Street running is well suited for light rail operations, and
can offer advantages with respect to alignment flexibility and cost economies.

2.6.10.4 Curvature
Transit rail technologies can accommodate curvatures to 46 degrees (125-foot radius) and sharper; however, it is
recommended that new construction limit curvature to approximately 23 degrees (250-foot radius) for light rail
and 19 degrees (300-foot radius) for rapid transit. Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems can accommodate
sharper curvature when short cars are utilized. Note that various features of car construction can materially
influence the minimum radius curvature allowable. Table 12-2-3 illustrates typical minimum radius curvatures
utilized on existing systems.
Table 12-2-3. Typical Minimum Radius Curvature Examples
Category Mainline Yards and Terminals

Rapid Transit 82-750 feet 85-300 feet
Light Rail (Note 1) 82-750 feet 82-100 feet
AGT 230-328 feet 100 feet
Note 1: Radii as short as 35 ft are used on light rail systems that have evolved from historic trolley
car systems. However, use of these shorter radii limits the options for procurement and
operation of equipment, as the more common modern day light rail car designs are
designed for 82 ft (25 meter) curve radius.
2.6.10.5 Grade
The desirable maximum grade for transit construction is approximately 3%. Grades steeper than this can be 1
considered for use if there are compelling reasons (e.g., topographic constraints, construction costs) and operating
safety is not compromised. New construction should reference existing operating properties to establish desirable
grades. Care must be taken in considering propulsion methods and weather considerations in planning for
gradients. A major criterion is vehicle braking performance on descending grades; systems utilizing automatic
controls usually require that grades within 1,000 feet of stations be limited to 3% or less. See Table 12-2-4 for
examples of existing systems.
3
Table 12-2-4. Typical Maximum Gradient Examples
Category Mainline Exceptions

Rapid Transit 6% 7%
Light Rail 5-6% 7% 4
AGT 6% 8%
2.6.10.6 Speed
Rapid transit vehicles, for the most part, are designed for fast acceleration/deceleration for throughput and
frequent stops. Running speeds up to 65 mph are generally adequate.
Light rail vehicles are also designed for fast acceleration/deceleration and may also be operated in non-exclusive
rights-of-way or in street running with other vehicles. Typical light rail vehicles are designed for maximum speeds
in the 50 to 65 miles per hour range.
Automated systems for dense patronage in an urban environment have been designed for speeds up to 70 mph.
Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems also serve dense patronage (such as at airports), but are designed for
somewhat slower speeds, in the range of 25 mph to 50 mph.

Rail Transit
For each technology, desired speeds must be determined from station spacing, line geometry, braking capabilities, and the
ability to attain and maintain vehicle design speeds. For examples of typical maximum speeds, refer to Table 12-2-5.
Table 12-2-5. Typical Maximum Speed Examples
Category Maximum Speed

Rapid Transit 50-80 mph
Light Rail 50-65 mph
AGT 50-55 mph
2.6.10.7 Station Spacing
Criteria for planning station spacing should take into consideration land use patterns and population densities.
Stations in central business districts and areas of high employment concentration will often require closer spacing than
suburban stations. The availability of distribution and feeder systems will also affect station locations and spacing.
Station spacings for rapid transit and light rail systems will vary depending upon location, with longer station spacing
in outlying areas and closer spacing in urban and CBD locations. For AGT systems, spacing may be measured in the
hundreds of feet, depending on the specific application. For examples of typical station spacings, refer to Table 12-2-6.
Table 12-2-6. Typical Station Spacing Examples
Category Downtown Outlying

Rapid Transit 0.5 Mile 1-2 Miles
Light Rail Every Block or 2nd Block 0.5-1 Mile
AGT 800-1500 Feet 0.5-1 Mile
2.6.11 ELECTRIC TRACTION CHARACTERISTICS (2007)
Rapid transit, utilizing dedicated surface rights-of-way and subway operations, has commonly used a third-rail,
collector strip, or overhead wire power distribution. The presence of grade crossings usually found in light rail
operations will generally restrict the use of third-rail power collection and will normally require overhead contact
or catenary wire. Power for AGT systems is always derived from the guideway. While these general guidelines
apply, reference should be made to Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, for a more detailed discussion.
SECTION 2.7 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES
2.7.1 GENERAL – INTERFACE WITH OTHER TRANSPORTATION MODES (2006)
Transportation interfaces are those points where transport systems or modes meet and require the passenger to
change modes. The portrayal of interfacing between a rail transit corridor and other forms of transportation is
described in this section.
2.7.2 TYPES OF INTERFACES (2006)

2.7.3 TYPICAL STATION INTERFACES (2006)
2.7.4 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT STATIONS (2006)
a. Understanding the basic interfaces and realizing their importance in creating a desirable transport mix is
essential for decision makers and station planners. The quality of the interface of rail transit with the other
transport modes will have a large impact on a rider’s decisions regarding all public transit use.
b. Station interfaces, in general, must mesh with the local transportation network and be compatible with
their neighborhoods.
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
2.8.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The political and financial ramifications of transit corridor selection and route design must be considered
concurrently with the preceding steps so that implementation of the system will proceed smoothly. Planning
and design functions will be coordinated closely with the sponsor throughout the corridor selection process
to insure accuracy of land acquisition needs and construction cost estimates. 1
b. Right-of-way acquisition is often the “make or break” factor for a proposed rail transit system and will, in
some instances, govern the vertical location of the system. During the evaluation phase, the planning team
must be constantly attuned to this important factor and be authoritative in assessments that sufficient
right-of-way is available for the trackway, stations, substations, yards, maintenance shops, and storage
facilities. Wherever possible, viable alternate routes should be presented in addition to the preferred
alignment. Costs and non-economic implications of each alternate approach should be clearly set forth for 3
evaluation by public sector decision-makers. Very often legislation at one or more government levels is
required to make the necessary land obtainable, and errors can be costly, or perhaps fatal, to the project.
c. Most rail transit systems are funded through a combination of sources such as local government, regional
authorities, and state, provincial and federal governments. Here again, much care must be exercised during
the evaluation process to provide accurate and defendable cost information to take to the supporting agencies,
and sometimes the voting public, for approval of loans, grants, and bond issues. Major transit endeavors that 4
overrun estimated construction costs and fail to achieve ridership and revenue targets alienate the general
public. Legislators must be heavily involved in the evaluation phase of corridor and route selection activities.
The time, cost, and effort associated with intense public involvement are a small price to pay for acceptance
and approval of the proposed rail transit system by the general public and the involved agencies.
2.8.2 OPERATIONS SIMULATION (2006)
2.8.3 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE AND PLAN (2006)

Rail Transit
2.8.4 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATING (2006)
2.8.5 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE COST ESTIMATING (2006)

123
Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations1
— 2008 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-3
3.2.2 Safety/Security (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-4 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger Transit and Freight (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-5
3.2.4 Speeds (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-5
3.2.5 Superelevation Deficiency (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-5
3.2.8 Propulsion System (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-7 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-8
3.2.10 Environmental (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-8
3.2.11 Reliability (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-9
3.2.13 Flange Bearing Wheels (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-9
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10

3.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10
3.3.3 Passenger Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.4 Freight Operations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.5 Fixed Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.6 Movable Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.4 Right-of-Way Design Criteria and Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12

3.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.4.2 At Grade Crossings (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.3 Drainage (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.4 Vegetation Control (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.5 Environmental (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-14
1
References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 65; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 131; Vol. 97, p. 117.

Rail Transit
3.5 Track and Roadway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-18

3.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-18
3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-20
3.5.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-20
3.5.5 Gage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-20
3.5.6 Track Structure (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-20
3.5.7 Horizontal Geometry (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-26
3.5.9 Signal Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-30
3.5.10 Grounding/Stray Current (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-30
3.5.12 Special Trackwork Components (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-33
LIST OF FIGURES
12-3-1 Third-rail Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-19
The purpose of Part 3 of Chapter 12 is to delineate recommended track and roadway design considerations for heavy
and light rail transit systems, particularly those considerations that differ from other types of passenger and freight
operations. Many of the engineering considerations for rail transit are the same as for other types of rail operations
that are described in other chapters of this Manual. In such cases, this Chapter will reference the other chapters.
Other organizations with an interest in transit track design, primarily the American Public Transit Association
(APTA) and the Transportation Research Board (TRB), have published design and maintenance information that
applies to heavy and light rail transit track design. These publications support the recommendations of this
Chapter and will be referenced herein where appropriate.
Several facets of rail transit operations, while applicable to other types of rail operations, usually receive a different
or greater emphasis in rail transit, thereby resulting in different design considerations from other types of
operations. Several of these facets and their rail transit perspective are as follows:
Operational Reliability. For rail transit, this means safe, on-time performance and requires track
components that are robust and have long service lives that will not require frequent or disruptive
maintenance. Components must be susceptible of easy inspection to identify defective elements and plan for
their maintenance or replacement in a safe and timely manner that will not interfere with normal
operations.
Quality of Ride. Passenger comfort of seated and standing patrons should be a significant factor in
determining track modulus, spiral lengths, underbalance limits, and other criteria that result in a smooth
ride with gradual changes of direction and grade.

Headways. Frequency of trains and length of hours of service dictate track designs that are maintainable
with minimal track outages and interference with traffic.
Homogeneity of Fleet. Transit vehicles on a particular route usually have nearly identical characteristics
and are operated in a consistent manner that results in high numbers of uniform stress applications and
consistent wear patterns over time. Anticipated load applications and wear patterns should be examined at
an early stage of design and result in design and maintenance practices that address them.
Track Loading. Transit vehicle axle loads are significantly lower, relatively uniform and more numerous
compared to freight railroads. Transit track should be designed to withstand both maximum loads and
fatigue loading.
Urban Environment. Constrained rights of way and close proximity of residential and other sensitive urban
facilities require attention to noise and vibration issues. These and other environmental issues, which
concern the surrounding community, should be addressed with regard to access and procedures for
construction and maintenance.
Vehicle Constraints. Transit vehicles are typically designed to negotiate sharper horizontal and vertical curves
than other types of railroad vehicles, but the limitations must be identified (or mutually agreed upon between
vehicle and track engineers) and applied to alignment geometry criteria and clearance allowances. A healthy
dose of conservatism in the application of these criteria during early stages of design is highly recommended to
ensure finished construction meets operational and safety goals without variances from the criteria.
Electric Traction. Most transit systems use electric traction with either third rail or catenary for power
distribution and with the running rails providing the negative return. The effects of stray current and 1
electric power safety must be considered in design of track components.
Aesthetics and Cleanliness. Patrons are sensitive to interior and exterior appearance and cleanliness of
their transit systems. Patron support of transit is, in part, determined by these conditions. Track should be
designed to facilitate these concepts.
3.2.1 GENERAL (2006)

4
Developing a safe, operationally efficient, and cost-effective transit system includes the participation of
experienced trackwork engineers during all phases from planning through design to operations and maintenance.
A key product of the systems engineering approach are the criteria that result from the tradeoff of requirements
among the engineering disciplines and other interests as they coordinate and resolve planning and design issues
for each type of transit mode and operating scenario.
During the planning phase, operations, planning, engineering, real estate, and architecture (OPERA) as well as
environmental and safety personnel should work as a team to define feasible transit corridors, modes and
operating scenarios that balance the needs of all participants. Among the engineering disciplines, the trackwork
engineer should play a significant role. A preliminary trackwork design criteria, along with other disciplines and
interests, should be documented and used as the basis for cost analysis of each scenario. This` planning criteria
should become the basis for the final design criteria of the selected alternative.
During the design phase, the trackwork engineer should continue to work with the other disciplines and interests
to define trackwork criteria that are compatible with the criteria prepared by the other engineering disciplines and
interests.

Rail Transit
The following sections will present track related information that interacts with the requirements of other disciplines
and which should be used as the basis of discussion during the development of a transit project’s design criteria.
The principal means of securing track and right of way from intrusion that falls within the responsibility of the
track and roadway designer is fencing. Public and patron safety is achieved with respect to track and right of way
by keeping unauthorized people away from tracks and trains by means of barriers, principally fences. Right of way
fence types should be coordinated with security personnel to establish the need, type, height, and whether or not
barbed wire or concertina wire topping is needed. Fence requirements should also be coordinated with the project
architect, owner, and the public, to select styles that are aesthetically pleasing, particularly at stations and other
locations of high visibility. Gate locations and their control (locks) should be coordinated with all disciplines that
will use them for maintenance access including signals and traction power. Gate locations and keys to locks should
be coordinated with local fire and police agencies that will use the gates for emergency access. For shared use
corridors that are fenced, gate access must be coordinated with the railroad and procedures established for control
of access through a single “dispatcher.”
Right of way fences are commonly placed on the property lines. Clearance between tracks and fences or walls
should be sufficient to provide a safe refuge from passing trains. A continuous walkway of not less 30 inches width
(including allowance for middle ordinate and end overhang) should be provided adjacent to each track. Where
continuous clearance cannot be provided, individual safety refuges not more than 50 feet apart should be provided
for the length of the reduced clearance. Many states have enacted regulations specifying railroad clearances and in
some cases for rail transit. These are compiled in AREMA Chapter 28, Clearances, and should be consulted for
applicability to any fence or other safety/security barrier being designed for a transit system.
Pedestrian safety when crossing tracks is of paramount importance. Overpasses are preferred to underpasses for
patron security. If underpasses are used they must be well lit and be considered for CCTV monitoring. Grade
crossings should be ADA compliant, be well lit if night use is expected. Installation of gates, flashing lights and
ringing bell warning systems should be considered. Ample signage should be provided along rights of way whether
fenced or unfenced, at gates and at grade crossings to warn people of the perils they face near active, particularly
electrified, tracks.
Additional safety/security guidelines are provided in APTA publications: (1) 1981 Guidelines for Design of Rapid
Transit Facilities and (2) Transit Security Guidelines Manual.
3.2.2.1 Fencing for LRT Systems
Light rail systems include many areas that are not fenced such as street running segments and grade crossings.
Fencing to control or channelize access around hazardous areas is recommended. Fencing near stations and grade
crossings should channelize pedestrians to use over (or under) passes or crosswalks. Fencing near playgrounds and
other areas frequented by children, especially if their likely route to these areas would involve crossing the LRT
tracks should be fenced and a safe means of crossing provided at the most convenient feasible location. Yards and
multiple track locations where trains are standing on one or more tracks that could obscure pedestrian vision of
approaching trains should be fenced. Fencing between tracks may be suitable in lieu of fencing one or both sides of
a corridor to control pedestrians crossing the right of way.
3.2.2.2 Fencing for Heavy Rail Systems
Heavy rail transit systems should prohibit all access to their rights of way. Access to the right of way should be
controlled by locked gates. Unless grade separation is provided by elevated structure, tunnel or walls over 6 feet in
height, the right of way should be fenced. Chain link fence at least 6 feet high should be used as the basic security
fence with other types of fence that provide similar or greater protection from intrusion used where appropriate.
Consideration should be given to installing intrusion detection on all fencing.

Where highway vehicles operate near transit rights of way, appropriate barriers to prevent their intrusion into the
right of way should be provided. A New Jersey style barrier is recommended for areas where highway vehicles
operate parallel to transit tracks. The height of the barrier should be based on the type of traffic. Barriers 5 feet
high have been used on roads with high speed truck traffic. The barrier should not be less than 3 feet high. The
barrier should be topped with a 6 foot high chain link fence equipped with an intrusion detection system that
automatically and instantaneously notifies both train control and transit agency security forces of any intrusion.
3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER TRANSIT AND FREIGHT (2008)
Transit vehicles (heavy and light rail) with few exceptions are not designed to meet FRA vehicle design
parameters, particularly with respect to crashworthiness. This fact along with disparities of speeds and operating
schedules make mixed traffic operations difficult if not impossible to implement in a manner that is considered to
be safe and reliable in light of FRA regulations. Therefore, in the United States, joint use of the track by both
freight and transit requires separation of the two operations by time. Typically, joint use track is used by transit
services during the day and freight at night during the hours when transit operations are shut down. This is
known as temporal separation and FRA regulations apply.
If a track will be joint use, its design must be coordinated with all users. Freight operations often require
clearances greater than transit operations. Rail weight, tie size and spacing, ballast depth, turnout sizes and other
track design elements such as maximum superelevation and superelevation deficiency must satisfy the needs of all
users and comply with FRA Track Safety Standards. The limits of joint use should be identified and joint use
criteria applied only to the portion of the track system requiring it. Minimum radii for curves and maximum grades
may be limited by the freight operation. Because freight wheel loads generally are heavier than transit loads, the
freight wheel loads will generally govern track component criteria for joint use track.
1
Joint use track requires careful coordination of track gage, wheel gages, and types of wheels that will use the track
and special trackwork. Track designs suitable for narrow tread light rail vehicle wheels may not be compatible with
freight equipment having wide tread AAR wheels, especially where self guarded frogs or raised guard rails are
contemplated. Differences in wheel mounting gages, particularly back to back distance of the wheels, can have a
significant effect on the flangeways used in guard rails and frogs. The smaller wheel diameters and variations in
flange heights typically used on transit equipment will result in a smaller wheel flange footprint which has a
decided effect on switch designs and on the requisite flangeway for check rails/restraining rails if used. 3
3.2.4 SPEEDS (2008)
Track designs should be coordinated with operations, vehicle and signal designs to establish speed goals for the
alignment that are compatible with operating run time objectives, vehicle acceleration and deceleration capabilities,
and, where applicable, train control speed limitations. In an ideal world, with no site constraints, curves would be 4
designed for vehicle maximum speeds and signal speed increments or slightly above to maximize operating
efficiency. However, because transit alignments are often superimposed on existing civil infrastructure, it is often
the case that suboptimal curve radii must be used to avoid unaffordable demolition or site work. An operations and
vehicle performance coordination example is that, by taking vehicle acceleration/deceleration capabilities into
account, a sharp curve located near a station will have less impact on overall run time than if located midway
between stations. An example of coordination with the signals design is in the case of a signal design that sets
specific speed increments. A 40 mph curve will be operated at 30 mph if that is the next lowest speed increment
below the curve design speed and the next increment is higher than the curve speed. Ideally, vehicle operating
characteristics and train control parameters should be established in conjunction with the alignment and not before.
3.2.5 SUPERELEVATION DEFICIENCY (2008)
Superelevation deficiency (unbalanced superelevation) affects ride comfort and may affect rail wear. Vehicle
designers should be consulted on maximum allowable superelevation, superelevation transitions (spiral
length) and superelevation deficiency. Operations should be consulted to identify operating speeds for both normal
and abnormal conditions so that a superelevation deficiency can be selected that best fits the range of operating

Rail Transit
speeds anticipated. Higher superelevation deficiency may sometimes be used to lower actual superelevation at
grade crossings without reducing train speed thereby providing a smoother grade crossing, particularly for
multiple track grade crossings.
A detailed discussion of superelevation that is applicable to both heavy and light rail transit track design including
options for combining actual and unbalanced superelevation for various situations is given in Chapter 3 of TCRP
Publication No. 57, Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit.
Track designers should coordinate with operations and vehicle designers to reach agreement on alignment
elements including spiral length, superelevation, superelevation deficiency and special trackwork design and
components that will provide a comfortable ride, particularly for systems anticipating large numbers of standees
and for all systems at station approaches where passengers often stand to move toward exit doors before the train
has stopped at the platform.
Where pedestrians cross tracks, which is often the case at light rail system stations, the pedestrian grade crossing
design should be coordinated with architects to select a crossing type that provides a safe comfortable walkway and
with operations to locate it where it will not be blocked by standing trains or unsafe because of sudden train
movements. Pedestrian grade crossings must be designed to comply with current ADA regulations.
Transit track design must be selected in conjunction with the selected transit vehicle and the vehicle wheel design
to form a compatible system. For rapid transit systems using standard two-truck vehicles, the use of freight railway
standards may be entirely appropriate for such items as track gage, check gage, wheel gage and wheel profile.
Railway standards are essential for transit system track design when sharing track with freight railways. Where
tracks will not be used jointly with freight operations, use of other wheel profiles may be advantageous for
improved ride quality and reduced noise. The selection of vehicle parameters, especially wheel profile and wheel
gage, must be coordinated between vehicle designer and track engineer for corresponding track parameters,
especially rail profile, track gage, flangeway width and depth, and wheel tread overhang in paved track.
3.2.7.1 Standards
Different track and wheel standards may be appropriate for Light Rail Vehicles (LRVs) because of
Lighter axle loads.
Articulated vehicles.
Smaller wheel diameters.
Narrower wheel treads.
Different (generally shorter) vehicle wheelbases.
Sharper curves.
Use of girder rail.
Use of in-street track.

3.2.7.2 Gage
The short distance between trucks found on many articulated LRVs can make these vehicles susceptible to hunting.
The difference between track gage and wheel gage should therefore be carefully selected to control hunting.
Trade-offs are involved when selecting track and wheel standards. Widening the wheel gage to reduce the wheel
gage/track gage difference may provide a superior ride at higher speeds, but may result in increased wheel and rail wear.
3.2.7.3 Wheel Tread
Wheel tread profile must be compatible with the selected rail section, rail head profile and rail cant in order to
control hunting, reduce wear, and permit some degree of self-steering on large radius curves. For street track,
consideration should be given in both wheel and track design to avoid contact between the wheel and pavement.
3.2.7.4 Canted Rail
Canted rail is used in freight railway track to align more closely the rail web with the resultant of lateral and
vertical wheel loads. This is not strictly necessary for rail transit systems where wheel loads are as little as one-
third those of freight railways.
Vertical (uncanted) rail is common on European transit systems. Nevertheless, canted rail should still be considered
for transit track in order to permit the use of standard freight railway tie plates and hardware, where possible.
Changes in rail cant will alter the wheel/rail profile contact geometry. Wheel machining and/or rail grinding
policies can obtain restoration of the desired wheel/rail contact geometry. 1
3.2.7.5 Rail Profile
AREMA recommended rail sections, as contained in Chapter 4, Rail, are suitable for use in transit systems. The
rail head profile may be adjusted by grinding to optimize the rail/wheel interface for specific applications.
3.2.7.6 Flangeways 3
Narrowing of frog flangeways should be considered in certain circumstances. Transit vehicle wheels may have a
tread width narrower than freight railway wheels causing “wheel drop” at frogs and crossings because the flangeway
width is designed for wider freight railway wheels. A reduced frog flangeway width will improve the transit vehicle
ride through frogs and crossings. This may, however, preclude the use of outside track maintenance machinery.
Movable-point frogs may be the solution in some circumstances. 4
3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM (2008)
Track designers should coordinate with traction power designers on the track requirements for the use of the
running rail as the traction power negative return. Rail weight and chemical composition determine its capacity for
carrying return current. Special trackwork and insulated joints must provide continuous paths for return current
which require bond cables and impedance bonds to electrically bridge bolted joints and insulated joints respectively.
Third rail systems are usually part of track design and must be coordinated with traction power design as to
location of third rail gaps, methods of mounting and details of components including type of conductor rail, ramps,
insulators, anchors, and expansion joints.
Impedance bond design includes selecting sizes and mounting systems that are compatible with the track including
wayside mounting.

Rail Transit
The design of grease lubrication and friction modifier systems to control noise and rail wear should be coordinated
with vehicle, signals, and traction power designers to assess the potential for loss of traction or loss of conductivity
where grease lubricants are used. Research indicates that friction modifiers do not cause loss of traction or
conductivity. Lubrication and friction modification are very cost effective at reducing wear and noise; it is
recommended that their use be incorporated into designs where appropriate and that the coordination effort focus
on ensuring proper selection of lubricants and friction modifiers, application systems, and maintenance of these
systems rather than their exclusion from consideration.
On new systems that will not be electrified it is recommended that provision for future electrification be considered in
the initial design. Electrification has high initial capital cost but has a lower operating cost. Therefore it is probable
that for systems that are initially built as diesel operations electrification will be given consideration in the future.
Coordinate with AREMA Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS (2008)
Signals (and traction power) require electric isolation of one rail from another and from ground to obtain signal
circuit integrity and prevent stray current corrosion. Track design must be coordinated with signals and traction
power design to establish practical, feasible levels of isolation and means of verifying them as part of the track
design criteria and specifications. Signal and traction power designs should reflect these levels of isolation and take
into account that isolation levels tend to deteriorate with time due to lack of maintenance. Unreasonably high
levels of isolation should not be attempted in the track design.
Track designers must coordinate with signal designers on the type and location of insulated joints, especially
within special trackwork. Avoid, if possible, locating insulated joints where they weaken the special trackwork
track structure or require double rail type joints.
Special trackwork design must be coordinated with signal design to accommodate switch machines, switch heaters
and other signal hardware.
Sight distance for signals must be coordinated with alignment, clearances, catenary poles, walls and fences. Signal
locations and clearances from track must be coordinated with track design.
Embedded track design requires detailed coordination with signal and traction power designers to ensure all
embedded items including signal and power conduits, traffic loops, signal boxes, signal and traction power equipment
foundations, and other embedded items within the track area are accounted for before roadway surfaces are placed.
Transit systems are required to comply with federal, state and local environmental regulations regarding the
process of selecting and designing new alignments and when making major changes in existing operations.
Environmental issues that are required by law to be addressed include air quality, noise, vibration, wetland
impacts, community impacts and impacts on natural habitats. Where United States federal funds are being sought,
the FTA guidelines for environmental analysis are applicable to the environmental analysis and review process.
Noise and vibration are the principal environmental issues that have impact on track design and may be mitigated
by selection of appropriate technologies incorporated into the track and roadway design. Chapter 9, Noise and
Vibration, of TCRP Report No. 57, Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit provides FTA and APTA noise
and vibration level guidelines and lists many mitigation technologies applicable to track and roadway design of
both heavy and light rail transit.
Noise and vibration generated by vehicle wheels on rail must be assessed during planning and mitigated as part of
the track design where anticipated levels exceed local codes or federal guidelines. The use of ballast mats, sound
barriers, softer direct fixation fasteners, floating slabs, lubrication and other means of mitigating noise and ground

borne vibration must be addressed from the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) stage through final design.
The track criteria must be developed in conjunction with acoustical consultants to achieve cost effective solutions.
Track design should be coordinated with track maintenance planning regarding noise and vibration control
because with time, track systems develop rail corrugation and rail defects which generate noise and vibration.
Anticipation of these effects by means of a well planned preventive rail grinding program is recommended.
3.2.11 RELIABILITY (2008)
Reliability of track components and designs should be based upon their demonstrated performance under
conditions that are representative of the conditions they will face in service. This can be verified based on past
history and/or by performance testing. Track components and designs must be reliable under the full range of
conditions which they will experience during their service life. They must be suitable for specific although
infrequent high loadings such as may occur during maintenance as well as the loads from normal operating
conditions. Track components should be designed for easy inspection and with an anticipated failure/deterioration
rate that reflects the time lapse that occurs between inspections and discovery of deterioration and time required
to plan and execute replacement of deteriorated components. Track components must function under all weather
conditions they are expected to encounter with a reasonable measure of conservatism for extreme conditions. It is
recommended that track designers coordinate with operations and maintenance personnel, vehicle, signal, and
traction power designers to select the parameters and ranges that apply to these considerations.
An example of a weather-related consideration is that switches in northern climates should be furnished with
switch heaters, and the most reliable type should be employed, depending on the prevailing weather conditions. In
some cases, electric heaters are fine, and in others the forced-air blowers work the best. In addition, the decision as
to when to turn the heaters on is a reliability factor. 1
Another example of a weather related consideration is the design of continuous welded rail (CWR) track against
track buckling and rail pull-apart at the extremes of the expected temperature range. This consideration affects,
among other factors, selection of the zero thermal stress temperature for anchoring CWR, rail yield strength, joint
pull-apart strength, lateral and longitudinal restraint parameters for fasteners, and ballast shoulder widths.
Another example is that the operating schedule (timetable) must be coordinated with branch line turnouts and 3
crossover spacing so that trains can meet the schedule reliably under abnormal as well as normal operating
conditions. This means testing the schedule through simulations of single tracking during maintenance and
around train breakdowns. The schedule should also be verified in the field before publishing it for the public and
the employees. Bottlenecks and/or speed restrictions should be investigated to determine if they can be
economically mitigated to improve the operating reliability.
4
Track and roadway design are subject to few direct regulations. Indirectly, there are many federal, state, and local
jurisdiction laws and ordnances governing diverse topics including speeds, noise and vibration, grade crossings, ADA
requirements at station platforms, street traffic, traffic signals and signage, etc. that may affect track design. Where
joint use of tracks with freight operations or intercity passenger operations will occur, FRA regulations apply as well as
United States CFR Title 49, Part 213 Track Safety Standards (in Canada, the Rules Respecting Track Safety) and laws
in most states that establish minimum clearances for freight operations which may also govern transit operations.
3.2.13 FLANGE BEARING WHEELS (2008)
Some transit systems use a wheel profile having a flat flange to bear on the bottom of flangeways through frogs of
complex trackwork. This concept reduces impacts and noise, and may be considered in the design of a new transit
system. The use of flange bearing systems is generally associated with the use of narrower wheel treads.

Rail Transit
3.2.13.1 Steerable Axles
Vehicular trucks developed with steerable axles provide flexibility for the wheel sets to take up radial positions in
negotiating track curvature. This provides improved stability at high speeds and reduces both wheel/rail forces and
wheel/rail wear.
Track design should consider any special requirements of transit vehicles with steerable axles.
It should be noted that most self-steering trucks rely on top of rail friction to provide steering forces. Thus,
improper use or application of rail lubrication can limit the effectiveness of such designs.
3.2.13.2 Lubrication
Lubrication of the wheel/rail flange contact surface should be considered for the design of any transit system. Both
on-board and wayside lubrication are feasible depending on the geometric characteristics of the transit system.
For relatively short transit trains, on-board lubricators can provide a clean, compact, unobtrusive, all-weather
lubrication system.
Wayside lubricators allow lubrication to be controlled over relatively short distances and/or on a curve-specific basis,
but they require on-track access and adjustment. Placement of wayside lubricators should consider track gradient.
Care must be exercised in using lubricators where the rail is used as the negative return in an electrically operated
transit system, or where signal systems using track circuits are involved.
3.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
The types of service and equipment that will be operated govern clearance requirements for transit. For systems
that are connected to the North American railroad system, and which jointly operate with a common carrier freight
service, clearances will be governed by the operating railroad and the requirements of Chapter 28, Clearances.
Where transit operations are exclusive over the system, clearances must be derived from the dimension and
physical characteristics of the transit vehicle that will be operated. In many instances, this is not determined at the
initiation of a project. A useful approach has been to base conceptual design and initial engineering on a composite
design vehicle, incorporating critical dimensions and characteristics of currently available and recently purchased
transit vehicles of the general type contemplated for use on the system. When vehicle engineering has progressed
to the point that dimensions and other pertinent characteristics are defined, revisions to the clearance
requirements can be made, and designs reviewed and modified accordingly. Should the actual dimensions and
performance characteristics of the vehicle, as manufactured, differ significantly from the design vehicle, additional
revisions to the clearance requirements may be necessary.
3.3.1.1 Dynamic Outline
A rail transit vehicle will occupy a certain cross-sectional area and particular configuration, referenced to the
centerline of track and top of rail. While at rest, this is defined as the static outline, and is based on the dimensions
of the vehicle. As the vehicle moves, it will occupy a larger cross-sectional area of a different configuration, due to
the effects of vertical, lateral and rotational vehicle motion, truck suspension movement, truck and vehicle body
skew, rail-to-wheel clearance and permissible wheel and rail wear. This is defined as the dynamic outline.

Where transit vehicles are equipped with rear view mirrors that extend from the vehicle body, they may determine
the maximum lateral dimension of the dynamic outline. Mirrors may be made retractable to mitigate their effect
on the dynamic outline.
The rotational movement of the transit vehicle body is affected by the truck-to-body secondary suspension system,
typically provided in modern transit vehicles by air-filled rubber bags. The worst-case dynamic outline will occur
where both primary (truck) and secondary suspension systems on only one side of the vehicle have failed. A
thorough analysis must be made to determine for all feasible combinations of curvature and superelevation the
combination of normal and failed suspension modes that will result in the maximum dynamic outline. Where
transit vehicles are equipped with fixed rear view mirrors, these are normally considered sacrificial in the failed
suspension mode, and the clearance determination made on the vehicle body only.
3.3.1.2 Clearance Envelope
To the space required for the transit vehicle dynamic outline, allowances must be added for the fabrication,
construction and maintenance tolerances of the track, and for running clearance to adjacent structures, poles and
other facilities to allow for the effect of track degradation and for the accuracy of location and construction of other
adjacent fixed facilities. The allowances to be used in establishing the clearance envelope require judgment to
ensure they are adequate, but not excessive, to require unnecessary right-of-way and constraints on the design. In
some locations, the allowances are prescribed by Statute, Code or Order. The clearance envelope must be adjusted
to accommodate the increase in transit vehicle dynamic outline as a result of curvature and superelevation, as
described in the following section.
3.3.1.3 Curvature and Superelevation

1
On curved track, the transit vehicle dynamic outline will increase due to the effect of end overhang and mid-ordinate
offset. These characteristics are primarily determined by the truck centers and the distance of the truck center from
the end of the transit vehicle. If the track is superelevated, the effect of vehicle lean must also be accommodated.
Where subway or retaining walls are of chorded construction, the required clearance must be obtained at the closest
point on the chord. The analysis and determination of these values is greatly facilitated by use of CADD.
3.3.1.4 Emergency and Maintenance Walkways 3

For emergency access and evacuation purposes, a walkway is required on at least one side of the trackway at all
locations. The vehicle clearance envelope should not encroach into the emergency walkway zone. Sufficient vertical
clearance must be maintained from the walkway surface to the point on the vehicle clearance envelope, or to a
fixed obstruction (such as a signal), to avoid encroachment. Where the emergency walkway is located between
tracks, allowance must be made for a transit vehicle on the adjacent track, and for any between-track obstructions,
such as bridge piers, inter-track fences or catenary poles. In tunnels or retaining wall sections where the safety 4
walk is of chorded construction, particular attention should be paid to complying with walkway location and width
requirements. Where the transit system is either constructed in paved track or adjacent to a roadway, separated by
a low curb (and no fence), access to the roadway shoulder or clear zone is often used for emergency walkway
purposes. Requirements for emergency access and evacuation are prescribed in some locations by Statute, Code or
Order. Of particular note is National Fire Protection Association NFPA 130, “Fixed Guideway Transit Systems”.
3.3.1.5 Vertical Clearances
The types of service and equipment to be operated govern vertical clearances above transit lines. Where the
traction electrification system utilizes an overhead distribution system (i.e., catenary or trolley wire), the vertical
clearances are determined by the characteristics and requirements of the current collector (pantograph) mounted
on the roof of the transit vehicle, and by the space between the current collector (pantograph) and overhead
structures and facilities necessary for the overhead distribution system. These requirements vary with the
operating speed of the transit vehicle and the type and design of the overhead distribution system. These factors
must be considered in order to establish the minimum permissible dimension from the top of the highest rail to
overhead obstructions. Vertical clearance requirements may be prescribed by Code, Statute or Order. Additionally,

Rail Transit
consideration should be given to emergency jacking of cars to clear obstructions in relation to undercar and truck
components.
Where transit systems are connected to the North American Railroad system, and jointly operate with a common
carrier freight service, overhead clearances will be governed by the operating railroad and the requirements of
Chapter 28, Clearances. In such instances, overhead electric traction distribution systems must be installed at a
greater height above the top of rail than is normally necessary for systems exclusively operating transit vehicles. All
elements of the electrification system must be carefully evaluated to ensure proper operation under all conditions.
Where transit system structures cross over roadways and railroads, the clearance (measured from the crown of the
roadway pavement, or top of the highest rail to the transit structure) is normally prescribed by statutory
requirements or by the design standards of the jurisdiction or railroad whose facility is crossed.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT-OF-WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
The requirements for right-of-way for transit systems are driven by the realities of introducing a new guided
transportation mode into an urban or suburban setting. Right-of-way requirements are constrained by the physical
requirements imposed by the clearance properties of the rail vehicle, the geometry requirements for ride comfort
and safety, and the ability and economic realities of securing property from current uses.
3.4.1.1 General Right-of-Way Requirements
Transit systems are invariably constrained to obtaining the minimum right-of-way consistent with safety, rail
vehicle characteristics, train control and electrification systems and operating and maintenance requirements.
Transit systems right-of-way can be classified into the following basic categories.

3.4.1.2 Exclusive
Right-of-way is fully controlled, with complete grade separation of motor vehicle and pedestrian crossings,
protected by fence or other barrier where required (includes subways and aerial structures).
3.4.1.3 Semi-Exclusive
Right-of-way is partially controlled, with at-grade crossings for motor vehicle and pedestrian traffic. A reserved
right-of-way between crossings is established by fences, barricades, curbs or pavement striping.
3.4.1.4 Non-Exclusive
Right-of-way is shared with other users, such as other transit modes, emergency services, and highway vehicles
and in pedestrian malls.
3.4.1.5 Typical Cross-Sections
Conditions throughout a transit alignment vary more extensively than for freight railroads, and extensive site-
specific designs are often required to mitigate impacts and fit the transit system to the environment. In defining
the criteria for transit systems, it is useful to develop cross-sections to illustrate typical right-of-way
configurations, portraying conditions representative of those expected to be encountered. These are useful in
focusing the design intent, and can be developed and adapted to suit site specific requirements as they are
encountered. The cross-sections must be dimensionally consistent with the clearance requirements of the design
transit vehicle, and accommodate the clearance adjustments required for curvature and superelevation. The
quantity and conditions illustrated in typical cross-sections are defined by the project requirements, and require 1
judgment on the part of the designer. As work progresses, additional illustrative cross-sections and modifications to
those previously developed are normally required to accurately portray conditions and reflect design decisions.
3.4.2 AT GRADE CROSSINGS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3
3.4.3 DRAINAGE (2007)
3.4.3.1 Drainage
The drainage systems used in rail transit systems are generally the same as found in freight railway systems. Sub-
grades should be cross-sloped to achieve proper drainage. Ownership and maintenance responsibilities of drainage 4
systems serving adjacent railroads or highways should be identified during design phase and calculations made to
ensure adequate capacity that includes future requirements. Inlets and outlets should be located outside of the tie
bed area to avoid track construction and maintenance interference. Since access to the drainage system is often
restricted, design using self-cleaning grades is of added importance.
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY (2007)
Third Party Occupancy addresses the sharing of the right of way with roads and utilities, existing and proposed.
3.4.6.1 General Considerations
New transit systems typically deal with urban and suburban areas. The right of way may be a previous railroad
line and will likely share or cross public and private highways and streets, and have a variety of public and private
utilities under, on, and above the right of way. Established transit systems will be approached from time to time by
utility companies including railroads, and government agencies with jurisdiction over streets, highways, drainage,
water and sewer services, with requests to establish a third party occupancy on the transit right of way.
Transit systems must develop their legal, contractual, and engineering design and construction documents for all
third party occupancies. For new systems, this must be started during the preliminary design stage and be
continued through final design, construction, and operations with the cooperation of existing third party utilities,
federal, state, and local agencies/authorities.
For a transit line being established on a railroad right of way, it is recommended that the transit agency identify
existing third party occupancy agreements held by the railroad and resolve as part of the purchase agreement with
the railroad how the occupancies will be continued, relocated or removed from the newly acquired transit right of way.
Engineering design for new lines must account for utilities, grade crossings, waterways (both navigable and non
navigable), grade separated highways and railroads. The costs of accommodating these third party occupancies
may be a significant portion of the overall cost for a transit project and should be included in project cost estimates
from the beginning of planning.
Sharing railroad rights of way, tracks and crossing of railroads at grade is addressed elsewhere in Chapter 12.
3.4.6.2 Third Party Occupancy Manual Outline
As a means of managing third party occupancies during design of new systems and as a means of maintaining a
consistent policy and procedure for handling third party occupancies on established transit systems, it is
recommended that a transit agency develop a Third Party Occupancy Manual that covers the following:
a. Summary Guide and Procedures
• General guidelines, contract formats, contacts and protocols for new occupancy proposals, guidelines for
maintenance and repair methods on existing third party fixed plant.
• Scope, definitions, submittal requirements, plans and specifications by third parties, payments and
inspection, insurance, indemnification, legal documents for temporary and permanent easements.
• Site specific work plan format, schedule, information and detailed requirements for all third party
activities on transit property.
b. Maintenance and Protection of Transit Operations
• Assure understanding by both transit agency and third party of construction methodology, control of
potential impacts on transit operations and establishment of an on site safety program.
• Items may include slope protection, excavation, blasting, large equipment operation with clearance
envelopes, erection/demolition and transit flagman protective services.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 1, Section 1.3 Construction.

c. Insurance Specifications
• Defines insurance requirements and indemnification provisions to be included in Third Party Occupancy
agreements.
d. Pipeline Occupancy Specification
• Covers design submission, geotechnical preliminary engineering, test borings, parallel and perpendicular
plans, and cross sections. Railroad loading influence area, minimum depth to top of casing pipe from
bottom of tie, installing casing pipe with future capacity for the carrier pipe to pass thru.
• Cathodic protection of casing and carrier pipe.
• Soil investigation for mixed face, water table, cobbles and hidden obstructions, dewatering procedures and
drainage, and jacking/receiving pit requirements.
• Soil stabilization prior to boring/jacking if required.
• Continuous 24/7 jacking while under railroad influence line, continuous top of rail survey and pre
approved blasting specifications if rock face.
• Post grouting of casing with pre-drilled and plugged grout holes.
• Track resurfacing and site considerations when completed.

1
• Design for pressurized carrier pipe and special concerns for carrier product.
• Live load and design for steel pipe, concrete pipe, cast iron pipe, and corrugated metal pipe/ structural
plate liner tunnels.
• Vents from casing pipe and surface identification markings.

3
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 5 Pipelines.
e. Wire, Conduit and Cable Occupations
• Ground profiles, vertical clearance at highest temperature sag, voltages and horizontal clearance to poles,
inductive interference to train control signal and operating systems.
4
• Overhead clearance of 25 feet to 50 feet or more for voltages in the range of 700 to 700,000, respectively.
• Underground crossings and parallel occupancy will require different designs of protection for cables based
on location, distance to nearest track and ground profile on right of way.
• Protection for track maintenance, ballast undercutting, underground transit power lines or signal cable
replacement.
• Installation utility marking signs with depth and distance offset to utility.
f. Bridge Erection, Demolition and Hoisting Operations
• Overhead highway, railroad and building structures, either proposed or existing being repaired/rebuilt,
will require detailed plans and safety protection.

Rail Transit
• Plan showing crane size, clearance, access, pick, swing (and obstructions), radius and lift capacity that
meets 150% of lift will be reviewed and approved.
• Catalogue cuts, data sheets, hourly schedule will be part of the approval.
g. Temporary Sheeting and Shoring
• Footings, piers, dewatering, clearance and support calculations within railroad loading influence must be
considered.
• Coordination of transit operations with driving of sheeting or H piles under flagman protective services.
• Survey monitoring of nearest track to assure proper cross level and that nearest rail is not dipping with
the sheeting, driving the earth, ties and ballast downward.
• Piles within the transit agency’s horizontal clearance will be fully driven or cut off at no higher then top of
rail.
• Temporary parallel employee bridge with handrails may be required.
• Type of crane and guy wires may be needed to protect overhead transit power lines.
h. Blasting Specifications
• Establish a pre- and post-blast survey.
• Review submission of site plan, hole depth, amount of explosives, delay pattern, non-electric delay,
soil/rock profile, scaled distance and safety plan.
• Monitor blasting at nearest transit structure such as a signal house or utility.
• Designate the type and location of a seismograph.
• Limit peak particle velocity to 1 inch per second; depending on conditions this may be modified to 2 inches
per second.
• Limit scale distance to 60 feet per 1.5 pounds of delay charge.
• Coordinate with train operations.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 1, 1.2.2.6.5 Effect of Blasting.
i. Temporary Protection Shields for Demolition and Cosntruction
• Shields may be necessary on adjunct building structures and more so on overhead highway/railroad
bridges when under construction or repair.
• Horizontal shield design should have the capacity based on code of 100 pounds per square foot minimum
live load, and a minimum 2,000 pound concentrated load producing maximum stress.
• Vertical shield will be designed by code for wind load with a minimum of 30 pounds per square inch.
• Protection shields do not eliminate the need for flagman and inspection to protect transit agency property.
j. Right of Way Fencing Specifications

• Define and specify applicability of standard, high security, architectural styles of fence, employee access
and vehicle equipment gates.
• Identify State PUC requirements.
• Specify that fence located along highway median is to be located to provide safe pull over area for transit
agency maintenance vehicles at access points, particularly at interlockings and signal instrument houses.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 6, Fences.
k. Test Boring Specifications
• Access to property, work window, boring log detail, and hole backfill.
• Protect ballast from contamination during the water washing of the boring.
l. Fiber Optic Cable Specifications
• If this is a parallel occupancy, there is oftentimes opportunity for transit agency to share cables for SCADA
and train control, to share conduits and to incorporate locations for tie-ins and regeneration stations.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 5, Section 5.5, Specifications for Fiber Optic “Route” Construction on Railroad
Right of Way.
3.4.6.3 Specific Considerations for Occupancy by Type 1

Considerations for specific types of Third Party Occupancy have unique requirements and design impacts.
3.4.6.3.1 Utilities
In utility design the basic policies should be to:

3
a. Protect the transit system against possible damage caused by the presence of a utility.
b. Provide a means of inspection, maintenance, and repair of utilities, as may be required, without disruption
of transit system service.
c. Satisfy the reasonable needs and criteria of the affected utility owners.
4
d. Replacements/relocations of existing utilities should provide service essentially equal to that offered by the
existing installations. The utilities should be designed to the current standards of the utility company and
the transit property.
e. Utilities should be removed from the right-of-way whenever possible. Utilities extending longitudinally
along the track way within the transit right-of-way should be limited to those serving the transit property.
f. Utilities that parallel the transit right-of-way should generally be relocated to adjacent streets that parallel
the right-of-way. If the utility network has adequate capacity, it may be possible to tie into adjacent utilities
in lieu of physically relocating the utility.
g. Minimize the number of crossings and have all underground utilities in a carrier pipe that is inside of a
casing pipe, with sufficient depth below track. Crossings should be made at right angles, if possible.
h. If the transit agency wishes to sell/lease the use of right-of-way to utility communication companies, then
the positioning of these utilities should be such that their service and maintenance does not interfere with

Rail Transit
transit operations and transit maintenance if at all possible. Position utilities to avoid unnecessary
disruption or exposure to damage while doing transit maintenance on the fixed plant.
3.4.6.3.2 Street, Road and Highway Crossings
In the design of new systems on abandoned freight right of ways, there may be many at grade crossings and
overhead or undergrade crossings with limited clearance. The following should be considered:
a. Transit agencies should negotiate to eliminate all at grade crossings (especially if using 3rd rail electric
traction). Look for federal/state funding of bridge reconstruction prior to start of transit operations, as
considerable cost savings can be achieved. Transit agency right of way horizontal and vertical layout will
dictate bridge design or modification and should account for future growth such as potential double
tracking. New alignments will need to address immediate transit design and future clearance for expansion.
b. For both new construction and rebuilding of existing overhead and undergrade structures, transit agency
requirements will be needed as part of contract bid specifications. Track alignment may consider a future
undergrade bridge replacement in parallel to the existing structure and a future track swing onto new
alignment without speed reduction or creating negative maintenance impact.
3.4.6.4 APTA Rail Transit Standards
See APTA Standards, Volume 4, Operating Practices, Part 10 Standard for Contractor’s Responsibility for Right of
Way Safety. This standard identifies additional contractor’s responsibilities for knowing and enforcing the transit
systems requirements that govern the activities of third party occupancy contractors performing inspection,
design, investigation and construction on transit right of way.
SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY
3.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
The design of the roadbed, track structure and drainage system for use in a rail transit system is typically
influenced by considerations such as economics, topography, traffic type, operating speeds, rolling stock geometry
and several non-engineering issues. The overall design process for these components in a rail transit system will
typically follow the same process used during the preliminary planning phase, where the general horizontal and
vertical alignments and the basic features of the system are established and subsequently expanded to meet the
specific rail transit system requirements.
The general engineering and mechanical components of the roadbed, track structure and drainage system for use
in a rail transit system will additionally require special design considerations as a result of the need to
accommodate many specialized elements in a typically restrictive right-of-way, in paved vehicular areas, or in a
specially-designed corridor. Horizontal alignments in a rail transit system are often restricted by retaining walls or
barriers and they generally have requirements for grade separation in suburban environments. Vertical
alignments are often restricted by physical obstructions or man-made conditions in an urban environment.
As a result of these special design considerations, current technological advances should be used as part of the
design criteria to produce highly reliable, low maintenance and high capacity systems which will be subject to
lighter axle loads and the more frequent service demand generally found in these systems.
Refer to Figure 12-3-1 for an illustration of the dimensional considerations that must be addressed in third-rail
territory.

Figure 12-3-1. Third-rail Territory

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.5 GAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE (2006)
3.5.6.1 Roadbed
The roadbed in a rail transit system serves the same function as that in a freight railroad and is one of the key
structural elements. Its primary purposes are to provide bearing capacity and stability under repetitive track
loadings and to provide a medium for adequate drainage. The roadbed material selection and proper drainage
design are two of the most important elements contributing to the design, maintenance and stability of the track
structure. Refer to Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast for the recommended design criteria in regard to subgrade,
sub-ballast and ballast depth design and the associated use of geotextiles in the design of the roadbed.
When vehicular (highway) or other rail transportation systems are at the same grade, a separation barrier should
be provided to protect the rail transit system from other vehicular intrusions. These barriers should be designed
with duct banks or cable troughs as an integral part of the structure, thereby achieving separation as well as space
economies for future utilization by the operating property.
The design of the roadbed section should typically provide for the inclusion of designated walkways for employees
and for emergency evacuation. These walkways should be level, relatively unobstructed and outside the vehicle
clearance envelope. Areas that do not provide clearance for employees must be marked to show the inadequate
clearance condition. Refuge spaces must be provided at frequent intervals and secure vehicular access roads should
be provided where feasible for maintenance work to be performed. Care should be exercised in the design of
roadbed sections in curves to ensure adequate shoulder width and to include any necessary retaining walls to
support the required track superelevation and for retaining the high ballast shoulders on the outside of curves.
Overhead clearances should provide for adequate space for track surfacing in ballasted track areas and for
potential rolling stock modifications.
3.5.6.2 Track Structure
Most of the existing and proposed rail transit systems have developed their own specific design practices and
standard portfolio of plans for their particular track structure. For the most part reference has been made to the
recommended practices as provided in this Manual for Railway Engineering and the AREMA Portfolio of
Trackwork Plans. It is important to note that special design considerations are often required for rail transit
applications of AREMA special trackwork.
Refer to the appropriate AREMA Manual Chapters for the recommended design criteria in regard to cross ties, rail
section, tie plate size, fastenings and rail anchoring systems. Designers should keep in mind the specific

considerations applicable to rail transit systems and should select the individual track components and their
application to correspond with the need.
3.5.6.3 Ballast Section
The ballast section for rail transit systems are generally the same as found in conventional railway systems. The
crib area should be adequately filled with ballast, shoulders should be of an adequate width to maintain proper
alignment and proper slopes with associated drainage ditches should be provided. Ballast sections need to be wide
enough to fully support third-rail ties if required.
The greater ties spacing generally provided in a rail transit system makes design compensation necessary such as
widening the shoulders to obtain the same level of lateral resistance to track buckling. A safety factor of two is
recommended for Talbot’s formulae for ballast depth design used in rail transit systems tracks due to the higher
frequency of service and lighter axle loads.
Ballast and sub-ballast materials for rail transit systems should be of high quality and comply with material
specifications found in Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast. Typically, AREMA Size 4 stone ballast is used for mainline
ballast and AREMA Size 5 stone ballast is used in storage yards, terminals and shop areas to provide for the required
track support. On an electrified system, the electrical resistance of the ballast material should be considered.
3.5.6.4 Non-Ballasted Sections
Due to grade separation requirements, large portions of rail transit systems are located on elevated and
underground structures. In the early stages of design, each type of structure anticipated and each at-grade
condition should have their typical sections developed. These sections serve to standardize design and resolve 1
interfaces between the civil, structural, mechanical, electrical, signal and communication disciplines. These
sections also serve to define the right-of-way clearances and the necessary track support/fastenings and drainage
requirements for these structures.
Special design considerations affecting track constructed in a tunnel roadbed and on elevated structure are
discussed in the section on Rail Support.
3
3.5.6.5 Paved Track Design Practices
A commonly used track in pavement has been one designed as a conventional track structure utilizing a girder rail
section that is subsequently covered in some fashion up to the pavement level. This type of design has been
generally utilized since it provided a long life expectancy and does not suffer maintenance problems associated with
surface and alignment. If the track is rigidly encased in the pavement area, vibrations may be transmitted directly
to the surrounding structures and airborne noise increased. 4
Alternate track support systems such as continuous concrete slabs can be used in lieu of tie and ballast
construction. These systems can be designed to reduce the level of noise and vibration generated by the operation
of transit vehicles.
3.5.6.6 Rail/Guarding/Wear Prevention
There are several items to consider when selecting a rail section for use on transit systems. Since wheel loads of
transit vehicles are much lower than the loads of heavy freight vehicles, a lighter rail section can be used. Many of
the older rail transit systems use 90 and 100 pounds per yard rail sections that are adequate to support the
imposed loads. Because of a reduction in availability of these sections, most of the newer transit systems are using
115 and 119 pounds per yard rail sections that are more readily available.
Rail transit systems that include embedded track may require girder rail in order to form a flangeway in the
embedding material. If tee rail is used a flangeway can be formed in the embedding material if the material has
sufficient strength to withstand non-rail loads such as rubber tired vehicles. Tee rail can also be used with a bolted

Rail Transit
flangeway liner. However, this approach is better suited to short sections of embedded track because of the higher
cost of the installation.
Transit systems with sharp curves in track may require guarding of the inside rail to reduce the possibility of
derailments and decrease wear on the outside rail. Guarding of these curves in embedded track can be
accomplished through the use of girder guard rail or with restraining rail affixed to the inside running rail.
Restraining rail should also be used on sharp curves in ballasted and direct fixation track. A consideration that
must be evaluated in guarded construction is the increased noise resulting from such construction methods.
Premium (high strength) rail should be considered for areas subject to accelerated wear such as curves, station
stops and special trackwork.
For areas where a derailment could cause catastrophic results, emergency guard rails should be considered. Such
areas include bridges, tunnel entrances and track that are adjacent to major structures such as bridge columns and
abutments.
Many transit systems operate within environments that are sensitive to noise and vibration; therefore,
continuously welded rail (CWR) is highly recommended. CWR will also provide a continuous return current path
for electrified transit systems without the need for rail joint bond cables. Regular rail profile grinding is
recommended to keep noise and vibration to a minimum and reduce wear. CWR and properly grounded rail will
also provide a smoother ride, which is important for passengers on transit systems. There are also special rail
treatments available to reduce rail wear and noise from wheel/rail contact due to their increased resistance to
corrugation formation. These treatments are described in Chapter 4, Rail.
3.5.6.7 Track Loading and Related Issues
Transit operations typically consist of trains of up to ten self-propelled cars with headways ranging from less than
90 seconds to 30 minutes during daytime operations with nighttime operations ranging from hourly headways to a
complete shutdown of the system for periods up to six hours. This results in track loading that is usually lighter
than railroad (and commuter) loading but with the wheel loads applied more frequently. Thus, while the annual
gross tonnage for a freight railroad line and a transit line may be similar, the way this tonnage accumulates is not.
The wheel load range for a transit track is usually narrowly defined and precisely estimated since a limited range of
vehicles is used on most transit systems. These differences allow more precise design with narrower margins
considered for excessive loading of track components. It also suggests that fatigue analysis be applied along with
stress analysis to obtain safe, long service life, cost-effective components for transit service. Because transit systems
may contain many sharp curves, the effects of lateral loading on curves are an important element in the track design.
Other factors besides load must be considered in the design of track support and fastener components. Electrified
transit track components in typically wet tunnel paved track environments must be designed with atmospheric
corrosion resistance. Because of the urban environment in which transit operates, the dynamic performance
parameters to be included in track support systems design often times need to address noise/vibration mitigation
as well as provide the resilience needed for good ride quality and resistance to rail corrugation.
Transit systems, due to their urban environment, tend to have large percentages of their tracks constructed in
tunnels, on elevated structures, on retained cuts and on retained fills rather than on typical open roadbeds. Paved
tracks are used extensively in light rail systems. These circumstances lead to consideration of a wide variety of
track support systems in contrast to freight railroads, which usually consider only tie and ballast track. For the
transit track design engineer, a major effort should be expended on development of optimum track design concepts
before detail designs are begun.
Another factor affecting transit track support design is the high cost of maintenance brought about by restricted
access, clearances, and work hours, and in some cases by noise and light restrictions. Reduced maintenance
windows and the high impact on patrons and the public in general caused by rail traffic interruptions and, in the

case of street tracks, on motor vehicle traffic should influence the design engineer to select track concepts and
details which are robust and low in maintenance requirements.
It is recommended that the transit track designer take each of the above considerations into account. Transit track
should be designed using one of the several elastic design procedures available such as the one in Chapter 16,
Economics of Railway Engineering and Operations. Further, the track design should be conducted using a
systems engineering approach to ensure an optimum relationship between track, structures, vehicles, traction
power, and train control systems.
3.5.6.8 Rail Support
Rail support systems for track are divided into two main categories: tie-in-ballast systems and ballastless systems
consisting of open deck on elevated structure and slabs which can be applied to elevated, underground and at-grade
trackbeds. Both tie-in-ballast and ballastless systems may be adapted to paved track designs which are common to
light rail systems. Because of noise, vibration and maintenance considerations, new systems often use slabs (solid
decks) on elevated structures although many older systems will continue to operate with open deck structures. In
systems where more than one type of support is used, the stiffness of adjoining track types should be compared and
appropriate transitions used to provide gradual rather than sudden large changes in stiffness. Frequent changes of
track structure type should be avoided.
Tie-in-ballast systems are applicable to all types of structures (tunnel, aerial and at-grade) but are favored only for
at-grade applications where the subgrade is sound. For reasons of clearance, and longer service life with lower
maintenance costs, particularly with respect to drainage system maintenance, ballastless systems are favored for
new tunnel and elevated structure designs. In poor subgrade situations, slab track may be as economical as other
means of reinforcing the subgrade. The decision should be based on a comparison of construction and maintenance 1
costs of each alternative.
For tie-in-ballast track, ties may be of wood, concrete, composite plastic, or steel. The decision on which to use
should be based on design requirements, ease of maintenance and life cycle costs. The cost analysis should be
tailored to the specific project particularly with respect to quantities involved, current prices for major
components, and the interest/inflation factors applied to future costs. The cost analysis should include affected
related elements such as fasteners and ballast section if different between systems being compared. 3
Wood ties are traditionally the least first cost alternative (although not in all cases) and are the most adaptable for
third rail, special trackwork, and attachments such as signal components, grade crossing panels, restraining rail
and guard rail. Ties meeting the specifications of Chapter 30, Ties are frequently used for transit tracks. Due to
lighter loading, wider spacing of the ties is possible in transit track than in freight railroad track. Lighter loading
often means that service life of wood ties is entirely a function of weathering. Wood ties for transit use should be
treated to maximize their resistance to weathering. Spike killing and plate cutting seldom limit transit track 4
timber tie life except on sharp curves where lateral loads and frequent rail renewal can lead to spike killing.
Concrete ties may be of several designs including monoblock pretensioned concrete ties, monoblock post-tensioned
concrete ties, and two-block reinforced concrete ties.
When compared to wood ties, concrete ties offer longer service life, lower operating and maintenance costs, and
better ride quality owing to their increased weight and positive fastening system.
Unlike a wooden tie fastening system in which the rail is traditionally tie plated and attached to the tie by means of
cut spikes or lag screws, the rails are attached to the concrete tie with a mechanical rail fastening system, which
provides a positive connection between the tie and the rail.
As part of the fastening system, insulators must be used to prevent interference with track signal systems and to
isolate stray currents that may lead to deterioration of outside structures and utility pipelines.

Rail Transit
An elastic pad at each rail seat is necessary on concrete ties to prevent abrasive wear of the concrete due to rail
movements, attenuate high frequency vibrations and impact forces due to track and wheel anomalies, and provide
electrical insulation for track signal circuits.
For transit applications, where loads are more uniform and peak impact loads are lower and less frequent due to
more frequent wheel maintenance, concrete ties provide life cycle costs for new construction that are competitive
with wood ties. Maintenance of transit track is more difficult to schedule than freight railroad track owing to reduced
time of headways during hours of operation and short time windows during non-operational hours. Moreover, limited
access to the track in urban areas may limit the types of maintenance equipment that can be utilized. For these
reasons and with its longer maintenance cycle, concrete tie track should be considered. Concrete ties for transit
application can be lighter in weight than those for freight railroad use due to lower wheel loads. Tie spacing is usually
increased from the conventional 24 inches spacing used for freight railroad track to spacing of upwards of 30 inches.
Tie lengths for transit ties are similar to those for freight railroad ties except where supporting an electric contact
rail (third rail) dictates an increased length. Another method of supporting the contact rail is by means of bracket
extension plates that extend beyond the end of a standard length tie. Special design considerations must be made
to allow for inserts required to support contact rail bracket extension plates, guard rail, restraining rail, signal
appliances and other attachments.
In the design of the concrete mix, utmost consideration must be given to the materials used and the expected
environmental conditions to which the concrete shall be exposed. The use of low alkali cement and a petrographic
examination of the aggregate to preclude the incorporation of reactive material are strongly recommended. In
addition, concrete from trial mixes should be subjected to recommended freeze-thaw tests to evaluate its behavior
within a freeze-thaw environment. Also, the addition of silica fume to the concrete mix may be considered in an
effort to reduce the concrete permeability, which is believed to reduce or eliminate stray current leakage.
Steel ties have found little application in this country up to now. Steel ties must be considered with care on
electrified transit tracks because of the need for highly reliable electric isolation between the rails and from
ground. One advantage of steel ties is the shallower ballast section required compared to wood and concrete.
Ballastless slab construction has been used to support track in most new transit track tunnels, aerial structures
and paved tracks. This type of construction is often called direct fixation because the track is “directly fixed” by
means of a resilient rail fastener to the invert/deck slab. Direct fixation track construction details vary. The base
slab is an integral part of the tunnel invert or bridge deck in all designs. In two-pour construction, the invert/deck
slab has a second pour of concrete in which inserts for bolting the rail fastenings are cast. The second pour may be
reinforced and is attached to the invert with dowels or keyways. In one-pour construction a thin grout pad is placed
on the slab with the fastener anchor bolts passing through the pad into the slab. A third type of construction uses
either wood or concrete tie blocks. The track is assembled and placed in final alignment above the deck/invert slab
and is then grouted into place.
An exception is floating slab construction that is used where a high level of vibration isolation of the track from the
invert is needed. In floating slab designs, the tunnel invert is depressed a depth sufficient to permit construction of
an isolated slab which rests on elastomeric pads in the recess. Both cast-in-place and precast methods have been
used to construct floating slabs. The track is then built on the isolated slab using one of the methods described in
the previous Article. An alternative means of obtaining vibration isolation is to use highly resilient fasteners
between the invert slab and the rail. An acoustical analysis is performed to determine the site-specific degree of
vibration isolation needed. Attenuation levels of 15 to 25 dB are obtainable with floating slabs compared to
standard invert direct fixation track construction. The high resilience fasteners provide 4 to 8 dB attenuation and
therefore are applicable as an economical substitute for floating slabs only where the required attenuation is less.
The selection of track support construction type should be based on cost comparisons that include the structure
costs as well as the track. In underground situations, the type of track construction significantly affects clearances
with corresponding structure cost impacts. On elevated structures, the type of construction affects the weight with
corresponding cost impacts. For retrofit of existing tunnels, clearances and working conditions often limit the type
of construction that may be used.

3.5.6.9 Fastenings
A wide variety of fastening systems and components, most of them proprietary, have been used for holding rail to
ties and more recently for directly fixing the rail to slabs. Older systems tended towards rigid clamp connections for
fixing the rail with the newer designs incorporating resilient spring clips. The fastening system design must be an
integral part of the track design to ensure its compatibility with the other components and to achieve economy,
constructability and maintainability. Fastening systems should be designed to require the fewest number of parts
and minimize the use of threaded components. Fastening systems should be designed for the expected vertical,
lateral and longitudinal forces, electrical isolation, resilience, fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, and
deterioration due to atmospheric conditions. Ease of installation and replacement of rail and fastener components
should be addressed in the design and procurement specifications.
Because of the proprietary nature of fastener procurements, competitive procurement specifications are usually of
the performance type. These specifications should include adequate design review, qualification and manufacturing
testing as well as material and configuration requirements including quality control. Designers should familiarize
themselves with the performance histories of the various designs in service as well as product test data before
developing a procurement specification.
Fastening systems for timber ties use steel tie plates screwed or spiked to the ties with or without a cushioning pad
between the tie and plate. The rails are held to the plates by either the spikes or by resilient clips. If spikes are
used, rail anchors must be provided to control longitudinal forces in the rail from thermal activity and
braking/acceleration of trains.
Resilient clips provide longitudinal restraint by means of their toe load on the base of the rail.
1
Fastening systems for concrete ties require their integration with the tie design and include shaping of the rail seat
in the tie and casting of inserts in the tie for attaching the rail hold-down devices which may be either screw or
spring clip devices. A resilient pad between the base of the rail and the tie is needed for protection of the tie and
hold-down devices against impact and to provide electrical insulation. Additionally, insulators are required between
the rail and rail clips to provide electrical isolation.
Direct fixation fasteners require a metal top plate to which the rail is attached and an elastomeric pad between the 3
plate and slab for resilience. In many designs, a bottom plate beneath the resilient pad is provided. The resilient
pad in many designs is bonded to the metal plate(s), which allows the elastomeric to act in compression, tension
and shear. The rail is attached to the top plate by means of either bolted clamps or spring clips. The entire system
is attached to the invert with anchor bolts. Male or stud bolt systems may be either cast or grouted into the slab
with the fastener set over the bolts and a combination of nuts, washers, and sometimes insulating bushings used.
More recently, female threaded inserts cast or grouted into the invert slab with a combination of bolts and washers
inserted through the fastener have been extensively used to attach the fastener to the invert slab. 4
Direct fixation fastener systems may be adjusted vertically by placing shims under the fasteners as needed to
provide a smooth profile. Some systems also provide up to one inch of lateral adjustment to meet both construction
tolerances for line and gage and to permit future gage adjustment.
For new systems using ballastless construction with embedded wood or concrete tie blocks, the rail fastening system
is the same as for that material in ballasted construction except for resilient elastomer boots placed around the
bottom of concrete tie blocks before grouting them into place. In older systems with existing embedded block track,
resilient direct fixation fasteners have been used in retrofit projects to reduce vibration and improve ride quality.
On elevated structures with continuous welded rail track, direct fixation fasteners must be designed for the
interaction forces between the structure and the rail caused by temperature changes.

Rail Transit
3.5.7 HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY (2006)
3.5.7.1 General
Wherever possible, track geometry is designed for optimum vehicle operating speed considering availability of
right-of-way; patron safety and comfort; vehicle performance characteristics; station spacing; construction cost;
maintenance considerations; and vertical and horizontal alignment.
Stationing is denoted throughout the route length along the centerline of the control track. In many cases, all
tracks of multiple track systems include stationing.
3.5.7.2 Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of main line tracks consists of tangents joined to circular curves by spiral transition
curves. Spirals are also desirable in all heavily used tracks other than main line tracks, where practicable, between
tangent and curves and between the different degrees of curvature of a compound curve.
Curvature and superelevation are related to design speed and the characteristics of the design vehicle.
3.5.7.3 Tangents
A desirable minimum tangent can be determined from the following formula:
L = 3V
Where:
L = Minimum Tangent Length, feet.
V = Design velocity through tangent, mph
This minimum tangent distance allows patrons to recover from the effects of lateral force due to traversing a curve
prior to entering another curve (which is often in the opposite direction). In many cases this distance may be
difficult to achieve where right-of-way availability is limited. An absolute minimum length of tangent (usually not
less than the length of the longest car to traverse the tangent) is required in order to prevent damage to vehicle
couplers and articulation joints. The absolute minimum tangent length is determined based upon degree of
curvature and vehicle/rolling stock requirements.
3.5.7.4 Circular Curves
Circular curves in many heavy rail transit (HRT) systems (i.e. rapid transit) are often defined by the arc definition
and specified by their degree and/or radius as determined by the formulae found in Chapter 5, Track. Many
commuter rail systems (which often share track with freight traffic) define curvature by the chord definition as
outlined in Chapter 5, Track.
Curves on light rail transit (LRT) systems are usually defined by the arc definition and are specified by centerline
radius and central angle (degrees-minutes-seconds). The owner or operator of the system should confirm the
definition of curvature for existing properties.
Allowable speed through circular curves is dependent upon degree of curvature, superelevation, and length of
transition spirals. The maintenance condition of the track will also dictate the allowable speed through curves.
Design speeds are established such that given the parameters indicated above, the lateral (centrifugal) force will
not exceed a specified value.

3.5.7.5 Spiral Transition Curves
Spiral transition curves provide a smooth transition from tangent track to curved track and should be used on all
main line horizontal curves. Spiral transition curves can usually be omitted where the length for spiral (Ls) divided
by the radius (R) using either feet or meters is less than 0.01.
An acceptable spiral length can be determined from the equations given below in Article 3.5.7.6, Article 3.5.7.7 or
Article 3.5.7.8. Each equation represents one of the factors that govern the length of the spiral. The maximum
value calculated should be used as the minimum length of spiral. These formulae are valid only for standard gage
(4’-8 1/2”) track. Use of nonstandard gage track will require revised formulae.
Abbreviations used in these equations are as follows:
Ls = Spiral length, feet
Ea = Actual superelevation, inches
Eu = Unbalanced superelevation, inches
V = Velocity, mph
3.5.7.6 Rate of Change of Superelevation
For speeds up to 60 mph a maximum rate of superelevation application of 1 ¼ inches per second is typically
utilized, giving a formula: Ls = 1.17 EaV. 1
For speeds in the 60–80 mph range a maximum rate of superelevation application of 1-1/16 inches per second is
typically utilized, giving a formula: Ls = 1.26 EaV.
Another form of expressing the rate of superelevation change per second is as “Roll Rate” in radians per second or
degrees per second. The above equations will usually govern spiral length where the actual superelevation is large
or where there is little or no unbalanced superelevation. 3
3.5.7.7 Rate of Change of Lateral Acceleration
Based on typical values used for maximum lateral acceleration through the curve of between 0.10 and 0.12 g/sec
and a rate of application of lateral acceleration between 0.03 and 0.04 g/sec2, the spiral length will be within the
values given by the formulae Ls = 1.22EuV or Ls = 1.63 EuV. When a large number of standing passengers is
anticipated, the maximum values for lateral acceleration and rate of application may be reduced to provide 4
improved ride quality.
This spiral length equation usually governs for curves designed with maximum permissible unbalanced
superelevation.
3.5.7.8 Vehicle Torsion
The recommended maximum twist in the cross level of the track in the length of the maximum track centers of
equipment operated over the line is one inch. The track warp must not be more than 1 inch in 62 feet, giving the
equation Ls = 62Ea. Articulated light rail vehicles (LRVs) must consider wheelbase from the center to the end
trucks. A typical LRV may thus give the equation Ls = 30Ea. This spiral length usually governs for low speeds or
curves with high superelevation.
Note that the factor of 62 or 30 relates to a transit vehicle with a standard three-piece truck. Many transit vehicles
have an entirely different truck configuration. In any case, the manufacturer’s recommendations should be
followed as to the allowable torsion (track twist) that the vehicle can tolerate.

Rail Transit
3.5.7.9 Reverse Curves
Reverse curves should be avoided on main line track. If reverse curves are used, the minimum tangent length and
spiral length as described in Article 3.5.7.3 and Article 3.5.7.5 should be used. An absolute minimum tangent
length between reverse curves is governed by vehicle and/or rolling stock requirements.
If circumstances do not permit the minimum tangent length to be accommodated between reversing curves, the
spiral transitions may meet at the point of reverse curvature, provided vehicle torsion considerations do not govern
the spiral length. The track twist is doubled at back-to-back spirals and the spiral length should be doubled in these
circumstances.
3.5.7.10 Compound Circular Curves
Compound curves should be avoided on main line track. If compound curves are used, a spiral should be inserted
between the circular curves. The same considerations for minimum spiral length shall be met in these cases.
3.5.7.11 Superelevation
Superelevation is the height difference between the high (outside) and low (inside) rail on a curve, which allows
higher speeds. Superelevation should be constant throughout the entire length of the circular curve. The
superelevation should increase linearly throughout the length of the spiral curve.
The track superelevation may be determined from the formulas indicated in Chapter 5, Track or modified to suit
specific transit applications. When developing a maximum allowable unbalanced superelevation on a new transit
system, patron comfort and safety is a primary consideration. See Chapter 5, Track for definition and derivation of
unbalanced superelevation.
Superelevation is generally not used in yard track except in cases such as long “loop” tracks where superelevation
may be desirable in order to reduce wear on the high rail.
3.5.8 VERTICAL GEOMETRY (2006)
3.5.8.1 General
The vertical alignment consists of vertical tangents or grades connected by parabolic vertical curves having a
constant rate of change in grade.
The vertical alignment is generally set at the top of the low rail (profile rail).
3.5.8.2 Vertical Grades
Vertical grade constraints are generally determined by the acceleration, deceleration and wheel/rail adhesion
characteristics of the design vehicle. For efficiency and performance, all grades should be the lowest percent that is
practical.
The maximum grade for HRT generally ranges from 3.0 to 4.0%. A typical desirable maximum grade is 3.0%.
The maximum grade for LRT generally ranges from 4.0 to 7.0% or greater. A typical desirable maximum grade is 4.0%.
A number of factors govern vertical grades. The following is a partial listing of factors the designer should consider
when selecting maximum and minimum grades:
Acceleration characteristics of the vehicle. (Velocity profile calculations may be required).

Braking capabilities of the vehicle.
The presence of horizontal curves on grade (curve compensation calculations may be required).
Grade limitations through stations.
The possibility of increasing/decreasing grades to assist in vehicle acceleration or braking.
Limitations due to sustained grades.
Limitations to accommodate trackside drainage.
Grade constraints for maintenance yards (i.e. avoidance of runaway vehicles).
Limitations due to topography and existing features (as encountered in street running systems).
Limitations for multi-use corridors (i.e. a joint commuter rail and LRT corridor).
3.5.8.3 Vertical Tangents
A minimum vertical tangent length is often desirable for patron comfort and/or vehicular constraints. A desirable
minimum can be determined from the following formula:
L = 3V
1
Where:
L = Minimum Tangent Length, feet.
V = Design velocity through tangent, mph
Some properties require an absolute minimum vertical tangent length of 100 feet (30 m) while others (street 3
running systems) may allow a shorter vertical tangent length due to topographic constraints. When determining
minimum vertical tangent lengths, vehicle characteristics must be considered.
3.5.8.4 Vertical Curves
All changes in grade are connected by parabolic vertical curves for smooth riding and appearance. The length of a
vertical curve is determined by the grades to be connected, the design speed, and the design vehicle characteristics. 4
A typical minimum vertical curve length is 100 feet. A preferred minimum is 200 feet. Vertical curves for LRT may
be as low as 30 feet or less due to physical (topographic) constraints. Many LRT systems define minimum vertical
curve lengths based on formulas derived from highway design (AASHTO) equations.
Vehicle manufacturers typically state physical constraints for vehicles in terms of combined horizontal and vertical
curves as defined by circular curve radius. For this purpose, using the following formula can approximate an
equivalent minimum radius for a given vertical parabolic curve:
R = 100 L / (g1-g2)
Where:
R = the equivalent circular curve radius, feet
L = Length of vertical parabolic curve, feet

Rail Transit
g1 and g2 = the entering and exiting grades, percent
(g1-g2) = the algebraic difference in grade, percent
Vertical curve lengths may also be limited by overhead contact wires (in electrified transit systems) due to the
permissible rate of separation or convergence between the track and the contact wire. Applicable criteria for
overhead contact systems should be considered.
3.5.8.5 Reverse Vertical Curves
Reverse vertical curves should be avoided on main line track. If reverse vertical curves are used, the minimum
vertical tangent distance as described in Article 3.5.8.3 should be used.
3.5.8.6 Special Trackwork
Special trackwork (turnouts, crossovers and track crossings) are normally installed within horizontal and vertical
tangents. Exceptions are made in some cases because of restricted clearances or existing topographic conditions.
See Article 3.5.1 for additional information.
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.10 GROUNDING/STRAY CURRENT (2006)
3.5.10.1 General Description
Electrical current discharged into the ground by electric rail transit systems can cause corrosion problems for
nearby utility systems. In addition, such electrical discharges can result in rapid deterioration of structures, both
of the rail system and other nearby structures. Many electric rail systems and their neighbor utility companies
have come together as members of “electrolysis” or “corrosion control” committees, with the primary intention to
work together in a cooperative manner to identify “stray current” problem locations and to find solutions to
eliminate or mitigate detrimental effects.
Various measures have been implemented to achieve this mutual objective on older transit systems. In many
locations, rail transit systems have been eliminated, and with their elimination, so have the cooperative
committees that were knowledgeable of the techniques that have been employed. In other instances, the
interrelationship between the existing rail system and the surrounding utilities has achieved a stabilized condition,
inviting the opportunity for complacency and reduced attention that existed when problems were being searched
out initially. As a result, with the recent resurgence of reconstruction of existing rail transit systems and the
creation of new electrified rail transit systems, a renewed awareness of the implications of stray current is
essential in the design of new and reconstructed electric rail transit systems.
3.5.10.2 Source of Stray Current
Stray current results from the leakage of current from some electrical system so that part of the current path is
through the earth. Whenever another utility facility or other conductive structure lies within the current path, the
current can enter and leave the facility or structure. When the current leaves the facility or structure, loss of metal
(i.e. corrosion) is the end result. This can cause leaks to occur in pipe lines and loss in structural strength to occur
in bridge and tunnel structures due to the loss of rebar and structural steel.
A misconception can exist relative to current return systems on a rail system. It is often assumed that if the rail is
adequately bonded to provide a positive return path for the current, no problems will occur. This, unfortunately, is
not always true. Electrical current does not follow the “path” of least resistance. In actuality, if more than one

parallel path is available, the current will divide itself between them inversely as the resistance. The resulting
damage can be significant.
3.5.10.3 Design Conditions
Pre-existing Systems
Evaluation of existing stray current mitigation installations.
Implications of changes to existing system on such installations.
New Transit Construction
Identification of potentially affected utility structures.
Identification of new construction structures needing protection.
Analysis of System
Methods to identify existence of, or potential for, stray current.
Identification of types of stray current mitigation.
For structures.
1
For third party facilities.
Implementation Methods
Conditions that can affect the selection of certain methods.
Coordination efforts that should be in place among affected outside agencies. 3

3.5.11.1 General
Turnouts and special trackwork in rail transit applications require the engineer to assess and address conditions
not necessarily found in a freight rail environment. These include conditions in and around passenger platforms
4
and boarding areas, specialized appurtenances to protect and aid in the longevity of switch areas, and passenger
comfort requirements discussed elsewhere in Chapter 12.
It should be recognized that many transit agencies and authorities have their own geometric standards that differ
from those identified in the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans. While most make use of AREMA standards for
switchpoint details (Detail 5100, et al.), frog angle and number, the similarities often stop there. Whenever
possible, the authority’s switch and turnout standards should be followed when developing new or replacement
strategies so as to:
Minimize the variety of replacement components that must be maintained for the system as a whole.
Minimize the need for maintenance forces to be trained in the proper installation, adjustment and
maintenance of differing components.

Rail Transit
3.5.11.2 Location of Special Trackwork
Special trackwork in light rail transit is frequently incorporated into the paved cartways of city streets, often as
part of a “trolley” system. The location of special trackwork in such urban environments should, as much as
practicable, take into consideration the nature and location of typical vehicular traffic patterns. When diverting
from one street to another it is desirable to have the transit vehicle follow the path of roadway vehicles to avoid
crossing opposing vehicular traffic at locations other than at roadway intersections. Diverging transit routes
should, as much as practicable, mimic the lane assignments of the roadways.
In street track conditions, the location of turnouts should also be coordinated with the traction power
requirements to ensure that the overhead trolley wire can be properly supported and aligned to provide continuity
of power through the turnout route.
In rail transit applications the locations of special trackwork in interlockings very frequently coincide with
passenger stations and terminals. The location of switches in such circumstances should be coordinated with the
signals personnel and operations personnel to coordinate the special trackwork locations and configuration with
the requirements of terminal capacity and desired system flexibility.
3.5.11.3 Vertical Grades
Special trackwork should, as a rule, be installed only on vertical tangents or grades. There are exceptions that
could be made in cases of extreme clearance or topographic conditions. In those cases, it is highly desirable to
restrict the vertical curvature to very “flat” curves, commonly limited to parabolic curves with a rate of change of
0.01 or less. Vertical curves should be kept out of the switch portions and the frog area of turnouts to avoid the
need for specialty castings and fabrications.
If necessary to locate the special trackwork in an area of changing profile, vertical curves leading into the point of
switch should end a reasonable distance before the point of switch to ensure proper housing of switchpoints and
undercut stockrails. Similarly, vertical curves behind the frog should not begin until after the last long timber of
the turnout whenever possible.
Turnouts should be located on flat gradients as a rule to aid in reducing maintenance by keeping switch
components aligned longitudinally. Grades on transit properties often exceed those found on freight lines, and
special care should be taken to restrict the location of special trackwork to relatively flat portions of the alignment.
Transit properties often restrict the location of special trackwork to grades of not more than 1.5%.
It is often desirable, especially in heavy rail environments, to provide a “sawtooth” profile to allow gravity to assist
in slowing trains by entering uphill into a station and in accelerating trains by exiting downhill out of a station.
Care should be used in locating station crossovers and special trackwork in such a manner that the desire to
provide such a sawtooth profile does not compromise the grade restrictions associated with special trackwork.
3.5.11.4 Horizontal Geometry
It is good practice from a passenger comfort perspective to allow a section of horizontally tangent track between
adjacent special trackwork elements, especially between the points of switch of turnouts that are adjacent and
point to point. The minimum length of these tangent sections should be governed by the vehicle manufacturer’s
allowable torsion limits. Whenever possible, the tangent section between turnouts should be increased to at least a
length equal to the truck centers of one car to allow one car to “recover” before entering the next diverging route.
When considering the tangent length required, all special trackwork should be considered as a unit, with the most
severe combination of curved diverging routes (especially reverse curve conditions) used to determine the
minimum tangent length required.
Special trackwork should never be superelevated, even if the track from which it diverts is superelevated.

3.5.11.5 Clearances
Transit environments present an unusual set of clearance issues for special trackwork that must be addressed.
Turnouts are often located immediately adjacent to station platforms in order to facilitate system flexibility and
maneuverability into the station. Special attention should be paid to the end overhang and mid-ordinate shift
(sometimes called end excess and center excess) of transit vehicles as they travel through the diverging route of
such special trackwork to ensure that adequate clearance is provided to station platforms and utility walkways.
In a similar manner, the diverging routes in street track turnouts should be reviewed for clearance considerations
with respect to on-street parking, utility poles and surface transit loading areas.
Clearances for mid-ordinate and end overhang conditions should also be carefully reviewed for turnouts and
crossovers in underground tunnels to ensure that the structural supports are located in such a manner that they
are outside of the clearance zone required for the vehicle to negotiate through the diverging route.
Lateral and vertical clearance considerations applicable to any track should be applied to both the tangent route
and the diverging route of all special trackwork. One should keep in mind that in transit applications it is often the
rail vehicle appurtenances, such as rear-view mirrors and pantographs, and not the vehicle car body itself, which
govern minimum clearance requirements.
3.5.12 SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS (2006)
Special trackwork in street or embedded track often makes use of tongue and mate switches to eliminate the
number of moving parts required to direct vehicles through the diverging route of a turnout (see Plan No. 980-02 1
et al in the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.). These designs have only one moveable “tongue” which
replaces the traditional switchpoints. Typically, the tongue is placed on the inside, or diverging route side, of the
turnout.
In selecting the type of switches and materials for filling between the rails of embedded switches, consideration
must be given to the flangeway opening provided by the switch and how that will affect the safety of pedestrian
traffic in the area. 3
Housetops are used on a number of transit properties as a means of additional protection for switchpoint of a
traditional split switch. The housetop is typically a stationary manganese casting that is mounted on the gage side
of the straight switchpoint on the diverging route of the turnout. It is essentially that a shelf serves to protect the
switchpoint when it is aligned for the diverging route. When the switchpoint is in the open position, it slides under
the housetop, which protects it from contacting the backside of a wheel that may be “hunting” as it travels along
the curved stockrail. When the switch is aligned for the tangent route the switchpoint is simply housed under the 4
stockrail and the housetop is set to allow for passage of the wheel flange.
The selection of the type of turnout can have a large affect on the quality of the ride experienced by the passengers.
As with any turnout, the use of a “standard” switch, straight or curved, includes a “kink angle” of 1° or more that
provides an abrupt change in direction for a wheel traversing the diverging route. If a large proportion of the
transit traffic is expected to use the diverging route through the turnout, or if a high speed diverging move is
required, a tangential geometry switch should be considered.
In a tangential geometry turnout, the rail vehicle traverses a continuous curve that is tangent to the track at the
point of divergence, creating both a smoother ride and a more gradual curve to negotiate. The downside of a
tangential geometry turnout is that, in order to provide the gradual turnout curve, the lead distance is often
considerably longer than that for the corresponding standard turnout. As such, spatial restrictions may be as big a
consideration as passenger comfort in certain circumstances.

Rail Transit

12
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-4

4.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-4
4.2.2 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6 1
4.2.3 Functional Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.6 Structural Systems (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.7 Mechanical Systems (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.8 Finish Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6 3
4.2.9 Landscaping (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.10 Amenities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.11 Passenger Information/Signage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7

4.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.3.3 Circulation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.4 Parking (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.5 Baggage (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.6 Amenities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.7 Passenger Information/Signage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10

4.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.4.2 Maintenance Philosophy (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-17
4.4.5 Environmental Requirements (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-28
4.4.6 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29
4.4.7 Engine Shops (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29
1
References, Vol 91, 1990, p. 94; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 131.

Rail Transit
4.4.8 Car Shops (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29

4.4.9 Maintenance-of-Way Shops (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-33
4.4.10 Layover Yards (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-33
4.4.11 Material Yards (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-33
4.4.13 Utility Considerations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34

4.5.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.2 Joint Railroad/Transit Operation (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.3 Transit System Loads (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.4 Structure Serviceability Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-38
4.5.5 Hydraulic and Hydrologic Concerns (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-39
4.5.6 Marine Protection (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-40
4.5.7 Operational Concerns (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-40
4.5.8 Stray Current Effects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-41
4.5.9 Retaining Walls (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-42
4.5.10 Utilities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-42
4.5.11 Construction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-42
4.5.12 Alignments and Clearances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-43
4.5.13 Curved Girder Bridges (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-85
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-88
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-88

4.7.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-88
4.7.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-89
4.7.3 Functional Analysis (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-92
4.7.4 Construction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-95
4.7.5 Maintenance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96
4.8 Segmental Girder Guideways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96

4.8.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96
4.8.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96
4.9 Direct Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-97

4.9.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-97
4.9.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-97
LIST OF FIGURES
12-4-1 Planning Flow Chart - Transit Shop Facility Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-18

12-4-2 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-45

12-4-6 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-51

12-4-7 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-52
12-4-8 Live Loads Questionniare, Attachment 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-53
LIST OF TABLES
12-4-1 Rail Intermodal Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7

12-4-2 Minimum and Preferred Yard Track Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-26
12-4-3 Responses to Design Loading Questionnaire Provided by the Following Agencies . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-35
12-4-4 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - I. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-65
12-4-5 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - II. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-68
12-4-6 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - III. Centrifugal Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-70
12-4-7 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - IV. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-71
12-4-8 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - V. Nosing (Lateral Loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-75 1
12-4-9 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VI. Longitudinal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-76
12-4-10 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VII. Station Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-79
12-4-11 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VIII. Other Miscellaneous Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-80

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
4.2.1.1 Check List
Station Location:
Community Considerations. Operational Visibility.

Ease of Access - Highway, Pedestrian, etc. Track Geometry Consideration.
Provision for Expansion. Joint Development.
Intermodal:
Transfers. Traffic Circulation.

Private Vehicle Parking.
High vs. Low Platforms:
Traffic Volume. Sizing.

Clearance Considerations.
Passenger Flow:
Walkways. Elderly and Handicapped Considerations.

Stairs. Access.
Elevators. Location.
Escalators. Specialized Facilities.
Moving Walkways.
Fare Collection:
Free-Paid Areas. Fare Vending Machines.

Attendant Facilities. System Related Items.
Climate Considerations:
Heating/Cooling. Shelters.

Lighting:
Interior. Pickup and/or Parking Areas.

Platform.
Utilities:
Consumption. Panels and Cabinets.

Facilities.
Passenger Facilities:
Rest Rooms. Drinking fountains.

Seating. Vending Machines/Concessions.
Public Phones. Trash Containers.
Internet/WiFi capabilities.
Security:
Fences, Gates, Barriers, Railings. Police Facilities.

Closed Circuit TV Surveillance.
1
Fire Protection:
Fire Codes. Automatic suppression equipment.

Types of Equipment.
Communications: 3
Public Address. Passenger Aid Systems.

Automated/Controlled Information Signs.
Vandalism and Graffiti Protection:

4
Security. Materials.
Building Layout.
Signs:
Type. Standards. Directional Signs.

Informational Signs. Instructional Signs.
Advertising:
Policy. Size and Type.

Location. Joint Usage.

Rail Transit
Landscaping:
Amount and Type. Transit or Community Responsibility.
Emergency Considerations:
Access for Emergency Vehicles. Instruction for Emergency Personnel.

Access for Emergency Personnel. Evaluation.
Special Considerations for Subway and
Elevated Stations.
Safety Evaluation:
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.3 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.6 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.7 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.8 FINISH MATERIALS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.10 AMENITIES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

4.2.11 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
Passenger rail facilities are a significant component of local and national transportation systems. The careful
integration of these various systems can not only improve transportation options for the public at large, but can
also increase passenger loadings on systems that offer these options. Often a synergism develops when sufficient
connections are possible such that prospective passengers will automatically choose an integrated network
knowing connections will be coordinated, convenient and comfortable. This section offers suggestions to
accomplish these goals in a cost-efficient manner. See Table 12-4-1 for a partial list of rail intermodal examples.
Table 12-4-1. Rail Intermodal Examples
People Heavy Rail

Between Light Rail Suburban Intercity
Mover (Rapid Transit)
Intercity Newark/Penn Station
Pittsburgh/Penn Sq.
Boston/South Sta.
Montreal/Central Sta.
BAL, BOS, CHI, LAX
MlA, MTR, NHV, 1
San Diego/Santa Fe Sta. Newark/Penn Sta. NWK, NYC, PHL,
New York/Penn Sta. SJC, TOR, WAS
San Francisco/Richmond (Note 1)
Toronto/Union Sta.
Washington/Union Sta.
Suburban Baltimore/Camden Sta. Boston/South Sta. Dallas/Union Sta.
Baltimore/Penn Sta.
Newark/Penn Sta.
Miami/Tri-Rail
Montreal/Central and
3
Philadelphia/11th St. Windsor
Philadelphia/15th St. Newark/Penn Sta.
Toronto/Union Sta. New York/Penn and GCT
Philadelphia/15th and 6th
Philadelphia/Fern Rock
Washington/Union Sta.
Rapid Transit/ Miami/ Baltimore/Lexington Boston/North Sta. 4
Heavy Rail Government Ctr. Boston/Park and Govt. Philadelphia/30th St.
Cleveland/Term. and Tower
Cleveland/E34 and 55
Los Angeles/7th and Flowers
Philadelphia/69th St.
Light Rail Boston/North Sta. Boston/North Sta. Chicago/Union Sta.
Chicago/Union Sta. Chicago/C&NW Sta.
Chicago/C&NW Sta. St. Louis/lntermodal
People Mover Jacksonville/St. Johns Chicago/O’Hare
Note 1: Intercity/suburban intermodal stations usually exist at numerous points on shared tracks. Systems are indicated for the major
city only.

Rail Transit
Rail Modals
There are three methods available to connect rail modal services together. The easiest from a facility standpoint is
a shared track arrangement. Although many operational issues must be overcome, shared track allows all
passengers to use the same facilities with little additional directional signage needed. Differences in gauge, car
clearances, power supply, signaling, and brake systems, together with constraints such as dispatching, wheel tread
size, minimum curve radii, vehicle and buffer strength make the sharing of track among various rail modals
difficult. Light rail has been combined with Freight rail in a few cities such as Baltimore and San Diego. Automated
people mover systems generally utilize special tracks that cannot be integrated with conventional rail service.
The second method of integration is shared platform. This allows each rail modal to operate its own track/signal
network and still allow “across the platform” changes to connecting services. Issues associated with this approach
include fare control area, security, and geometric limitations on the right-of-way of each rail line.
The third and most common method of integration is shared station. In this arrangement each modal operates its
own boarding area in separately defined areas of the building. Fare control is separated for each mode. Security
concerns are lessened as each mode can operate independently of the other. The disadvantages to the customer are
the longer walk between facilities and additional directional signage.
Intercity service is characterized by infrequent departures requiring large waiting areas. In addition, ticketing,
baggage handling, manned information centers, concessions, and other passenger facilities are often provided. Fare
collection is usually on-board.
Commuter/suburban service requires smaller waiting areas, as train frequency is usually higher than in intercity
service. Also, due to regular patronage, manning requirements are less. Ticketing and concessions are sometimes
provided. Fare collection is usually onboard.
Rapid Transit (Heavy Rail) systems are characterized by high service frequency and fare collection at the station.
High-level platforms are usually provided, allowing large volumes to be loaded/unloaded in shorter times.
Light rail systems are characterized by lower boarding volumes and sometimes lower frequencies. Station facilities
are usually minimal. Fare collection can be at station, onboard, or honor via platform machines.
Automated guideway transit systems are closer to elevator service in that they usually operate in a demand mode
with rather short waiting times. Because of this, passenger requirements are few. On the other hand, when
coordinated boarding doors are used, the platforms are often enclosed, with station doors lining up with vehicle
doors. This necessitates heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems and other “indoor” services.
4.3.1.1 Other Local System Interfaces
There are three methods available to connect rail mode services with other local systems. The most convenient
involves a hybrid of the shared rail platform design usually called a free fare zone. This area allows passengers to
make an across-the-platform connection from a rail vehicle to a bus or other road vehicle without crossing through
fare gates or other barriers. These facilities work best when fare systems are consolidated between modes, only
onboard collection is utilized, or barrier free (honor fare) systems are used.
The most common method is shared station facility with separate areas for rail and other modes. As with shared
rail facilities, signage, long walks and inconvenience are difficulties to be minimized.
The final method, which is rarely used except in light rail modes, involves shared right-of-way. In this system, rail
and road vehicles share the same lane and therefore the same passenger facilities are used for both. Signaling
problems, braking distances, and electrification limit the viability of this approach.

Transit bus services are the most common systems linked to a rail station. Consideration should be given to the
vehicle turning requirements, berth size, vertical transportation needs, signage, and canopies connecting to the
rail station.
Airport bus and tram shuttle needs are similar to transit bus needs except airport services require consideration
for luggage handling between the station and the bus zone (carts, red caps, etc.). Multi-car trains need wide
circulation paths and clear sight lines when boarding.
Taxicabs should be channeled into one or more queues. In busy stations, cab “starters” may be employed to speed
operations or to divide riders into groups. Train information systems and telephone capability should be considered
for the “starter” if used.
Marine ferry service is utilized at some rail station either as a primary or alternate connection. Considerations
include marine environment problems with rail equipment (water, salt, impact); dock height changes due to tides;
and vehicle capacity matching. Examples of some facilities in the United States include Hoboken, New Jersey and
San Francisco, California.
Consideration for bicycle storage and access ways should be given for multimodal facilities near residential sites.
Outdoor racks and fully enclosed lockers are often used. Good examples can be seen on the BART system in the
San Francisco area.
Pedestrians are often left out of the planning for transit facilities. Although the market may be small, so usually is
the investment. Sidewalks should have light grades and be separated as much as possible from automobile traffic.
Stairs and other impediments should be avoided. Curb cuts are needed for wheel chairs.
1
4.3.1.2 Other National System Interfaces
The spirit of competition has often limited the ability of communities to merge different transportation companies’
operations. Although each company serves different markets, the combined facility usually adds enough
connecting traffic to justify the added costs of a joint operation. In some cases it may be mandated by franchise
agreements. In any case, communication between all parties during the design phase will greatly lessen the
potential for problems after operations commence. 3
Rail system connections to airports are a relatively new phenomenon. Starting with Cleveland, direct rail-air
facilities are now in place in Washington (Reagan), Atlanta, Chicago, Baltimore, Portland, OR, San Francisco, St.
Louis and Philadelphia. Boston, Oakland, LAX, Newark, Minneapolis, New York (JFK), and Baltimore also have rail
facilities connected to the airport via a short shuttle bus ride or people mover connection. There are other systems
planned or being constructed, including Washington (Dulles), Columbus, Phoenix, Seattle (Sea Tac), and others.
The Philadelphia airport station has the distinction of being the only mainline railroad connection to an airport in 4
North America. However, both EWR and JFK are now connected to mainline railroads with people movers. All the
others are serviced by rapid transit (heavy rail), or LRT (light rail), or via bus and/or people mover links. These
facilities are very difficult to design and costly to build and must be closely integrated with the airport facilities.
Intercity bus service has been merged with local rail separations in many communities. Intercity buses require
much the same facilities as intercity railroad stations. Intercity busses do not usually use transit bus loading areas
due to luggage handling needs. Separate areas are usually required.
Although not available in North America, direct rail-ship services are common in Europe and allow rail service to
be extended across large bodies of water without difficult transfers.
4.3.1.3 Automobile Interfaces
Although not often thought of as an “intermodal” service, transfers to automobiles are an important consideration
in any rail facility. Within the building, car rental offices may be desired. Outside, parking areas and circulation
routes should be configured to allow easy access to both arriving and departing patrons. Generous signage speeds

Rail Transit
flow for both pedestrians and drivers. Consideration should also be given to adding identification signage to/from
nearby arterials.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.3 CIRCULATION (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.4 PARKING (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.5 BAGGAGE (2006)
Considerations for baggage handling should be explored for systems providing links to airports.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.6 AMENITIES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.7 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
This section should assist the design professional in the identification of design considerations for new or
rehabilitated rail transit maintenance and service facilities and the related yard tracks. While the section is
oriented toward rail transit, consisting of light rail (LRT) and heavy rail (subway), it may be helpful in design of
comparable commuter rail and bus facilities.
Design of these facilities requires considerable input from a variety of design disciplines, primarily industrial and
railway engineers, who lay out the space requirements for the movement of vehicles and the service operations.
The balance of the disciplines, such as the structural, civil, geotechnical, mechanical, and electrical engineers, and
the architects, then fit the structure and utilities into the design.
Include in all planning and design the non-revenue vehicles that will be used on the system. These may consist of
cranes, snow blowers, tampers, liners, ballast cars, ballast regulators, in-track welders, work trains, stingers for
car traction in the shops, and other work vehicles.
In many ways, transit yards and shops are similar to those used on freight railroads; however, there are some
significant differences for transit systems that must be considered. Transit yards differ from freight yards in that

trains are not assembled or sorted there. Most transit yards support shop facilities, or are used for storage of
trains between runs.
It is the purpose of this section to identify these differences so that the transit owner or engineer can address these
concerns effectively, producing a more practical and efficient design. To accomplish this, the designer must begin with
a well-defined objective and goal for the functions to be provided by the proposed yard and/or shops. Once these issues
have been resolved, the engineer can then proceed with the design based on the framework and criteria established.
The following items are the services and features generally found in a transit yard facility. Article 4.4.2 discusses
the arrangement of those services based on the desired operations of the yard.
4.4.1.1 Location
Zoning and Neighborhood
Ideally, zoning for rail transit shop and yard facilities should be light industrial. The activities emit few pollutants
and, with attention to industrial esthetics, can fit into modern industrial park settings.
Isolation from residential neighborhoods is desirable. There will be a low noise level from operating electrical
equipment and from track and coupling movements that can be objectionable if adjacent to housing. Also, there is
the question of placing the facilities out of the way of vandalism, particularly that of the graffiti painters. Yard
lighting and use of the local roads by personnel, delivery and work truck can cause friction with the neighbors.
Employee access via transit should be encouraged.
Accessibility to Railway Operations 1

Two location factors should be considered for railway accessibility. First, the ease of introducing or removing cars
from service should be considered. Some central location with easy access to the entire rail transit network is
desirable. The second factor is reduction of deadhead or empty car movements. These two factors may be in conflict
with each other.
To minimize empty car movements, it is generally desirable to place car layover facilities at the ends of lines, near 3
the early morning startup locations. In this manner, cars entering service are immediately gathering revenues and,
similarly, they are completing revenue trips as they are removed from service in the evening. However, this
arrangement disperses the equipment resulting in inefficient maintenance practices; the arrangement makes
personnel management more difficult, and may expose the cars to vandalism.
The better practice is thought to be a more central location where organized and complete maintenance can be
accomplished. Also the security of the equipment can be better ensured and daily contact with operating personnel 4
is possible.
The central location may have to be compromised by zoning and real estate values forcing the location to an
outlying area. But as central a location as possible should be sought.
Land Area, Shape and Terrain
The land area required must accommodate car storage tracks, inbound service and inspection tracks and shop
building(s). Future system requirements and build-out should also be taken into consideration. Track layouts, building
footprints and auxiliary employee parking or material storage areas will determine the minimum land area required.
The more desirable shape of a parcel is rectangular or trapezoidal with sufficient width to allow a turning loop on
the property. The storage tracks and shop and service facilities can be placed parallel to each other minimizing the
time required for maneuvering cars within the facility.

Rail Transit
If available land width is difficult to obtain, a long strip of land with storage and shop/service facilities in series can
be used but the result will be a less efficient operation. If possible, a car turning loop (or mechanical vehicle
turntable) should be included in the design.
It is important that the land be level or capable of being graded to level. It is recommended that the shop and yard
facility elevation should be slightly lower than adjacent mainline trackage. The level grade and lower elevation are
preventative measures to protect against uncontrolled movements and accidents in the yard and shop area.
4.4.1.2 Yard and Shops Layout
The yard and shop layout is the foundation on which an efficient and cost-effective facility is based. The initial
stages for determining the facility layout should be to identify the purpose and what functions need to be
performed at the site. Since many new yards are constructed in urban areas, many external considerations must
also be addressed. As with any foundation, care needs to be taken to address all of these items, so that the design
will be the comprehensive product of trade-offs rather than a series of “add-ons” to a basic plan.
As indicated above, the first step in the design of the yard layout is to obtain a thorough understanding of the tasks
that are to be performed at the location. Following is a list of questions that should be asked:
How often are the individual tasks performed?
In what sequence are tasks performed?
How long does each task take?
How will equipment be moved between workstations?
Does the equipment have to be moved at all?
What crafts are involved in the work?
What union rules apply to these tasks including the moving of equipment from task to task?
These questions are only a few that must be asked and addressed during this stage. The point being stressed here
is to ask enough questions of all involved to determine all the parameters that must be incorporated into the
design. How well this task is done will not only have an impact on the design itself, but will eliminate costly
changes to correct overlooked items during construction. This will also provide a more efficient facility that will
meet the transit systems needs from the first day of operation.
Listed below is a more specific breakdown of various tasks and facilities that will aid the owner and engineer in
completing this initial stage of design.
Mechanical Functions
Yard configuration, property restraints, operating efficiency, elimination of bottlenecks, alternative or

“escape” routes.
Type of equipment serviced – diesel electric motive units, electric motive units – catenary, third-rail or other,
vehicles only, combinations of the above.
Equipment Maintenance. Will work consist of heavy repairs, light repairs, running repairs, or a combination?
Fueling or sanding requirements.
Wheel Truing. Wheels on axles only or attached to equipment?

Wheel and/or truck changing requirements. Are jacks with jacking pads, drop table pits, or a combination of
both required?
Painting. Complete vehicle or parts only?
Load testing of propulsion units.
Test track for self-propelled rail vehicles.
Overnight layovers only? Emergency maintenance only?
Support Shops. Upholstery, plumbing, pipefitting, electrical shop, carpentry shop, paint shop, air brake
shop, yard equipment, radio shop, and associated material storage needs.
What size overhead cranes are required?
Other materials handling: fork lifts, high-reach lifts, mobile cranes, end loader, etc.
Location and height of service platforms, inspection pits.
What utilities are required? Compressed air, electrical, welding, water, fuel, lube oil, etc.?
Cleaning
Vehicle Cleaning. Trash disposal, access by employees and equipment, utilities required? 1
Vehicle and locomotive washing.
Exterior cleaning.
Employee Facilities
3
Mid-day layover facilities for operating employees.
Locker rooms for mechanical and vehicle cleaning employees.
Office and administration facilities.
Is Yard Master’s office required? 4

Track Layout.
Yard configuration.
Switching requirements.
Efficiency of employee access.
Alternate routes in case of derailments or other equipment failures.
Headways of trains into and out of the yard.
Wyes, turntables, transfer tables, loop tracks.
“Lockout” requirements and other clearance and safety considerations.

Rail Transit
Power switches or is hand operation adequate?
Are switch heaters required?
Smallest size of turnout that is acceptable. The determination of a standard turnout is beneficial from both
an operating and material standpoint.
What is the smallest radius curve the equipment can operate over? What should be the design minimum?
Yard location and facility locations should minimize deadhead time.
Can a stub end yard be used or must it be double ended?
Yard access for maintenance (i.e. service platforms, service roadways, track crossings, etc.).
Vertical and horizontal clearances for track and work equipment.
Is switching room required clear of the main line?
Support Facilities.
Maintenance-of-way equipment storage (i.e., snow blowers, track equipment).
Maintenance-of-way material storage.
Wheel storage.
Material handling and storage.
Special protected storage for vintage vehicles, if any.
Catenary and third-rail maintenance.
Is standby power required? Overhead bridge, underground, from catenary or third-rail?
Company vehicle storage, parking or maintenance facilities.
Employee/visitor parking.
Security/visitor control.
Yard Storage Capacity
The transit yard storage capacity is a significant item, generally driven by property constraints. It should be
noted that transit storage is often more restrictive since transit equipment is often operated in set consists,
where “doubling” of consists is undesirable and, therefore, should be eliminated if at all possible. This is
further complicated by the requirement of “married pairs” for some transit equipment. This requires that
yard storage capacity be designed with consist lengths in mind. This should not only be based on today’s
fleet but allow also for future growth. This criterion is often hard to determine and due to property
restraints and economic considerations is often determined by factors other than providing the ideal
situation. However, with a good understanding of these requirements, the engineer can better evaluate the
consequences of some of these external pressures to the design.
Extreme Weather

Consideration should also be given for protection of the equipment and maintenance/recovery of operations
after severe weather. Blizzards, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and hailstorms can damage or immobilize a
fleet and the stored trains and spares.
Miscellaneous Items
Is a station required for employees using the facility?
Do air rights need to be considered?
Track Material.
One area that is subject to some debate is what type of material should be used in the design. In many
transit systems, capital funds are often easier to obtain than funds for operating expenses, even though both
may be limited. This fact is important and evaluation of the economics of the project is critical to the design.
Designers do not like the idea of economics determining their design but this is a fact of life. An economical
analysis is, therefore needed to allow the decision makers to make their determinations based on facts
instead of opinions.
Among the items to be considered when evaluating the track design are:
Jointed rail versus continuously welded rail.
Rail section (and if new or fit material).

1
Type and size of ties.
Tie spacing.
Non-ballasted and/or embedded track where needed.
Degree of curvature allowed and its effect on rail wear and maintenance. 3
Use of restraining rail and/or lubricators.
Use of bridge guard rails on structures and at stations.
Accessibility to perform track maintenance.

4
Frog type and size.
Fastening system.
Sub-ballast and ballast type: gradation and depth.
Constructability.
Special track material – derails, switch stands, targets, switch machines, railroad crossings and
bumping posts.
4.4.1.3 Utilities and Site Work
As with the yard layout, understanding the purpose for the yard is a prerequisite for determining the utilities that
must be provided. For instance, if the system is not electrified and vehicles are to be stored for long periods, some
type of standby power system must be provided. Also, if the yard is used for vehicle cleaning, sources of hot and

Rail Transit
cold water will be required at various locations throughout the yard. These items are examples of the things that
must be evaluated to assure that the yard is provided with everything it needs to operate efficiently.
Following is a list of several items that should be considered in the design of the yards utilities and site work:
Safety and Security
How much security is required? How much is practical? Is a security office required?
Yard lighting – security only, or will work be performed at night?
Collection pans and oil separation.
EPA requirements for fuel and other hazardous materials.
Snow removal.
Fencing.
Oxygen/acetylene/propane storage.
Protection of gasoline and fuel oil storage & dispensing station(s).
Derails – ‘Blue flag’ requirements, effect on storage capacity.
Noise abatement.
Air quality concerns.
First aid facility.
Yard Utilities
Fire protection.
Service water – hot and cold – potable or non-potable.
Compressed air – tools, blowing down air conditioning units, air brake requirements.
Yard drainage – allowable amount of ponding requirement of storage ponds for runoff, underdrain system,
allowable rates of discharge.
Fuel storage and metering.
Electrical distribution – overhead or underground.
Waste water holding or pre-treatment facilities.
Site Work
Location of office buildings, employee facilities, parking, shop facilities and efficiency of these to yard
operations.
Clearance for equipment access in yard – width of equipment, width of service platforms, toleration of
obstructions in platforms.

Trash disposal locations – compactors, trash bins, trash pick up within yard as well as from yard, and
recycling.
Type and width of crossings.
Landscaping requirements and maintenance of landscaping.
Vehicle access to yard (i.e. material deliveries, trash pick-up, bulk supplies to train wash facilities, fuel
delivery).
Are yard inspection pits, jacking pads, etc., required?
Parking requirements – employees, visitors.
Requirements for any car pullers or trackmobiles.
Delivery & Service vehicles require turning and circulation.
Delivery Bays at shops?
4.4.2.1 Introduction
The needs of shop facilities flow from the cascading of system needs starting with the defined transit service 1
requirements, combined with the requisite operating plan requirements, down to the detailed requirements for
space and shop equipment to support these needs. Article 4.4.1 detailed the service and features found in the
transit yard, this section is intended to provide insight into their physical and operational inter-relationships.
Figure 12-4-1 below illustrates these relationships.
Some systems may include both diesel and electric fleets. These could be serviced in common facilities that must be
designed to handle both types. 3

Rail Transit
Figure 12-4-1. Planning Flow Chart - Transit Shop Facility Design
4.4.2.2 Transit System Service Requirements
The size of shop facilities depends on the transit vehicle fleet size, the hours of transit service that are to be
operated, and the hours of shop operations that are to be staffed. The fleet size itself will depend upon the service
frequency, route cycle times and train sizes. Both the base fleet demand and additional peak-hour demands must be
included. If the envisioned extra services overlap with the peak-hour demands, an additional increment of fleet size
will be needed.
The scheduling of this service fleet through the shop determines the basic shop size. Idle fleet time at night, or
during off-peak hours, present opportunities to consider capital investment trade offs in fleet size vs. shop size and
the size of the night-time maintenance operation.
System growth projections should also be considered in determining the future service plan and the eventual size
of the maintenance facility.
4.4.2.3 System Operating Plan
Before the maintenance shop can be designed, a system-operating plan must be developed. This plan will include
the number of schedules or train consists to be operated at any one time, the train sizes for each schedule or
consist, and extra trains for special events that will overlap with peak services.
These plans will determine the minimum available fleet size for operation of the system. To this fleet size, a reserve
or “out-of-service” fleet must be added to account for maintenance time. The size of this reserve fleet is determined
by the fleet maintenance plan.
Both the system operating plan and the system maintenance plan should consider the impact of future system
growth, either in passenger volume or an extended network.

To avoid interruptions in service due to emergencies within the facility or on its access routes, include alternate
access to the mainline in the operating plan.
4.4.2.4 Maintenance Philosophy
The maintenance shop design will depend upon the variety of maintenance processes performed, the frequency and
dwell time for each of these processes and an allowance for queuing between each process. The maintenance
philosophy for each process affects the shop design. Items to be considered include:
Periodic or scheduled maintenance vs. symptomatic or spot maintenance.
The various stages of maintenance (daily tasks, periodic tasks, mileage based tasks, service life tasks,
statistical failure rate or wear related tasks, unscheduled tasks).
Single vehicle maintenance vs. train consist maintenance.
Component change-out practices vs. on-vehicle repairs.
Work to be out-sourced vs. in-house repairs.
Standard vs. custom equipment.
Each of these affects the frequency of occupancy and vehicle dwell time that must be accommodated by the shop
design.
1
4.4.2.5 Division of Work Processes
The shop and service facilities must accommodate a variety of processes. These are summarized as follows:
Car cleaning and appearance
Vacuum interior 3
Trash disposal
Exterior car wash
Non-potable or recycled water supply

4
Graffiti control and removal
Oil and wash water control
Fuel or sand supplies, if required
Mechanical Care
Daily inspections
Under-floor blow-down
Wheels and trucks
Electric motors (traction and auxiliary)

Rail Transit
Transformers, inverters and/or choppers, resistors
Controls (air and electric)
Braking system
Couplers
Overhead current collector (i.e. pantograph)
Onboard signal equipment
Onboard communications equipment
Doors and door controls
Seats and upholstery
Body and structural repairs
Painting
On-site inventories to support the above
Hazmat control and disposal
Differentiation of processes
Work station occupancy time for cleaning
Work station occupancy time for inspections
Workstation occupancy time for scheduled maintenance (including component change-out and limited
on-board repairs)
Workstation occupancy time for unscheduled maintenance (body and structural work, unexpected major
corrections, wheel and wear related components)
The maintenance plan, and accompanying shop plan, must separate these processes into different areas or track
allocations to produce a flow-through and a system where quick and predictable process are not hindered by longer
term and less predictable work. Typically a plan will divide the maintenance work processes into three time-related
categories for which separate work areas can be planned within the shop. The routine cleaning processes and
running inspections can be accomplished outside of these areas.
4.4.2.6 Staff Planning
The shop plan and size will be dependent upon staff size and schedule as well as the vehicle fleet size and schedule.
A comprehensive staffing plan is an essential part of determining the maintenance shop design. The staffing plan
will consider the following elements.
Man-hours and schedule for cleaning
Man-hours and schedule for inspection
Man-hours and schedule for scheduled maintenance

Man-hour allotment for unscheduled maintenance
These man-hour allocations must be integrated with the system-operating plan. This integration takes into
account when vehicles are available for maintenance and the dwell times required for each process. Within limits,
the maintenance dwell times can be influenced by staff size. Also, the vehicle fleet size will be influenced by both
staff size and staff schedule. A critical part of these determinations will be deciding which processes will be worked
on a one-shift, two-shift or three-shift basis.
Supervisory, administrative and support personnel (e.g. tool room, parts supply and inventory, janitorial services)
should be included in the front line maintenance staff.
4.4.2.7 Industrial Engineering and Facility Plan
The layout of the maintenance facility can benefit from a good industrial engineering plan. This plan would
examine the various work processes and assemble them into an orderly and efficient workflow. Typical items to be
considered include:
In-floor hydraulic jacks vs. under-car open pits
In-floor wheel truing machine vs. out-sourcing or external wheel lathes
In-floor turntables for handling wheels and trucks
Drop tables for removing wheels or trucks

1
Car mover (e.g. small tractor) vs. overhead contact (power) wire in shop
Stingers or corded power supplies for testing (or car movements)
Air, water, power, and industrial gas supplies
On-floor computer I/O devices? 3

In-house machine shop or out-sourced work?
In-house electric shop or out-sourced work?
Electronics shop or supplier parts exchange?

4
Upholstery shop or out-sourced work?
Parts inventory and tool room
On-floor parts and tools accessibility
Paint and hazardous materials storage
Paint booth
Health and welfare facilities (washroom, lockers, lunchroom)
The industrial engineering study is focused upon compilation of a plan for supporting equipment requirements,
floor and track space requirements, support space requirements and the desired work-flows that relate these
elements to one another.

Rail Transit
4.4.2.8 Additional Facility Considerations
Other than the strictly maintenance-related elements of the shop facility design, it may be necessary or desirable to
locate other functions within the maintenance shop facilities. These might include:
Administrative offices
Train crew report room and crew dispatch office
Train control center (optional)
CTC or ATS equipment room (optional)
Communications equipment room
Dedicated training room(s) with models, equipment samples & visual aids
Other departmental offices and work spaces (e.g. Operations, Infrastructure)
Combining such facilities at the same location can promote inter-department communications and understanding.
4.4.2.9 Access Facilities
In addition to the planning and design of the maintenance shop facilities themselves, provision must be made for
access to those facilities. Items to be included in the access plan are:
Access roadways
Employee and visitor parking
Heavy equipment and truck access (overhead and lateral clearances, curve radii, grades, parking, and
staging)
Receiving or shipping rail vehicles by another serving (freight) railroad; interchange track, unloading ramp,
etc.
4.4.2.10 Track Layout
Accessibility and Flexibility
Tracks should be designed to support a flow through of movement from inbound receipt and service, to shop
or storage tracks, and eventually outbound movements back to the mainline. Conflicts between movements
should be minimized to the extent possible. Track layouts should avoid designs that trap one car behind
another, particularly in the shop trackage. Double-ended tracks should be considered although their use
may be limited by budget constraints. Double-ended tracks are more important in the shop facilities than in
the car storage area.
Ingress and Egress
If possible, entrance and exit from the facility should provide trackage for entry into the mainline in both
directions. If not possible, a turning or reversing capability may have to be added to the mainline layouts.
Within the yard and shop facility, it is desirable to have separate inbound and outbound tracks in order to
allow separate, non-interfering operations. The inbound track should lead directly to a receiving and
servicing location with a bypass track allowing direct access to shop or storage trackage. The outbound track

should lead directly from the storage tracks to the mainline with the possibility that there may be ready
tracks or queuing positions intermediary to the mainline switch.
In designing the inbound and outbound routes, it is wise to provide inter-connections so that derailments or
other emergencies on one route cannot block and isolate the facility from access to the mainline.
Service and Wash Tracks
Receiving tracks should be provided immediately upon entrance into the facility for inspection and cleaning
of the inbound equipment. The inbound operator should have filled out an operator’s inspection and defect
report before going off duty which report will note serious and routine mechanical problems encountered
during his tour of duty. The receiving mechanic can then handle or schedule any corrections. At the same
time routine cleaning can be performed on the vehicle. If at all possible, the car should be ready for service
when it leaves this spot. Queuing space must be allowed for additional arriving cars and for the period of
time required for the inspection and cleaning operations.
Lighting will be required in the service and cleaning areas for nighttime operations. High-level platforms
may be required depending upon the configuration of the rail equipment. Blow down facilities for car
cleaning should be separated from other facilities due to the messiness and residue of the operation.
On exiting the servicing position, it is desirable to have a car washer on the exit path for use as scheduled or
as necessary. The path from the inspection and service position should allow direct movement to both the
storage tracks and the shop facility. Special attention should be given to the selection of corrosion-resistant
track materials for the wash track, which includes using Portland-cement concrete mixes and waterproofing
compounds to prevent corrosive spalling and concrete failure. 1
Containment and treatment facilities are needed for washing and any other operations where contaminants
or oils are present in wastewaters. Wash water is often cleaned and recycled.
Shop Tracks
Shop track layouts may waste a lot of equipment hours depending upon the design and execution of the shop 3
workflow. Shop work-flow is discussed elsewhere in this Section. The tracks must support this work plan.
The repair or maintenance philosophy will determine shop track lengths. Is it intended to bring in multiple
car, operating consists as a whole or will the individual cars be uncoupled for maintenance? If utilizing or
expanding existing facilities, constraints of those facilities may control the maintenance methods.
Shop work is best accomplished by bringing the vehicle or operating unit to the work site where tools and 4
materials are readily available. This may be on a one spot or assembly line basis depending upon the
organization of the work. For a transit operation, the one spot organization of work is likely to control.
The work should also be separated into categories based upon time to accomplish. As a general rule, shop
operations will separate themselves into three categories based upon time:
Unscheduled running repairs
Scheduled periodic maintenance
Heavy repairs
The first two categories are best serviced by double-ended tracks accommodating one or more work
positions per track. Some economies may be exercised by providing wheel and truck removal on only one
track. The total number of work positions will depend upon fleet size, maintenance frequency and standard
times to complete repair operations.

Rail Transit
The heavy repair tracks need accommodate only one or two cars. They are expected to dwell on the track for
an extended time and the track may be single ended. The total tracks in the shop must be determined from
the planned future fleet size, maintenance frequency and typical dwell times expected for each operation.
Statistics from and visits to other modernized properties are strongly recommended when establishing the
shop size and dimensions.
As mentioned in previous sections, it is recommended that the designer and potential operator visit at least
three transit vehicle repair facilities to gather ideas and understand the successes and failures of previous
designs by discussions with the system operators that have gone before them.
Storage Tracks
The system will need sufficient layover and storage tracks to accommodate the total vehicle fleet, less a
small component that may be kept on the shop tracks. It is also important to anticipate the future fleet size
with conceptual layouts for tracks to be constructed in the future.
The tracks may be single-ended or double-ended. Operationally, moderately long, double-ended tracks are
the most desirable. Train size and length should be considered. The tracks should be some multiple of the
common planned train length (e.g. five 4-car trains). If possible, the storage tracks should be of equal or
nearly equal in length.
Single-ended storage tracks will save investment costs by reducing the number of turnouts and switch
controls. If single-ended storage tracks are utilized, they should be shorter than the alternative double-
ended tracks to save on the time and congestion caused by switching. Again the tracks should be some
multiple of the planned common train length.
Design of the storage tracks must also consider access to the cars. Operators must be able to access their
vehicles via pathways between the cars. If it is decided to do follow up mechanical or servicing work on the
storage tracks (if at all possible, corrections and cleaning should be completed at the inbound service
position), access for service equipment must be provided between the tracks.
Running Tracks
Some provision should be made for free access to the whole facility by a thoroughfare or running track. This
track allows unplanned movements throughout the facility to overcome out-of-process work or emergencies.
It should not be used to circumvent planned, flow-through service, shop and layover processes.
4.4.3.1 Code Considerations
Identify the applicable building codes, based on the Uniform Building Code (UBC) at the start of the design. These
may include state and local codes or a combination of the two, in that the most conservative measures out of each
may be desired. Portions of the buildings will support rail cars, so use this manual, the Manual for Railway
Engineering. Use the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges by AASHTO for structures that support trucks,
and use the Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, also by AASHTO, for road and driveway design.
Some state railroad codes related to minimum clearances for bridges, building entrances, and narrow passageways
may apply to transit facility construction and should be checked for applicability.
4.4.4.1 Employee And Administrative Facilities
Health and Welfare Facilities

Health and welfare facilities will be required for both maintenance and operating personnel going on and off
duty at the shop and yard facility. These facilities will include as a minimum:
Locker and dressing room
Wash and shower room
Lunchroom
Union or employment agreements should be reviewed to ascertain any agreed to details. State and local laws
or codes may also be applicable.
Operating and Maintenance Supervision
There are management and supervision advantages to be gained by placing both the operating and
maintenance supervision at the locus of the yard and shop facilities. In that manner the two areas of front
line management are in communication with each other and with their employees. Facilities for these
operations should be designed into the shop and yard facility. These will involve office space, conference
rooms, computer facilities, and crew reporting facilities.
Train or Vehicle Dispatching
Train or vehicle dispatching should be centralized. There are two models to follow for centralization:
In the vicinity of the top management and administrative offices
In the vicinity of the front line supervision and operating personnel

1
With modern communications, it is possible to do both. It is recommended that the central control facility be placed
in the vicinity of the front line supervision with electronic duplication at headquarters for display of operating data
and visual monitoring of the current situation. This may be accomplished by GPS or traditional signal installations.
Record Keeping
3
Central record keeping can be accomplished at the system administrative and accounting offices. However,
access to and input to records is essential at the yard and shop facility.
With modern electronics and communications, the record keeping function can be accomplished in a LAN
(local area network) using WAN (wide area network) to shops at various locations. Records can be input and
kept in a shared database. The yard and shop design must accommodate locations for I/O devices, servers,
and communications links. It is recommended that these items be coordinated with the transit district’s 4
MIS department or consultant.
4.4.4.2 Track Details
General
The details of track design should be as generally described in Chapter 12, Part 3, Track and Roadway
Considerations. However, certain comments pertinent to the design of shop and yard trackage follow.
Turnouts
Recommended turnouts for shop and yard layouts are those with the minimum radius of curvature and
maximum frog angles that can be negotiated by coupled trains of equipment of the type specified for the
system. These will commonly call for a minimum # 4, #6 frog angle. However, these values must be
confirmed for the specific equipment to be operated.
The importance of curvature and frog angles is the saving of space and track lengths for shop and yard layouts.

Rail Transit
There are a variety of details to choose from for the actual turnouts themselves. Standard AREMA designs
are used on some properties. Specialized transit designs are no longer manufactured in North America but
U.S. suppliers have established connections with European manufacturers where specialized designs
continue to be developed and manufactured. The variety of designs should be reviewed and cost estimates
obtained before deciding on final turnout details.
The turnout designs chosen should be standard designs with long-term support from component
manufacturers. There is no need to adopt one-of-a-kind designs with limited support from one manufacturer.
Power vs. Manual Switches
Recent transit facilities have provided power-operated switches for their yard operations. The expense of
these installations and alternatives to control these expenses should be reviewed early in the design period.
Options include remote control, local control or manual operation from the ground.
Solar powered switches have been successfully used in recent installations. Cost savings have been realized
related to reduction of personnel injuries and installation since no electrical service is run to the solar
switches.
If the rail transit development involves high-level equipment with no easy ground access, some sort of power
switch mechanisms must be employed to handle switches and allow variable routings through the yard and
shop facilities. These mechanisms may be either locally controlled by operator-accessible control buttons or
from a remote central control. It is safer not to have both local and remote control. A provision for ground
control will also be needed.
It is recommended that the variety of switch machine mechanisms be reviewed with an emphasis on cost
and long-term parts supply. The control question, local vs. remote, and safety should also be reviewed on the
basis of cost and long-term support.
If the rail transit development involves light rail equipment with easy ground access, it is recommended
that manual operation of switches be considered. Manually operated switches will result in a considerable
cost reduction. The switch stands chosen should be of the newer ergonomic designs that reduce the
exposure to personal injuries.
Curvature
Track curvature in yard and shop tracks can be of the minimum radius negotiable by coupled equipment of
the type selected for the rail transit development. Minimum radii save space. As all yard operations are
conducted at restricted speed, with caution, speed is not a factor in selecting curve radius. Minimum radius
should be verified by reference to the specifications for the vehicles and maintenance equipment to be
operated. The minimum radius for modern equipment is generally set at 245 feet but should be verified by
reference to the specifications for the vehicles to be operated. The following variations in minimum yard
radii highlight the importance of verifying design criteria with the actual cars.
Table 12-4-2. Minimum and Preferred Yard Track Radii
System Overall Car Radius Range Representative

Category Length Systems
Heavy 75 feet 300-450 feet WMATA
Medium 50 feet 85-100 feet Pittsburge LRT
Light less than 50 feet 45-100 feet Toronto
Grades

It is important that grades be kept to a minimum or flat in shop and yard facilities. Uncontrolled
movements will happen when unmanned cars are improperly secured and the best defense against accidents
is level trackage throughout the service, shop and storage facilities.
General Track Construction
Track construction for yard and shop facilities can utilize different standards than for the mainline tracks.
The facilities will not see the level of usage or the track speeds to which the mainline tracks are subjected.
However, it is recommended that attention be paid to the quality of turnouts and the main yard lead tracks
as derailments and delays in these portions of the layout will cause service disruptions.
The balance of the yard and shop facilities can be built using secondhand rail, lower quality fastenings,
wider cross tie spacing, cut spikes, and low cost cross tie material. It is still recommended that the rails be
welded, but it is not mandatory. Overall, these compromises will produce a low cost, functional facility.
Where non-ballasted track, or embedded tracks are required, such as shop floors, pits tracks, wash tracks,
etc., relatively stiff direct fixation fastenings can be used as the speed and impact factor are both low. Due
consideration should be given to the track fixation system providing adequate levels of stray current
protection and isolation.
In cold climates, use switch heating. Frozen switches will strand the cars in the yard.
Stray Currents
Track design should be coordinated with the traction power design to avoid damage to underground utilities 1
or shop facilities from stray currents.
4.4.4.3 Signaling
Applicability
Signaling is a costly aspect of rail transit development. Its purposes are safety and movement control. In rail 3
yard applications, signaling should be used sparingly.
The principal use of signaling in rail yard applications will be for switch indication and control. Lighted
indicators can indicate the position of switches; local push buttons or more complex central controls can be
implemented to change the switch positions. Movements can be governed by standard rules, by verbal
instructions or by signal indication.
4
A secondary use of signaling for yard installations can be track occupancy indications. Track occupancy
indication also implies the use of complex central yard movement control.
Signaling Economies
With heavy rail or subway operations using high-level platforms and difficult access to ground level,
signaling for at least switch control is necessary. This can be accomplished with operator-actuated push
buttons at the switch or the more expensive remote centralized yard controls.
In a light rail environment, more economies are possible. Central control is not a necessity because
operators can descend from their cars. For maximum economy, yard facilities can be constructed without
power switches. Vehicle operators can be instructed verbally and line their own routes with manually
thrown switches.
Radio Frequency controls with detection loops can be considered either with local or yard office control.

Rail Transit
4.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2006)
4.4.5.1 Environmental Concerns
General
Any rail transit facility must be compatible with neighborhood living standards and must limit release of
toxic or harmful substances into the environment. The first problem comes with the general siting of the
yard and shop facilities. The second problem relates to the design of the facilities to limit release of any toxic
or harmful substances. It is important at the beginning of any project to become fully conversant with State
and Federal environmental protection requirements and to plan the project accordingly.
Drainage
Development of a rail transit shop and yard facilities results in large, flat impervious surfaces that
concentrate and change historic storm water runoff patterns. These patterns must be controlled so that
they do not cause downstream flooding. They must also be designed to avoid carrying oily waste or other
harmful substances from the property.
Oil or Chemical Contamination
Transit maintenance facilities can cause contamination from dripping lubricants or waste wash water.
Facilities must be designed to catch and treat these substances. Also, safe disposal processes must be
designed for solvents or other chemicals utilized in the vehicle maintenance process.
Air Releases
Certain maintenance operations result in the release of harmful vapors into the air. Facilities must be designed
to limit such releases. The common problem in rail transit facilities is vapor releases from painting operations.
Noise and Light
Rail yard facilities will emit objectionable noise and light levels. This is particularly so due to their early
morning and late night operations. Noises emanate from movement of the vehicles and the ongoing
operations of air compressors and electric motors on the cars. Diesel switching equipment is noisy, as is the
continuous running of engines during cold weather.
The first line of noise and light mitigation is in the careful siting of the facilities. Facilities should not be
near residential neighborhoods. Beyond careful siting, noise barriers and light shields should be considered,
if necessary, to isolate the facility from its neighborhood.
Safety Concerns
Although not always mentioned as an environmental concern, safety of employees and the public should
perhaps be the largest environmental concern. In regards to facility design, movement of personnel around
the facility and the presence of high voltage trolley or third rail facilities are the most important.
Movement of employees involves defined and maintainable pathways and good footing conditions
throughout the facility. Operators must be able to go to and from the yard tracks without stepping in holes
or climbing over obstacles. Inside the shop, there should be defined circulation paths and defined material
storage areas. Pits or holes in the floor must be protected. Elevated platforms must have railings. Reference
to OHSA standards is recommended.
Vehicle movements outside the shop should also be designed to avoid crossing tracks and encountering
interference between rail and highway vehicles.

For systems utilizing third rail traction power systems, the pedestrian movement paths should be
segregated from the third rail presence so far as possible. Inside the shop area, stingers and moveable cables
may be used for movement of cars. These devices must have obvious and well-designed safety controls.
For systems utilizing overhead trolley wires, there is a question of whether to terminate the trolley wire
outside the shop or continue it through the shop. Both practices have been followed in the past.
Consultation with other transit properties is recommended to arrive at a decision.
In all cases, adequate simple warning signs should be designed and strategically placed throughout the
property. The signs should follow recognizable standard patterns.
Historic Preservation
In older systems, preservation of historic buildings and features may become a factor. Modern facilities have
been built in recent years using the facade of an old car barn or transit facility. Cemeteries present a
particular challenge to the transit system planner.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.7 ENGINE SHOPS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT) 1
4.4.8 CAR SHOPS (2006)
4.4.8.1 Shop Buildings
Introduction
3
A multi-discipline team is needed for the design of a shop building. The design of a new or renovated
building follows the type of activities and equipment that the building will shelter. Develop a detailed design
criteria and standards based on any available agency or company standards, but also using the results from
the conceptual and preliminary design.
Shop Management Considerations

4
Interview the managers of the existing shops for their input into the design development process. Using
engineering or architectural drawings to communicate ideas to shop managers may not be effective since
managers are typically not trained to read drawings. Therefore, try other media, such as pictures or models.
They may not be accustomed to providing written comments on designs, so the face-to-face interviews may
be the most effective.
Industrial Engineering and Hygiene Considerations
Each piece of maintenance equipment requires a certain volume of space to operate safely, including the
people who will be moving around the equipment. Equipment transmits static and dynamic loads to
whatever physically supports the equipment, such as the floor, columns, foundations or roof trusses. Pits,
elevated track sections or rail car lifts usually are needed in shop buildings.
Various safety stations, such as emergency showers or eyewashes may be needed. Maintenance activities use
various fluids and other substances that may require special treatment and/or storage. These substances

Rail Transit
may be corrosive, caustic or reactive to standard building materials, such as steel and concrete. All
equipment requires its own maintenance.
Study carefully the economic use of the various equipment sets to determine the economical number of each
equipment type to achieve the productivity goals over time, yet minimize the construction costs for the new
or renovated building.
The safe use of the building by the people who will work there is of the utmost importance. Take their safety
and productivity needs into account in design of the work areas and the support facilities, such as the locker
room, cafeteria, and the like. Incorporate human factors into the design.
The industrial engineer and hygienist should develop a schedule of equipment with specific requirements
for use by all other designers.
Railroad Engineering Considerations
The railroad engineer provides the data needed by other designers for the movement of rail cars into and
out of the buildings. This includes car configurations and loads, clearance envelopes, power needs, and train
control requirements. Special protocol may need to be developed for the hand-off of train control.
Architectural Considerations
The building footprint should fit the needs determined by the use of the building. These are specialized
buildings so the program development is intense and must be thorough. Each type of maintenance
equipment, rail equipment and activity require a certain volume of space, which will yield the horizontal
and vertical clearances needed to locate column lines and walls, as well as to size door ways.
Base the type, style and color of interior finishes on the recommendations of the industrial hygienist and
engineer. Consider durability, potential for accidents such as collisions and explosions, ease of maintenance,
worker response and cost.
Choose the exterior style by considering the agency or company aesthetic standards, long-term durability,
surrounding building styles, security, vandalism and cost. Obscured windows may be desirable in an area
with a history of gunfire. Most of these buildings are funded by public money, so the final appearance should
not be extravagant or grand.
Structural Engineering Considerations
Shop buildings differ from most buildings due to the special static and dynamic loads of the rail cars, special
railroad maintenance equipment, delivery truck, forklifts, and typical industrial equipment, such as
overhead cranes. Fuel, lubricants, cleaners and other substances used by maintenance workers may
influence the choice of structural materials. Equipment may generate high electrical current, necessitating
electrical isolation, grounding or bonding of structural and reinforcing steel.
Frequently, due to the large size of some shop buildings, especially wheeled vehicle storage buildings,
floating floor slabs may be part of the design. These floating floors are expected to settle over time, and are
used in areas where poor soils result in very expensive foundations. The floating slabs, if used, influence the
design of the rest of the buildings structural system. Floating slabs are not recommended for buildings
encompassing tracks.
In addition to the standard building codes, portions of the shop buildings may be designed more
appropriately by following the roadway bridge design codes for areas where truck traffic is expected and the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for rail traffic areas.
Civil and Utility Engineering Considerations

The site and building must be properly drained and service utilities provided, such as water, sewer, and
electrical. Stringent geometric design controls may be warranted due to the size and complexity of shop
buildings. Consider and include access road and track alignments in sizing and siting the buildings.
Mechanical Engineering Considerations
Besides standard building heating, ventilation and air conditioning, use of various fuels, flammable gases,
paint or similar substances may be part of the building operations. These needs will be defined by the
equipment and the maintenance, material storage, and personnel activities. Some equipment, such as car
washing, will use a large amount of water, all of which will require drainage. Oil/water separators should be
incorporated where needed.
Electrical Engineering Considerations
The design of all electrical systems will follow the requirements for lighting and power for the special
equipment, as well as typical building functions, such as office and locker room space. Traction power,
separate from the building power, may also be needed.
Lighting provides a safe work space and yard security. Yard lights must be designed considering car shadows
and the impact on the neighbors. Good lighting is crucial in the small areas, such as the pits. The designer
should consider the use of portable lighting in the pits and through the facilities.
Adequate stray current control is an important consideration, and will influence how such details as coating
reinforcing steel, grounding metallic building elements, and creating grounding grids with test stations in
sensitive areas are designed and constructed. 1
Geotechnical Engineering Considerations
Rail yards are usually located in areas with poor and contaminated soil conditions. Some settlement may be
tolerated for certain foundations, such as floating slabs. Contamination may discourage large excavations
due to soil treatment costs. Special equipment within buildings may call for special isolated foundations.
3
Conduct a thorough investigation of available existing geotechnical records and if needed, a detailed field
soil boring and sampling program. From this, the geotechnical engineer develops the foundation
recommendation report for each foundation type.
Communications and Security Considerations
Communications and security systems may be tied into the overall railway systems. Vandalism and 4
terrorism potential should be minimized.
There are two concerns to be addressed with communications and security systems. One concern is good
communications for daily operations of the facility. In today’s environment, many of these communications
requirements can be met through the use of some form of portable radios or wireless telephones.
Consideration should also be given to fixed talkback systems at key locations and announcement or alarm
systems in the shops or outside work areas. Operational communications must consider remote computer
input/output capabilities as anticipated throughout the facility.
The other communications need is for security of the facility, the equipment and the employees. Security
devices may include surveillance cameras and intrusion alarms. Around the shop buildings themselves, fire
protection systems and alarms must be seriously considered.
Energy Considerations

Rail Transit
Evaluate the long-term cost of energy for the entire building and all the systems therein. Also consider
incorporating into the design features that will allow the economical switch to alternative energy types, if
feasible. Energy is one of the largest costs of the long-term operation of the buildings.
Backup power to maintain critical services should be considered. These services comprise those processes
that are essential to re-starting the system following a power failure such as communications, controls and
electronic records.
Environmental Considerations
These usually focus on the natural environment and hazardous materials. Frequently, there are fuel
deposits and there may be various industrial wastes, such as heavy metals, in the ground, which may be
disturbed by excavation. Sites may also contain wetlands, protected species, archaeological or historic
remains, or other legally regulated items. Therefore, conduct appropriate field studies by qualified
personnel to determine what is out there. Then, it may be advantageous to meet with the permitting
agencies with your conceptual layout to determine the types of permit that may be needed, and the types of
mitigation measures that may be required. Changing your conceptual design, particularly the site layout
and foundation types, may greatly reduce the cost of mitigation and construction, and may lessen the permit
requirements. Doing this at the conceptual stage will save on final design change costs.
Typical Shop Building Uses
Propulsion Unit repair
Track work
Wheel truing
Car repair
Car cleaning
Car washing
Under floor cleaning
Paint booth
Hazmat and dangerous materials storage
4.4.8.2 References
TCRP Report 52
TCRP Report 57
4.4.9 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY SHOPS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.10 LAYOVER YARDS (2006)
Layover yards are used to store equipment during the off-peak service periods. The facilities at layover yards vary
widely from system to system. The facility differences are driven by the operations of the system and the
maintenance philosophy. Layover yards are generally placed near the termini of a system or line.

4.4.10.1 Mid-Day Layover Yards
Mid-day layover yards are typically located at the system’s major terminal. The AM peak service trains run from
outlying areas into the terminal and are then shifted into the mid–day layover yard to avoid making non-revenue
moves back to the outlying areas and then back to the major terminal for the PM peak.
Cleaning, light maintenance, and inspections can be performed at mid-day layover yards.
4.4.10.2 Over-Night Layover Yards
Over-night layover yards are typically located at the terminus of a line. Trains stored there are positioned for the
start of the AM peak.
Cleaning, light maintenance, and inspections can be performed at over-night layover yards.
4.4.10.3 Facilities
The facilities that are needed at a layover yard will depend on the operations to be performed. The detailed
considerations for the layover yard facilities are the same as those discussed above for regular yard facilities
Yard Power
The ability to shut down the propulsion power on a train while maintaining environmental conditions
(heating and cooling) in the cars may be desirable to reduce fuel consumption and noise at the layover yard.
1
Crew Facilities
Facilities for the crews at layover yards will depend on the crewing operations of the system. Part-time
crews that provide the staff for peak service may not remain on the property between scheduled runs,
whereas full-time crews will require welfare facilities between runs.
4.4.11 MATERIAL YARDS (2006) 3

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.12.1 Aesthetics 4
General Design
The shop buildings are basically ordinary, wide span industrial buildings with sufficient overhead clearance
to accommodate rail transit vehicles. But they also have to fit into the neighborhood and be politically
acceptable. Consideration should be given to an inexpensive, but attractive, facade to make sure that this
otherwise ordinary building fits into its neighborhood and political environment.
Visibility
Rail transit facilities are best kept out of the public eye. This is first accomplished by careful siting of the
facility. But additional features should also be incorporated. These include high masonry walls and perimeter
landscaping. A great deal can be accomplished with these features, and the shop building facade, whereby
the facility will go almost unnoticed. What notability the facility receives is likely to be complimentary to the
transit agency. Open fencing is not recommended as it attracts criticism and vandalism.

Rail Transit
4.4.13 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION (2006)
Design of bridge and drainage structures is based on the type of equipment that is or will be used on a system. Rail
transit service may share all or some of the system with other services, such as freight. This section highlights
some of the design considerations that are unique to rail transit service and its equipment, and should be used by
the engineer or planner in conjunction with the other pertinent sections of this Manual.
Most rail transit systems have design and planning standards. These standards should be used along with this
Manual.
Some rail transit may include design and maintenance responsibilities for structures that will carry truck and
automobile traffic. These structures should be planned and designed using the codes published by local and state
governments, and such national codes as that by the Association of American State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO).
This section may also serve as a guide in the development of design and planning for new systems.
4.5.2 JOINT RAILROAD/TRANSIT OPERATION (2006)
The most common mixed-use operations are those of commuter rail, intercity rail and freight railroads, such as on
the Northeast Corridor between Washington, DC and Boston, MA. Across North America, the mixes vary greatly,
ranging from light rail with freight to heavy rail with commuter. The planner and designer should fully understand
the mix on a particular line to determine which criteria apply for each design situation.
The major differences between freight and rail transit, besides the size and weight of the vehicles, are that rail
transit carries passengers who must get on and off the trains safely, including in emergencies, and that rail transit
schedules are very sensitive to delays and the headways are very tight between trains.
4.5.3 TRANSIT SYSTEM LOADS (2006)
The results of AREMA’s survey of existing rail transit systems are the basis for this subsection. A table of
responses from each agency is provided for each load type. Prior to starting design or analysis work, the engineer
should know what design loads to use. These loads can be found in the system standards, or must be agreed to by
the appropriate authority before starting any calculations.

Table 12-4-3. Responses to Design Loading Questionnaire Provided by the Following Agencies
No. Transit Agency

1 MTA Baltimore (Light Rail) & (Heavy Rail)
2 Sacramento Regional Transit (Light Rail)
3 Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) (Heavy Rail)
4 Metrorrey, Mexico City (Light Rail)
5 MARTA, Atlanta (Heavy Rail)
6 Metropolitan Transit Authority Houston (Light Rail)
7 San Diego Metropolitan Transit Development Board (MTDB) (Light Rail)
8 Miami MetroDade Transit Agency (Heavy Rail)
9 TriMet Portland Oregon (Light Rail)
10 Toronto Transit Commission (Light Rail) & (Heavy Rail)
11 RCC Metro Red Line, Los Angeles (Heavy Rail)
12 Metro Blue Line, Los Angeles (Light Rail)
13 RCC Metro Green Line, Los Angeles (Light Rail)
4.5.3.1 Vehicle Live Load
While transit structures are designed for transit and maintenance equipment (See Table 12-4-4), structures may also 1
carry freight rail, trucks and other rubber tire vehicles along a maintenance road running parallel to the tracks. A
transit system may share right-of-way with roadway traffic, such as a light rail line in downtown areas. A maintenance
road should be seriously considered, with multiple controlled access points from the local street system, since it will
drastically reduce track outages for maintenance and future reconstruction over the life of the system. The design of
the roadway portion of the structures should be in accordance with local, state and federal roadway bridge standards,
such as those published by AASHTO. Most states issue their own supplement to the AASHTO Standards.
3
4.5.3.2 Impact Load
Responses to the impact questions reveal that the AREMA standards may be high for transit (See Table 12-4-5).
4.5.3.3 Centrifugal Load
The positioning of centrifugal loading varies from system to system (See Table 12-4-6). 4
4.5.3.4 Wind Load
Wind speeds vary across North America, and this variance is rightfully noted in the tabulated responses. The size
and configuration of system cars also lead to varying practices (See Table 12-4-7).
4.5.3.5 Nosing Force or Lateral Load
Some systems do not use nosing forces since transit tracks are set to very small tolerances. This may not be so on a
mixed-use line (See Table 12-4-8).
4.5.3.6 Longitudinal Force
Overall bridge length, individual span lengths, and the number of tracks on each structure influence the
application of longitudinal forces in design (See Table 12-4-9). Some variation in practice is seen in the responses.

Rail Transit
4.5.3.7 Station Loads
Station loading may be influenced by local building codes (See Table 12-4-10).
4.5.3.8 Miscellaneous Loads
Rail transit structures can be subject to a wide variety of miscellaneous loads, as shown in the table and as
discussed below. Other loads not shown here may also be included. Each engineer should know all the loads a
bridge is or will be subjected to, including future loads, and what combination of loads to use for design of the
various structural elements (See Table 12-4-11).
4.5.3.9 Derailment Loads
Derailments can occur on a structure or beneath it if the line crosses another rail service. Roadway traffic may also
damage structural supports. Proper and consistently applied protection will not only reduce resulting damage to a
structure, but will also protect the agency from damage claims from errant vehicle operators. The AASHTO
publishes manuals on roadside safety, as do most states and some local governments.
4.5.3.10 Seismic
Generally, seismic loads are determined by the geologic characteristics of the site, which result in ground
acceleration loads and displacements both horizontal and vertical. Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway
Structures, contains a detailed discussion of rail considerations and should be used. Local and state agencies
usually have classified zones for design and analysis of structures.
Since rail transit carries passengers, the results of structural failure and distortion due to seismic events can be much
more devastating on the community than may be the case for freight. Therefore, a careful determination should be
made as to what loads to design the structure to withstand. The use of monitoring equipment may be prudent.
Besides the ability of a structure to withstand seismic events, many details of the structure and its attachments
can be influenced by the seismic design loads. Some of these items are listed in Chapter 9, such as the width of
bridge bearing seats. Engineers should select appropriate designs and details for those features that are unique to
transit, such as catenary, catenary supports, and third rail traction power.
4.5.3.11 Systems Equipment
The uniformity of the transit revenue equipment provides the transit bridge designer with the opportunity to
design the transit structures more closely to the actual loads than the typical E80 or higher bridge design loads
used for freight railroads. The transit bridge designer should be aware, however, that the system maintenance and
construction equipment might be the controlling load on the structure rather than the revenue equipment.
Maintenance equipment may have considerably shorter axle and truck spacing for a given gross weight than the
revenue equipment. The transit bridge designer has a responsibility to ensure that the design is adequate for the
loads imposed by the construction and maintenance of the transit system.
Transit systems with overhead catenary, trolley wire, or significant portions of underground subway, use
specialized track-mounted cranes with large counterweights that provide the cranes with reasonable operating
radii and lift capabilities with a flat boom. Transit systems with concrete ties that use panelized track for either
construction or maintenance have large and relatively heavy maintenance equipment to handle the panels. Transit
systems with standard gage track often use conventional railroad locomotives and railcars to distribute ballast and
track materials.
4.5.3.12 Thermal Loads
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

4.5.3.13 Movable Bridges (Steel Structures)
Movable bridges, such as bascule, vertical lift, and swing bridges that support transit tracks should generally
consist of open deck steel construction. Construction of ballasted track and direct fixation slab track on such
movable bridges should generally be avoided for reasons of the heavier weight for the concrete and ballast, and
future maintenance costs.
Continuously welded or bolted jointed rail installed on the movable spans of a bridge is subject to rail movement
due to changes in temperature. Rail expansion joints in pairs per track shall be provided at both ends of the
movable span. Open deck grates and rails shall be anchored to the movable span to prevent their displacement
during opening and closing the span.
4.5.3.14 Non-Movable Bridges (Steel and Concrete Structures)
Single span bridges greater than 40 feet in length should be provided with suitable expansion devices to
accommodate movement caused by temperature changes, such as deck joints and expansion bearings. Multiple span
bridges, including continuous spans, should also be provided with expansion devices. Other provisions may be made
in the design to resist the induced thermal stresses. Appropriate bearing devices include rocker, sliding plates,
elastomeric pads, pot bearings or other suitable means. Several long spans have used zero-restraint rail fasteners
to allow the welded rail to move longitudinally on the bridge, with the anchorages located on the adjacent landsides.
For steel and concrete structures, the thermal coefficient for linear expansion shall be taken as 0.000006 per degree
F. The rise and fall in temperature shall be determined for the locality in which the structure is to be constructed,
and shall be computed from an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due consideration shall be given to
the lag between ambient temperature and the interior temperature of massive concrete structures, and to the
increased temperature effects for steel structures. The range of temperature change shall generally be as follows.
1
Concrete Structures -
70 Degrees F in Moderate Climates, and 80 Degrees F in Cold Climates
Steel Structures –
3
120 Degrees F in Moderate Climates, and 150 Degrees F in Cold Climates
State bridge codes can be a good source for these ranges.
4.5.3.15 Thermal Gradients
The design of unballasted decks on concrete segmental box girders shall include the significant effects of thermal 4
gradients across the section of the box. Sufficient research is currently not available, but the provisions of Appendix
A of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276, September 1985 are recommended.
4.5.3.16 Utility and Attachment Loads
Transit system corridors in urbanized areas frequently contain public utilities. The public utilities can range from
electrical and telecommunications lines to water and sewer lines to roads and highways. Each of these public
utilities has specialized requirements and differing effects on the transit structures. Freight railroads have had to
contend with these utility issues, however the frequency of transit operations and the transit customers' sensitivity
to on time performance makes careful design of utilities more important on transit structures. The design of the
transit structure should include provisions for the maintenance of the transit structure and the attached facilities
without interfering with transit operations.
The transit corridor's use as a preferred route for water, sewer and other piped utilities means that many of the
structures will carry these utilities in addition to the transit loads. Casing pipes, insulation and other attachment

Rail Transit
details can increase the dead load that the bridge carries. Future expansion of these utilities should be assumed as
a given, and provisions to accommodate the expansion should be considered. Alternately, the transit agency should
require that the new facilities placed on the structures be sized for the future to eliminate the need for expansion
within the life of the structure. The thermal behavior of the piped utilities can place additional loads on the transit
structure or the substructure at the abutments.
Electric and telecommunications facilities dead loads are lower than the dead loads of the piped utilities, but
providing additional conduits or spaces to meet future needs can increase the dead loading. Provisions for the
conduit's thermal expansion and termination at the abutments and access points to pull cables can change
abutment and fill dimensions and loads.
Structures that carry the transit corridor over roadways make attractive locations to attach highway signs. The
implementation of ‘Intelligent Transportation Systems' in urbanized areas has typically involved the installation
'Variable Message Signs'. The signs have larger face area and are heavier than traditional highway guide signs. The
wind loads and torsion loads from these signs are significant and may require additional bridge strength or torsion
resistance.
4.5.4 STRUCTURE SERVICEABILITY CRITERIA (2006)
4.5.4.1 Vibration
Transit vehicles and construction work on bridges cause vibrations. These vibrations may be transmitted to
adjacent structures, like apartment or office buildings, and may also radiate structure-generated airborne noise.
Therefore, it may be necessary to incorporate into the design damping or isolation features to minimize the
transmission of vibrations to other structures.
Also, the structure must be designed to provide a comfortable ride to the passengers. Excessive vibrations that
occur while on the structure may reduce the passenger’s confidence in the soundness of that structure.
4.5.4.2 Noise Abatement
Steel-on-steel train sets can transmit loud sounds due to curvature, rail joints and higher speeds. These sounds
may need to be dampened along the line, including on the structures. In cities, a street crossing may warrant noise
abatement when the balance of the line does not. This may be due to tall warehouse buildings that border the line,
abating the noise, except at street crossings. At these crossings, the noise can travel down the street to other types
of buildings and land uses, like schools and churches. Also, train noise may be very disruptive to passengers
waiting on platforms or even inside the transit car. All these and similar circumstances may warrant the
incorporation of abatement measures requiring additional space on the bridge or more load carrying capacity.
4.5.4.3 Deck Drainage
Poor drainage ruins bridge decks, expansion joints and bridge bearings. Water can have an adverse impact on
power lines and other utilities. All these problems increase maintenance costs and potential service disrupts for the
repairs. Design deck drains with redundancy, easy clean-out access that does not require a track outage, and to be
self-cleaning. Grates should keep out objects that would clog the pipes and that make debris clogs on the grates
unlikely. Waterproofing membranes used to protect the tops of concrete and steel decks on ballasted bridges should
be selected only from time-proven products.
4.5.4.4 Deflection
Like vibrations, excessive deflections make passengers feel uncomfortable and unsafe when crossing a bridge.
Excessive deflections can unbalance maintenance crews and equipment. Therefore, follow applicable design
criteria for a comfortable amount of deflection. Check the design deflections with all reasonably expected loads, live
and otherwise, on the bridge.

4.5.4.5 Means of Egress
Should a transit train break down on a bridge or along a retaining wall, the passengers may need to be evacuated
at track level. Therefore, the bridge or wall design may need to incorporate a walkway. Putting the walkway above
or away from the third rail (traction power) should be considered. This is especially an important design
consideration for single-track structures. The other tracks on multi-track structures could be used for evacuation,
as long as the operations are curtailed and the third rail power turned off or shielded.
4.5.5 HYDRAULIC AND HYDROLOGIC CONCERNS (2006)
Transit systems should, at a minimum, conform to the drainage practices outlined elsewhere in this Manual for
railroads rather than highway design practices. Transit system drainage should also consider additional items
when sizing their structures.
4.5.5.1 Risk Assessment
One of the fundamental issues that must be addressed is the risk tolerance of the transit agency. The larger the
selected design storm, structure, and facility, the less frequently it will have its capacity exceeded and fail. Failure
in this context does not necessarily mean that the structure or track is damaged or destroyed, merely that
operations are affected. Freight railroads have the ability to use other railroad properties to detour trains around
areas affected by a drainage facility failure. Transit systems often do not have the ability to detour trains. Freight
railroads typically use the 100-year storm as the design storm. A 100 year storm has a greater than 50% chance of
occurring, or being exceeded, in any selected year. The selection of the design storm must consider the effect of the
failures on the transit operations.
1
4.5.5.2 Storm Water Management
Many urban and suburban areas have special storm water management practices. These practices range from
regional storm water management to sub-watershed level specified release rates. The sub-watershed upstream
from a transit structure may change dramatically over the life of the structure. New transit systems often spur
new development along their routes as increased transportation options make the property more desirable. A sub-
watershed located upstream from a transit structure in an area with modern storm water management practices
3
may actually be required to discharge storm water at rates higher than the pre-development conditions. Storm
water regulations require this to manage the total peak runoff from the entire watershed by adjusting the time
when the peak discharge from the entire watershed occurs. The increased runoff volume may be nearly double the
pre-development volume. The increased runoff volume may affect the transit structure by increasing the
headwater at the structure, increasing the flow velocity through the structure, increasing the water level against
an embankment, or by creating higher tail water conditions due to backwater from other downstream structures. 4
Constructing a larger structure to address these potential flows will incrementally increase the construction costs
of the structure but may reduce the maintenance costs of the structure, or eliminate the need to disrupt service to
install a larger more expensive structure at a later date.
4.5.5.3 Storm Water Event Management Plan
The transit operating plan should address how severe storm events are to be handled. Freight operators typically
require inspections of the track prior to running trains after a severe storm event. A transit system’s schedule
sensitivity may make it difficult to delay trains until an inspector can make the inspection. In these cases automatic
detection devices integrated into the control system should be implemented. The types of damage found after a
severe storm event can include embankment failures under the track, slope failures onto the track, water flowing
over the track, electric service disruptions due to fallen trees, and bridge scour resulting in undermined structures.

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4.5.6 MARINE PROTECTION (2006)
Transit structures over navigable waterways must conform to the requirements of the United States Coast Guard
and the appropriate sections of this Manual. The designer should consider other features related to the safe
passage of revenue equipment.
Transit structures can be less massive than freight rail structures, and are therefore subject to greater damage
from collisions with waterway traffic. The design of pier bumper systems should reflect the potential for damage to
the specific structure rather than a generic bumper system. The designer and the transit authority should also
consider collision damage detection systems that are part of the vital transit signal system. The collision detection
systems should detect bridge displacement rather than rail continuity.
4.5.7 OPERATIONAL CONCERNS (2006)
4.5.7.1 Severe Weather
Rail transit either works or it does not work. Slow, partial or one-way service loses patrons and creates political
havoc. Therefore, recovery of full service from severe weather events like tornado, flood, snow or ice is of great
importance to ridership and customer relations.
First, the system or system design must be evaluated for weather vulnerability. These may include snow or ice on
the bridges, platforms, stairs, parking lots and tracks. Inadequately designed culverts and other drainage structures
can cause flooding of tracks, shops, yards, pedestrian tunnels and parking lots. Bridges, retaining walls, culverts,
drainage pipes or embankments over or adjacent to water may be undercut due to moving flood waters (scour) and
become unsafe or collapse. The smallest stream can become a raging flash flood. High winds, earthquake and
extreme drought can also damage the bridges and culverts. List all these vulnerable areas and features.
Second, if possible, design the system with a high degree of reliability. The standards used for freight equipment
and structures may not be conservative enough for the high degree of reliability needed for rail transit. Suspending
all service for six hours at 5 o’clock p.m. on a Friday from center city is not a reasonable course of action. Consider
monitoring of scour effects on bridges and other drainage structures and embankments. Monitoring could be
placing electronic equipment and should be part of periodic bridge inspections. This will include use of divers for
structures in water.
Third, develop action plans for each severe weather event for the entire system, with special focus on the most
vulnerable areas. Remember that the service will break at the weakest link. These plans should include use of
outside services to address your needs. The local police and fire/rescue should be aware of vulnerable areas and of
plans to address problems.
Fourth, practice emergency drills. How quickly can the equipment and personnel assemble on a problem site? Do
outside services know where the site is and how to get there? Top management must participate actively in all
practice drills. Debrief all your participants in practices. Record and analyze the responses to improve the plan.
Then tell the participants of the improvements.
4.5.7.2 Reliability
Transit service typically has very close headways, especially during rush hours. The effects of severe weather
conditions, described above, must be part of the thought process for a high degree of reliability. Other design
criteria considerations that can increase operational reliability include design standards, periodic maintenance,
rehabilitation and replacement.
As for severe weather, the key is to analyze the proposed system for potential operational delays in light of the
above considerations. Then adapt a design standard that addresses each potential fault. For example, a light rail

system may run on a city street, highway or freight railroad. Therefore, include review of street, highway and
freight railroad design criteria since these may not be sufficient for the higher reliability needed for transit.
Also, analyze the supporting systems provided by others, such as the power supply and drain systems. These
systems may influence the transit system’s design standards.
The most disruptive periodic operational concerns are maintenance and construction work in the stations and the
line structures, especially bridges. The following should be considered. There may be others.
Track switches for easy bypass of typical work areas.
Horizontal and vertical clearance to minimize track outages.
Separate deck girder bridge for each track.
Express or bypass tracks as part of operational maintenance plan.
How will work at one station or one bridge affect service at the adjacent stations.
Built-in access and safety features to reduce track occupancy duration.
Access roads along and access points to the right-of way to reduce the use of track to get equipment to a
work site.
Crane positions and contractor storage areas. 1

4.5.7.3 Inspection
The greater frequency of operations and the transit customers' sensitivity to on-time performance require that the
design of transit structures allow easy inspection of the critical members without extensive use of track-mounted
snooper trucks. Transit structures over highways should not require extensive lane closures for inspection, if
possible. Provisions for safety line attachment, including anchor points, should be an integral part of the transit 3
structure design. Cat walks and other access facilities can reduce the time required for bridge inspection and may
eliminate operational impacts of the inspection. The inspection time for a transit structure can be reduced by
providing adequate space between members to allow the inspection team to gain access to all sides of the members.
4.5.8 STRAY CURRENT EFFECTS (2006)

4
Both catenary and third rail traction power systems must be electrically isolated from all structures in the vicinity.
This is especially true for third rail. Currents can travel through soil and other materials not normally thought to
be conductive. Current can arch through the air, especially during wet weather. Frequently, isolation is combined
with electrical bonding of all structural and reinforcing steel used in structures, with monitoring stations provided
at critical structures, such as cast-iron tunnels and steel bridges.
4.5.9 RETAINING WALLS (2006)
Stray current effect mitigation must be incorporated into the design of any walls near traction power, as discussed
above in the Stray Current Effects section. Utility attachments or penetrations may also be needed.
4.5.10 UTILITIES (2006)
Space must be provided for existing, proposed and future utilities on structures. These utilities may be owned by
the transit agency, or may be owned by public and private companies. See the discussion above.

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4.5.11 CONSTRUCTION (2006)
Frequently, the design of a bridge or drainage structure is influenced by how or of what material the structure will
be built. Some items of concern follow.
Access to the site can be by road, rail or water. Does the site access restrict the size of construction material
shipments or the time of day for deliveries?
Is there room to place and store construction equipment and material safely, especially large cranes that
should not interfere with catenary or third rail, and could fall across the tracks or onto adjacent structures
and property?
How many hours in the day and on which days can the site be occupied by construction forces?
What track outages will be allowed by operations, if any?
Will the local community object to the project?
What is a reasonable sequence of construction operations and what equipment and material may the
contractor use effectively given the site constraints?
How can environmental requirements be met cost effectively by employing certain designs, materials or
equipment?
Is there room to place and store construction equipment and material safely, especially large cranes that
should not interfere with catenary or third rail, and could fall across the tracks or onto adjacent structures
and property?
How many hours in the day, and on which days, can construction forces occupy the site?
What track outages will be allowed by operations, if any?
Will the local community object to the project?
What is a reasonable sequence of construction operations and what equipment and material may the
contractor use effectively given the site constraints?
How can environmental requirements be met cost effectively by employing certain designs, materials or
equipment?
4.5.12 ALIGNMENTS AND CLEARANCES (2006)
4.5.12.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments
It is most economic to construct bridges that are on vertical and horizontal tangents. Horizontal curves require
widening the deck on ballasted deck structures and designing for eccentric loads. Vertical curves require addition depth
between the running rails and the structure to accommodate the varying grades, resulting in increased dead loads.
The simplified detailing results in lower construction costs and better-constructed quality.
4.5.12.2 Structural Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
The dynamic envelope used for the general roadway clearances should be used as the minimum starting point for
the structural clearances on bridges.

Horizontal curvature on the bridge requires additional structure width. On deck type structures, this equates to a
wider deck. On through structures, this equates to wider spacing between the supporting members, and greater
height to accommodate the superelevation.
Vertical clearances should consider other structural components on the bridge, as well as aerial utilities that may
be on or above the structure.
Walkways and ladder ways for operational and emergency access should also be considered in the vertical and
horizontal clearance determinations.
On large structures, consideration should be given to providing additional electrical isolation clearances and
devices to allow maintenance of the structure without de-energizing the traction power.
4.5.12.3 Under Structure Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
Waterways
All bridges over waterways require vertical clearance (freeboard) above the expected water level of the
design storm. A minimum of 1’ is recommended above the water surface of the design storm predicted by
the hydraulic analysis.
Navigable Waterways
All bridges over navigable waterways are required to provide both vertical and horizontal clearances as
required by the governing agency (the US Coast Guard in the United States). The vertical clearance
required may be provided by either a fixed bridge at the proper elevation difference, or by a movable bridge. 1
Movable bridges are expensive to construct, operate, and maintain. The life cycle costs of fixed vs. movable
bridges should be analyzed before selecting a bridge for crossing a navigable waterway.
Lighting, signage, and marine protection structures are additional items required at a crossing of a
navigable waterway. These items may require adjustments to the supporting structure to provide the
required horizontal and vertical clearances.
3
Article 4.5.6 of this Chapter also discussed Marine Protection.
Highways
Federal, state, and local requirements apply to the vertical and horizontal clearances at bridges over
highways. Many of these requirements in the United States are based on the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommended practices.
4
Provisions for sidewalks and bicycle traffic may also be required. Protection against structural damage to
the under structure from vehicles may also be required.
Railroad and Transit Facilities
Federal, state, and local requirements apply to the vertical and horizontal clearances at bridges over
railroad or transit facilities. The Clearances section of this Manual provides information concerning
clearances over freight and commuter railroads. Clearances at transit facilities should conform to the
requirements of the facility’s owner.
These requirements may include additional requirements for service roadways, catenary or third rail
clearances.

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Figure 12-4-2. Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1

Figure 12-4-2. Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1 (Continued)

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Figure 12-4-8. Live Loads Questionniare, Attachment 7


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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Table 12-4-4. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - I. Live Loads
Question 1 - Please indicate by means of a sketch the axle spacings and axle loads that you use as
design live loading for new aerial structures. State the Cooper E designated load, if
used for some structures. Explain.
Question 2 - Are passenger loads included in the above axle loads?
Question 3 - If the answer to Question 2 is no, how are passenger loads accounted for? Do you
differentiate between rush and non rush hour passenger loads? Explain.
Question 4 - For structural member receiving live load from more than one track, please state the
design live load you use in each of the following: (a) for two tracks; (b) for three
tracks; and (c) for four tracks.
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4a Question 4b Question 4c

1 Baltimore Metro See Figure 12-4-2. See Figure 12- All structures are Any combination of Same. Same.
4-2. designed for train loadings which
maximum produce critical design
passenger (crush) loadings shall be used
load. For Metro for structural design.
(heavy), 49,000
LBS. For Light
Rail, 40, 000 LBS.
2 Sacramento See Figure 12-4-3. Same. N/A Reduction in load For three For four tracks:
Regional Transit - intensity due to tracks: 90% of 75% of
LRT multiple lane loadings maximum. maximum.
is addressed in Article

7.3.2.10 of the
Sacramento Design
Criteria. We are
referred to __BDS
Article 3.12.
For two tracks: 100% of

maximum.
12-4-63
12-4-64
Rail Transit
3 Chicago Transit See Figure 12-4-4. Use Passenger All analyses are For two tracks, the For three For four tracks,
Authority 26.5 kips/axle for stress loads are based on typical analysis is tracks, rarely Very rarely
analysis and 19.5 included for maximum loads. based on loading all governs. governs.
kips/axle for fatigue fatigue and tracks or any
and deflection analysis. deflection combination of tracks
analysis. that will produce the
greatest live load
stress, fatigue and
deflection for
structural members
under consideration,
Loading cases of
AREMA would be
acceptable.
4 Sistema De Response not available. Yes, passenger No, we do not For two tracks: 100% of For three No four track
Transporte loads are differentiate live load. tracks: 100% of bridges.
Colectivo Metrorrey included in the between rush and live load.
- LRT axle loads non rush hour,
shown in because the most
Attachment 4. severe condition is
in rush hour.
Based on the fact
that we have all
simply supported
spans.
5 MARTA - Heavy See Figure 12-4-5. Yes. No consideration For two tracks: 100% of For three For four tracks:
Rail between rush hour live load, whichever tracks: 100% of 100% of live
We do not use Cooper E and non rush hour produces the worse live load, load, whichever
loadings for the design passenger loads. stress in the member. whichever produces the
of MARTA aerial produces the worse stress in
structures worse stress in the member.
the member.
6 Houston MTA - LRT See Figure 12-4-6. Yes, see We do not For two tracks, LRT For four tracks, For four tracks,
Attachment 6. differentiate loading is applied to LRT loading is LRT loading is
between rush hour each track. applied to each applied to each
and non rush hour track. track.
passenger loads.

7 San Diego MTDB - The type of loading will Yes, passenger Differentiation is Reduction in load For three For four tracks:
LRT depend upon whether loads are made only between intensity due to tracks: 90% of 75% of
the structure is for included. loaded and multiple lane loadings maximum. maximum.
shared LRV/Frieght of unloaded cars as is addressed in Article
for exclusive LRV use. prescribed in the 2.7.3.19. We refer to
Structures carrying Figure 12-4-7. AASHTO/BDS Article
freight shall consider 3.12.
loads of Cooper E60 in
accordance with the For two tracks: 100% of
AREMA requirements. maximum.
For LRV vehicles the
lice load design weights

ate as prescribed in
Figure 12-4-7. Trains
of up to four cars are
used.
8 Miami Metro-Dade - Axle spacing: As shown Yes, as noted in Passengers in each As indicated in Section As indicated in N/A
Heavy Rail in Figure 12-4-8. Figure 12-4-8. vehicle: 3.05.2.2. Section
3.05.2.2.
Axle loads: Rush hour: Crush
live load is 250 at
Crush LL: 28.875 kips. 150LBS each =
24,900 LBS.
Normal LL: 25.725
kips.

No Cooper E loading
used for transit.
9 Tri-Met Portland - See Figure 12-4-9. Yes, we assume N/A. For two tracks: use Tri-Met does Tri-Met does
LRT AW4 passenger twice the design live not have any not have any
loading, which load shown in Question three track four track
includes 180 1. We also would bridges. bridges.
standees (256 assume four car trains.
total
passengers at
155 LBS each).
10 Toronto Transit See Figure 12-4-10. See Figure 12- See Figure 12-4- See Figure 12-4-10. See Figure 12- See Figure 12-
12-4-65
Commission - LRT 4-10. 10. 4-10. 4-10.

and Heavy Rail
12-4-66
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11 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-11. Vehicle and No differentiation For two tracks: 100%. N/A N/A
Red Line - Heavy passenger is made between
Rail loads are rush hour and non
shown rush hour
separately and passenger loads.
combined.
12 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-12. Yes, a loaded The maximum is For criteria, refer to For criteria, For criteria,
Blue Line - LRT car includes 76 used. We AASHTO/BDS with refer to refer to
seated differentiate modifications. AASHTO/BDS AASHTO/BDS
passengers, between passenger with with
161 standing loads, but not for modifications. modifications.
passengers and the design of

an operator structures.
(based on 154
LBS/person).
13 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-12. Cars and Passenger load is For two tracks: 100%. N/A N/A
Green Line - LRT payloads are the maximum
shown load.
separately and
combined.
Table 12-4-5. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - II. Impact
Question 1 - What percentage of load do you use for impact?

Question 2 - Do you agree that the percentages recommended by A.R.E.A. for rolling equipment
when applied to Transit Type Aerial Structures are unrealistically high?
Question 3 - When considering impact, do you differentiate between CWR and Jointed Track? If
so, how?
Question 4 - Do you increase percentages for wheel flat spots? If so, by how much?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4

1 Baltimore Metro System Simple span < 150’, I=30% No comment No distinction is made. No answer
Entire system is CWR
2 Sacramento Regional See AASHTO/BDS Article These values are No distinction is made. No
Transit 3.8 unrealistically high
3 Chicago Transit Per AREMA Specifications Yes, test data never No distinction is made. No
Authority approaches these values
4 Sistema De Transporte 30% Max per AASHTO Not familiar with AREMA No distinction is made. No
Colectivo Metrorrey code Entire system is CWR
5 Metropolitan Atlanta AASHTO Art. 3.8.2 AREMA percentages No distinction is made. No
Rapid Transit Authority excessively high for Entire system is CWR
transit type struct.

6 Houston - Metro AASHTO Art. 1.2.12C, 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Metropolitan Transit
Authority
7 San Diego Metropolitan AREMA 2.2.3 (D) Yes No distinction is made. No
Transit Development
Board
8 Metro-Dade Transit Max = 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Agency
9 Tri-Met Portland Per AREMA Specifications No comment No distinction is made. No
Oregon Entire system is CWR
10 Toronto Transit 30% of static mass No answer No answer No answer

Commission
11 Los Angeles Metro, Red Simple span L<150’, I=30% No comment No distinction is made. No
Line Continuous spans –
1=40% for neg. bending
1=30% for pos. bending

12 Los Angeles Metro Blue 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Line - LRT
13 Los Angeles Metro 30% No comment No differentiation No
Green Line - LRT
12-4-67
Table 12-4-6. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - III. Centrifugal Load
12-4-68
Rail Transit
Question 1 - AREMA recommends that the centrifugal load be applied horizontally through a point level with the center
of gravity of the car, a point that is 6 feet above the top of the rail. For transit type vehicles, do you agree that
the point of application of centrifugal loads at 4 feet above the top of the rail is more appropriate?
Question 2 - Should each transit property decide for itself the location of the point of application of horizontal centrifugal
loads?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2

1 MTA - Baltimore 5 feet above Top/Rail Yes
2 Sacramento Regional Transit 4 feet above Top/Rail Yes. Strongly recommends 4 feet above T/R for
all horiz. forces wind on LL, longitudinal,
centrifugal, and nosing.

3 CTA - Chicago 4.85 feet above Top/Rail Yes. Use code specified values.
4 Sistema De Transporte Colectivo, 4 feet above Top/Rail Yes
Metrorrey
5 MARTA - Atlanta 3.50 feet above Top/Rail Yes
6 Metropolitan Transit Authority - 3 feet above Top/Rail Yes
Houston
7 MTDB - San Diego C.G. is lower for LRT vehicles than for freight cars. Yes
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency - 4 ft. 8 ins. above Top/Rail Yes
Miami
9 Tri-Met - Portland 5 feet above Top/Rail Yes
10 Toronto Transit Commission ICTS vehicle - 1.1 m. above T/R. Yes

SUBWAY vehicle - 2 m. above T/R.
LRT vehicle - 1.7 m. above T/R.
11 L.A. Metro Red Line 5 feet above Top/low rail Yes
12 L.A. Metro Blue Line 4 feet above Top/low rail Yes
13 L.A. Metro Green Line 4 feet above Top/low rail Yes
Table 12-4-7. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - IV. Wind Loads
Wind on Train
Question 1 - How do you consider horizontal design wind loads on the train?
Question 2 - AREMA recommends 300 P.L.F. of train applied 8 feet above top of rail. For transit cars, do you agree that wind loads of
200 P.L.F. of train applied 6 feet above top of rail is more appropriate.
Wind on Structure
Question 3 - What design loads do you consider for horizontal wind forces on the superstructure / substructure?
Question 4 - Do you agree with the recommendation that wind loads shall be taken as 20 P.S.F. on the following surfaces:
a. For girder spans 1.5 times the vertical projection of the span?
b. For truss spans, the vertical projection of the span plus any portion of the leeward trusses, not shielded by the floor system?
c. For towers and bents, the vertical projections of all columns and bracing?
d. For columns, whose height exceeds 40 feet above grade, do you increase the wind loads on such columns and, if so, by how much?
Question 5 - When wind loads are considered in combination with other loads, do you increase the allowable stresses by 25%, by 30%, by
33%? Explain.
WIND ON TRAINS WIND ON STRUCTURE

No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5
1 MTA - Baltimore TRANS. 320 P.L.F. No. Super: No Comment. Group III and IV wind is
LONG. 80 P.L.F. TRANS. 240 P.L.F. reduced to 30%
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 60 P.L.F.
above T/R at axles. Sub:

As above plus 35 P.S.F. of
exposed area applied at the
centroid.
2 Sacramento < 40 feet high No. See AASHTO/BDS Section See CALTRANS 25% increase. Group III
Regional Transit TRANS. 115 P.L.F. 3.15. BDS Section 3.15 and VI wind is reduced to
LONG. 28 P.L.F. 50 P.S.F. 30%
x Length of train applied 6’4” 75 P.S.F.
above T/R at axles. 40 P.S.F.
> 40 feet high No.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F.
LONG. 31 P.L.F.
x Length of train applied 6’4”
above T/R at axles. Increase
12-4-69
above loads by 30% when 2

tracks loaded.
12-4-70
Rail Transit
3 CTA - Chicago TRANS. 300 P.L.F. Could be Per AREMA a. Yes, 30 P.S.F. Yes, per AREMA
x Length of train applied 6 feet considered. b. Yes, 30 P.S.F.
above T/R at axles. c. Yes, 30 P.S.F.
d. No.
4 Sistema de TRANS. 100 P.L.F. Yes. Super. 50 P.S.F. a. Yes, 20 P.S.F. Yes, per AASHTO table
Transporte Colectivo x Length of train applied 6’4” Sub. 40 P.S.F. b. Yes, 20 P.S.F. 3.22.1.A
Metrorrey above T/R at axles. Also per AASHTO code c. Yes, 20 P.S.F.
d. > 40 feet high
increase wind
loads by tests.
5 MARTA - Atlanta TRANS. 270 P.L.F. No. Super: Trusses & Arches a. No. Yes, by 25%
LONG. 60 P.L.F. TRANS. 70 P.S.F. b. No.
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 40 P.S.F. c. No.
above T/R at axles. Super: Girders & Beams d. No.
TRANS. 45 P.S.F.
LONG. 10 P.S.F.
Sub
exposed area applied at
centroid.

6 Metropolitan < 40 feet high Yes. Double Track Girders a. No. Yes, by 25%
Transit Authority - TRANS. 165 P.L.F. TRANS. 70 P.S.F. b. No.
Houston LONG. 40 P.L.F. LONG. 17 P.S.F. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’6” Trusses d. > 40 ft. high
above T/R at axles. TRANS. 100 P.S.F. increase wind
> 40 feet high LONG. 24 P.S.F. loads by 10% for
Increase above loads by 10% Single Track Girders each 20 ft. above
for each 20 foot above 40 foot TRANS. 50 P.S.F. 40 ft. high.
in height. LONG. 12 P.S.F.
Trusses
TRANS. 70 P.S.F.
LONG. 17 P.S.F.
Bents & Col
TRANS. 50 P.S.F.
LONG. 50 P.S.F.
Above pressures are times
the vert. exposed area
applied at the centroid.
Increase all above loads by
10% for each 20 foot above
40 ft. in height.
7 MTDB - San Diego < 40 feet high 300 P.L.F. Super: Girders a. No. Group III and VI wind is
TRANS. 115 P.L.F. x Length of TRANS. 50 P.S.F. b. No. reduced to 30%.
LONG. 28 P.L.F train applied Super: Trusses c. No. Refer to BDS.

> 40 feet high 6 ft. above TRANS. 75 P.S.F. d. No.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F. T/R at axles Sub: Bents & Col.
LONG. 31 P.L.F. is more TRANS: 40 P.S.F.
Increase above loads by 30% appropriate. Also see Caltrans BDS.
when 2 tracks are loaded.
12-4-71
12-4-72
Rail Transit
8 Metro-Dade Transit < 40 feet high Yes. Super: a. No. Yes, by 25%
Agency - Miami TRANS. 165 P.L.F. < 40 feet high b. No.
LONG. 40 P.L.F. TRANS. 75 P.S.F. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” LONG. 18 P.S.F. d. No.
above T/R at axles. > 40 feet high
> 40 feet high TRANS. 84 P.S.F.
TRANS. 182 P.L.F. LONG. 20 P.S.F.
LONG. 44 P.L.F. Above pressures are times
x Length of train applied 6’4” the vert. exposed areas at
above T/R at axles. Increase the centroid.
above loads by 30% when 2 Sub:

tracks are loaded. As above plus 56 P.S.F. of
centroid.
9 Tri-Met Portland Refer to Oregon D.O.T. Yes. Refer to Oregon D.O.T. Refer to Oregon Refer to Oregon D.O.T.
D.O.T.
10 Toronto Transit No Response No Response No Response No Response No Response
Commission
11 L.A. Metro Red Line TRANS. 320 P.L.F. No. Super: Girders & Beams a. No. See A.A.S.H.T.O.
Heavy Rail LONG. 80 P.L.F. TRANS. 40 P.S.F. b. No.
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 10 P.S.F. c. No.
above T/R at axles x The exposed area applied d. No.
at the centroid.
Sub:
centroid.
12 L.A. Metro Blue < 40 feet high No. Super: a. No. No.
Line. Light Rail TRANS. 115 P.L.F. See Art. 3.15.1 and 3.15.3 b. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” of AASHTO/BDS c. No.
above T/R at axles. Sub: d. No.
> 40 feet high See Art. 3.15.2.2. of
TRANS. 126 P.L.F. AASHTO/BDS.
above T/R at axles.

13 L.A. Metro Green < 40 feet high No. Super: a. No. No.
Line. Light Rail TRANS. 115 P.L.F. See Art. 3.15.1 and 3.15.3 b. No.
LONG. 28 P.L.F. of AASHTO/BDS. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” Sub: d. No.
above T/R at axles. See Art. 3.15.2.2. of
> 40 feet high AASHTO/BDS.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F.
LONG. 31 P.L.F.
above T/R at axles. Increase
above loads by 30% when 2

tracks are loaded.
Table 12-4-8. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - V. Nosing (Lateral Loads)
QUESTION 1
A single mvong concentrated lateral load equal to 25% of the heaviest axle of the specified live load shall be applied separately
at the gage side base of either running rail in the direction of the field side, and at any point along the span, in addition to the
other lateral loads specified. On spans supporting multiple tracks, this lateral load shall be applied on one track only.
The only resulting stresses to be considered are:
• axial stresses in bracing and cross-framing provided for flanges of stringer, beam, and girder spans;

• axial stresses in the chords of truss spans;
• lateral bending stresses of flanges of stringers having no bracing system.
Other resulting stresses, to be disregarded, are:
• lateral bending stresses of flanges between braced points;
• axial stresses in flanges between braced points;
• all vertical effects on bearings.
Please comment on the above entire Question 1.

12-4-73
12-4-74
Rail Transit
AGENCY Question 1
1 Baltimore Metro System No Comment
2 Sacramento Regional Transit No Comment
3 Chicago Transit Authority Per AREMA Specifications
4 Sistema De Transporte Colectivo Metrorrey No Comment
5 Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority Track & Wheel gauges set to exacting tolerances to prevent this load.
6 Houston-Metro Metropolitan Transit Authority* AREMA not used. Transit Live Load Less (E-10)
7 San Diego Metropolitan Transit Development Board No Comment
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency No Comment
9 Tri-Met, Portland, Oregon No Comment
10 Toronto Transit Commission No Comment

11 Los Angeles Metro, Red Line No Comment
12 Los Angeles Metro, Blue Line* Question 1 is written in context of steel bridges
13 Los Angeles Metro, Green Line No Comment
MARTA in Atlanta does not require the applications of a nosing load. The nosing load is caused by an excessive difference between
the wheel flange gauge and the track gauge, causing the truck to wobble or hunt. The impact of the flange striking the rail causes
this load. Since ride smoothness is crucial to successful operations of MARTA, track and wheel gauges are set to exacting tolerances
to prevent wobble or hunting.
*Question 1 has been taken from AREMA Chapter 15, Steel Structures, but has been modified to apply to any aerial structure
regardless of weight or material composition.
Table 12-4-9. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VI. Longitudinal Forces

Question 1 - What percentage of the live load, without impact, do you use for longitudinal forces?
Question 2 - Is the magnitude of the longitudinal force computed differently for acceleration and for declaration? If so,
what percentages do you use for either?
Question 3 - Is the longitudinal force applied at the base of rail as uniformly distributed over the length of the train, or
over some other longer length? Explain.
Question 4 - In your design for aerial structures, do you consider the possibily critical loading condition whereby a span
(or spans) is subject to longitudinal forces, without the simultaneous application of vertical live load forces?
Question 5 - For multiple track, structures, do you give consideration to various combinations of longitudinal forces due
to acceleration and deceleration applied in the same direction?
Question 6 - Do you agree with the following suggested “worst case” loading conditions for design purposes, for
longitudinal forces applied in the same direction?
a) One track structure - one track deceleration.
b) Two track structure - one track deceleration plus one track acceleration.
c) Three track structure - one track deceleration plus two tracks acceleration.
d) Four track structure - two tracks deceleration plus two tracks acceleration.
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6

1 MTA Baltimore. No comment. No. Applied over Yes, thermal & rail Yes. No comment.
Light & Heavy structure length break forces applied on
Rail. equal to train CWR.

length.
2 Sacramento 15% of train crush load, No. Applied over entire No. See AASHTO/BDS Yes. Agree with
Regional Transit. without impact, applied length of Groups III & VI service cases a) and b).
Light Rail. at 5’-0” above T/rail on structure, at 5’-0” load & load factor are Cases c) and d)
all tracks. For above T/rail. used. are unlikely.
CWR/ballasted track
50% of this force may
be applied to structure
outside the train.
3 CTA Chicago. 19% of 10 car design Deceleration = Applied over 1200 Yes. Yes. Agree with all
Heavy Rail. load over 1200 ft. 200k ft. length of four cases.
length. Acceleration = structure at B/rail
100k

distributed
1200 ft. length.
4 Sistema De Acceleration = 10% Yes. Applied over train Yes. See AASHTO Yes. Agree with cases
Transporte- Deceleration = 13% length. Table 3.22.1.A loading a), b) and d).
Colectivo Metrorrey. combination V. Don’t agree
Light Rail. with case c).
5 Metropolitan Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Atlanta Rapid Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. four cases.
Transit Authority.
Heavy Rail.
6 Metorpolitan Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Transit Auth. Deceleration = 21% length at B/rail. four cases.
12-4-75
Houston.
Light Rail.
12-4-76
Rail Transit
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6
7 Metropolitan Light Rail = 15% No. Applied 5 ft. above No. Yes. Agree with
Transit Dev. Board. Heavy Rail = Area T/rail over length cases a) and b).
San Diego. 2.2.3(J) of structure. Don’t agree
Light Rail. with cases c)
and d).
8 Metro-Dade Transit 15% No. Applied 4’-8” No. Yes. Agree with
Agency Miami. above T/rail over cases a) and b).
Heavy Rail. length of train.
9 Tri-Met Portland, Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train Yes, if loading controls. Yes. Agree with
OR. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. cases a) and b).
Light Rail. Emergency braking =
46%
10 Toronto Transit 30 kN/vehicle. No. Applied over train No answer. All No answer.
Commission. length at 1.7m combinations of
Light & Heavy above T/rail. loads to be
Rail. considered.
11 Los Angeles Metro 15% No. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Red Line. length at 5’-0” four cases.
Heavy Rail. above T/rail.
12 Los Angeles Metro Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train Yes., when CWR is Yes, at Agree with
Blue Line. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. used. Engineer’s cases a), b) and
Light Rail. discretion. d).
Case c) should
be two tracks
deceleration
plus one track
acceleration.
13 Los Angeles Metro Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Green Line. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. four cases.
Light Rail.
Table 12-4-10. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VII. Station Loads
Question 1 - What design live loading do you use for places of public assembly such as station platforms, mezzanines,
pedestrian ramps, stairways, and other pedestrian areas?
Question 2 - What design loadings do you use for railings in areas of public assembly?
Question 3 - What design live loadings do you use for service footwalks between tracks, primarily used by maintenance
personnel? Also loadings for railways, if any, attached to such footwalks?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3

1 MTA Baltimore. 150 P.S.F. 150 P.L.F. - Horiz. 170 P.L.F. for 2 ft. wide safety
Light & Heavy Rail. 100 P.L.F. - Vert. walk.
2 Sacramento Regional Transit. Use latest Uniform Buiding Code Use UBC Table 16-B 50 P.L.F. - See BDS 3.14.
Light Rail. and other local codes. Horiz.
Pt. load 200 lbs. applied
anywhere in any direction.
3 CTA Chicago. 100 P.S.F. Single Element Railing: 100 P.S.F. - generally
Heavy Rail. For supports, use 85 P.S.F. for 75 P.L.F. - Horiz. 150 P.S.F. - in areas where track
tributary areas > 300 S.F. Multiple Element Railing: materials are stored. For
50 P.L.F. - Horiz./Each Element footwalk railings see answer to
50 P.L.F. - Vert. Question 2.
Pt. load 300 lbs. applied
anywhere in any direction.
4 Sistema De Transporte-Colectivo 100 P.S.F. See AASHTO 2.7. 30 P.S.F.
Metrorrey. For railings see AASHTO 2.7.

Light Rail.
5 MARTA - Atlanta. Use Standard Building Code. Use Standard Building Code. 85 P.S.F.
Heavy Rail. For supports 60 to 85 P.S.F.
For railings 50 P.L.F. - Horiz.
6 Metorpolitan Transit Auth. 100 P.S.F. or Pt. load of 2,000 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Houston. applied anywhere for platforms For railings see AASHTO 2.7.3.
Light Rail. 100 P.S.F. for other areas
7 Metropolitan Transit Dev. Board. No specific criteria used. Loadings 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
San Diego. specified for each project. For supports, use 60 P.S.F. for
Light Rail. tributary areas > 50 S.F.
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency, 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Miami. For stairways use load of 300 lbs.
12-4-77
Heavy Rail. anywhere on each tread as alternate.

12-4-78
Rail Transit
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3
9 Tri-Met Portland, OR. No comment. No comment. No comment.
Light Rail.
10 Toronto Transit Commission. 150 P.S.F. No comment. No comment.
Light & Heavy Rail. Without impact
11 Los Angeles Metro Red Line. 100 P.S.F. 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Heavy Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For supports, use 60 P.S.F.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. for tributary areas > 50 S.F.
For railings in work areas, use Pt.
load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere
in any direction.
12 Los Angeles Metro Blue Line. 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Light Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For railings in work areas, use Pt.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere
in any direction.
13 Los Angeles Metro Green Line. 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Light Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For railings in work areas, use Pt.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere
in any direction.
Table 12-4-11. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VIII. Other Miscellaneous Loads
Question 1 - What provisions, if any, do you consider for possible derailment loads sustained by the aerial structure?
Question 2 - If the columns of the aerial structure are located in streets and other public thoroughfares, what provisions, if any, do you consider
for possible collision with vehicular traffic?
Question 3 - If the columns of the aerial structure are located between active railroad tracks, what provisions, if any, do you consider for
possible collision with trains?
Question 4 - What criteria do you use for maximum allowable simple span deflection due to live load plus impact? For pure cantilever arms?
Question 5 - For longitudinal flexural members subject to a fatigue stress range caused by passage of rapid transit trains over aerial structures,
what number of constant stress cycles do you consider for various span lengths, as being the life of the structure?
Question 6 - When pot bearings are used as span supports, what uplift forces, if any, do you consider as acting thereon? Please explain. What
factor of safety against uplift do you use, and how do you calculate it?
Question 7 - Given that differential settlement and other deformations in aerial structures could cause considerable track maintenance
problems (espeically for direct fixation track) in the future, what maximum total settlements and differential settlements do you
allow for in the design?
Question 8 - For direct fixation track on aerial structures, what design criteria do you use for transverse and longitudinal thermal forces, due
to temperature variations in CWR running rail? These forces are assumed to be applied in a horizontal plane at the top or the
bottom of the low rail? Please explain your design philosophy.
Question 9 - For the design of aerial structures and bridges to resist earthquake motions, do you follow the recommendations of the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges Relating to Seismic Design of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials? What other earthquake design references do you use and when?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9
1 MTA Baltimore. Concentration Column is Column is Simple span 3 million cycles of No answer. Max. Longitudinal thermal N/A
Light & Heavy load of 23,000 lbs. designed for protected by deflection max. stress. differential forces applied at top
Rail. located anywhere vehicular crash wall if < SPAN settlement of low rail.
on slab. impact if centerline 1000 < 1/4”. TL = 0.65 PxL per rail
within 6 ft. track to face Cantilever TL = 191 kips per rail

from curb of column is < SPAN R
line. 25 ft. or less. 375 where R = radius of
curvature in ft.
P = clamping force
per D.F. per foot
L = Average length of
two adjacent spans.
2 Sacramento See section 7.3.2.3 Column is Provide Simple and Assume 100 year life Pot Max. Longitudinal thermal See Caltrans
Regional Transit. of design criteria. protected by clearance continuous spans 18 hour day. 15 min. bearings allowable forces not considered Bridge
Light Rail. Equiv.static concrete or from deflection intervals. not used. settlement: because rail fasteners Design Specs.
derailment load metal centerline < SPAN No. of cycles: Uplift shall Spread do not impart direct Sec. 3.21
for one track = barriers. track to face 1000 = 100(365)(18)(4) not exceed footings = fixation. which are
100% vert. impact of column Cantilevers = 2,628,000 cycles 50% of dead 1/2”. modifications
factor added to = 11 ft. on < SPAN Generally aerial load. Columns of AASHTO
vehicle load. For curves. 375 structures are and pile specs.

second track no = 10 ft. on If pedestrians use reinforced concrete groups = 0”.
impact is added. tangent. bridge above i.e. cyclic stresses
See AASHTO/BDS Provide track limits shall be not as important.
load case XI for with guard SPAN and SPAN
derailment loads. rails. See 1000 375
For barrier walls 3 AREMA for respectively.
ft. clear of vehicle collision wall See BDS 8.9.3.1
or less apply horiz. requirements and 2.
force 2 ft. above
T/rail = 40% of
single vehicle
weight along 10 ft.
length of wall. For
tracks with guard
rails apply this
force to guard
12-4-79
rails.
12-4-80
Rail Transit
3 CTA Chicago. Not normally a Concrete Collision Simple span > 2 million stress Resistance Design No CWR on aerial Earthquake
Heavy Rail. factor for open pier is raised barriers are deflection cycles. Some to uplift at follows structures. loads not
deck elevated 2 ft. +/- provided. < SPAN elements receive 3 any settlement considered.
structures. above grade 640 to 20 cycles per support = recommend-
when Cantilever train and over applied ations in
replacing < SPAN 50,000 trains/year. uplift force soils report.
column 320 + 100%. Usually shim
footings. if exceeds 1”.
4 Sistema De Lateral excursion Collision Columns are Max. allowable Our system is a We do not Max. total Longitudinal thermal Yes, but in
Transporte- shall vary from 4” protection is located deflection = prestressed concrete have uplift and forces applied at our zone
Colectivo min. to 3 ft. max. provided by outside SPAN structure, and we do forces. differential B/rail = 100 tons per wind loads
Metrorrey. for tangent and special railroad 2000 not have stress settlement 60 meters of rail. govern,
Light Rail. curved (R > 5000 structures. R.O.W. reversals. For = Height of because
ft.) tracks. fatigue we consider Column seismic risk is

Vertical 2 million constant 2000 zero.
derailment load = stress cycles.
vehicle load +
100% for 2 to 4
vehicles. Horiz.
force = 40% of
single vehicle
weight applied 2
ft. above T/rail.
5 Metropolitan Derailment load = Collision Collision Simple span Not addressed in Dead load Differential See attached section Seismic loads
Atlanta Rapid live load + impact protection is protection is deflection shall MARTA design of super- settlement 18.3.9C of MARTA not currently
Transit Auth. applied parallel to provided by provided by not exceed 2” criteria. structure at between tow design criteria. addressed.
Heavy Rail. track and 3’-6” special special under all bearings > adjacent Station
from edge of slab. measures. measures. permanent dead 1.5 x net piers shall design follows
loads, and one uplift. not exceed: local
span in any 3 See Sum of 2 adj. Standard

consecutive AASHTO span lgths Buiding
spans, not more and 1200 Codes and
than 1.4”. No applicable application of
track is supported building seismic loads
on cantilever codes. depends on
girders. its location.
6 Metorpolitan Derailment load = Protective Reinforced See AASHTO Over 2 million N.A. Differential See AREMA Manual. N.A.
Transit Auth. L.R.T. vehicle curb is conc. pier is Section 10.6. applications of max. settlement See WMATA, Dade
Houston. applied parallel to installed provided. design load is between tow Co., MARTA design
Light Rail. track and 2 ft. off around the assumed. adjacent criteria.
centerline track at column and piers shall
either side. at least not exceed:
3”-0” from Sum of 2 adj.
face of span lgths
column. 1200
7 Metropolitan None Collision Provide Simple and Assume 100 year life Pot Max. Longitudinal thermal See Caltrans
Transit Dev. protection is clearance continuous spans 18 hour day. 7-1/2 bearings allowable forces not considered Bridge
Board. San provided by from deflection: min. intervals. not used. settlement: because rail fasteners Design Specs.
Diego. concrete or centerline < SPAN No. of cycles: Uplift < Spread do not impart direct Sec. 3.21
Light Rail. metal track to face 800 = 50% of dead footings = fixation. which are
barriers. of column Cantilevers 100(365)(18)(60/7.5) load. 1/2”. modifications
= 11 ft. on < SPAN = 5,256,000 Columns of AASHTO
curves. 300 Generally aerial and pile specs.
= 10 ft. on If pedestrians use structures are groups = 0”.
tangent. bridge above reinforced concrete
Provide track limits shall be i.e. cyclic stresses
with guard SPAN and SPAN not as important.
rails. See 1000 375
AREMA for respectively.

collision wall See BDS 8.9.3.1
requirements and 2.
8 Metro-Dade See Section None in None in See Section 3.05.5 See Section 3.05.6 See Section See Section See Section 3.05.2.12 Earthquake
Transit Agency 3.05.2.6 particular. particular. 3.05.4 3.05.9.4 forces not
Miami. Special Special considered.
Heavy Rail. protection protection
provided provided
when when
needed. needed.
9 Tri-Met No answer. Provide No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. We do not have D.F. No answer.
Portland, OR. concrete track.
Light Rail. shoulder
barrier, or
impact
attenuator.

10 Toronto Transit No answer. Columns to No answer. Simple and No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer.
Commission. be designed continuous spans,
Light & Heavy for road deflection shall
Rail. vehicle not exceed SPAN
collision 800
forces. Cantilever span
SPAN
300
12-4-81
12-4-82
Rail Transit
11 Los Angeles Concentrated load Not Not Simple and 3 million cycles of Use 0.9 x Total Horiz. thermal forces Yes, AASHTO
Metro Red Line. of 23,000 lbs. addressed in addressed in continuous spans, max. stress. dead load settlement applied at top of low specifications
Heavy Rail. anywhere on slab. RCC RCC criteria. deflection shall See RCC criteria and 0.75 x not greater rail.
See RCC criteria criteria. not exceed SPAN article 2.6.3.C. earth than 1”. Longitudinal = TL =
article 2.6.2B. 1000 pressure to Differential 0.65 x P x L per rail.
Cantilever arm resist settlement Transverse = TT =
SPAN uplift. not greater 191 kips per rail
375 See RCC than 1/4”. R
See RCC criteria criteria See RCC where:
article 2.6.4.B. article criteria R = radius of
and 2.6.3.A. 2.6.3.D. article 2.6.6. curvature in ft.
P = clamping force of
D.F. per ft.
L = average length of
two adjacent spans

12 Los Angeles Lateral excursion Collision None, except Depends on No answer. No answer. Not greater No answer. Yes.
Metro Blue Line. shall vary from 4” protection is a separation structure. than 1/4”.
Light Rail. min. to 3 ft. max provided by of distance
for tangent and barriers. between
curved (R > 5,000 railroad and
ft.) tracks. Verical column.
derailment load =
vehicle load +
100% for 4
vehicles.
Horiz. force =
40% of single
vehicle weight
applied 2 ft. above
T/rail and along
10 ft. length of
barrier wall 3 ft.
clear of vehicle or
less. See Section
10.3.3.
13 Los Angeles Same as L.A. Blue Columns No specific Simple and 3 million cycles of Use 0.9 x Total Horiz. thermal forces Yes, as
Metro Green Line above. See normally criteria. continuous spans, max. stress. dead load settlement applied at top of low modified by
Line. Section 10.3.3. located Follow deflection shall See Section and 0.75 x not greater rail. Caltran’s
Light Rail. within curbs AREMA not exceed SPAN 10.6.4.C. earth than 1”. Longitudinal = TL = AASHTO/
at sidewalks. manual as 1000 pressure to Differential 0.65 x P x L per rail. BDS. See
needed. Cantilever arm resist settlement Transverse = TT = Section
SPAN uplift. See not greater 191 kips per rail 10.3.4.
375 Section than 1/4”. R
See Section 10.6.4.D. See Section where:
10.6.5.A & B. 10.6.7. R = radius of
curvature in ft.
P = clamping force of
D.F. per ft.
L = average length of
two adjacent spans

12-4-83
Rail Transit
4.5.13 CURVED GIRDER BRIDGES (2007)
The purpose of these provisions is to identify special requirements that should be considered during the design and
construction of Curved Girder Bridges for rail transit applications. These rail-transit guidelines are written as
supplementary criterion that augments or supersedes the provisions established by the referenced design codes.
These provisions are intended for Curved Girder Bridges that carry rail-transit revenue service, and associated
system maintenance vehicles.
4.5.13.2 Design Codes
Curved Girder Bridges shall be designed using the current edition of the following codes, in the following order of
precedence:
a. (AREMA) Manual for Railway Engineering, by the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-
Way Association.
b. (AASHTO Guide Specifications) AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder
Highway Bridges, published by the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials.
c. (AASHTO) Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials.
4.5.13.3 Materials
Construction materials and their corresponding design properties shall conform to AREMA recommended practice.
High strength bolts shall be used for field connections or splicing of primary structural steel members, including
diaphragms and cross frames.
Uncoated steel bars shall be used for reinforced concrete to facilitate installation of corrosion control systems that
are used to resist stray current.
4.5.13.4 Loads
4.5.13.4.1 General
Loads shall be in accordance to AREMA Chapter 8 Design Loads and Loading Combinations.
4.5.13.4.2 Live Load
Criteria for vehicle live loads should be established by individual transit agencies, based on the anticipated revenue
service trains. Ideally, the design vehicle live load should be representative of the actual revenue service vehicles,
based on the AW4 design- or crush- load characteristics. Transit agencies must be cognizant of changing vehicle
characteristics, and over time, may need to update design vehicle live load criteria, and possibly modify or
strengthen existing structures to satisfy current strength and serviceability requirements.
In addition, curved girder bridges must also be designed for maintenance vehicles. A maintenance vehicle is an
occasional, controlled load, and therefore the structure should be designed using AREMA Group Load Combinations
with an allowable overstress, or load factor reduction. Transit agencies should select maintenance equipment with
care, to avoid excessive loads that may potentially control the structural design of numerous components.

4.5.13.4.3 Derailment Load
Structures shall be designed to resist derailment loads according to the provisions specified by AREMA,
Chapter 12. The geometric characteristics of a horizontally curved girder bridge tend to reduce global stability,
which should be carefully examined for the derailment condition.
4.5.13.5 Structural Analysis and Design
4.5.13.5.1 General
Steel curved girder superstructures shall be designed according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally
Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges. Concrete curved girder superstructures shall be designed in conformance to
the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Curved girder bridge bearings, substructures and
foundation components shall be designed using the recommended practice specified by AREMA Volume 2.
4.5.13.5.2 Foundations
If practical, eccentric configurations should be used for foundations to counterbalance dead load overturning.
4.5.13.5.3 Substructure
Columns must be checked for full factored uplift, which may generate critical axial-bending load combinations.
To minimize potential uplift loads, pier caps and abutment bridge seats should be arranged with a radial orientation.
1
For structural efficiency, longitudinal traction and seismic loads are often resisted through a multiple series of
fixed substructure units. An efficient design requires a careful balance between structural flexibility and capacity.
4.5.13.5.4 Bearings
Manufactured spherical or pot bearings are generally used to support horizontally curved rail-transit bridges,
because they are subjected to relatively large, variable-range applied loads, in conjunction with moderate 3
displacement demands.
The bearings and bearing anchor bolt design should account for full potential uplift. The bearing design and
anchorage system should allow for future bearing replacement based on a prescribed procedure that can be
performed within a specified time duration.
The geometric alignment of guided bearings must be carefully evaluated, and should include a mechanism for field 4
adjustments. Resultant thermal movement is assumed to coincide with a longitudinal chord that intersects the
transverse mid-point of the subject span supports.
4.5.13.5.5 Superstructure Geometry
Curved girder bridges must be designed for the increased clearance requirements imposed by the track geometry
that typically includes horizontal tangent, spiral, and circular curved sections with vertical superelevations and
possible vertical curves. Clearances must accommodate the additional mid-ordinate offset and end-overhang throw
of the transit vehicle.
Horizontally, the geometric design of a curved girder superstructure should be configured using a series of best-fit
compound curves. The track will be constructed to satisfy the final alignment design, so the relative location of the
rails will deviate between various transverse sections to accommodate the slight geometric differences between the
circular bridge superstructure and the actual track alignment.

Rail Transit
Vertically, the girders and bridge deck should be designed and constructed in a horizontal plane that follows the
top-of-low rail profile. Transversely, the girders and bridge deck should be level; and required superelevation
provided by variable-depth ballast or direct-fixation rail plinths.
4.5.13.5.6 Diaphragms
The diaphragms or cross frames function as primary members to transfer torsion induced forces between the
curved longitudinal girders or box webs. Consequently, the diaphragms, cross frames, and their connections must
be fully analyzed and designed according to the respective provisions for steel or concrete bridges.
In certain situations, the steel diaphragms or cross frames may qualify as Fracture Critical Members.
4.5.13.5.7 Fatigue
The controlling sections or components of rail transit bridges are typically designed with a capacity that satisfies
the demand of each passing train. Therefore, the fatigue design of all curved girder bridges must satisfy AREMA
recommended practice specified by Chapters 8 or 15.
4.5.13.5.8 Deflections and Vibrations
Transit guideways shall be designed to satisfy AREMA Chapter 12 requirements for deflections and vibrations.
Curved girder superstructures must be investigated for frequency of vibration characteristics to ensure that the
system rail vehicles, operating within design speed range, will not induce resonance.
4.5.13.5.9 Joints
To minimize potential uplift forces, pier caps and corresponding deck joints should be arranged with a radial
orientation that is orthogonal to the bridge superstructure. Adherence to this provision will improve the detailing
and performance of direct fixation trackwork.
For transit guideways that use Continuous Welded Rail (CWR), the bearing arrangement and corresponding expansion
joint placement will dominate the interactive rail force, which is generated by differential thermal movement between
the jointed superstructure and the theoretically fixed, continuous rail. Curved girder bridges must be designed for this
interactive force to verify that the rail stress and pier capacities are not exceeded during normal thermal cycles, and to
confirm that the rails are sufficiently restrained to control gap lengths in the event of a rail break.
4.5.13.6 Construction
4.5.13.6.1 General
Curved Girder Bridge construction shall conform to the guidelines specified by the respective reference design codes.
4.5.13.6.2 Stability
Check the stability of the various girder configurations, with and without decks, expected during construction.
Single curved girders tend to rotation along their chord. Continuous curved girders can rotate and exhibit uplift at
the bearings.
To satisfy static equilibrium, steel girder bridges shall be designed and constructed using at least two girders at
every cross section. To facilitate construction, additional steel girders should be furnished as pairs or in multiples
of two, when they are needed by design to support wider cross sections.
Single curved, steel- and concrete-box girders are permissible, because static equilibrium should be achieved by
providing independent bearings beneath each web.

4.5.13.6.3 Loads
The vertical track tolerance for a direct-fixation rail transit guideway is typically +/- 0.125 inches. Consequently, the
sequence of construction for a curved girder bridge, which usually entails multiple continuous spans, must be carefully
planned and controlled to obtain an as-built deck profile that satisfies track installation tolerances. The Constructor
shall prepare stress and deflection calculations that demonstrate how the superstructure responds during each stage
of construction. This sequence-of-construction plan shall be implemented and monitored by the Constructor.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS
The design of a rail transit tunnel is based on the type of equipment that will use the tunnel. This Section
discusses the design considerations that are presented by transit equipment and operations. The designer should 1
review this Section with the goal of identifying rail transit design criteria. Other sections of this manual and other
references should be consulted to complete the design criteria.
Though the discussion that follows focuses on traditional tunnel construction, it can be applied to the design of the
following general types of underground rail transit facilities.
Traditional tunnels through rock or very stable soil built using tunneling or mining techniques and 3
equipment, such as boring machines. This type of construction does not disturb the surface transportation
and building systems, except at isolated locations. It is usually used when alignment designs require the
tracks to be far below the surface or to avoid disturbing the surface or building foundations.
Sunken tubes usually are used to build a tunnel beneath a river with a soft bottom. Here a trench is dug in
the river bottom and sections of the tunnel lining, typically made of steel, are sunk or placed in the trench,
connected to form the tunnel or tube, and then de-watered. 4
Cut and cover tunnels usually are used in urban settings and where the alignment design requires the
tracks to be close to the surface. These consist of opening the surface of an existing street using open
trenching techniques to create the subsurface space for the tracks. The excavation may extend 20 to 40 feet
below the surface. This subsurface space is then closed with a structure that supports the street and/or
ground, completely isolating the tracks from the surface and other conflicting modes of transportation.
4.7.2 DESIGN (2006)
Most transit systems start on paper as a set of design standards that define the various aspects of the system
needed by the engineer to design the track alignment, and the requisite structures and appurtenances for an
operational system. These standards define the dimensions (height, width, offset) and structural loads for the
system. The standards can also include architectural finishes, mechanical, electrical and other such equipment.

Rail Transit
The defining aspect of rail transit standards are the rail cars that will use the system. These include the revenue
cars for passengers, and all the maintenance and other types of equipment that the owner/authority will use for the
life of the system. Some times other entities, such as freight railroads, will operate equipment on the system.
Tunnels and the associated design standards may accommodate running or line tracks (local and express), storage
tracks, yard and maintenance tracks, station platforms, work and evacuation platforms, passenger services
(ticketing, rest rooms), or connections to private property, such as office buildings.
The designer must apply the design standards consistently using sound engineering judgment.
4.7.2.1 Lining Systems
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintainability and Maintenance Costs
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Site Conditions
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Ground
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Groundwater Leaking and Corrosion
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.2 Deflections
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Earthquake
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Settlement
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Tunnel System
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Adjacent Structures
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.3 Hazardous Materials
Hazardous materials arise as problems in transit tunnels in two instances. The first arises during design and
construction. The soils to be excavated must be free of hazardous materials otherwise; the plans, schedules and
estimates must include the extra costs of handling and disposal of excavated materials. Failure to investigate and

trenching techniques to create the subsurface space for the tracks. The excavation may extend 20 to 40 feet
below the surface. This subsurface space is then closed with a structure that supports the street and/or
ground, completely isolating the tracks from the surface and other conflicting modes of transportation.
4.7.2 DESIGN (2006)
Most transit systems start on paper as a set of design standards that define the various aspects of the system
needed by the engineer to design the track alignment, and the requisite structures and appurtenances for an
operational system. These standards define the dimensions (height, width, offset) and structural loads for the
system. The standards can also include architectural finishes, mechanical, electrical and other such equipment.
The defining aspect of rail transit standards are the rail cars that will use the system. These include the revenue
cars for passengers, and all the maintenance and other types of equipment that the owner/authority will use for the
life of the system. Some times other entities, such as freight railroads, will operate equipment on the system.
Tunnels and the associated design standards may accommodate running or line tracks (local and express), storage
tracks, yard and maintenance tracks, station platforms, work and evacuation platforms, passenger services
(ticketing, rest rooms), or connections to private property, such as office buildings.
The designer must apply the design standards consistently using sound engineering judgment.
4.7.2.1 Lining Systems
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
Maintainability and Maintenance Costs
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Site Conditions
Ground
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Groundwater Leaking and Corrosion

4
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.2 Deflections
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Earthquake
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Settlement
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Tunnel System

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Adjacent Structures
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.3 Hazardous Materials
Hazardous materials arise as problems in transit tunnels in two instances. The first arises during design and
construction. The soils to be excavated must be free of hazardous materials otherwise; the plans, schedules and
estimates must include the extra costs of handling and disposal of excavated materials. Failure to investigate and
plan for these conditions will give rise to contractors’ claims and schedule slippage. Adequate investigation and
fair contract provisions are needed before startup of the job.
The second problem arises in operations in the case of underground gases. Designs must be adequate to seal the
tunnel lining. Also, air quality detection and monitoring systems may be required. Ventilation systems should be
planned to evacuate explosive gasses in such areas.
4.7.2.4 Community Interface
Underground tunnels are not completely immune to community interface problems and benefits. The interfaces
arise at station locations or where ventilation or utility facilities emerge from the underground.
Of these, station interfaces are the most important. Serious community planning is required as to space for access
trunks and foot traffic flows to and from the underground station. Station access into a sidewalk is often a
compromised design. The sidewalk space may be too narrow to accommodate the surface foot traffic. The stairway
to the underground may have to be overly narrow to accommodate the subway traffic flow. Better solutions are to
be found by incorporating the vertical access inside the adjacent buildings. This can sometime be a significant
benefit to the building owner by providing direct access to his business from the underground station. If plazas or
open areas are adjacent to planned station locations, they can be ideal areas of access facilities.
Once underground, foot traffic needs lateral access for emergence on two or more sides of busy streets. This is
accomplished with mezzanines between the street level and the subway level. Well-planned mezzanines with
multiple accesses can substantially improve the interface between the subway and the community’s surface
developments.
A special requirement can be found for handicapped access. This is normally an elevator. The elevators must be
coordinated with the fare collection method and the subterranean platform access. This access trunk may require
separate shafts between the street level and the platform level connecting in some way on the mezzanine level.
The other prominent surface feature that arises from the underground tunnel is the ventilation facilities. These
may be street or sidewalk grates. For large forced airflows, intake and exhaust must be above street level to avoid
uncomfortable winds and temperatures at the sidewalk. Like stairway or escalator access, the ambience of the
community is improved if the ventilation facility is housed in the side of an adjacent building.
The other utility features, power, communications, and fire protection, can usually be located in a manner to avoid
community disruptions on the surface.
4.7.2.5 Vibration
Vibrations from the movement of underground trains are often disturbing to the activities in the adjacent
buildings. Proper tunnel planning requires that the nature of the buildings along the planned route and the
activities therein be surveyed in the beginning. Certain facilities such as hospitals or operations utilizing sensitive
instruments will not be tolerant to underground vibrations. Based upon data from operating systems, the expected

level of vibration from the new tunnel should be determined. Also, tolerance levels of the sensitive facilities along
the route need to be determined.
If amelioration is needed, systems have been developed in the U.S. and Europe to reduce vibrations. These have
been systems for elastic rail mounting or the fastening of the rails to floating concrete slabs supported on
elastomer pads. It is suggested that existing operators be contacted to determine the effectiveness of their
individual systems. When adopting vibration damping, long-term maintenance, such as replacing devices under
floating concrete slabs, should also be determined.
4.7.2.6 Electrolysis
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.7 Car Equipment Clearances
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Car Equipment
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Revenue (Passenger and/or Freight)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
Work Equipment
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.8 Curvature Clearances
Two primary considerations must be given to curvature in transit tunnels, radius and loading gauge. 3
Curves
The first consideration, curve radius, will first be determined by the standards for the system as a whole.
These are limited by the characteristics of the rolling stock as discussed above. The second limitation on
radius is that of fitting an underground tunnel into an urban environment.
4
Following a tangent alignment under an existing street is not difficult except for the normal underground
obstacles met in urban construction. Going around a corner under urban streets can be more difficult.
Underpinning of adjacent buildings becomes more important. To negotiate the corner, it is often necessary
to purchase and demolish the structures on the inside of the curve in order to obtain a sufficient curve
radius. In such constructions consideration should then be paid to incorporating a substructure for future
above ground buildings once the subway tunnel is completed.
Loading Gauge
The second consideration for underground curvature concerns the clearance envelope or loading gauge.
Reasonable care must be exercised in design and construction to provide for chording, end swing,
superelevation and limits of rocking of the equipment to be operated in the tunnel. Loading gauge becomes
more critical in curves than on tangents. It becomes important to double check the design and to monitor
the construction progress with special care. Consideration should be given to possible future rolling stock
designs (survey the manufacturers’ catalogues) and to unusual equipment such as work equipment and
maintenance machinery.

Rail Transit
4.7.3 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS (2006)
4.7.3.1 Train and Car Capacity
4.7.3.2 Crisis Management
Underground infrastructure must accommodate crisis management. A number of situations must be met- stalled
trains, loss of power, derailments, collisions, and worst of all, fires.
In all cases the objective is to rescue the passengers without injury or loss of life. If the transit vehicle can be
pulled out of the tunnel without delay, this is an operating problem and no additional infrastructure is needed. But
other situations must be provided for.
A means of coordinated egress from the transit vehicles must be designed into the tunnel. This is usually with a
floor-height walkway along the side of the tunnel to a point of exit. The point of exit may be a nearby station or
may be a vertical stairway access to the surface.
The emergency escape route must also be fitted with a handrail along the wall, emergency lighting and periodic
emergency telephone stations.
Underwater tunnels may provide a separate escape tunnel parallel to the railway tunnel with periodic connections
to the railway tunnel walkway similar to the vertical access provisions on land.
4.7.3.3 Fire
The worst situation involves tunnel fires and the possibility of asphyxiation by the combustion products. NFPA
Code 130 specifying ventilation requirements to prevent loss of life covers this situation. To comply, underground
transit tunnels must provide ventilation plants for bi-directional air movement meeting the required flow
characteristics. Furthermore, these plants must have control and communication provisions so that they may be
quickly activated and most important, that they blow the smoke in the opposite direction to the evacuation route.
For successful operation, the railway signal system must then provide an accurate location of the train in the tunnel.
To complete the fire safety requirements for infrastructure, fire mains and access for fire fighters must be
incorporated into the tunnel design. The stations and vertical escape trunks must also allow access for fire fighting
and the necessary gear. Water mains must be fitted to the tunnel walls or floor and provision must be made to shut
off traction power.
4.7.3.4 Loss of Power
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.5 Train Crash
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.6 Flooding
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.7 Emergency Evacuation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

4.7.3.8 Security
To discuss security it is first necessary to separate the focus on security as being of somewhat different character
than safety. Safety is concerned with preventing accidents. Security is concerned with preventing undesired access
or undesired acts by individuals with anti-social intent.
The matter of undesired access deals with preventing access to the non-public areas of the underground system.
This means that access trunks, equipment rooms and administrative spaces should be protected with doors and
locks that are not easily tampered with. The problem becomes one of preventing vandalism and at the same time
protecting the safety of the vandals. Access doors should be fitted with alarms that communicate with the railway
system’s central control.
The easier access for vandals is through the stations. It is a simple matter to enter the tracks from a station and
that possibility should be made as difficult as reasonable. This is usually done with access gates at the end of
platforms and warning signs. The warning signs need to communicate two messages; “Danger” and “Entry
Forbidden”. In trouble areas, it may be desirable to install TV monitors and presence detectors.
The other element of security is to discourage anti-social acts of thieves and muggers. This is a matter of station
design.
Passenger Safety
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Trespassers 1
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.9 Maintenance Requirements
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3
Lighting
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Material Storage
Track Capacity for Maintenance
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Foot Walks or Other Access for Personnel
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.10 Mechanical Systems
Mechanical Systems and Equipment Rooms
There are a number of systems vital to transit operation that must be incorporated into the tunnel
design. These include traction power equipment, signal equipment, communications equipment, pump
rooms, and ventilation plants.

Rail Transit
Traction power requires connection to the local power net. It is assumed that the transit system will be
operated on 650v DC current or similar, as is the common worldwide practice. Provisions must be made
for transformers and electrical DC conversion equipment. This equipment may be either above ground
or below ground. One of the early design problems to be overcome is coordinating these installations
with the local power company.
Subway tunnels require drainage. This is accomplished with pumping systems. Pumping systems
usually require underground equipment rooms sufficient to accommodate the equipment estimated to
prevent flooding. Outlet for the expelled water must also be found in the urban utility system. Some
older systems also incorporate equipment for compressed air. It is not likely that compressed air will be
needed in new transit systems due to the common use of electrical pumps.
Ventilation plants must also be designed into the tunnels. These plants will be handling large volumes
of air. The plants themselves may be either above or below ground. But their exhaust emerges onto the
surface and must be designed so as not to be a community nuisance. The exhaust trunks are sometimes
incorporated into the sides of buildings above street level where the airflow is less objectionable.
HVAC
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Plumbing
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintenance Access
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.11 Utilities Needed to Support Tunnel Operations
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.12 Communications and Train Control
The railway signaling system will require provision for both equipment rooms and trackside equipment.
Equipment rooms will be needed for interlockings and control locations. The trackside equipment will vary with
the type of signal system selected. It will require connection boxes, relay or computer cases and possibly radio
equipment. These must be coordinated during preliminary design with the signal engineering. The system may or
may not require accommodation for lineside signals depending upon the system chosen.
The communications equipment parallels the signaling component. Communications requires equipment rooms
(possibly shared with signal equipment) and periodic facilities along the tunnel. The emergency telephones along
the escape walkways are one facility. There may also be working telephones for maintenance and operations. In
the evolving electronic environment, all but the emergency telephones are likely to be serviced over radio circuits.
The tunnel must be fitted with appropriate antennae for radio communications. This can take multiple forms.
The first is a radio system to connect the train drivers with system control. A closely related system will be for
maintenance communications. If a radio based signal system has been chosen, it must be coordinated and
accommodated. Lastly, there will be a public demand for cell phone compatibility in the tunnel.
An important tunnel feature, particularly for signaling, communications and traction power, is the incorporation of
duct banks or some means of longitudinal cabling. These are often accommodated by incorporating multiple
wireway conduits in the walkway bench along the tunnel wall. It is wise to include more conduits than thought

necessary. Some systems have had commercial success by leasing their excess conduits, as the subway tunnels can
be attractive paths for other utility providers.
4.7.4.1 Variability of Substrata
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Geologic Investigation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Construction Flexibility
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.4.2 Groundwater
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Structural Impact
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
De-Watering
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Leak Mitigation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3
4.7.4.3 Utilities
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Interface With Existing Utilities

4
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Tunnel Operations Impacts
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintenance Access
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
4.7.5 MAINTENANCE (2006)
SECTION 4.8 SEGMENTAL GIRDER GUIDEWAYS
Segmental Girder Guideways have become quite common for light rail transit systems. Freight, Commuter and
Intercity Passenger railroads do not typically employ this type of structure.
4.8.2 DESIGN (2006)
The design of Segmental Girder Guideways should conform to the recommended practices of AASHTO Guide
Specifications for the Design and Construction of Segmental Bridges, Second Edition 1999 as amended by
AASHTO E-19-GSCB-2-I1 and as modified below.
4.8.2.1 Seismic Criteria
The seismic design of Segmental Girder Guideways should be governed by the seismic criteria contained in
Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures of this Manual.
4.8.2.2 Loading
The loading of the structure should conform to an HS-25 loading at a minimum. The HS-25 loading shall be
developed by multiplying the AASHTO HS-20-44 loads by 1.25. The designer shall verify that the HS-25 loading is
appropriate for the equipment that is to be operated on the structure.
4.8.2.3 Track Loading
For the purposes of applying the AASHTO design methodology, the term traffic lane shall be taken to mean a single
track.
4.8.2.4 Derailment Loading
When checking any component of the superstructure or substructure that supports two or more tracks, only one
track shall be considered to have a derailed train. The remaining tracks shall be loaded with stationary vehicles.
Reduction of positive moments generated by derailment loads on adjacent spans of continuous structures shall not
be taken.
Vertical
The derailment load shall be that produced by a fully loaded train placed with each vehicle's longitudinal
axis placed parallel to the track.
For tangent track and curves with radii greater than 5,000’ the excursion shall vary from a minimum of 4”
to a maximum excursion of 36”.
For curves with radii less than 5,000’ the excursion shall be a minimum of 4”. The maximum excursion
shall be the lesser of 36” or 8’ from the nearest barrier, or the edge of the deck.

Where derailment-limiting devices such as guardrails of catch rails are installed the maximum excursion
shall be the limit provided by the derailment-limiting device. Even if derailment-limiting devices are
employed, one truck shall have the maximum excursion listed in the preceding paragraphs. The truck
placement shall be selected and placed to result in the critical loading.
Horizontal
For cross sections having clearance between the train and barrier wall of 6” to 36”, the derailment force
shall be taken as 40% of a single, fully loaded vehicle acting at the greater of 2’ or the floor height above the
top of the rail and normal to the barrier.
Impact
A vertical impact factor of 100% of the crush load vehicle weight shall be applied in computing the
equivalent static derailment load.
The entire deck shall be designed for the load from one truck located anywhere on the deck with a vertical
impact factor of 100%. The selection of the truck shall give the critical loading.
4.8.2.5 Emergency Loading
Emergency conditions may require a more restrictive loading regime than typical operations. In an emergency, a
second full train may be coupled to a disabled train to pull it into the nearest station for evacuation of the
passengers. Both trains could be at their full crush load rating if the emergency occurred during the peak rush
hour. The designer shall ensure that the guideway is designed to safely carry maximum loading developed by this 1
arrangement of trains.
SECTION 4.9 DIRECT FIXATION

3
Direct Fixation refers to a wide range of products and installations. The term Direct Fixation used in this Section
of the Manual shall refer to rail fastening systems that are attached to the structure using either cast-in-place or
post-installed fasteners or anchors.
4
Systems where the rail, ties or tie blocks are integrally cast into the structure, often referred to as embedded track,
are not discussed in this Section.
Direct fixation is used in tunnel inverts, bridge decks, concrete crossings, and slab on grade track sections.
4.9.2 DESIGN (2006)
The design of Direct Fixation installations should conform to the requirements contained in TCRP Report 71,
Volume 6 as amplified and modified below.
4.9.2.1 Concrete Specifications
Concrete used for structures and plinths shall conform to Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations of this
Manual.

Rail Transit
4.9.2.2 Plinth Configuration
On direct fixation installations that employ plinths, there are several issues that need to be considered beyond the
structural integrity of the plinth.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement and stirrups tying the plinth to the deck shall be placed to provide adequate distance
between the fastener and the reinforcement to minimize stray currents and to prevent damage during the
installation of post-install fasteners. The design should also allow for additional cover to prevent slight
misplacement of stirrups and rebar from resulting in inadequate cover.
Drainage
Gaps between plinths provide areas to control cracking and also act as drainage pathways. In locations
where storms of high intensities occur, adequate space between the plinths and under the rail is required to
drain the track structure.
Maintenance
Plinth height affects the maintenance of the track structure. A nominal plinth height of 6” places the top of
rail at approximately 14”. Working over and around tall plinths can be difficult. The presence of tall plinths
presents tripping hazards.
Emergency Access and Egress
As the plinth height increases, the distance from the car body floor or lower step increases. The height of
this step can be an impediment to efficient evacuation of a train in an emergency.
Similarly, tall plinths are an obstacle to movement across the tracks to exit stairs, and for access by
emergency crews.
4.9.2.3 Corrosion
The design of the metal parts of the Direct Fixation System should consider the effects of roadway salt spray from
adjacent roadways or when installed in marine environments. Conventional railroad tie plates have high copper
content to resist corrosion. Steel components of custom-designed direct fixation systems can exhibit high corrosion
rates not normally associated with railroad track materials.
Great care should be taken in designing the track fixation system to be sure all components will actually retain
adequate electrical isolation over the design life to minimize future stray current transmission and resulting
component and/or structure degradation.

12
Part 5
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 5, Vehicle Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

3
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

12
Part 6
Considerations
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 6, Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.3 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2

6.5.1 Introduction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.2 Eletric Traction Systems Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.3 Electrification System Design Characteristics (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.4 Traction Power Equipment (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.5 Special Considerations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-3
6.5.6 Testing and Analysis (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-3

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 6.3 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.2 ELETRIC TRACTION SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.3 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.4 TRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

6.5.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.6 TESTING AND ANALYSIS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit

12
Part 7
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 7, Maintenance of Way Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

7.1.1 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3 3

7.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.2 Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.3 Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.4 Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.5 Effects on Adjacent Land Uses (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3

7.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3.2 Signals (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.3 Track (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.4 Structures (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.5 Traction Power (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.4.2 Maintenance of Way Equipment (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.5.3 Ride Quality (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.5.4 Gage Limits (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

Rail Transit
7.5.5 Vertical Deviations and Variations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.5.6 Horizontal Deviations and Variations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.5.7 Compound Wear Limits (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.6.1 Track Maintenance Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6.2 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6.3 Normal Inspection Protocol (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.7.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.8.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6

7.9.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6

7.10.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
7.10.2 Cleaning (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
7.10.3 Snow and Ice Removal (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.2 RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
7.2.3 PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.4 EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATIONS AND CUSTOMERS (2006)

3
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.5 EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
7.3.2 SIGNALS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.3 TRACK (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.4 STRUCTURES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.5 TRACTION POWER (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.4.2 MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

7.5.3 RIDE QUALITY (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.4 GAGE LIMITS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.5 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.6 HORIZONTAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.7 COMPOUND WEAR LIMITS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.6.1 TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS (2006)

3
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.6.2 SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4
7.6.3 NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.7.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.8.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.9.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.2 CLEANING (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.3 SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1

Rail Transit

12
Chapter 12 Glossary1
— 1996 —
The following terms are used in Chapter 12 Rail Transit and are placed here in alphabetical order for your
convenience.
Access-way
That portion of the ground, any floor, passage, stairway or other recognized fixed foothold, affording
approach to high voltage electrical equipment, and on which it is intended that a person shall walk or stand
while such electrical equipment is “alive.”
ACSR
A stranded “Aluminum Conductor, Steel Reinforced,” used for the messenger wire, and for return and feeder
wires.
Actual Span 1
Span length as measured on the ground and not determined from the arithmetic difference of the two pole
locations.
Air Break Switch/Isolator

A switch or isolator, the contact of which make and break in the air.
3
Alive
When an electrical conductor is at a potential different from that of the common return or any other
conductor of the system of which it forms a part.
Along Track Movement

The motion of catenary induced by counterweights and due to thermal expansion or contraction.
Anchor
• Anchor bolt – a large bolt inserted into a drilled hole in rock or concrete and grouted to form a strong
attachment.
• Deadman – an anchor buried in ground, usually a rectangular block of concrete, to which a down guy
is attached.
• Plate – a buried plate at the end of an anchor rod used with down guys.
• Rock anchor – an anchor used for down guys installed in holes drilled in rock which may have an
expanding section at the end tightened into the rock by turning its anchor rod.
• Screw anchor – a screw type blade at the end of an anchor rod used with down guys, installed by
screwing into soil
1
References, Vol. 97 p. 122

Rail Transit
Auxiliary Wire
An additional wire in a catenary system, installed between a messenger wire and the contact wire, used for
high speed electrification.
Berm
Top edges on each side of an embankment.
Block
See “Pulley.”
Blow Off
See wind blow off.
Bolted Base
A method of attaching foundations to poles and stanchions by a bolting process.
Bond
An electrical connection between metal hardware to eliminate static discharge.
• Bond, impedance – a magnetic impedance device with center tap connected to grounding or return
wire systems, itself connected across rails for signalization purposes; offers high resistance to AC
current and almost no resistance to DC current.
• Bond, rail – electrical connection between adjacent lengths of rail.
Booster Transformer
A type of transformer with one winding in the catenary system, the other in the return wire circuit to absorb
current from rails to the return wire; also known as suction transformer; not to be confused with auto-
transformer used for raising voltage towards the receiving end of the line.
Bracket
Termed as Pole Bracket or Cantilever.
• Fixing – the means by which the crossarm assembly is attached to the structure.
• Swing mounting arm – the hardware used for attaching the crossarm to a pole which allows
movement along the line by allowing the end away from the pole to swing.
Bull Ring
A circular steel bar providing termination for multiple wires.
Cable
A length of single insulated conductor (solid or stranded), or two or more such conductors, each provided
with its own insulation, which are laid up together; the insulated conductor or conductors may or may not be
provided with the overall mechanical and/or insulating protective covering.

Glossary
Camber
A preset defection curvature or the hog of a beam that maintains aesthetic appearance even after the beam is
loaded.
Cantilever
See “Bracket.”
Carbon Collector
The carbon strip top of the pantograph or insert of a harp assembly on trolley poles which ride along the
contact wire.
Catenary
• American use – the combination of conductors, hangers and in-span hardware of the overhead contact
system, not including supports and crossarms.
• British use – the wire from which the contact wire is suspended by means of droppers or hangers,
called “messenger wire.”
• Compound catenary – comprising a contact wire supported from the auxiliary wire, which is
supported from the messenger wire.
• Dictionary meaning
1
– the curve assumed by a perfectly flexible cord of uniform density and cross-section hanging freely from
two fixed points;
– something in the form of a catenary.
• Simple catenary – comprising a contact wire supported from the messenger wire.
3
• Stitched – an inverted Y or bridle arrangement, used at the supports of a catenary system to improve
dynamic characteristics.
• Trolley – comprising the contact wire only.
Chainage 4
The stationing or mileage marking along an alignment or track.
Chicago Grip
A tool for temporarily gripping and dead-ending wires under tension.
Clamp
• Parallel clamp – a piece of hardware used to clamp two parallel wire together.
• Pipe clamp – a piece of hardware used to attach various type of components to a pipe.
• Strain clamp – a piece of hardware used for dead-ending a wire.
• Suspension – a piece of hardware used to support a wire in hanging arrangement.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 12-G-3

Rail Transit
Clearance Profile (or envelope), Open Line

The clearance envelope around a vehicle, pole, or contact wire system where it is clear of intrusion.
Clipping In
Sagging an overhead wire to correct tension and clamping it at the support and fixing hangers.
Coffin Hoist or Chain Hoist

A construction tool used for pulling and adjusting wires under tension operated by a lever arm and a ratchet.
Co nd u c t o r
Any body or substance specifically provided for the purpose of conducting an electric current.
Constant Tension
Constant tensioned conductors, normally provided by counterweights, spring tension, or by pneumatic and
hydraulic tensioning devices.
Contact Bridge
A rigid bar about 5 ft long fixed closely above the in-running contact wire forming a slot for a second contact
wire to pass through.
Contact Rail System

The positive electrical distribution system for transmission of traction power to the transit vehicles (third
rail); an electrical conductor located alongside the track, designed to carry energy for the propulsion of
trains.
Contact Wire
The overhead wire with which the pantograph or current collector is designed to make contact, also called
trolley wire.
Contact Wire Height

The height of the underside of the contact wire above a road or rail level when not uplifted by the
pantograph or trolley pole.
Copperweld Conductor
A wire or a stranded cable made out of several wires, with a steel core and layer of copper fused around it.
Counterbalance
Another name for a counterweight (see “Counterweight”).
Counterpoise
A buried wire or a configuration of wires to provide a low resistance to grounded systems not covering as
large an area as a ground mat.
Counterweight
The weighted tensioning device at each end of the tension section, sometimes called counterbalance.

Glossary
Creep
The ongoing permanent stretch of wires under tension for long periods of time.
Crosby Clip
A wire rope clip.
Cross Span
Indicates anything that crosses the overhead contact system or rails at catenary level.
Crossarm
The support frame and registration assembly supporting the catenary.
Crossovers
A casting for trolley contact system or in trackwork a track connecting parallel track (see “Frog”).
C.T.
Indicates current transformers
Current Collector
See “Carbon Collector.”
Curve
1
• Horizontal – curvature of a street or track.
• Transition – a curve of increasing radius that connects from a curve to a tangent or another curve.
• Vertical – the vertical curvature of the street road paving or the track.
Curve Segment 3
See “Segments.”
Dead
Isolated and grounded.
Dead-End/Fixed End 4
A tensioned conductor termination without automatic tension devices such as counter weights or springs.
Disconnect
An off-load/“no-load” type electrical switch for disconnecting electrical power feed from a line section.
Drop Bracket
An assembly fixed below a registration pipe that permits the heel of the steady arm to be adjusted for height.
Dropper
British term for hanger.

Rail Transit
Earth, Earthing, etc.

British term for ground, grounding, etc.
Electrical Clearance
• Passing – air clearance between live parts of either the vehicle or the overhead contact system (OCS)
and grounded parts of the fixed structures; it exists during the passage of the trolley, trailer, locomotive
or car.
• Static – air clearance between live parts of an overhead install-system structure and grounded parts of
a fixed structure.
Electrical Section
All streets or sections of railway lines provided with overhead contact system (OCS) equipment for electric
traction purposes; term normally used in a catenary system indicating the distance between the lowest and
highest energized conductor at a point of suspension (i.e. at a pole).
Encumbrance
See “System Height.”
Envelope
A theoretical form which is greater than the actual item (see “Clearance Profile”).
Equation
The mathematical relationship between two chainages along diverging at a given point – may be due to
routes accumulating differential chainage at a point of reconvergence.
Feeders
Conductors which supply power to or augment the power-carrying capacity of the OCS conductors in a
supply system.
Field Drill
When necessary to drill a hole by the constructors.
Fixed End/Dead-End
See “Dead-End.”
Flange
The flat sides of an “I” beam or the edge of a railroad wheel extending outward from the tread area.
Floating
A section of insulated wire with no proper electrical connections to a power supply or to a grounding circuit.
Foundation
• Side bearing – a laterally loaded foundation (i.e. pier type).
• Spread – a foundation with a predominantly vertical load.

Glossary
Frog
A device where two running rails intersect and which provides flangeways to permit wheels and wheel
flanges on either rail to cross the other; also an overhead piece of hardware providing the same function for
trolley contact wires.
Gage or Gauge
• Loading – the envelope around a track or road vehicle within which all loaded vehicles must remain
while static or in motion.
• Track – the distance between the inside running edges of a pair of rails of a track system at a particular
distance below the head of the rail.
Gantry
Usually applied to cranes having two vertical legs with horizontal members supporting the lifting
mechanism or a similar structure supporting equipment across railroad tracks.
Gradient
• Contact wire – the average slope of the contact wire between two supports.
• Track/pavement – slope of the track or pavement longitudinally in respect to level.
Ground 1
The conducting mass of the earth.
Ground Connection
A conductor installed or applied (in terms of these instructions) to ensure that electrical apparatus or
components are grounded.
Ground Mat 3
A buried grid covering a fairly large area for substations and power plants where low grounding resistances
are required.
Ground Rod
A metal rod with ground wire connection to disperse currents into the ground for safety.
4
Ground Wire
The conductor installed for the purpose of providing electrical continuity between the supporting structures
of the overhead contact system or transmission lines and the common return of the system or grounding
system.
Grounded
Connected to the common return of the system and/or the conducting mass of the earth in such a manner as
will ensure at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger.
Grounded Drop Vertical

The rigid member fixed under the beam of a portal to which the crossarm is attached.

Rail Transit
Grounding
The act or operation of applying a ground connection.
Grout or Levelling Grout

A fine cement mixture used for base plates at foundations.
Guy
A steady or positioning wire.
• Down or back guy – a wire attached high on a pole and coming down at an angle to an anchor.
Hanger
A fitting providing vertical support connection by means of which the contact wire is suspended from
messenger or auxiliary wire or bracket.
• Auxiliary – the support between auxiliary and contact wires.
Harp
A trolley pole collector shoe assembly.
Head Span Wire

A wire between two points to support OCS but not anchored to ground.
Heel of Steady Arm

The end opposite the contact wire clamp.
High Voltage (h.v.)

A voltage normally exceeding 600 volts.
Hi-Rail Equipment
Rubber tire mounted cranes, trucks, etc., with added flanged steel wheels that can be operated on tracks or
on roadways.
Hog
To arch upward in the middle (opposite of sag).
Horns
The bent or angled downwards portion of the pantograph at either end of the carbon collector.
Impedance Bond
An electrical bond between rails that has a high reactance to high frequency currents.
Insulated Joint
A rail joint in which electrical insulation is provided between adjoining rails.
Insulating Neutral Section or Isolating Neutral Section

See “Phase Break.”

Glossary
Insulation/Insulator
Any body or substance provided and designed for the purpose of surrounding or supporting a conductor so as
to restrict the flow of electricity to a desired path.
• Disc – a bell-shaped insulator of glass or porcelain used singly or in strings.
Isolate
To disconnect from all sources of supply.
Johnnie Ball
Usually a ceramic interlinking insulator in guy application.
• Pin insulator – an insulator, usually upright, fastened by a pin, not suspended.
• Spool insulator – glass fiber (spun) strain.
• Standoff insulator – a solid core insulator with structural strength to use in tension, bending or
compression situations, usually of porcelain over a fiberglass core unit.
• Stick insulator – strain insulator – fiberglass; reinforced epoxy.
• Strain insulator – an insulator or a string of disc, dirigo or fiberglass insulators used in line with a
tensile loading capacity by a conductor in a horizontal position.
1
• Strut insulator – same as “standoff insulator.”
• Suspension insulator – an insulator or string of discs which are suspended in vertical position.
• Synthetic insulator – an insulator made from fiberglass and plastic or some epoxy resin matrix for
skirts.
3
Jumper
Generally an internal electrical connection in the overhead contact system, a short conductor installed to
provide electrical continuity.
• Full current jumper – a jumper of equivalent capacity as the OCS.
• Overlap jumper – a full current jumper at tensioning overlaps. 4

• Potential equalizer – a light internal jumper in the OCS to elevate components to similar voltage
levels.
• Trolley jumper – jumper between contact wire normally support from two adjacent crossarms.
Keeper – Keeper Piece

A locking piece.
Knuckle
A short rigid bar interconnecting transferring forces and stabilizing adjacent conductors.

Rail Transit
Lattice Structure
A structure built up from standard steel sections as primary and secondary members.
Level Crossing
A British term for grade crossing; a road, walkway or railway crossing the track at rail level for motor
vehicles, rail vehicles, animals or pedestrians.
Live
An electrically energized circuit (see “Alive”).
Loop
A secondary bypass systems installation to a main.
Low Voltage (l.v.)

A voltage normally not exceeding 600 volts D.C. or an energized circuit potential below normal voltage level.
Lug
• Crimped – an attachment to the end of a wire for an electrical connection using a gripping or crimping
tool.
• Terminal – a crimped or a soldered piece to terminate a wire for electrical connection.
Mast
A pole of timber or metal erected vertically as part of a derrick or other structure to act as a support.
Maximum Sag
The sag of conductors based on either the maximum temperature or a given radial ice loading, whichever is
the greater, in accordance with local conditions.
Messenger
The catenary wire from which the contact wire is suspended by means of hangers or a guy with carrier
lashed cables.
Midpoint (Anchor) Structure

The structure between two counterweights at which a constant-tension catenary is fixed.
Midpoint Guy
The span guy that provides the midpoint restraint.
Midpoint Guy Pole

The pole, normally with a down guy, that takes the strain from the midspan guy.
Midspan Offset
The deviation of the contact wire from a curved alignment or the superelevated centerline of track at
midspan.

Glossary
Neutral Section
See “Phase Break.”
No-Bo
A contact wire insulator or sectioning device for trolley or LRV pantograph systems.
O.C.B.
Indicates an Oil Circuit Breaker in a substation.
Offset
Deviation of the contact wire from a curved alignment or the superelevated centerline of the track.
Offset Pole
The pole next to the counterweight structure within an overlap section that carries the radial load of the
anchoring equipment.
Open Overlap Span

That portion of the overhead track equipment between two main structures, where the contact and catenary
wires of two adjoining sections overlap and terminate, and where an electrical break between those sections
can be effected by means of switching operations.
Out-of-Running Equipment
A catenary that does not provide primary passage for the pantograph (see “In-Running”). 1
Overhead Contact System (OCS)
That part of the overhead equipment comprising of the contact or trolley wire, catenary, supports,
foundations, counterweights or tensioning devices and other equipment and assemblies that delivers electric
power from the substation to the light rail or heavy rail vehicles.
Overhead Line Track Equipment 3

All equipment included in the circuit between substation positive and negative feeder cable terminals and all
support work provided specifically for supporting such equipment, but excluding tie-stations, tie-stations
feeder cables and all track equipment feeders erected on independent structures.
Overlap Pole
The structure which positions the two contact wires in parallel within an overlap section.
4
Overlap Section
The portion of the overhead contact system between two main structures, where the contact and catenary
wires of two adjoining sections overlap and terminate.
Pantograph
The current collector apparatus mounted on top of a light rail or heavy rail vehicle.
Pantograph Sway
Lateral displacement of the pantograph induced by vehicle roll and lateral shock loads.

Rail Transit
Pantograph Up-Thrust
The nominal upward force exerted by the pantograph on the overhead wire.
Periscope Bracket
A clevis type bracket to hold a small pin insulator and used on contact wire only systems.
Phase Break
An arrangement located between two sections of the overhead contact system fed from different phases
under which a pantograph may pass without shorting the phases.
Pole Brackets
See “Bracket.”
Portal
A passage for entry as into a railroad or tunnel.
Pr e s a g
The static difference between the average contact wire height at the end droppers in a span and the height at
midspan.
Prestress
To apply to a ductile alloy conductor a higher tension than for normal to accelerate creep effect; the period
may vary from 15 minutes to 48 hours according to requirements.
Prestretch
Same as “Prestress.”
Pull Off/Push Off

The registration of a contact system towards or away from centerline for pull or track in relation to the pole.
Pull Over
See “Steady Arm.”
Pulley System
The combination of block(s) and sheave(s) and its attachment(s) used in messenger support and catenary
termination systems.
Radial Load
Transverse or across-track horizontal loads induced by conductors due to deviation from a projected
centerline.
Rail Bond
A conductor connection between sections of rail.
Rake
A preset lean of the pole from vertical above a foundation.

Glossary
Registration
The process of lateral restraint of conductors.
Registration Pipe
The horizontal pipe to which the drop bracket or heel of the steady arm is attached.
Return Wire
A conductor, normally mounted directly on the rail that provides a low impedance return to the substation.
Ropelay
A type of extra flexible stranded wire conductor made of a large number of fine wires.
Ruling Span
A weighted average span of a given section used in sagtension calculations.
Saddle
The fitting supporting a wire in a post insulator or a hanger or dropper on a span or messenger wire.
Sag
The vertical deviation of a conductor between two supports or the process of wire tensioning when
employing the magnitude of sag measurement as a means to obtain a preset tension in a conductor.
Section 1
The electrical circuit beyond one or between two or more switching points.
Section Break or Gap

An electrical break in the overhead contact system permitting isolation of a section.
Section Insulator
A device for dividing a contact wire or catenary system into electrical sections which maintaining mechanical 3
continuity and continuous path for trolley poles or pantograph collectors.
Sectioning
The dividing of an electrical distribution system or network into electrical sections.
Segments 4
A curve segment is a device employed in special works to provide a smooth circular path for trolley bus
collectors.
Shield Wire
A wire, often galvanized steel, strung over a conductor system for lightning protection.
Signal Rail
The track rail used as the conductor for the track circuits controlling signalling appliances, and not used for
traction return current.

Rail Transit
Signalling
A low voltage system used for train operation signals.
Skirt
The protruding discs around the core of an insulator.
Sleeve
• Chaffing – a sleeve around a conductor to reduce damage from abrasion.
• Foundation – a concrete circular tube placed in a drilled hole to provide a foundation; occasionally
refers to a smaller diameter pipe fitted into a larger diameter pipe.
• Repair – a sleeve around a conductor to repair local electrical damage.
Snub
To dead-end fix or fix temporarily.
Spacers/Adjustable
An adjustable spacer is employed on trolley wire assemblies to maintain separation of parallel contact wires
and fitting.
Span Length
Distance along an alignment or track between supporting structures.
Span Width
Distance across an alignment or track between the masts of a portal, cross-span or headspan.
Spiral
See “Curve Transition.”
Sprawl
The stringline of the contact wire on inclined catenary.
Stagger
The offset of the contact wire from a projected centerline at a support due to registration.
Stagger Effect
Contact wire deviation from a projected centerline due to the combination of unequal staggers and wind.
Static Position of Wire

The position of the wire without uplift and without wind.
Stay
A short rod or wire providing restraint; a guy.
Steady Arm
The lateral restrainer on the contact wire at a structure also known as pull over.

Glossary
Stringing
Installation of overhead wires.
Stringing Blocks
Sheaves used in pulling wires during stringing with one cheek that can be opened for inserting wires and
pull lines.
Stringline
The distance between the centerline of track arc and its chord at midspan.
Switch
• Electric track – a trolley wire switch providing alternate path for trolley bus collectors electrically
actuated.
• Feeder – a switch for feeding or sectioning electrical circuits.
• Frogs – a trolley wire switch or crossing for trolley bus collectors.
• Isolating – an air-break switch provided for isolating and grounding electrical apparatus and circuits.
System Height
The distance between messenger and contact wire of a catenary system normally at the support structure,
also known as encumbrance. 1
Tail Wire
• Tail guy – the wire that with an insulator joins the yoke plate to the counterweight assembly.
Tangent
The straight portion of the alignment or track between curves or spirals.
3
Tangling
The hazard to trolley poles and pantograph where another conductor is in lateral proximity to the inrunning
contact.
Tension Section 4
• Tension length – the length of contact system between its mechanical terminations.
Tensioning
The method of controlling sag from supported wires by pull or weight.
Thimble
• Closed – the loop with its two ends close together.
• Open – a loop to wrap wires around with the two ends spread apart.
T.O.R.
Signifies “top-of-rail” used for measuring vertical heights.

Rail Transit
Track Gage
Distance between the inside running edge of the rails of a track system.
Track Tolerance
• Cross level – allowable variation between height of each rail.
• Lateral – allowable variation in the track alignment.
• Vertical – allowable variation in track height.
Transition
See “Curve Transition.”
Traveller
See “Stringing Blocks.”
Trolley
A current collector using a pole with a wheel making contact with the feeder wire rather than a sliding shoe
or a pantograph.
Trolley Wire
See “Catenary,” “Trolley” (term sometimes used for contact wire).
Turnout
A track arrangement consisting of a switch and a frog with connecting rails by which engines and cars can
pass from one track to another.
Uplift
• Dynamic – lift of the conductor due to the passing of trolley poles and pantographs.
• Static – lift of the conductor due to the stationary trolley poles and pantographs.
Vertical Reference Point

That point on centerline exactly midway between the two elevations where there is superelevation.
Warning Portal
A portal placed at level crossings to warn traffic of the high voltage overhead wire danger.
Web
The connecting area between two flanges of a steel beam or guides; the area of a steel rail between the head
and base.
Wind Blow-Off or Throw-Off

Lateral movement of wires due to wind pressure.
Yoke
A plate or casting whereby two or more wires or insulators terminate on one side and continue with one wire
from the opposite side – usually yoke-shaped and with lever action to distribute loads from a counterweight
as required.

0
CHAPTER 14
YARDS AND TERMINALS1
FOREWORD
This chapter deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation
of yards and terminals used in railway service. Such problems are substantially the same whether railway’s
ownership and use is to be individual or joint. The location and arrangement of the yard or terminal as a whole
should permit the most convenient and economical access to it of the tributary lines of railway, and the location,
design and capacity of the several facilities or components within said yard or terminal should be such as to
handle the tributary traffic expeditiously and economically and to serve the public and customer conveniently.
In the design of new yards and terminals, the retention of existing railway routes and facilities may seem 1
desirable from the standpoint of initial expenditure or first cost, but may prove to be extravagant from the
standpoint of operating costs and efficiency. A true economic balance should be achieved, keeping in mind
possible future trends and changes in traffic criteria, as to volume, intensity, direction and character.
Although this chapter contemplates the establishment of entirely new facilities, the recommendations therein
will apply equally in the rearrangement, modernization, enlargement or consolidation of existing yards and
terminals and related facilities. Part 1, Generalities through Part 4, Specialized Freight Terminals include 3
formulate specific and detailed recommendations relative to the handling of freight, regardless of the type of
commodity or merchandise, at the originating, intermediate and destination points. Part 5, Locomotive
Facilities and Part 6, Passenger Facilities relate to locomotive and passenger facilities, respectively, and Part 7,
Other Yard and Terminal Facilities covers miscellaneous items and facilities which may be found in yards and
terminals, necessary for the general operation and function of railways.
1
communications) and allied services and facilities. For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-1
1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.2 Air Rights (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.3 Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.4 Environmental Provisions (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.5 Security Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6 Fire Prevention in Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
2 Freight Yards and Freight Terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-1

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3
2.2 Track Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3 Yard Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design (Full Automatic Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7
2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25
2.6 Terminal Design Considerations for Run Through Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29
2.7 Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33
3 Freight Delivery and Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3-1
4 Specialized Freight Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-1

4.1 Rail/Water Transfer Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.3 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35
4.4 Bulk-solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47
4.5 Bulk-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53
4.6 Merchandise Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62
4.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.8 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
5 Locomotive Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-1

5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2
5.2 Servicing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5
5.3 Inspection Pits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.5 Main Line Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8
6 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-1

6.1 Terminal Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2 Station Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.3 Passenger Train Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.4 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
7 Other Yard and Terminal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-1

7.1 Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-2
7.2 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.3 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-R-1

INTRODUCTION
information.


14
Part 1
Generalities1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the general conditions, factors, features and requirements which may be basically common
to or directly related with the planning, design, construction and function of yards and terminals and their
associated facilities.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2

1.1.1 Economy (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2 3
1.1.2 Analyses (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.1.3 Agreement (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.2 Air Rights (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.3 Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.4 Environmental Provisions (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.5 Security Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3

1.5.1 Fire Protection (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.5.2 Theft and Vandalism (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6 Fire Prevention in Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3

1.6.1 Introduction (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6.2 Building Fire Protection (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-4
1.6.3 Rolling Stock Fire Protection (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-5
1.6.4 Fire Prevention and Planning (1987). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-5
1.6.5 Summary (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-6
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 417; Vol. 88, 1987, p. 86. Reapproved with Addition of Section 1.6,
Fire Prevention in Yards, 1987

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 1.1 JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS
1.1.1 ECONOMY (1982)
a. It is not axiomatic that a joint yard or terminal under one management can be operated more
economically and satisfactorily than two or more separately operated yards or terminals of the same
aggregate capacity.
b. In a joint yard or terminal, a single organization should control all construction, operation, maintenance
and other activities within the terminal zone. All employees, including those of the participating
railways, while functioning within the yard or terminal zone should be subject to the control of the
appropriate officers.
1.1.2 ANALYSES (1982)
a. A joint yard or terminal should not be undertaken without thorough analyses of what may be attained in
expedition, economy and convenience, under the arrangements to be surrendered and under those
proposed.
b. A joint yard or terminal may be undertaken where analyses justify anticipation of its economy as
compared with other available alternatives, or where governmental authority or popular demand has
substantially the force of mandate.
1.1.3 AGREEMENT (1982)
A joint terminal agreement should anticipate and definitely cover all relationships between and among the
owners, the users and the management of the joint facilities. With a view to discovering weaknesses and
omissions which may be overcome in a new agreement, it will be found helpful, before drafting it, to examine
existing agreements and consult those charged with their administration.
SECTION 1.2 AIR RIGHTS (1982)
At yards and terminals centrally located in the larger cites, space over the facilities can often be made available,
with advantage and profit, for commercial purposes such as post offices, office buildings with store frontage on
the streets, hotels, certain manufacturing enterprises, and the like. These will help materially in carrying the
charges on capital investments and tax assessments for the real estate occupied.
SECTION 1.3 AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION (AEI) (2004)
Improved yard and terminal efficiencies and performance, including total terminal control, can be achieved
with an Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) system.

Generalities
SECTION 1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROVISIONS (1982)
Any yard and terminal design must consider the environmental factors and provide for the minimum controls
established and required by federal, state and local laws, directives and ordinances applicable to land, water, air
and noise pollution.
SECTION 1.5 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
a. Hydrants with hose houses and equipment should be located at various points within the yard or
terminal so as to permit the use of at least two streams of water on any structure. Such facilities should
comply to applicable codes and regulations.
b. Water mains and hydrants should be located with due regard to future yard or terminal expansion.
c. Water mains should be built in loops, if practicable.
d. Chemical extinguishers should be conveniently placed to afford protection, especially against oil and
electric fires.
e. Fire lanes should be provided for access to all buildings by fire fighting equipment. 1
1.5.2 THEFT AND VANDALISM (1987)
Protective measures must be carefully considered in the design of each individual situation. A report on the
subject of theft and vandalism is contained in the Proceedings, Vol. 75, 1974, pages 609 to 611, incl. Information
on this subject may be obtained from the Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., report No, 487, Crime and Vandalism in Public Transportation – 5 Reports (1974), ISBN 0-
3
309-02273-8, 64 pp.
SECTION 1.6 FIRE PREVENTION IN YARDS

4
a. In terminal design high priority should be given to fire prevention. Also, it is essential that, should fire
occur, proper equipment and access be provided, and employees know in advance how to react.
b. In most areas local fire codes must be considered in planning and design. Where there are none, or they
are not specific, the “National Fire Protection Association” National Fire Codes may be used. In either
case, railroad yards are typically categorized as heavy industrial by local zoning ordinances.
c. As heavy industrial, certain fire fighting assumptions are made. Fires in rolling stock within
classification yards, for example, are not typical heavy industrial fires. A railroad may not want a fire
department fighting a fire within a classification yard. It is not desirable to have fire trucks driving into,
or hoses being strung across yard tracks whether or not a yard is in operation. Rather, special car
handling guidelines should be established along with water access and fire fighting procedures. These
may differ from local applicable codes so it is suggested that local fire officials be consulted on such
exceptions.

Yards and Terminals
1.6.2 BUILDING FIRE PROTECTION (2004)
1.6.2.1 Design and Construction
In the design of all new buildings or in remodeling existing buildings, local building codes must be considered
for fire protection criterion. Refer to AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities for
additional recommended practices on fire protection in railroad buildings.
1.6.2.2 Maintenance
A program of regular maintenance is suggested for building and surrounding areas to prevent fire hazards.
Items for consideration are:
a. Flammable material storage.
b. Fuel Storage.
c. Weed and brush control.
d. Heating plant.
e. Electrical wiring.
1.6.2.3 Fire Alarms
Local fire codes prescribe various types of alarm systems depending on the type of building and the building’s
use. These types may include:
a. Smoke detectors.
b. Flame or heat detectors.
c. Manual set within building.
d. Automatic set within building.
e. Remote alarm (fire department and/or company security).
f. Remote alarm by building location (computerized).
1.6.2.4 Fire Extinguishers
Local fire codes normally provide for the number and type of extinguishers required depending upon building
type size and use. A program to regularly check and recharge the extinguishers, if necessary, should be
established. It is important that the type of chemical extinguishers used will provide protection against
expected types of fires while minimizing damage to computers and other expensive electronic equipment.
1.6.2.5 Water Sources
a. Water available for fire fighting may come from any of the following sources:
(1) Water main.
(2) Well.

Generalities
(3) Surface water.
(4) Tank storage.
b. One or more of these sources may be provided in design depending upon local fire codes and availability.
Consideration should be given to the distances of hydrants or other water sources from buildings to
provide proper water pressure and volume. It is suggested that water sources be identified to employees
and local fire departments through the use of maps or prints.
1.6.2.6 Building Accessibility
Buildings are normally accessible by road, however, access roads should be designed to accommodate fire
trucks. Road width, turning radii, and railroad crossings should be considered. Procedures should be
established to cut crossings for immediate emergency access.
1.6.3 ROLLING STOCK FIRE PROTECTION (1987)
1.6.3.1 Car Handling
If a car(s) has started on fire it is essential that before anyone gets near the car(s) that the commodity burning
be identified. This information is necessary in determining how to handle the car and is information necessary
for the fire department to extinguish the fire properly. Once the commodity is identified and known to be safe
for movement, it is suggested that a procedure be available and known to affected employees on how the car
will be handled. This should be done with the use of buffer cars between the engine and burning car(s). The
crew should take the car(s) to a predetermined location for fire fighting, possibly an isolated spur track. 1
1.6.3.2 Fire Department Notification
It is suggested that one responsible company officer be designated during a fire to coordinate activities with the
fire department. Instructions should be in place for quick, accurate notification of the fire department. The fire
department should be advised of the commodity burning, the exact location of the car(s), and any other
relevant information.
3
1.6.3.3 Car Access
As in building accessibility, access for fire trucks to yard locations should be considered in design. These should
include width of roadways, turning radii for fire trucks, and instructions for clearing crossings. It is suggested
that this may be coordinated in advance of any emergencies with local fire officials.
4
1.6.3.4 Water Sources
As in building fire protection, an adequate water source for rolling stock fire fighting should be considered. The
source(s) may be integrated into overall plans for fighting fires of rolling stock. In any case, it is suggested that
local fire codes be reviewed for hydrant locations and pressure and volume requirements. It is likely that
classification yard needs are considerably different from fire codes covering heavy industrial areas, so it is
suggested that fire officials be consulted.
1.6.4 FIRE PREVENTION AND PLANNING (1987)
Areas which should be considered in fire prevention and planning are:
a. A regular program of weed and brush control.

Yards and Terminals
b. Fuel storage tanks and fixtures be designed to be fire resistant and have necessary dike(s) to hold volume
of tank(s).
c. Materials stored in areas free of unnecessary flammable materials.
d. Waste materials be placed in designated areas and be disposed of regularly.
e. Proper procedures be in place for employees required to use welding and cutting torches.
1.6.5 SUMMARY (1987)
In design and planning of yard areas it is suggested that a definite plan of action be established for fire
emergencies. This may include written instructions which are distributed to key employees outlining what
action be taken including fire department and agency calling, handling of cars, clearing crossings, and most
importantly, employee conduct for safety. It is suggested that in any fire prevention plan that regular
communication be maintained with fire officials. They may be informed of usual commodities handled and
changes to buildings or yard areas, so that they can provide the best protection possible.

14
Part 2
Freight Yards and Freight Terminals1
— 2007 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation of
all the facilities provided by a railway company, or by railway companies in common, or acting jointly, as the
case may be, to handle freight to or from or through and within a given district on behalf of such railway
company or companies.
Conditions of demand and feasibility vary widely, and generally each case of constructing an altogether new
layout on a large scale, or of remodeling or consolidating an extensive existing layout, constitutes an essentially 1
basic problem.
Each of these features and its appurtenances, with a full knowledge of the average and maximum demands to
be made upon it, must be carefully designed to fulfill its particular functions expeditiously and economically.
The designation “freight yard” (sometimes called marshalling yard) and “freight terminal” as used herein are 3
only relative to their location within a railway system, have similarity in meaning and may perform like
functions. The term “yard” as opposed to “terminal” may be used in a certain interpretation or within a certain
geographical area to designate an essential unit, a supplementary adjunct or a tributary to a terminal.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3

2.1.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3
2.2 Track Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4

2.2.1 General (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 98; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 188; Vol. 94, p. 85; Vol. 96, p. 65. Adopted 1976.

Yards and Terminals
2.3 Yard Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4

2.3.1 Receiving Yard (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3.2 Classification Yard (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3.3 Departure Yard (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-5
2.3.4 Repair Yard (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-6
2.3.5 Local Yard (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-6
2.3.6 Miscellaneous Yard Tracks and Facilities (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-6
2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design (Full Automatic Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7

2.4.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7
2.4.2 Intermittent Car Speed Control (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-10
2.4.3 Continuous Car Speed Control (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-12
2.4.4 Hybrid Car Speed Control System (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-14
2.4.5 Objective (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-14
2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25

2.5.1 General (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25
2.5.2 Gradients (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25
2.5.3 Design Factors (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-27
2.5.4 Ladder Track Yards with Car Speed Control (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-27
2.6 Terminal Design Considerations for Run Through Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29

2.6.1 Characteristics of Run Through Trains (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29
2.6.2 Run Through Train Operation (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.3 Yard Facility Functions (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.4 Design Objectives (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.5 Design Features (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-31
2.7 Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33

2.7.1 Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33
2.7.2 General Yard Design or Redesign (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-34
2.7.3 Isolation of RCL Operations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-35
2.7.4 Lighting (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-35
2.7.5 Walkways (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-35
LIST OF FIGURES
14-2-1 Typical Classification Track Layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-8

14-2-2 Intermittent Car Speed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-11
14-2-3 Continuous Car Speed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-13
14-2-4 Track and Profile Diagram (Intermittent Control). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-17
14-2-5 Track and Profile Diagram (Continuous Control). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-18
14-2-6 Change in Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-22
14-2-7 Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Intermittent Control). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-24
14-2-8 Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Continuous Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-24
14-2-9 Flat Yard for Single-Direction Switching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-26
14-2-10 Typical Track Diagram and Gradient Profile Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control . . . 14-2-29

Freight Yards and Freight Terminals
14-2-11 Through Train Track Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-31

14-2-12 Example Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-32
2.1.1 GENERAL (2004)
a. To meet traffic requirements a yard or terminal should be able, even in peak periods, to receive trains
promptly upon arrival, perform any auxiliary service (such as weighing, making running repairs, etc.),
switch cars into their proper classification without appreciable delay, and dispatch these cars in their
proper position in outgoing trains in minimum time.
b. The number of yards should be as few as is consistent with the efficient handling of traffic.
c. An additional yard is warranted only when it will result in greater economy than the enlargement or
reconstruction of, or substitution of a new yard for, an existing yard or yards.
1
d. Yard or terminal layouts should provide for future expansion so that the number and length of the tracks
in them may be increased as required with minimum interference with operation or minimum relocation
of existing trackage.
e. An existing yard or terminal which is inadequate to handle the current or immediately anticipated traffic
should be enlarged, or redesigned and rebuilt, or abandoned in favor of a yard or terminal in a different
location, according to which of these alternatives will result in the greatest economy.
3
f. With the advent of articulated rail cars it is difficult to establish an average car length to determine track
car capacities. Single car lengths generally vary from 40 feet (12 m) to over 95 feet (29 m) while some
articulated intermodal cars exceed 300 feet (91 m) in overall length. Therefore average car lengths do
not have as much purpose as they once did in yard design unless the same type of equipment is to be
switched in the yard. A determination needs to be made on car types before track capacity can be 4
established.
g. Yard lighting is desirable. The economical distribution of light over the area involved, so as to provide
proper intensity of illumination, requires careful design. Recommendations of the AAR Engineering
Division Committee on Electrical Facilities – Fixed Property, should be consulted.
h. An adequate drainage system is essential.
i. Signal and communication systems, such as control signals, power operated switches and derails, radios,
intercoms, pagers, talkback speakers, telephones closed circuit television, AEI and other devices should
be considered to expedite yard and terminal operations.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 2.2 TRACK ARRANGEMENT
2.2.1 GENERAL (1982)
a. Main tracks should bypass yards.
b. Connections to the main track from the receiving, classification or departure tracks should be as direct
as practicable.
c. Crossovers should be provided as required to facilitate all normal and regular movements in the yard or
between the yard and main track, and so located to result in minimum interference between
simultaneous movements.
d. In order to keep the distance to clearance to a minimum, the angle between a ladder track and the body
tracks should be as large as possible.
e. Ladder tracks should be spaced not less than 15 feet (4.5 m) center to center from any parallel track, and
when such parallel track is another ladder track, they should be spaced not less than 18 feet (5.5 m)
center to center. The requirements of governing bodies must be observed.
f. Body tracks should be spaced not less than 14 feet (4.2 m) center to center, and when parallel to a main
track or important running track, the first body track should be spaced at least 15 feet (4.5 m) center to
center from such tracks, subject however to state regulations on clearances.
SECTION 2.3 YARD COMPONENTS
2.3.1 RECEIVING YARD (1982)
a. The number of receiving tracks should be sufficient to accommodate arriving trains.
b. The length of receiving tracks should be such that each will accommodate a complete train, including
assisting locomotive where used. It is desirable in some yards to have a few short receiving tracks located
on the side of the yard near the running track.
c. The gradient of the receiving track should be such to avoid use of hand brakes.
d. Consideration may be given to track indicators and remotely controlled switches at the entrances to the
receiving yard.
e. If motorized inspection is planned, sufficient width between tracks should be provided to permit passage
of vehicles used for such inspection.
2.3.2 CLASSIFICATION YARD (2004)
a. The type of yard which should be adopted in any given case depends upon the volume and character of
traffic to be handled through it, and the train schedules. The decision should be based on a thorough
traffic analysis and economic study.
(1) A single flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is small and the
number of switching cuts per train is also small.

(2) A double flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is large but the
number of switching cuts per train is small.
(3) A gravity yard or a hump yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is large
and the number of switching cuts per train is also large – also in special cases where the total
number of cars is relatively small but normally received in a short period of time, and the number of
switching cuts per train is large.
(4) In special cases due to the location of the yard, the character of traffic, or the arrangement of
schedules, it may be necessary to provide a double flat yard or a hump yard, because of limited time
for handling.
b. The number of classification tracks should be such that there will be at least one available for each
important classification. Where cars of single classification do not accumulate enough to be assigned a
separate track, the design features should permit rehump or stage switching to make the required
blocks.
c. The length of classification tracks should be such that each will normally hold all accumulated cars of the
assigned classification until they are to be moved off the classification track under normal operation.
d. Where cars of single classification accumulate rapidly enough to permit forwarding them in whole trains,
it is desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks.
2.3.3 DEPARTURE YARD (1988)

a. Departure tracks may be located as part of the classification yard or in a separate yard, depending upon 1
the type of trains dispatched. It is sometimes preferable to provide dual- purpose receiving-departure
yards.
b. The number of departure tracks should be such that there will be one available for assembling a
departing train whenever necessary.
c. The length of departure tracks should be such that each will accommodate a complete train, including 3
assisting locomotives where used.
d. The gradient of departure tracks should be level, if possible. If adverse to the forward movement of a
train, it should be at least 20% less than the ruling gradient to be encountered by that train during its
road trip.
e. Compressed air at suitable pressure should be piped along the departure tracks, and sufficient outlets
should be provided to permit the testing of the air brake equipment on the cars of departing trains. 4
f. Consideration should be given to the installation of shove indicators located at clearance point of each
departure track.
g. If motorized inspection is planned, sufficient width between tracks should be provided to permit passage
of vehicles used for such inspection.
2.3.4 REPAIR YARD (2004)
a. The location of the car repair yard should be such that the movement of bad-order cars will be as direct
as practicable, that switching the repair yard will not interfere with other work, and that repaired cars
may be returned readily to the classification or departure yard, as required.
b. The capacity of the repair yard depends on the number of cars to be repaired daily. Tracks should be as
short as possible. In computing capacities, a minimum of 55 feet (17 m) should be allowed for each
uncoupled car.

Yards and Terminals
c. Repair tracks should be connected at both ends where feasible. The tracks may be alternately spaced on
narrow and wide centers, the narrow spacing to be not less than 18 feet (5.5 m) and the wide spacing to
be such as to accommodate motorized equipment.
d. A paved driveway should be placed between the repair tracks with wide centers, and paving is also
desirable between the tracks with the narrow centers. The elevation of the driveway is usually the same
as the top of rail. Crossings should be spaced at approximately 8-car intervals.
e. Consideration should be given to the “one-spot” repair yard, where cars are moved by mechanical means
to the repair building, one at a time, repaired and removed. This system is usually adaptable to one or
more tracks. In computing the capacity of the track holding the cars, the types of cars to be repaired
needs to be identified first before car length capacity can be determined. Single car lengths generally
vary from 40 feet (12 m) to over 95 feet (29 m) while some articulated intermodal cars exceed 300 feet (91
m) in overall length. As noted in Section 2.1 Introduction in this part of the manual, with the advent of
articulated rail cars it is difficult to establish average car lengths. If no articulated cars or extreme
length cars are to be repaired, an average car length of 55 feet (16 m) to 60 feet (18 m) can be considered
for track capacity.
f. Blue flag or similar protective or warning measures should be utilized for the safety of carmen in the
repair yard.
2.3.5 LOCAL YARD (1988)

a. A local yard may be defined as one which handles cars to nearby destinations and from nearby origins. It
generally acts as a sub-terminal and is often part of, or attached to, another Terminal Yard.
b. Extra care must be taken in its design because insignificant changes in industry switching patterns,
traffic volumes and through train scheduling may have considerable impact on the efficiency of its
operation.
2.3.6 MISCELLANEOUS YARD TRACKS AND FACILITIES (2004)

2.3.6.1 General
All miscellaneous tracks should be located so that the use of them will cause minimum interference with other
operations in the yard, particularly road trains entering and leaving the yard.
2.3.6.2 Switching Leads
Switching leads should be designed to give the enginemen working on them a clear view of switchmen passing
signals along the ladder track. This may not be necessary where yard crews are equipped with engine-to-ground
radio communication. Multiple parallel leads with well placed crossovers should be provided where traffic is
heavy.
2.3.6.3 Caboose Tracks
The use of cabooses has generally been discontinued on Class I railroads. However, if there is a need to provide
caboose tracks, they should be double-ended and located so as to permit easy access to departure tracks.
2.3.6.4 Wrecker Equipment Track
A double-ended track for the storage of the wrecker equipment should be provided.
2.3.6.5 Other Tracks
a. Advance tracks somewhat longer than the maximum train length, or freight main tracks extending to or
beyond the outside of the yard, in either or both directions, should be provided as required.

b. Thoroughfare tracks should provide access to all parts of the yard and between the locomotive terminal
and the yard.
c. Scale tracks should be so located to permit the weighing of cars with minimum delay to yard operation.
d. Storage tracks may be required to ease yard operations where many cars are held to supply local
industries or on-line customers.
e. Tracks may be provided in hump yards for bypassing the hump with certain cars, or to provide an
“escape” route from the retarder area to the receiving yard for hump engines.
f. Material supply tracks for Stores and Maintenance of Way departments.
2.3.6.5.1 Locomotive Fueling and Servicing
Facilities for the fueling and servicing of locomotives should be provided as outlined and specified in Part 5,
Locomotive Facilities, particularly Section 5.1, General and Section 5.2, Servicing Facilities.
2.3.6.6 Allied Facilities
Various types of lading transfer facilities such as automobile trans-loading facilities may be located in or
adjacent to freight yards. A separate analysis should be made of switching needs of each of these facilities so
that ready access can be provided between the facility and the freight yard if required.
SECTION 2.4 HUMP CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN (FULL AUTOMATIC CONTROL)
2.4.1 GENERAL (2004)
a. A hump classification yard should be designed for the volume and character of traffic to be handled and 3
should provide for continuous movement while humping with minimum loss of time between successive
humping operations; also for the movement of cars by gravity from the crest to their proper tracks in the
classification yard without damaging impacts.
b. Tracks at the outbound end of the classification yard should be connected to ladders so that
classifications normally assembled in one train may be assigned to permit gathering from one ladder,
thus providing for minimum movement of trim-end engines. A sufficient number of ladders, with lead
4
c. Where required, a lead track from the receiving yard to the hump crest can be designed to provide an
under-car inspection, set-out track for explosive and hazardous commodities and a connection to release
road locomotives. A second track leading from the receiving yard to the hump will permit the use of a
second hump locomotive for continuous humping operations. If trains from two or more directions are to
be humped in one direction over the hump, provision should be made so that cars can be moved into the
end of the receiving yard next to the hump with minimum interference with humping operations.
d. It may be desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks if local conditions
permit, and such a method of operation usually expedites movements through the yard and reduces the
expense. This requires that a sufficient number of classification tracks be long enough for each to
accommodate a full-length outgoing train, or that lead tracks be provided at the outgoing end such that
the combined length of a classification track and a lead track be sufficient for a full-length train, thus
avoiding unnecessary doubling over or interference with hump operation. This may involve a temporary
reassignment of classification during the inspection and preparatory time of a departing train.

Yards and Terminals
connections to departure tracks, should be provided to permit working at least two trim-end engines
where required with minimum interference; refer to Figure 14-2-1.
Figure 14-2-1. Typical Classification Track Layout
e. Departure tracks may be required for making up and dispatching trains, depending on local conditions.
f. The average gradient of a track leading to the crest of the hump should be such as to permit pushing the
longest and heaviest train at humping speeds consistent with the proposed available power.
g. A good walkway surface should be provided at the hump crest on both sides of the track for the pin-
pullers. If only one pin-puller is to be used then the walkway can be on the right hand side, when moving
toward the hump. (It is desirable that cars be uncoupled from the right hand side so that the forward
knuckle will be open, as the impact of normal coupling will often close the rear knuckle.)
h. Adequate lighting will be required throughout the yard.

i. Access routes to switches, retarders and buildings within the yard may be needed for automobiles, trucks
and maintenance vehicles.
j. Two outer roadways running the length of the yard, and parallel with the tracks can be ideal to facilitate
ease of vehicle movements from one end of the yard to the other.
k. Tracks can be set with extra wide centers between adjacent groups to give access for maintenance
vehicles to move into the body of the yard.
l. The outer and inner roadways can be connected across the yard by constructing level grade road/rail
crossings at the narrow ends of the track layout and where the minimum number of tracks need to be
negotiated.
m. For movement across the yard at the hump-end a tunnel may be constructed under the hump itself.
n. Adequate car parking facilities for employee and company vehicles at the various office and workshop
locations should be a consideration.

o. If the identification numbers of incoming cars are to be read and recorded by a video camera system,
then special purpose high density illumination should be provided at the camera location.
p. Modern automated hump classification yards fall into two principal categories, Intermittent Car Speed
control or Continuous Car Speed control systems. A third category can be a hybrid system which
combines Intermittent and Continuous control systems.
(1) Intermittent Car Speed Control System
(a) Intermittent car speed control systems in which powered, electronically supervised clasp
retarders are located at discrete positions to control the velocity and progress of the cars
traveling through the yard.
(b) The position and speed of the cars is constantly measured, monitored and predicted by the
electronic supervisory system which commands the modes of the clasp retarders.
(c) The principal retarders, located in the switching area, are usually powered electrically or
pneumatically.
(d) Other types of supplementary retarders may be needed such as tangent point retarders located
at the entrances to the classification tracks, and retarders located at the exit ends of the tracks to
prevent car run-outs.
(e) The automatic control of the switches, to route the cars into predetermined classification tracks,
is invested in the supervisory system along with other operational functions.
(2) Continuous Car Speed Control System 1
(a) Continuous car speed control systems in which speed sensitive hydraulic retarder units are
distributed along all tracks to continuously monitor and control the velocity of the cars traveling
through the yard.
(b) This type of retarder is self-contained and needs no exterior power supply or electronic
supervisory system.
3
(c) These retarders are mounted in close proximity along the tracks from the hump, through the
switching area and for a selected distance down into the classification tracks.
(d) Arrester zones can be formed by installing this type of retarder at the exit ends of the
classification tracks to stop a car. However, inert or releasable clasp retarders may be required in
some instances to prevent coupled cuts of cars from gradually rolling out of the bowl track.
(e) An electronic control system is needed for automatic switch operation and to supervise other 4
operational functions.
(3) Hybrid System
(a) A hybrid system that combines an intermittent control system with a continuous control system,
paragraph (1) and paragraph (2), can be employed to develop a yard having high car speeds in
the switching area and accurate coupling speeds in the class tracks.
(b) In such a yard design the velocity and progress of the cars in the switching area would be
controlled by an intermittent car speed control system. The function of this part of the hybrid
system would be to ensure adequate separation between cars so as to permit movement of the
switches for routing; and to predict, monitor and control the speeds for the cars arriving at the
classification tracks.
(c) The velocity of the cars in the classification tracks would be controlled by a continuous car speed
control system. The function of this part of the hybrid system would be to ensure a maximum
allowable coupling velocity of the cars, to promote full car closure in the tracks and to prevent
car runouts from the trim-end.

Yards and Terminals
2.4.2 INTERMITTENT CAR SPEED CONTROL (1993)

2.4.2.1 Hump Control Tower and Buildings
a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices. This control tower
would be positioned to allow the operators a good overall view of traffic movements throughout the yard.
b. The control tower may need to accommodate a variety of facilities such as:
(1) A control room, at the top of the building, in which to locate a control panel for the manual operation
and monitoring of signals, switches and retarders. Operational offices with associated
communications, signalling and automatic yard control systems.
(2) Electrical relay room and electrical power supply equipments with their required cable routes and
ducting.
(3) Utility services equipment for the building.
(4) Staff amenities accommodation.
c. A process control system located in the hump control tower can be employed to supervise the greater
part of the yard’s operational procedures and communications needs. The system would encompass the
monitoring and control of the retarders to provide automatic car speed control, and to sequence the
movement of powered switches for automatic route selection to direct the cars into designated
classification tracks.
2.4.2.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment – Refer to Figure 14-2-2
To support a central process controller it may be necessary to install a variety of peripheral hardware at
locations on the track.
2.4.2.2.1 Car Identification Equipment
This may be a video camera system or an electronic transmitter/receiver unit to interrogate car mounted
identify transponders.
2.4.2.2.2 Hump Signal
To control train movements toward the hump crest.
2.4.2.2.3 Car Monitoring Equipment
Pole mounted photo electric cells and track mounted wheel detectors to monitor car cut lengths. A weigh rail
installed in the track to measure axle loads. Electrical track circuits to form a rollability test section. Radar
speed detectors to monitor car speed.
2.4.2.2.4 Track Scale
May be needed for the commercial weighing of cars. Weight information can also be for input to car speed
control system. The scale would need to be installed on a suitable concrete foundation.
2.4.2.2.5 Car Speed Control
a. Switching area and tangent point retarders mounted in the track to control the speed of cars at strategic
locations. These can be electrically or pneumatically powered.
b. An air compressor house or an electrical supply facility to power the type of retarders chosen can be
constructed in the vicinity of the retarders.

Figure 14-2-2. Intermittent Car Speed Control System

1
2.4.2.2.6 Switches
Powered switches would be needed to route the cars from the crest into the classification tracks. Electrical
track circuits or proximity loops, and/or wheel detectors can be included in the switching area to monitor the
3
progress of the cars and provide switch movement protection as required.
2.4.2.2.7 Distance to Couple
The classification tracks may be equipped with electronic circuits to determine the distance a car must travel to
couple. 4
2.4.2.2.8 Cable Routes
a. All the above signalling and monitoring equipment would require electrical cabling enclosed in trenches,
troughing, conduits or directly buried.
b. Track side electrical equipment cases would be needed at various locations.
2.4.2.2.9 End of Track Retarders
These may be used at the trim-end of the classification tracks to prevent car run-out.

Yards and Terminals
2.4.2.3 Trim-End Tower
a. In large yard developments with extended classification tracks a trim-end tower building may be
required to house an elevated signal and traffic control room from which operations in the departure end
of the yard may be supervised.
b. The trim-end tower may need to contain a number of facilities such as:
(1) A signal and control room with allied signalling and communications equipment.
(2) Electrical relay room and electrical power supply equipment with their required cable routes.
(3) Utility services equipment for the building.
(4) Staff amenities accommodation.
2.4.3 CONTINUOUS CAR SPEED CONTROL (1993)

a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices.
b. The functions of this building could be similar to that described in Article 2.4.2.1 with the following
exceptions:
(1) There would be no console or equipment for the manual control of the retarders.
(2) There would be no electrical equipment or process control system for the automatic control of the
retarders.
2.4.3.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment – Refer to Figure 14-2-3
a. Car identification equipment as per Article 2.4.2.2.1.
b. Hump signal. To control train movements toward the hump crest.
c. Continuous car speed control system. Hydraulic type retarders bolted to rails at close intervals
throughout all the tracks.
d. Switches as per Article 2.4.2.2.6.
e. Cable routes. The signalling and track circuit equipment would require cabling as per Article 2.4.2.2.7.
In large yard developments a trim-end tower may be required as described in Article 2.4.2.3.
2.4.4 HYBRID CAR SPEED CONTROL SYSTEM (1993)
a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices.
b. The description and functions of this building would be similar to that described in Article 2.4.2.1.

Figure 14-2-3. Continuous Car Speed Control System 1
2.4.4.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment
a. To support the Intermittent Car Speed Control part of the system it may be necessary to install in the
switching area a variety of peripheral hardware at locations on the track. 3
b. For a description of the type of equipment that may be included refer to Article 2.4.2.2.
NOTE: Article 2.4.2.2.7 and Article 2.4.2.2.9, distance to couple circuits and end of track retarders
respectively would not be required.
c. For the Continuous Car Speed Control part of the system hydraulic type retarders would be needed in 4
the classification tracks as described in Article 2.4.3.2c.
In large yard developments a trim-end tower may be required as described in Article 2.4.2.3.
2.4.5 OBJECTIVE (2004)
a. The objective for constructing and equipping an automated hump yard is to facilitate an efficient and
expedient method of automatically routing free running cars into designated classification tracks for the
formation of outbound trains.
b. To achieve this objective it is necessary to meet certain design criteria within the overall concept.

Yards and Terminals
2.4.5.1 Design Criteria
a. To provide a hump of sufficient elevation to ensure that all cars, having a practical rollability value will
penetrate far enough into the classification tracks to achieve a high percentile of closed couplings. It may
be necessary to relax this requirement under severe weather conditions such as extreme cold, snow or
high winds; but the minimum need is for all cars to run beyond the clearance points.
b. To form accelerating gradients from the hump that will promote separation between successive cars to
facilitate the operation of switches between cars.
c. To form a series of gradients throughout the switching area of the yard so that the car speeds are
compatible with the specified humping rate (car throughput) and with the chosen retarder system.
d. To automatically control the velocity and destination of the cars by providing car retarder and route
selection systems respectively.
e. To form gradients in the classification tracks that will assist the cars to penetrate the tracks fully and
couple at 4.0 mph maximum.
2.4.5.2 Design Methods
a. Although it is the car rollability band width that influences the gradient profile of a yard, it is the
retarder system that assumes the prime role in yard design by the fact of measuring and monitoring the
car speeds to achieve the desired throughput, controlling acceleration, maintaining separation in the
switching area and determining car performance in the classification tracks.
b. Because of this important role the suppliers of retarder systems have, over the years, acquired
comprehensive computer aided programs with which to design the profiles and plot car performance
curves for a yard based upon fundamental equations of energy and motion, accepted constants that
affect car behavior and specified variable parameters.
2.4.5.3 Typical Retarder Control Systems
2.4.5.3.1 Intermittent Control System
2.4.5.3.1.1 Automatic Yard
a. In an automatic yard employing intermittent retarders and a process controller system the cars are
weighed and classified after leaving the crest of the hump. Rollability measurements are taken on test
sections of track on the approach to the primary retarder (tangent track rollability) and on the
approaches to the group retarders (curved track rollability). This information is stored for reference in
predicting the car exit velocities from the group retarders.
b. The computed value for the tangent rollability is interpolated with that for the curved rollability to
provide a modified value which will be used to predict the car exit velocities from the group retarders.
2.4.5.3.1.2 Primary Retarder
a. The primary retarder is used to adjust the velocity of the cars in order to maintain adequate separation
between them; and to assist the speed control function of the group retarders by providing suitable exit
velocities from the primary retarder.
b. As a car passes through the primary retarder, the braking shoes are applied at the maximum pressure
allowable for the car’s weight category. Radar units measure the speed of the car moving through the
retarder and transmit information to the process controller in the form of a servo loop to continuously
monitor car speed and retardation force.

2.4.5.3.1.3 Speed Control Method
a. The speed control method is the same through the group retarders as for the primary retarder except
that in this case the exit velocities must cater for the cars running varying distances down the
classification tracks to finally couple at 4 mph maximum.
b. The rollability value of the car, based upon the information collected at the tangent and curved rollability
test sections, is modified in accordance with track, car weight and car type characteristics. The track
resistance characteristics are determined from computer models and practical tests made prior to the
system being operational.
c. The classification tracks are equipped with electronic distance to couple circuits which monitor the
positions and speeds of the cars and transfer this information to the process controller, from this the exit
velocity from the group retarder is determined for each car. This exit velocity will be automatically and
continually modified during switching operations to strive to achieve the maximum performance in
closed couplers and 4 mph maximum speed.
2.4.5.3.1.4 Tangent Point Retarders
a. For some yards, where the distance from the group retarder to the tangent points, and the distances to
couple are extensive, it is necessary to employ tangent point retarders to attain the required car
performance in the tracks.
b. The exit speed from the group retarder is then controlled so that the cars arrive with predicted velocities
at the tangent point retarders. These retarders, being radar equipped will monitor and control the car
speed in accordance with the distance to couple information. 1
2.4.5.3.1.5 Clasp Type Retarders
a. The clasp type of retarders used in intermittent car speed control systems act upon the sides of wheels.
The brake shoes apply a frictional force to slow the wheels of the car; this force is controlled in
increments that are proportional to the car weight classes.
3
b. Variations of these types of retarders are:
• Electrically actuated, spring powered.
• Pneumatically powered.
• Hydraulically powered.
4
• Hydraulically actuated OFF, and mechanically powered, via a lever system, by the weight of the car
wheel – the retardation force is weight proportional.
c. A primary or group retarder can be of various lengths and is installed on a well constructed and
consolidated foundation. The mechanical components and associated steelwork are integrated in
assembly with special ties that have custom made supports on which the running rails are attached
within the retarder. This type of retarder, due to the frictional action at the brake shoe to wheel interface
can in some instances emit loud noise levels of high frequency. Dependent upon location, it may be an
environmental requirement to construct acoustical barriers in close proximity to the retarders.
2.4.5.3.1.6 Typical Gradients
Typical gradients associated with this type of yard are illustrated in Figure 14-2-4. In the design of the track
profile for a classification yard, the gradients will depend upon factors such as car throughput, car rollability
bandwidth, track curvature and turnouts, and local weather conditions.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-2-4. Track and Profile Diagram (Intermittent Control)
2.4.5.3.2 Continuous Control System
a. In a yard employing the continuous control method the car velocity for the switching area, i.e. from the
hump to the tangent points, is selected during the yard design stage. This switching area velocity is
dependent upon the humping rate, separation between cars, car rollability bandwith, range of wheel
diameters, the track characteristics and the length of the switching area. The hydraulic retarder units
are then calibrated during manufacture to control all cars constantly at this selected velocity.
b. Hump.
(1) The hump, for this type of yard will compromise concurrent concave and convex vertical curves and
finish at the first switch.
(2) The hump is used to accelerate cars to the switching area velocity and the installation of the retarder
units commences in the sag curve at the point where the minimum rollability car attains the
switching area velocity.
c. A constant gradient is formed from the first switch to the tangent points in the classification tracks. This
gradient is designed for a modified rollability value comprising car rollability plus air, wind and track
characteristic resistances. These characteristics, together with the maximum car weight will determine
the quantity of retarder units needed to provide continuous speed control.
d. At the tangent points, or in some instances the clearance points, deceleration zones are used to slow the
cars from the switching area velocity to a 4.0 mph coupling velocity and are situated on the initial
gradients at the beginning of the classification track.
e. The quantity of retarders needed for each zone will depend upon the change of velocity required, the
maximum car weight and the initial classification track gradient.

f. Typically, the initial classification track gradient can continue for approximately one third of the total
track length with retarders installed along the track to prevent the heavy, low rollability cars from
accelerating above 4 mph. This initial gradient will assist the penetration of cars down into the tracks
and provide a high percentile of coupling.
g. The hydraulic retarders used in continuous control systems are relatively small units installed at close
intervals along the tracks. They are fixed to the inside of the running rails and actuated by the wheel
flange.
h. Typical gradients associated with this type of yard are illustrated in Figure 14-2-5. In the design of the
track profile for a classification yard the gradients will depend upon factors such as car throughput, car
rollability bandwidth, track curvature and turnouts, and local weather conditions.
Figure 14-2-5. Track and Profile Diagram (Continuous Control) 4

2.4.5.3.3 Hybrid Control System
a. The formulation of a hybrid system of car speed control is based upon the use of the clasp type of
retarders, with process controller, in the switching area to perform the duties of maintaining separation
and controlling the group retarder exit speeds; and a continuous control system that commences with
deceleration zones in the classification tracks and continues with coupling speed control zones.
b. The intermittent control system in the switching area would be as described in Article 2.4.5.3.1.1,
Article 2.4.5.3.1.2 and Article 2.4.5.3.1.3 with a modification to the group retarder exit speed
requirements, and the distance to couple circuits would not be needed. The group retarder exit velocities
would be controlled to provide a bandwidth of velocity for the cars arriving at the deceleration zones,
with the lower limit of velocity being applied to the heavy cars and the higher limit to the light cars in
order to produce a zone that is economic in retarders; and also to ensure good penetration of the light
cars through the zone.

Yards and Terminals
2.4.5.4 Design Parameters
In preparing for a classification yard design it is necessary to ascertain the parameters.
a. Car throughput, the rate at which cars will be expected to pass over the hump. This can be expressed as
the humping velocity by considering all cars to be of average length.
b. Typically the maximum rate of change for vertical curves in the hump profile should not exceed the
following values to prevent uncoupling of cars, binding of couplers or high centering of cars on the hump
with the length of curve not less than 75 feet (23 m):
Crest/Convex curves: Rate of Change (RC) < 7.0

Sag/Concave curves: Rate of Change (RC) < 6.0
c. The maximum and minimum car weights should be stipulated in association with car types, length and
wheel diameters.
d. Details of the weigh scale length should be ascertained, with the minimum response and record times, in
order to be able to specify the minimum time that a car must occupy the scale to produce valid
recordings.
e. One of the most important parameters is the rollability bandwidth for the variety of cars to be humped.
Detailed research and analysis should be undertaken to determine practical values. A good source of
information is the printouts from existing control systems that are already operating in established
yards. The basic tangent rollability values for the total car population should be ascertained and
specified.
f. In the event of a catchup, i.e. zero separation distance between leading and following cars, the movement
of the automatic switches is locked in position to prevent derailments. Various types of electrical switch
protection circuits can be employed to guard the switches. In order to be able to specify the minimum
separation distance between cars it is necessary to ascertain details of the circuits, such as occupation
length and response time, along with the response and operating times for the switch machines.
g. It is the usual practice, where clasp retarders are used, to provide sufficient retardation so as to be able
to stop the heaviest car in the event of an emergency in the yard, a derailment for instance. This
requirement can be catered to by designing for both primary or group retarders alone to be capable of
stopping a car. A more economic solution, and the one usually adopted, is to design for the primary and
group retarders in unison to have sufficient retardation to stop the heaviest car. The preferred
requirement should be specified.
h. In yards employing a continuous speed control system it is not possible to cater for emergency stopping;
but because the car speeds are relatively slow, avoidance action can be taken by manually routing cars
away from danger.
i. The geometric data of curves and turnouts for all tracks will need to be specified for a well designed yard
layout. In designing the layout the curves and turnouts should be as generous as possible in order to
reduce the total car rolling resistance to a minimum.
j. Additional gradient, to compensate for curve resistance, may be added with advantage to the long curves
that lead to the outer groups of tracks.
k. Standard turnouts should be preferred to any of special design as these may not be readily available in a
future emergency if a replacement switch panel is needed.
l. In the interest of safety a combination of end track retarders or arresters, with a plus track gradient,
should be considered to avoid car runouts. The retarder, or arrester capacity must be designed to stop a
heavy car at a specified maximum velocity. In theory, the maximum velocity should be 4 mph, the

coupling velocity; but in practice, with intermittent control systems, cars will at times arrive at the trim-
end travelling in excess of 4 mph.
2.4.5.5 Theory
2.4.5.5.1 Car Velocity
a. The velocity of a car traveling along a gradient can be determined at any point by the equation
V2 = 2gh
where:
V = car velocity, ft/sec

g = gravitational acceleration, i.e. 32.2 ft/sec2
h = energy head, ft
b. The energy head, h can be the potential energy, due to the elevation on a gradient, that will accelerate a
car to velocity, V (ignoring resistance losses); or it can be the velocity head, in which case it is the energy
invested in the car velocity; for clarity, let H feet = velocity head and h foot = potential head, refer to
example Article 2.4.5.5.4.
c. This basic energy equation needs to be modified to include two coefficients that affect the movement of a
car, these are:
1
• The coefficient of rollability, R.
• The coefficient k, to allow for the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel sets.
2.4.5.5.2 Rollability
a. The rollability (rolling resistance) of a car can be expressed as a coefficient, a force per weight ratio or an
equivalent percentage gradient, i.e. 0.003 = 6.0 lb/ton = 0.3%. This expression states that a car with a
3
rollability coefficient of 0.003, or 6.0 lb/ton resistive force, would travel with constant velocity on a 0.3%
gradient tangent track. The total rollability value for a car is the sum of the tangent rollability + curve
and turnout resistance + air and wind resistance.
b. Typical rollability coefficients are:

4
Tangent rollability = 0.0005 min. to 0.006 max
Curve resistance = 0.0004 to 0.0005/degree
Air resistance = 0.00016 per ft/sec velocity
Wind resistance = 0.0001 per ft/sec wind velocity
NOTE: In a Continuous Speed Control system an additional factor must be introduced to allow
for the idling resistance of the retarder units when operating below their threshold
control speed.
2.4.5.5.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy
a. The coefficient:
k = 1+ (16wr2 / D2W)

Yards and Terminals
where:
w = weight of wheel set, lbs

r = radius of gyration of wheel set, in.
D = wheel tread diameter, in.
W = Car weight, lbs
b. For an estimate of car performance on a given gradient a simplified value for k can be determined from:
k = (W + 4000) / W, for a 4-axle car
c. Typical car weights vary from 315,000 lbs. max. to 40,000 lbs. min.
2.4.5.5.4 Change in Velocity
a. To determine change in velocity refer to Figure 14-2-6.
let:
V0, V1 and V2 = velocity, ft/sec

H0, H1 and H2 = velocity head, ft
h1, h2 and h3 = potential head, ft
D1 and D2 = distance, ft
G1 and G2 = gradient coefficient
R = total rollability coefficient
b. To determine V1:
V21 = (2 g H1) / k
H1 = H0 + h1 – (D1 R)
also H0 = 0 and h1 = (D1G1)
subs. H1 = D1 (G1 – R)
then V1 =  (2 g H 1   k  ft / sec
c. To determine V22:
V22 = (2 g H2) / k
H2 = H1 + h2 – (D2 R)
also H1 = V2 k / 2 g and h = (D G )
1 2 2 2
subs. H2 = H1 D2 (G2 – R)
then V2 =  (2 g H 2   k  ft / sec

Figure 14-2-6. Change in Velocity
2.4.5.5.5 Car Separation

1
The lengths of the Intermittent Control retarders and the weigh scale, and the safe operation of the switches
make it necessary to predetermine the separation of the cars as they travel from the crest of the hump to
clearance points in the class tracks.
NOTE: With a Continuous Control system only the separation needed to operate the switches has
to be considered and as all cars travel, after the initial acceleration, with approximate 3
constant velocity, on a constant gradient, the design for separation is relatively simple.
2.4.5.6 Time/Distance Curves
a. Each car must be accelerated away from the hump to produce adequate separation distance between cars
and this distance must be maintained at a minimum length throughout the switching area. In order to
study and analyze the car’s performance and separation it is necessary to compute Time/Distance curves 4
and to introduce retardation at critical points in order to adjust speeds and maintain separation.
b. In order to design for a “worse case” situation it is necessary to take into consideration the separation
changes between a light, high rollability car when followed by a heavy, low rollability one, each routed to
adjacent class tracks. There must be adequate separation down to the last level of switches; and finally, a
following car must not coincide with a leading one until after the clearance points.
c. For Intermittent Control systems, retarders must be located at the critical points of the Time/Distance
curves in order to adjust car speeds and prevent catch-up between cars of varying rollability values. The
exit speeds from the group retarders must be varied to match the distance the cars must run to couple in
each class track; when a track is nearly full these exit speeds will be relatively slow and this must be
allowed for in the Time/Distance curve by plotting a heavy, low rollability car followed by a light, high
rollability car that may need to run unretarded; refer to the sketch of Time/Distance curves in Figure 14-
2-7

Yards and Terminals
d. In Continuous Control systems the car velocity, after initial acceleration, will be nearly constant with
little change in separation; it is however, necessary to allow for a speed control bandwidth due the
variation in wheel diameters; refer to the sketch of Time/Curves in Figure 14-2-8.
2.4.5.7 Retardation
a. A typical Intermittent retarder yard will comprise a master retarder and a number of group retarders:
the master will be situated near the hump and its function is to adjust speeds for separation control. The
groups, located at the end of the switching area gradient, control the speeds of cars entering the class
tracks; their prime function is to release cars at predicted speeds in order to achieve 4.0 mph coupling at
varying distances down the tracks. This method of operation is often referred to as “target shooting” and
employs Distance to Couple circuits in the tracks, combined with computed exit velocities from the
groups. If tangent retarders are used at the entrance to the tracks, then the groups will “target shoot” to
these and the tangent retarders will then control the final distances and coupling speeds.
b. The minimum retarder energy necessary between the hump crest and the clearance points for car speed
control is:
Retarder energy = (H2 – H1) (Max weight car), feet ton

where:
H1 = Velocity head of low rollability car at clearance

H2 = Velocity head of high rollability car at clearance
c. In a Continuous Speed Control system the retarder units are installed at regular intervals throughout
the switching area and for distances down into the class tracks. The quantities of retarders needed to
provide speed control are dependent upon the control velocity, and are directly proportional to the
effective gradient (gradient minus total rollability) and the maximum car weight.
Retarder density = A(G – Rmin) / E, units / ft
where:
A = Maximum axle load, ton
G = Gradient coefficient
Rmin = Minimum total rollability coefficient
E = Retarder energy, ft ton / unit at specified control velocity
d. At the tangent points the retarders are installed in dense banks, forming deceleration zones to slow the
cars from the switching area velocity down to a 4.0 mph coupling speed.
Quantity of retarders/zone = A(V2SA – V2CV)k / (2gE)
where:
VSA = Switching area velocity, ft/sec

VCV = Allowable coupling velocity, ft/sec
e. As a slight accelerating gradient is usually extended down into the class tracks it is necessary, in order to
maintain a coupling speed of 4.0 mph maximum, to continue with a speed control section comprising an
appropriate quantity of retarder units. The retarder density can be determined by applying the formula
used above to calculate unit density in the switching area.

Figure 14-2-7. Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Intermittent Control)
Figure 14-2-8. Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Continuous Control)

Yards and Terminals
2.4.5.7.1 References
References used in this Part are found at the end of this chapter. See Reference 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
SECTION 2.5 FLAT CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN
2.5.1 GENERAL (1993)
2.5.1.1 Objective
The ideal objective is the design of a series of gradients so that each car will roll to and stop at the far end of the
classification yard, or will roll to coupling at an acceptable speed. The following objectives are the minimum to
be expected.
a. Deliver cars having a practical maximum rolling resistance to the clearance point under adverse weather
conditions.
b. Deliver cars of the most frequently-occurring rolling resistance to the far end of the yard, or to some
desired intermediate point, if the block sizes do not require filling the track.
c. Permit maximum switching rate and acceptance coupling speeds.
2.5.1.2 Rolling Resistance
The designer must be familiar with car rollability and the factors which can contribute to rolling resistance. See
Article 2.4.5.4, Design Parameters and Article 2.4.5.5, Theory (including car velocity, Rollability, Rotational
Kinetic energy, and velocity formulas).
2.5.1.3 Commodities and Equipment
The design should reflect the type of equipment to be used and the commodities to be handled.
2.5.2 GRADIENTS (1997)
The following data are presented to assist in the design of a flat yard with optimum gradients for the switching
of cars. The various segments of a flat yard with letter designations are shown in Figure 14-2-9.
2.5.2.1 Segment A: Switching Lead or Drill Track
Gradient here is not critical. Cars are normally released on or close to the ladder (segment B). However, since
this segment accommodates constant bi-directional movement, the gradient should be relatively flat, with
0.00% preferred.
Figure 14-2-9. Flat Yard for Single-Direction Switching

2.5.2.2 Segment B and C: Ladder and Switch to the Clearance Point
The preferred gradient is “slightly” accelerating; which means that the grade must descend sufficiently to
overcome rolling, switch and curve resistances. The preferred gradients for these segments range from –0.20%
to –0.30%. In special cases, gradient on the ladder can be level if cars are to be released near the switch of their
classification track.
2.5.2.3 Segment D: Clearance Point to Clearance Point
The preferred design gradient for this segment is “slightly” decelerating ranging from –0.10 to 0.00%.
2.5.2.4 Segments E, F and C: Leaving End of the Yard
a. Segments E and F should have sufficient adverse (uphill) gradient to prevent rollouts and thus minimize
the need for retarders or skates. Approximately 300 feet of 0.3% grade is suggested.
b. When conditions permit it is highly desirable to design a flat yard for switching at both ends even when
current operations might not require double-ended switching. A flat yard for double-ended switching
would have gradients in segments G, F and E the same as those in segments A, B and C respectively, and
gradient in segment D would be either level or “slightly” descending from each end toward the middle.
The yard profile would resemble a saucer.
c. In a flat-yard drilling operation, the car, when it is uncoupled, is not unlike the car leaving the group 1
retarder in a hump yard in that each car has just departed from its last point of external control, unless
the ladder leads tracks are equipped with one of the multi-unit distributive type of the retarder systems
as discussed in section 2.5.4. Hence, the basic formula for the hump yard from the group retarder to the
clearance point could be applied to the flat-yard design as follows:
Drop from uncoupling point to clearance point = SRe, + C + NSW + a

3
where:
S = Distance in feet (meters)

Re = Rolling Resistance of easy-rolling car expressed decimally
 = Curvature in degrees of central angle 4
C = Curve resistance in feet (meters) of drop per degree of central angle
SW = Switch resistance in feet – 0.06 foot per turnout (0.0183 meters per turnout)
N = Number of switches
a = Difference in velocity head at clearance and velocity head at uncoupling point for easy-rolling
cars.
NOTE: If metric units are used for any items, they should be used for all items in the formula.
d. The gradients in the body tracks must not produce unacceptable acceleration of easy-rolling cars.

Yards and Terminals
2.5.3 DESIGN FACTORS (2004)

2.5.3.1 Yard Configuration
a. If possible, a track should be designated for each classification to be made. However, it should be
remembered that a flat yard is best suited to a situation where the number of switching cuts is small.
While fairly large volumes of cars can be handled in a flat yard, a large number of cuts reduces its
effectiveness.
b. Body tracks should preferably be on tangent and of sufficient capacity to hold the volumes of each
classification under normal circumstances.
c. Ladders should be designed to minimize distance to clearance point and provide maximum yard capacity.
Switches should be as close together as possible for efficient hand-throwing. Multiple-frog-angle ladders
allow the designer to provide a compact layout; however, when hand-throw switches are used, the layout
should be such that all switch stands are on the outside of the ladder. Inside switch stands should be used
only when push-button power switching is provided.
2.5.3.2 Drainage
a. The flat yard will have a natural tendency to retain water, since its profile will usually take the shape of
a saucer. Good drainage is imperative to maintain designed track grade, alignment and structure. In
most cases, a subsurface drainage system will be required, unless the subgrade is very porous.
b. The grades of segments B and C in Figure 14-2-9 are between –0.2 and –0.3%. As more tracks are added
to the design, the drop in elevation to the outside tracks increases. This drop may require an extension of
the grade further into the body tracks of the first tracks on the lead than is desired (segment C). If that
is the case, then consideration should be given to lowering the elevation of each track from 0.4 to 0.5 foot
which would drain the yard to the outside of the classification tracks. The yard would drain with
equalizer pipes put through the grade at the lowest elevation.
2.5.4 LADDER TRACK YARDS WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL (1997)

When designing, what has traditionally been known as a flat yard, it is not possible to select a gradient for the
ladder lead tracks that is compatible with the rollability values of all cars. If the gradient selected is suitable for
the average rollability car, then those with a low rollability coefficient will accelerate to unacceptable speeds
and conversely, those with a high rollability coefficient may stall on the track before reaching their switch
destination.
2.5.4.2 Car Speed Control on Ladder Lead Tracks
A method of overcoming this problem is to introduce the multi-unit type of hydraulic retarders and distribute
them throughout the length of ladder lead tracks to provide continuous car speed control. It is then possible to
select a gradient that has sufficient inclination to ensure that the high rollability coefficient cars will reach the
farthest clearance point in the classification tracks, but at the same time, the retarders will control the
acceleration of the low rollability coefficient cars and limit their velocity to a predetermined maximum.
For yards constructed in warm and temperate climates, typical ladder lead track gradients can be in the order
of 0.4% to 0.45%; and for locations where low temperature conditions are experienced typical gradients can be
0.5% to 0.75%. If possible, the lengths of the ladder tracks should be restricted to around 1,000 feet from the
king switch1 to the last switch to minimize stalled cars during inclement weather conditions. These typical
1
The colloquial term designated to represent the first or primary switch, usually located near the crest of an automated switching yard,
from which all other lead switches originate.

parameters are based upon a car velocity of approximately 6.0 mph; if higher speeds are selected then the
gradients could be less, or the length of the ladder lead tracks extended; if lower speeds are chosen then the
inverse applies. The use of tandem turnouts can limit the length of the ladder lead tracks and provide for about
32 classification tracks.
2.5.4.3 The Addition of a Mini-Hump
The efficiency of the switching operation can be enhanced by constructing a mini-hump on the switching lead
track. This hump would assist the uncoupling procedure and enable a continuous humping process, replacing
the normal flat yard ‘drilling’ method of operation. A hump profile of around 200 feet x 1.0% could be used to
accelerate all cars to 6.0 mph retarder control velocity on the ladder lead tracks; if higher speeds are required,
then the hump elevation can be increased to give additional potential head. A number of retarders would be
needed on the hump to control the acceleration of the minimum rollability cars.
2.5.4.4 Additional Coupling Speed Control
If a maximum allowable coupling speed is an operational requirement in the classification tracks, then this can
be achieved by extending the retarder system to include these tracks. Retarders can be located at the tangent
points to decelerate the cars to the specified coupling speed. To further enhance both the coupling speed control
and the car penetration down the classification tracks, suitable gradients can be constructed with retarders
distributed along the tracks to form continuous speed control sections. There are many combinations of track
gradients and length of speed control sections that can be employed; the final solution would be dependent
upon the degree of coupling speed control that is specified.
1
2.5.4.5 Diagram 1
A Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control is illustrated in Diagram 1. All values are typical only, but the
plan and profiles are based upon an actual design for a yard located in a warm climate area; the parameters for
that design included:
a. Maximum car weight = 270,000 lbs. 3
b. Rollability ratio = 2 lbs/ton minimum to 8 lbs/ton maximum
c. Coupling speeds = 4 mph average & 6 mph maximum

Yards and Terminals
A mini-hump was added to enhance the switching operation and to accelerate the cars to 6 mph at the King
Switch. The 650 feet x 0.25% gradient in the classification tracks was included to assist car penetration and the
400 feet x 0.35% reverse gradient was constructed at the trim end to prevent car run-out.
Figure 14-2-10. Typical Track Diagram and Gradient Profile Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control
SECTION 2.6 TERMINAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RUN THROUGH TRAINS
2.6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RUN THROUGH TRAINS (1993)
Run through train operations involve the handling of service from the train origin to train destination with
bypass of normal intermediate yard humping or reclassification. Many variations of the definition for a run
through train exist in current rail operations. “Pure” run through trains operate from the shipping origin as a
protected “unit” to the receiving destination on a loaded cycle. Many times the train is assigned as a dedicated
train set and cycles from origin to destinations. Variations in train operations for unit run through trains
include:
• Single Origin – Various Local Destinations.
• Various Local Origins – Single Destination.
• Various Local Origins – Line Haul – Various Local Destinations.

2.6.2 RUN THROUGH TRAIN OPERATION (1993)

The operation of these trains in a terminal will likely have an impact on the support yards’ efficiency,
depending on the required handling of the particular run through trains. In addition, the handling of these
trains likely will impact main track operations in and around the terminal. It is important, therefore, that as
terminals are laid out or reconfigured that consideration be given to minimizing the impact on yard and main
track operations.
2.6.3 YARD FACILITY FUNCTIONS (1993)

The primary functions involved in the handling of the bypass or run through trains at a yard facility are crew
change, power change, train changes, train inspection and train servicing.
2.6.3.1 Crew Change
Terminals are likely locations where run through trains change crews. The timing of these changes will be
affected by the amount of work to be done with the run through train in the terminal.
2.6.3.2 Power Change
Generally, run through train power consists are handled without change at intermediate terminals. Exceptions
to this would be power requiring change due to failure on line of road or power change necessary to handle
route alignment or train tonnage alteration. Power requirements for the departure trip route is governed by
increase or decrease in ruling grades.
2.6.3.3 Train Changes 1

Generally run through trains are handled as a unit from origin to destination. Exceptions to this would be short
unit trains such as grain trains that will be filled with additional blocks at intermediate terminals. Other
conditions affecting train changes would be ruling grade restrictions requiring reduction and filling of the train
on either side of the grade. In these cases, set-out and pickup tracks should be made available adjacent to tracks
occupied by the run through train.
3
2.6.3.4 Train Inspection
Inspection of run through trains may be necessary at the terminal depending on where the train originated or
other FRA and local requirements. This is accomplished through a vehicle or walking inspection as necessary.
2.6.3.5 Train Servicing

4
Run through train power may be serviced intact. Those that are may have fuel, sand and water added as well as
supplies for the locomotive. The end of train device (ETD) may also be serviced.
2.6.4 DESIGN OBJECTIVES (1993)

2.6.4.1 Access to Main Lines
Where run through trains are routed or held on other than main tracks, those bypass tracks should be adjacent
to the main line. Turnouts should be designed to provide entrance and exit to these tracks at 25 to 30 MPH to
minimize train delay. Power or spring switches should be considered at these locations.
2.6.4.2 Access to Main Yard
Consideration should be given to the proximity of where the run through trains are routed or held to the main
yard. Cars for pickup or set-out for the run through trains will likely travel through the main yard or nearby
support yards. Movement to and from these yards should cause minimal impact to the main line operation.

Yards and Terminals
2.6.4.3 Access to Crew Office
Crew change locations for run through trains should be close to crew facilities to minimize delays.
Consideration should be given to roadway access at these locations to minimize trains blocking crew vehicles
and provide easy turnaround.
2.6.4.4 Access to Locomotive Shop
Track layout should provide direct access to the locomotive shop, where applicable, for power change-out on
run through trains. Route should minimize delays due to yard or main track movements.
2.6.4.5 Access to Car Shop
Consideration should be given to the proximity of the Car Maintenance facility. Bad order cars on run through
trains will require placement and pickup for the nearest car shop. Train inspection personnel may likely be
headquartered at the maintenance facility as well.
2.6.4.6 Train Inspection
Inspection roads and access should be provided to allow for both rolling and walking inspection of the through
train. Inspection access should provide the ability to perform light repairs to the intact train if the repair
condition can be handled without switching.
2.6.4.7 Train Servicing
Train servicing facilities generally include access for power consist fueling and spot maintenance. The run
through handling of unit trains may require power or car setoffs. Consideration should be given to allow for
switching tracks at both ends of the holding tracks assigned for run through trains. Also servicing of end of
train devices (ETD) and protection of employees including that required by “Blue Flag” rules should be
considered.
2.6.5 DESIGN FEATURES (1995) See Figure 14-2-11 and Figure 14-2-12.
Figure 14-2-11. Through Train Track Layout
2.6.5.1 Bypass Yard and Siding Tracks
These tracks should be designed to handle the maximum train length. They should be accessed through
standard lead ladders with turnouts sized to permit 25 to 30 MPH speeds. The rail in these tracks should be
sized to permit these track speeds as well. Where expected train volume would warrant power or spring
switches they should be considered.

VIEW A
1
VIEW B
Figure 14-2-12. Example Layout

Yards and Terminals
2.6.5.2 Engine Tracks
Consideration should be given to providing trackage for temporary locomotive storage. This trackage could be
utilized to stage locomotive changeouts or for fueling and servicing locomotives. It should be in close proximity
to the bypass yard.
2.6.5.3 Fueling and Servicing
The requirements should be considered for run through train power. A fueling station on the engine track may
be necessary to provide quick access to fuel and light engine service, including locomotive supplies. It may be
feasible to fuel and service at the locomotive shop or by a mobile truck. For any of these options, ease of access,
proper fueling equipment, environmental protection and protection of employees working on engines should be
considered.
2.6.5.4 Yard Air
Yard air may be required on the bypass tracks for expediting train movement. A review should be made of the
type of car set-outs and pickups and the duration these train blocks will be required to await movement.
2.6.5.5 Roadways
Roads should be built to provide access to crew change locations, inspection along bypass yard tracks and easy
access to other terminal facilities. They should be preferably hard surfaced, low maintenance roads and include
the necessary clearances and signage around crossings and adjacent to tracks for safe vehicle movement.
2.6.5.6 Lighting
Adequate lighting should be considered for bypass yard leads, crew change points, engine tracks or other
locations where regular activity will occur.
SECTION 2.7 YARD DESIGN FOR REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL)
2.7.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (2007)
Remote control locomotives (RCL) are used by Class 1, 2, and 3 railroads and by many industries. The use of
RCL equipment places the operator near the point of coupling and uncoupling which reduces the chances of
lading damage, and also reduces manpower required in yard operations. RCL equipment is operated by a radio
control unit carried by the operator or at a fixed control location, and can only be used on locomotives or
locomotive consists equipped with a radio receiving unit matching the frequency of the operator’s control unit.
The control unit usually features forward and reverse, throttle, and braking controls, plus sand, headlights,
and horn. In some industrial applications, a remote control uncoupler mechanism is installed on one or both
ends of the locomotive. The control units also incorporate a trip stop feature to immediately stop the RCL unit
if the operator trips or falls. The locomotives may or may not be equipped with indicator or strobe lights on the
side or top of the unit to indicate when RCL is in use, and direction of travel.
2.7.2 GENERAL YARD DESIGN OR REDESIGN (2007)
New yards may be designed for RCL equipment, but many existing yards have been or will be converted to RCL
use. These existing yards may not be ideally configured for RCL use, but the following guidelines may be used
to modify an existing yard to the extent practical for RCL use. Remote control switches are part of potential
yard design or redesign issues.

2.7.2.1 Lead Tracks
Yard leads or “pullback tracks” should be as long as the longest yard track, or as long as the longest cut (block)
of cars to be handled plus the length of the power consist plus safe stopping distance. A slight curve toward the
direction of the yard’s ladder tracks will aid an operator standing along the ladder switches to view the position
of the far end of the locomotive and cut of cars. In any case the operator must be able to judge the position of
the far end of the cut in relation to the end of the lead or pullback track. Positive stop equipment may be
installed on track and locomotives to provide more security against exceeding travel limits by automatically
halting the locomotives and cars approaching the limit of travel. Additionally, remote control switches should
have a clearly visible indication system to allow the operator to see switch positions from a distance.
2.7.2.2 Radio Reception
RCL units depend upon line of sight radio communication. Potential obstacles to radio communication should
be removed. If a radio communication analysis or survey reveals obstacles to radio transmission that cannot be
removed, a repeater unit should be provided to eliminate loss of radio communication between the operator’s
control unit and the locomotive. The repeater unit should be mounted as high as practical to gain maximum
range for the signal.
Similarly, voice radio communications between the yard crew and other yard operations is essential for safety of
RCL operations, and repeaters should be positioned for voice radios as well according to the communications
survey. Note that yard crews that formerly depended on the locomotive radio for voice communications will
now have to rely solely on their portable units.
2.7.2.3 Ladder Tracks

1
Ladder track turnout areas should be free of trip and stumbling hazards, and should be laid out so that the
pullback track or tracks are visible from the ladder switch area. RCL operators should not be required to stoop
to throw switches to eliminate inadvertent activation of the “tilt stop” feature of the control unit. Power-
operated or power-assisted push-button switches in the ladder tracks are recommended. Indicator lights or
other devices to indicate switch point position from a distance are suggested to aid operators who may be some 3
distance from the switch while operating. In areas where snow inhibits switch operation, switch heaters or
blowers are suggested to enhance yard operations during snow conditions.
2.7.2.4 Track Centers
It is essential that operators on the ground be able to see and judge car or engine position during coupling and
switch moves, and to be able to freely move between ladder tracks when coupling or uncoupling cars. 4
Therefore, ladder tracks should have wider centers to allow this visibility and to minimize exposure of the
operator to being struck by loose banding or shifted loads.
2.7.3 ISOLATION OF RCL OPERATIONS (2007)
Since some RCL equipment differs in operational safety procedures from regular switching operations, the
trackage where unoccupied RCL equipment operates is required to be separated from other railroad operations.
RCL equipment must be able to operate without point protection (crewmember on or observing movement of
the lead car in the direction of movement) without concern for other conflicting yard movements. The
following requirements apply.
2.7.3.1 Signage
Warning signs must be posted at all entry points where RCL operations may occur. These signs should be
placed at known roadway entry points, at locations where trespassers are known to enter the yard, and where
unoccupied locomotives operate at or near sidewalks and roadways parallel to the RCL zone location. At times

Yards and Terminals
when RCL operations are underway, additional signage must be applied to warn railroad personnel and others
that RCL equipment is in operation. Signage should be placed at all locations where track entry points occur
into the RCL zone to warn train crews of RCL operations. In particular, signage should be placed at every point
a non-pullback track enters the remote control zone of operation, whether facing or trailing movements. Care
must be observed to avoid creation of close clearances when placing the signage.
2.7.3.2 Grade Crossings
In general, grade crossings should be avoided where RCL operations are contemplated. Where crossings are
unavoidable RCL operations proposed over grade crossings should take into consideration how movements over
the crossing will be observed by the RCL operator. Crossings utilized by yard or plant operating and
maintenance crews should be marked with additional signs to advise that RCL equipment may be in use.
Cameras and monitors could be employed to provide operators with a view of the crossing.
2.7.3.3 Signaled Trackage
Unoccupied RCL operations are not allowed within the limits of interlocking plants, signaled trackage, or
controlled trackage without proper authority. All trackage within the zone of RCL operation must be under the
sole control of the RCL foreman or operator that occupies the zone of RCL operation.
2.7.4 LIGHTING (2007)
Lighting along pullback tracks and along ladder areas should be similar to that for other lead tracks or hump
tracks. Good lighting is necessary for the operators to see the ends of cuts of cars or the locomotive and to help
prevent trips, slips or falls along the lead and ladder tracks. The guidelines set forth in Chapter 33, Part 10
should be followed for the applicable areas in RCL yards.
2.7.5 WALKWAYS (2007)
Care should be taken to provide an unobstructed walking surface for RCL operators. Ballast for leads, ladder
areas, and walkways along ladder tracks should be AREMA size 57 or similar yard ballast for good footing and
drainage.

14
Part 3
Freight Delivery and Transfer1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This subject involves the engineering aspects of freight (commodities, merchandise, etc.) handling at the points
of origin and delivery, in carload lot or less-than-carload (LCL) lot, or in the consolidation of LCL freight from a
greater to a lesser number of cars, or vice versa. Generally the actual handling of the freight itself has not been
a function of the railroads. Separate entities or freight forwarders have taken over this function. Coordination
with these businesses is necessary however to minimize shipping delays.
1
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 107.

Yards and Terminals

14
14‘
Part 4
Specialized Freight Terminals1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation of
freight terminals for the expeditious handling of a single type commodity or merchandise as opposed to the
handling of several types of commodity or merchandise as in Part 3, Freight Delivery and Transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.1 Rail/Water Transfer Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.2 Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.3 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-5
4.1.4 Commodity Specific Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-6
4.1.5 Terminal Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12 3
4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.2.1 Introduction (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.2.2 Facility Types and Equipment (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-14
4.2.3 Design Factors (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-19
4.3 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35

4.3.1 Automobile Loading/Unloading (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35
4.3.2 Truck Chassis Loading/Unloading (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-41
4.3.3 Military Vehicles (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
4.3.4 Containerized Shipping (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
4.3.5 Security (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-43
4.4 Bulk-solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47

4.4.1 Grain Elevators (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47
4.4.2 Design of Bulk Granular Solids Terminals (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-48
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 157; Vol. 88, 1987, p. 86; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 91; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 107;
Vol 94, p. 109; Vol. 97, p 157.

Yards and Terminals
4.5 Bulk-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53

4.5.1 Introduction (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53
4.5.2 Site Selection (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53
4.5.3 Unloading and Loading Facilities (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-55
4.5.4 Commodity Storage (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-56
4.5.5 Buildings (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.6 Security (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.7 Environment and Maintenance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.8 Terminal Configuration (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-58
4.6 Merchandise Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62

4.6.1 Produce Terminals (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62
4.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66

4.7.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.2 MSW Rail Haul Equipment (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.3 Site Selection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.4 Construction of Facilities (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-67
4.8 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71

4.8.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
4.8.2 Configuration (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
4.8.3 Design Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-72
4.8.4 Facility Types (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-73
LIST OF FIGURES
14-4-1 Low-Volume Terminal with End Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-20

14-4-2 Low-Volume Terminal – Side Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-20
14-4-3 Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Outside Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-21
14-4-4 Side Loading Double Stack Cars Between Parallel Tracks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-21
14-4-5 Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Inside Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-22
14-4-6 High-Volume Terminal, Crane Loading with Outside Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-23
14-4-7 Long Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-23
14-4-8 Short Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-24
14-4-9 Typical Rubber Tired Gantry Crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-25
14-4-10 Typical Container Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-26
14-4-11 Automobile Loading/Unloading Site Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-38
14-4-12 Typical Layout or “A” Frame Truck Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
14-4-13 Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Standard or End Loading). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-43
14-4-14 Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Perimeter Loading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-44
14-4-15 Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Single End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus
Storage/Support Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-59
14-4-16 Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Double End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Support
Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-60

Specialized Freight Terminals
LIST OF TABLES
14-4-1 Range and Average for Reach-Stackers, Side-Lift and Gantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-27
SECTION 4.1 RAIL/WATER TRANSFER FACILITIES
4.1.1 GENERAL
Rail/water transfer facilities provide for the transfer of shipments or cargoes from ship or barge to railroad cars or
trucks, and from railroad cars or trucks to ships or barges. The facilities at a terminal typically consist of docks
with loading and unloading equipment, suited for general or specific commodities, railroad tracks and roadways,
and support buildings and equipment for transfer purposes.
In designing rail/water transfer facilities, consideration must be given to the type and quantity of freight to be handled.
Some facilities may be designed purely for the transfer of commodities to other modes or directly to a customer,
whereas other facilities may provide intermediate storage between modes, or storage on behalf of the customer.
Individual customers may be served at a terminal or multiple customers may share the terminal and its facilities.
One or more different commodities may also be handled in the same terminal. Some docks and facilities may be 1
designed to specialize in the handling of a single commodity, such as ores, coal, grains, fruit, automobiles or other
vehicles, and general merchandise.
4.1.2 SITE SELECTION

The site for the terminal should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the facility to
handle the volumes of traffic projected for each commodity. Ease of access for customers and all modes of 3
transportation involved are critical in selecting a suitable site. Site selection and configuration should allow for
economy in movement of materials, unloading and loading equipment, and transportation equipment.
The following factors should be considered during selection, planning and construction of the site.
4.1.2.1 Environment
4
Various chapters of the Manual discuss environmental considerations in detail. Environmental items which
typically impact facility design that should be considered include:
a. Air pollution (vapor and dust control and collection)
b. Water pollution (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities)
c. Spill containment (for liquids and solids)
d. Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas)
e. Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment)
f. Proximity to archaeological and historical sites
g. Proximity to residential areas

Yards and Terminals
h. Proximity to ecologically sensitive areas including wetlands
i. Elevation of facility relative to ocean tides and storm surges, or stream flood stages
4.1.2.2 Size
The site selected for a terminal and its facilities should have sufficient land area to allow for future expansion and
development. Sizing of equipment and structures should also allow for expansion and flexibility of operation.
The duration of time allocated to load and unload vessels, railroad cars, trucks and storage areas, and the
frequency of transportation services, will impact the sizing of various elements of a terminal.
4.1.2.3 Access
4.1.2.3.1 Roads
Highways, streets and other roads to be used for access must provide an efficient route for customers. Routes to
the site should be carefully studied for their ability to accommodate trucks and equipment that will serve the
terminal. Weight restrictions including seasonal restrictions, pavement width, curves, intersections and existing
traffic volumes and patterns should all be considered relative to the size and type of trucks and equipment that will
use them.
Routes for trucks serving the terminal should also be carefully studied to determine whether they will pass or be
near schools, hospitals, parks, community centers, residential areas, and other sensitive areas. Local ordinances
may exist that prohibit truck traffic on certain roads. Also, site selection should consider public opposition that
may prevent new or additional traffic on certain roads.
Site access for emergency vehicles should also be considered, incorporating specific access roads or gates into the
site plan as necessary for use by emergency vehicles only.
4.1.2.3.2 Waterways
The terminal may be located at waterside of an ocean, an estuary, or a lake or river, but is usually on a harbor of
one of these. The site for a rail/water transfer terminal should be on a regular water shipping route accessible to
vessels of the type and draft that carry the commodities to be handled, and where necessary maritime services,
such as pilots and tug boats, are available to the water carrier.
Water access should provide sufficient draft, maneuvering and turning basins, and berthing space for the size and
type of vessels to serve the terminal.
Seasonal restrictions to certain waterways in northern climate should also be considered in designing storage
facilities.
4.1.2.3.3 Rail
Rail access should be designed to efficiently accommodate rail traffic serving the terminal’s customers. The length
of cars, locomotives and trains, frequency of switching movements, serving the terminal, and the characteristics of
existing mainline train movements and other operations, should be considered.
The site should be accessible to rail switching from a line which is free of clearance restrictions for the size (length
and height) railroad cars and other equipment expected to serve the terminal. The sharpness or degree of
curvature of the track (including turnouts) should be considered as well so as to not restrict the use of rail
equipment. The line’s capacity should also be carefully studied and considered to provide for short-term service
needs and allow for future growth.

Modification of an existing yard may permit utilization of little used assets and use to advantage a site with good
access. In other instances, selection of an active, new or undeveloped location may be prudent.
4.1.2.4 Utilities
Utilities required for the site should be considered during the site selection process. Water will be necessary for fire
protection, employee washdown (i.e., showers, eye washout), dust control, equipment cleaning and employee
facilities, along with sewage disposal. Electrical power and/or natural gas will be needed for commodity handling
equipment, lighting, heating/cooling/ventilation equipment and other equipment. Telecommunications lines will
also be needed for voice and data transmissions for within the terminal and to the outside.
A backup power system for the terminal may also be desirable, particularly for security, telecommunications, fire
protection, and other critical systems requiring power during primary system outages.
4.1.2.5 Zoning and Permitting
Many government agencies have enacted laws which may impact the selection and construction of waterfront
terminals and facilities. Proposals to locate this type of terminal in areas not properly zoned or near residential,
commercial, or recreational areas including schools and hospitals are frequently controversial to the public. Public
hearings and other legal processes frequently become necessary when a controversial site is selected.
Permits of some description are required at nearly all locations.
Schedules for placing a terminal in-service should consider the time associated with such hearings and legal
processes and obtaining permits. In situations in which the timely completion of a terminal is critical, it may be 1
prudent to select a site that will minimize controversy.
4.1.3 GENERAL DESIGN
4.1.3.1 Marine Docks
A dock is a marine structure at which ships or barges are moored. It may consist of a series of breasting and
3
mooring dolphins with a structure for the shiploader/unloader, a dock with a rail mounted traveling
shiploader/unloader, or an intermediate type. A dock constructed parallel to the shoreline is typically called a
“wharf”, while a dock constructed at an angle, ranging from acute to right to the shoreline, is called a “pier”.
Wharves and piers may be open or covered, depending on the protection needed for the commodity handled.
Wharves may be served by tracks located parallel to the wharf adjacent to the water’s edge to allow goods to be
handled directly between ship or barge and railroad cars.
4
Piers are usually provided with tracks located at their center or along the edge.
At locations where rail equipment is to be transferred to and from ships, car floats or ferries, transfer bridges will
be needed.
4.1.3.2 Terminal Track
Railroad trackage and its layout should be designed to allow switching of various segments of the terminal as
efficiently as possible without interfering with the operations at other segments of the terminal. Depending on the
size of the terminal, remote or separate tracks for railroad cars may be needed to support switching movements at
rail/water facilities. Storage tracks may be needed for cars held for loading or unloading, and to accumulate cars
carrying a specific commodity destined for a particular ship or barge. A terminal handling a variety of commodities
may require a separate group of tracks or yard for classification. Car repair tracks and supporting facilities may

Yards and Terminals
also be needed. Separate tracks or tracks for interchange between rail carriers may be needed if multiple carriers
are to serve the rail/water transfer terminal.
4.1.3.3 Commodity Handling
Docks should be equipped with necessary conveyors, pipelines, car dumpers, crane, hoppers and any other
equipment for handling special products. Large structural cranes may be needed to extend over docks and ships or
barges to facilitate the handling of loads. Conveyor systems may be required to move products in bulk or units.
All equipment along railroad tracks, including loading booms and unloading connections, must be retractable to
ensure that it meets the guidelines found in Chapter 28 of the Manual for clearances.
Adequate ground, pier, and/or warehouse storage areas are essential for products awaiting shipment. The location
and arrangement of the storage space is important so there will be minimal interference with other terminal
operations in handling the commodities.
4.1.3.4 Government Inspections
Certain products may be subject to inspections by government agencies having jurisdiction over customs,
agriculture, food, drugs, and other items. These agencies often must be provided with enclosed heated and air-
conditioned offices, and with inspection areas having prescribed cleanliness, temperatures, lighting, plumbing,
lifting and cutting equipment and other tools, refrigerated storage rooms, locker rooms, rest rooms, and other
facilities. Means for holding and disposing wastes and rejected products must also be provided. Such offices and
inspection facilities are often located within or adjacent to transloading buildings and facilities.
The following factors should be considered during design of facilities for specific products.
4.1.3.5 Fire Protection
Water lines and hydrants are typically needed throughout the terminal for fire protection. Local fire protection
agencies should be contacted to determine design requirements for sizing fire waterlines and locations for hydrants.
Contingent upon the level of potential fire hazards and outside emergency response capabilities, it may be prudent
to provide a self-contained fire fighting unit in the terminal. Also, consideration should be given to providing on-
site water storage.
4.1.4 COMMODITY SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
4.1.4.1 Granular Agricultural Commodities
The handling of granular agricultural commodities is typically in bulk shipments using unit trains or blocks of
railroad cars. Some commodities, such as flour, may be handled in bags. Rail/water terminals handling bulk
shipments typically require large grain storage bins at or near the dock to serve as an intermediate holding or
“surge” facility for shipments to be transferred between transportation modes. In addition, an elevator may be
required for mixing certain commodities or grades of commodities to fulfill the needs of customers.
4.1.4.1.1 Ship Loading and Unloading
Ships may be secured at a wharf or pier and loaded/unloaded by a traveling machine or by cranes on the dock.
Ships may also be loaded/unloaded by a machine which is fixed in position with the ship moving itself fore and aft
on its own lines to present successive hatches to the machine.
Barge loading/unloading is generally similar to that for ships, except that barge moving machinery and
loading/unloading equipment is typically shore mounted.

Shiploaders/unloaders should be designed and sized to handle the required transfer rates, with a reasonable
margin and allowance for maintenance, movement between hatches and other time out-of-service. Equipment
selection may be commodity specific to the exclusion of efficiently handling other materials. Ship unloaders may be
grab bucket, various arrangements of bucket elevator or marine leg, screw conveyors, pneumatic equipment or
vacuum unloaders. Use of traditional ship’s gear may be encountered. Site-specific environmental regulations may
control or limit the choice of type, and may further require extensive sound and dust suppression.
4.1.4.1.2 Railroad Car Loading and Unloading
Facility switching costs will be minimized by having both loaded and empty tracks equal in capacity to a day’s
production. Railroad cars may be moved through the loading facility by road locomotives with appropriate control
equipment, yard locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers, or gravity. Conveyors, gravity loading chutes or
pneumatic loaders may be used. Unless a dedicated supply of cars is used, cars delivered for loading may not be
compatible with the commodity to be loaded and accommodations for cleaning of these cars will be required.
For unloading, the track arrangement and car progression are generally similar to those for car loading. Car
unloading may be by rotary dump, coupled or uncoupled, by bottom dump into conveyor pits, stationary or in
motion, or by mechanical excavators. Choice of equipment will be dictated by the volume and physical properties of
the commodity to be handled.
4.1.4.1.3 Moisture Content
While temperature is not usually of concern during the handling of granular agricultural commodities, moisture
content affects the weight and value of the product and should be considered in the design of all handling facilities.
Grain drying equipment may also be needed to alter the moisture content. 1
4.1.4.1.4 Other Design Considerations
It is essential to eliminate or minimize open storage, spillage, and any other practice which may lead to
contamination of surface or ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water treatment,
to conform with these discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
3
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront granular
agricultural terminals and facilities are the same as for inland terminals. The design considerations for grain
elevators are covered in the bulk-solid segments of Chapter 14. For specific subjects, refer to Section 4.4.1.
4.1.4.2 Automobile and Other Vehicle Loading/Unloading
A waterfront automobile and vehicle terminal provides facilities for the transfer of shipments of vehicles from ship 4
or barge to railroad car or trucks, and/or from railroad car or trucks to ship or barge. The terminal consists of one
or more docks (pier or wharves), operating buildings, roadways and vehicle parking areas and railroad tracks.
Generally, this terminal will be separate from other cargo facilities, to ensure protection and security of the
vehicles being handled.
4.1.4.2.1 Terminal Size
The size of the waterfront automobile and other vehicle loading/unloading terminal will depend on the number of
vehicles to be loaded/unloaded within a specific period of time, the length of the time vehicles are to be held at the
terminal, and the method of operation. The terminal will generally require greater parking capacity than a similar
land terminal.

Yards and Terminals
4.1.4.2.2 Loading and Unloading
The loading/unloading of ships or barges is generally accomplished through the use of onboard ramps which allow
the vehicles to be driven or towed from the dock onto the ship or barge, or from the ship or barge onto the dock.
Paved areas adjacent to or on the dock are often necessary to land the ramp and vehicles.
The site should be accessible to railroad switching from a line which is free of clearance restrictions for multi-level
railroad cars typically used for automobile and truck loading.
Sources of airborne dust and pollutants which could damage vehicle finishes should be considered.
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of design considerations for waterfront automobile
terminals and facilities are the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.3
of Chapter 14 entitled “Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities”.
4.1.4.3 Bulk Fluids
Waterfront bulk fluid terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk shipments of
fluids between ship or barge and railroad cars, or other modes of transportation.
This section is applicable to bulk liquids such as chemicals, petroleum, fertilizers, food-grade liquids and oils. Also,
this section will apply to some dry bulk solids such as powders and granules, which have physical characteristics
similar to a liquid, and are handled as fluids rather than as solids.
These commodities could transported in single or multiple railroad car block, or in unit train service. Some
commodities, such as petroleum products, may be transported in railroad cars with interconnected piping to allow
unloading and loading of several cars from a single point.
Factors affecting terminal and facility design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of
shipment (i.e., unit train, multiple car, single car, ship or barge), the physical characteristics of the site, and the
degree of processing and storage to be done on the site.
Loading and unloading facilities at terminals may vary from low-volume, single, or multiple car customer systems
to high-volume systems for unit trains. Contingent upon the function of the terminal and the commodities to be
handled, the transfer of commodities may be between railroad car and truck, railroad car and storage tank, and/or
truck and vessel. In any case, the terminal and its facilities must be carefully designed to meet the needs of its
customer or customers.
For low-volume terminals, intermittent unloading of commodities is common and will impact the equipment needs
for the terminal. For larger terminals, high-capacity equipment may be necessary.
In any situation, typical railroad car and truck length should be determined for the installation of loading booms or
unloading connections at the appropriate interval. Careful consideration must be given to the type of commodity
and railroad cars, trucks, vessels and loading/unloading equipment to ensure compatibility. Also, a careful analysis
of the equipment, piping, connections, storage tanks, and other facilities should be done to ensure that they are
composed of materials that will not corrode or deteriorate when exposed to the commodity.

contamination of surface and ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water
treatment, to conform with these discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
Spill containment slabs or pens, and a system for collection and treatment of spills is often required beneath
loading booms and unloading connections.
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront bulk fluid
terminals and facilities are the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.5
of Chapter 14 entitled “Bulk Liquids”.
4.1.4.4 Coal and Bulk Ore
The terminal may consist of a series of mooring dolphins with a structure for a shiploader/unloader, a pier or wharf
with a rail mounted traveling shiploader/unloader, or an intermediate type.
4.1.4.4.1 Ship/Barge Loading and Unloading
Ships may be secured at a wharf or pier in position one time and loaded/unloading by a traveling machine, by ship’s
gear, or by cranes on the dock. Ships may also be loaded/unloaded by a machine fixed in position with the ship
moving itself fore and aft on its own lines to present successive hatches to the machine.
Ship loaders commonly are belt conveyor type, with appropriate slinger or other equipment to distribute cargo 1
around the ship’s hold. Barge loading/unloading is generally similar to that for ships, except that barge moving
machinery and loading/unloading equipment is typically shore mounted.
Shiploaders/unloaders should be designed and sized to handle required transfer rates, with a reasonable margin
and allowance for maintenance, movement between hatches and other time out-of-service. Equipment selection
may be product specific to the exclusion of efficiently handling other materials. Ship unloaders may be grab bucket,
various arrangements of bucket elevator or marine leg, belt or screw conveyors, pneumatic equipment or vacuum 3
unloaders. Use of traditional ship’s gear may be encountered. Self unloading ships exist which mount a slewing
belt conveyor boom to deliver bulk material to shore.
Site-specific environmental regulations may control or limit the choice of type, and may further require extensive
noise and dust suppression.
4.1.4.4.2 Railroad Car Loading and Unloading 4

Facility switching costs will be minimized by having both loaded and empty tracks equal in capacity to a day’s
production. Railroad cars may be moved through the loading facility by road locomotives with appropriate control
equipment, yard locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers, or gravity. Conveyors, gravity loading chutes or
pneumatic loaders may be used. Unless a dedicated supply of cars is used, cars delivered for loading may not be
compatible with the commodity to be loaded and accommodations for cleaning of these cars will be required.
For unloading, the track arrangement is generally similar to that for car loading. Car progression may be with road
locomotives with appropriate control equipment, yard locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers or gravity. Car
unloading may be by rotary dump (coupled or uncoupled), bottom dump (stationary or in motion), or by
mechanical excavators. Choice of equipment will be dictated by the volume and physical characteristics of the
commodity to be handled.
Unloading of materials that stick to the inside of the cars by excavating machines may require devices to secure
cars, with a rapid set and release mechanism. Cleaning facilities may also be required. Unloading in winter may
require cars and lading to be thawed in thawing or heating sheds.

Yards and Terminals
4.1.4.4.3 Material Stacking, Reclaiming and Handling
Equipment selected should be suitable to the material to be handled, to the site, and to the other facility
equipment. Conveyor belt systems, level and inclined, with or without bucket elevators, are useful for many types
of commodities. Use of air slides and airlifts, suitable for some commodities, provide a fully enclosed system with
good dust control capability.
contamination of surface and ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water
treatment, to conform with these discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expansive provide.
4.1.4.5 Intermodal
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront intermodal
terminals are the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.2 of Chapter 14.
4.1.4.6 Perishables
Perishables commodities handled at ports may include fruits, fruit juices, juice concentrates, vegetables, meats,
poultry, fish, dairy products, candy plants, cut flowers, pharmaceuticals, photography supplies, and chemical.
Perishable commodities may be handled in bulk, usually in cartons with or without pallets, or in refrigerated
railroad cars, containers or truck trailers. Some of these are shipped frozen at low temperatures, and others fresh
at controlled temperatures to prevent overheating or freezing. In all cases, it is important to minimize the time
taken to transfer one transportation mode to another to prevent spoilage.
4.1.4.6.1 Buildings and Docks
Enclosed buildings are required to break, and sometimes mix bulk commodities for transloading to or from ships,
rail cars, containers and truck trailers. Temperature controlled storage rooms are also required in such buildings if
the commodity is temperature sensitive and delays in transloading are possible. These buildings should have
exterior doors at rail car height and at truck height, and should be equipped with extendible shrouds which provide
seals between railroad cars or trucks and the building to provide a protected environment during handling.
Outside docks should be wide enough to provide adequate maneuvering room for loading equipment. Lighting
should be provided for night time operations.
See AREMA Chapter 6, for additional related information.
4.1.4.6.2 Containerized Shipments
Containerized perishable commodities use refrigeration or heating units, ranging from -20F (-29C) to +80F
(+27C), which require electric outlets on shipboard, typically 460V, 60hz, 3. On docks, these containers may be
plugged into on-shore power outlets provided specifically for that purpose, or powered by diesel-electric motor
generator units, typically having a capacity of approximately 18kva, which are either fastened onto the top front
nose of the container using fork lift, or mounted on the underside of the trailer chassis. If on-shore power is subject
to interruption, a reliable stand-by power source should be provided.
Containers on railroad cars may utilize refrigeration equipment powered by individual, nose mounted motor
generator units or by a central, removable power unit, typically 113kw, mounted in a container flat car which feeds
up to nine containers on the same articulated car.
Most refrigerated truck trailers carry their own, built-in motor generator. Some equipment modifies its internal
atmospheric pressure and is charged form tank trucks or gas bottles which may require storage areas at the terminal.

A facility should be provided near the facility for the cleaning, fueling, maintenance, repair, and preparing of
railroad cars, containers, trailers, chassis and refrigeration and motor generator units. It should have technical
equipment for testing, diagnosing and recording equipment performance. A secure, fenced and well lighted area
should be provided for storage of spare parts and MG units.
See Section 4.2 of Chapter 14, for additional related information concerning containerized and truck trailer
terminals.
4.1.4.7 Phosphate Rock and Phosphate Chemicals
Phosphate rock and phosphate chemicals are different commodities which will likely have to be handled in
separate areas to meet customer requirements. These materials must be handled, transported, and stored in a dry
state. Prevention of moisture intrusion and contamination is essential. Facilities should be designed to avoid
product degradation.
4.1.4.7.1 Environmental Considerations
Dust collection is essential for all storage facilities and transfer points. Dry dust collection is strongly preferred
because the product can be returned to the system. Wet scrubbers should only be considered to meet the most
stringent air quality requirements. Fully enclosed dumpers and conveyor transfer points with dust collection
should be provided. Telescoping chutes with encapsulated dust collection must be provided for ship or barge
loading. Measurement of loading point air quality (opacity) is a less-than-precise science which should be
considered in attempting to meet local air quality standards. 1
Local air quality standards may specify the annual amount of pollutants that may be discharged into the air which
in turn may limit the hours of operation for a particular transfer terminal.
It is essential to eliminate or minimize open storage, spillage, and any other practice which may lead to contamination
of surface and ground water. Most states or municipalities have laws or regulations which stipulate the amount of
nitrogen or phosphate that can be contained in water discharge. Often these regulations are very stringent. Water 3
treatment, to conform with these discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
4.1.4.7.2 Storage
Storage facilities must be enclosed from the weather, and provide compartments to separate rock and various
grades of chemical. Additional separation may be needed if there is more than one customer. Dust collection may be
needed and curtains may be required to prevent transport of dust between rock and chemical. 4
4.1.4.7.3 Rail Equipment
Phosphate rock and chemicals are normally transported by rail in covered hoppers. Unloading is usually done by
rotary dumping to allow elimination or sealing of bottom hatches. Cars should be dry cleaned, mainly to avoid the
environmental difficulties associated with disposal of wetted product.
4.1.4.7.4 Maintenance
Special attention must be given to prompt cleanup of material resulting from normal or accidental material
spillage. Scheduled maintenance to clean pulleys, rollers, dumping equipment, pipes, chutes, etc. must be provided
to assure efficient operation and extend equipment life.

Yards and Terminals
4.1.4.8 Other Miscellaneous Cargoes
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for other cargoes are the
same as for the inland merchandise terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.6.
4.1.5 TERMINAL MAINTENANCE
Bulk materials facilities should be designed to minimize maintenance and provide for adequate housekeeping.
Areas where material spills are likely should provide access for loaders and trucks for easy removal of spillage.
Particular attention should be given to the prevention of dust accumulation. Materials used in construction should
be resistant to deterioration from the commodities handled.
Every effort must be made to avoid product discharge into harbor waters, not only to maintain compliance with
regulations, but also to avoid contamination and special handling of dredge materials when maintenance dredging
is required.
The design of the terminal should include provisions for ongoing maintenance and staged replacement of
components. Areas should be provided within the limits of the facility for storage and easy access to routinely used
maintenance materials and equipment. Fueling and maintenance facilities for mobile and fixed equipment should
also be provided.
Use of secondhand rail, ties, or turnouts should be kept to a minimum and used only in areas where track can be
easily removed from service without unduly restricting the overall use of the facility. The main switching leads and
areas that will be either paved over or located immediately adjacent to fixed elevation pavements or mechanical
systems, should be constructed with new premium or first grade material. Care must be taken during track
maintenance to hold the elevation of the rail to within the designed tolerances.
Drainage structures and pavement slopes should be designed to avoid temporary ponding of water and allow easy
removal of debris. The use of subsurface drains should be included in confined areas, such as track roadbeds within
paved areas, to provide an outlet for moisture infiltration.
SECTION 4.2 DESIGN OF INTERMODAL FACILITIES
Intermodal terminals are specialized freight terminals designed to efficiently transfer trailers and/or containers to and from rail cars.
Trailer on flat car/container on flat car (TOFC/COFC) operations involve mounting trailers or containers on specially equipped flatcars.
Double-stack intermodal operations involve placing one container on top of another on specially designed rail cars that support the
containers at a height of about one foot above the top of the rails. Intermodal terminals integrate rail, highway and waterway
transportation modes. For additional pertinent information on design of TOFC/COFC Facilities, refer to Bulletin 696, Proceedings Volume
85, May 1984, Pages 157-190.
4.2.1.1 General
Factors influencing the facility location and design are accessibility to major highways and water routes, and capacity and clearance
capability of the serving rail lines. The location studies must consider the equipment type, the traffic volume, railroad operations, highway
traffic patterns and central location with respect to market area. There must be a commitment from railroad management concerning the
general area where an intermodal or TOFC/COFC terminal is desired.

4.2.1.1.1 Operational Concept
a. The design of an intermodal or TOFC/COFC terminal will be governed principally by the volume of
intermodal traffic, the land available, storage requirements and the existing layout for expansion projects.
b. A waterfront terminal serving a port handling container ships usually requires more storage/parking area
than an inland terminal unless the operations of the two facilities are closely coordinated. Waterfront
terminals will frequently be called upon to handle high volumes of movements on peak days and stand idle
the remainder of the week. Operations commonly handling perishable loads have different needs since
electrical outlets and additional fuel supplies are required to keep the refrigerated units running.
c. Standards should be developed to permit efficient truck-trailer movement between the terminal gate and
the parking areas. A computer program to help locate and retrieve trailers and containers will permit more
efficient location assignments for incoming and outgoing trailers.
d. A centralized management information system will facilitate trailer handling, spotting, preblocking and all
associated paper flow.
4.2.1.1.2 Rail Equipment Considerations
a. A variety of specialized rail equipment is used in the transport of trailers and containers. Trailer carrying
railcars provide a supporting platform for the trailer wheels and a stanchion to support the trailer at the
king pin. The stanchion latches the king pinto provide longitudinal restraint to the trailer. Some of these
railcars have continuous platforms and short bridge plates to span the gap between coupled cars, thus
allowing the trailers to be driven onto and across the cars. Lighter cars have platforms only at specific
1
support points and require that all trailers be lifted on and off the cars.
b. Containers are carried on two basic types of cars. These are single-level cars similar to those used for
trailers and double stack cars specifically designed to carry two containers stacked one on top of the other.
Single level cars have special fittings that support and secure the corner castings of standard containers.
Two types of double-stack car designs are in use. Both carry the lower container in a “well” with the bottom
of the container supported approximately one foot above the top of rail. Bulkhead cars restrain the top 3
container from longitudinal and lateral movement with bulkhead guides at all four corners of the container,
holding the lower one foot of the container in place. The weight of the container is sufficient to prevent the
container from bouncing out of the guides. Double-stack cars without bulkheads require the use of twist-
lock inter-box-connectors (IBC’s) to secure the upper box to the lower box. The IBC provides both
horizontal and vertical restraint for the upper box. All containers must be lifted on and off the rail cars
using various types of lift equipment that is generally dedicated to use at a given intermodal terminal.
4
4.2.1.2 Site Selection Planning
a. Many of today’s TOFC/COFC terminals are inadequate because they were originally designed to conform to
an available site. This approach should be avoided if at all possible.
b. Layout and planning for the facility should include the following elements:
4.2.1.2.1 Environment
Environmental factors to be considered include:
a. Air.
b. Water.
c. Noise and Lighting.

Yards and Terminals
d. Rainfall Runoff.
e. Archaeological and Historical Sites.
f. Housing Displacement.
g. Proximity to Residential Areas.
h. Wetlands.
i. Floodplains.
j. Difficult soils conditions.
4.2.1.2.2 Economics
The ideal facility topography is relatively level with good cross drainage and stable foundation material. The site
should allow a design that facilitates through train pickup and set-out, or termination and origination where
possible. A minimum of switch engine moves should be used to assure the most economical return.
4.2.1.2.3 Traffic Volume
Projected traffic volumes and possible future volumes will influence layout and traffic circulation plans.
4.2.1.2.4 Size
The size of a terminal depends on the number of trailers/containers loaded and unloaded in a specific time period,
the length of time the trailer/container is held at the facility and the method of operation. Space is often limited
and expensive, which therefore leads to more mechanized storage and handling systems.
4.2.1.2.5 Standardization
Standardizing certain elements of a TOFC/COFC terminal is desirable. This will permit the future transfer of
terminal equipment from one terminal to another.
4.2.1.2.6 Highway Access
Good highway access is essential to the proper TOFC/COFC terminal siting. Highway load restrictions and
clearances must be considered.
4.2.1.2.7 Rail Access
The approach tracks should be free from rail traffic congestion and have the proper rail clearances. If the daily
volume of an intermodal terminal exceeds the track capacity of that terminal, additional support yard trackage will
be required to accommodate arriving and departing trains and additional car storage.
4.2.1.2.8 Zoning
Most governmental jurisdictions have zoning laws that govern constructing the facility. It is highly desirable to
avoid sites near residential areas or sites that require rezoning, as this is often a lengthy process with limited
prospects of successful results.
4.2.2 FACILITY TYPES AND EQUIPMENT (1993)
a. Committee 6, Assignment 1 entitled “Buildings, Platforms Ramps, Paving, Lighting and Other Facilities for
Piggyback Terminals,” in Bulletin No. 625, Proceedings Volume 71, January 1970 describes mechanical
loading considerations, loading methods and yard design considerations.

b. There are three types of TOFC/COFC facilities: end, side and overhead loading and unloading. Each has
different cycle times.
4.2.2.1 General
The approximate cycle time for each method during typical TOFC/COFC loading/unloading operations is five min.
for end-loading: two and one-half to three min. for side-loading (TOFC): and one and one-half to two min. for
overhead loading (TOFC).
4.2.2.2 Volumes
Three ranges of TOFC/COFC facility volumes are discussed and are defined as the total number of trailers or
containers loaded or unloaded in each 24-hr day.
4.2.2.2.1 Low Volume – Less than 100 Lifts/Day
Low volume terminals are characterized by infrequent train service. Some parking or yard space is necessary. In
many cases, trailers can be ramped as they arrive.
4.2.2.2.2 Medium Volume – 100 to 300 Lifts/Day
Medium volume terminals are designed to maximize the availability of trackside parking. Ramps can be used
although cranes and side-loaders are preferred.
4.2.2.2.3 High Volume – 300 and More Lifts/Day 1

a. High volume terminals are distinctly different from low and medium level terminals in configuration,
equipment and method of operation. They are usually designed to use side-loaders or overhead cranes for
loading and unloading.
b. When a trailer enters the terminal area, the trucker may be directed to leave the trailer in a specific parking
area or deliver it to trackside for loading. Hostlers pick up trailers from assigned parking spaces and spot
them at trackside before loading operations begin.
3
c. The rail unloading cycle works in a similar manner but in reverse.
4.2.2.3 End-Loading (Fixed or Portable Ramps)
Railroad cars are end-loaded by backing the tractor-trailer combination onto a flat car or string of cars using a
platform or ramp constructed at car-floor height. The reverse procedure is used to unload trailers. 4
4.2.2.4 Side-Loading
Side-loading and unloading can be done by a forklift truck, a platform at car-floor height, a depressed track or by
special equipment which permits separating the trailer body from its wheels and placing the body on a flat car.
Side-loaders have poor weight distribution which increases both the subsurface density and paving thickness
requirements, and thus, greatly increases construction costs.
Side-loader characteristics vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays key information
regarding the major types of side-loaders now in use:
a. Capacity: 44,000 to 90,000 lb.
b. Minimum aisle: 30 to 55 feet.
c. Ideal aisle: 55 to 75 feet.

Yards and Terminals
d. Turning radius: 20 to 52 feet.
e. Transport to storage area: Yes.
f. Speed: 9 to 26 mph.
g. Stacks containers.
4.2.2.5 Overhead Loading
a. Gantry cranes permit overhead handling of containers and trailers. The cranes may be rubber-tired or rail-
mounted, either of which permits picking up trailers or containers from the roadway adjacent to the track
and longitudinal movement from car to car. Rubber-tired cranes often require reinforced concrete runways
to support the wheel loads, while a rail-mounted crane requires a firm foundation to support the crane rail.
b. In an overhead crane operation, a trackside parked trailer or container is lifted vertically and moved
laterally to the flat car, and lowered onto the car. Ground operations supporting container loading/unloading
operations are more complex because the bogies or chassis must be brought trackside.
c. The characteristics of gantry cranes vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays key
information regarding the major types of gantry cranes now in use:
(1) Capacity: 50,000 to 100,000 lb.
(2) Span (rubber-tired): 32 to 76 feet.
(3) Transport to storage area: possible with rubber-tired units.
(4) Stacks containers: four high (maximum; however, not normally desired).
(5) Turning radius: generally five feet over gantry width.
(6) Number of lifts per day: 360.
d. Straddle carriers (Van carrier) also provide overhead loading capabilities. Unlike the gantry crane, the
straddle carrier provides both the lifting and transport functions. The straddle carrier picks up the trailer or
container at its current place of rest by straddling it and lifting it. The straddle carrier then transports the
unit to the end of the string of railcars to be loaded. The unit then travels over the railcars, straddling the
track and car, carrying the trailer or container in an elevated position. Upon reaching the car to be loaded,
the unit is lowered into position. The process is fully reversed for unloading.
e. The characteristics of straddle carriers vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays
key information regarding the major types of straddle carriers now in use:
(1) Capacity: 50,000 to 100,000 lb.
(2) Span (rubber-tired): 15-20 feet.
(3) Transport to storage area: eliminates the need for an independent hostling vehicle.
(4) Lift height: One trailer over trailer on flat car; one container over two containers on a double-stack car.
(5) Turning radius: 35 feet outside radius.
(6) Number of lifts per day: Depends on travel distance to staging area.
(7) Travel speed: 23 mph.
f. The choice of equipment characteristics must be made in concert with other facility development issues,
such as: track centers, traffic flows and operating volumes.

4.2.2.6 Parking/Staging Equipment
4.2.2.6.1 Containers
a. Yard tractors include flatbed trucks and trailers/chassis units which move containers from trackside to the parking area.
b. Straddle-carriers are specialized units designed to transport one container at a time between trackside and the parking area.
c. Heavy-duty forklift trucks are used for stacking and repositioning containers.
d. Travel cranes are mounted on either rubber-tired wheels with straddle widths up to 75 feet or rail mounted with straddle widths
up to 200 feet.
4.2.2.6.2 Trailers
Trailers are usually moved between trackside and the parking area by a yard or road tractor.
4.2.2.7 Standard Rail Cars
The type of railroad cars to be used in the facility must be considered in the design. The 89-foot flatcar is the
normal car presently used for TOFC/COFC service. However, the trend is toward longer cars carrying two of the
longer highway trailers on a flat car.
4.2.2.8 Special Intermodal Cars
Various kinds of intermodal cars have been designed to reduce weight, improve aerodynamic efficiency, improve train
handling characteristics to reduce damage to lading, reduce fuel consumption, reduce the number of locomotive units
1
needed to move a given consist and improve terminal operation. Several types of cars now in common use include:
4.2.2.8.1 Single Platform Skeleton Cars
These cars are designed to carry containers or trailers on a lightly framed car. These cars are generally equipped
with special single axle trucks at either end of the car. Each car is capable of carrying one trailer or one long or two 3
short containers.
4.2.2.8.2 Articulated Skeleton Cars
These cars are generally made up of five independent platforms similar to the single platform cars. The five
platforms are carried on a total of six two axle trucks. Each platform is capable of carrying one trailer or one long
or two short containers. 4
4.2.2.8.3 Single Platform Double-Stack Well Cars
These cars carry one or two containers in the well and one more container on top of those in the well. The top
container is secured to the lower container(s) with inter-box-connectors (twist locks).
4.2.2.8.4 Articulated Double-Stack Well Cars
These cars consist of five well car type platforms connected with articulated couplings, and carried on six two axle
trucks.
4.2.2.8.5 Articulated Double-Stack Bulkhead Car
These cars are very similar to the well type car except that the upper container is held in place by fixed or
adjustable bulkheads located at each end of each platform.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.2.8.6 Articulated Well-cars
Articulated well-cars, some with a mix of trailer and container carrying capabilities.
4.2.2.8.7 Stand-Alone Well Cars
These cars are basically a series of single platform well cars connected with rigid drawbars in order to achieve a
train with a minimum of slack action.
4.2.2.8.8 Dual-mode Vehicles (Rail/Highway Vehicle)
These vehicles are specially designed highway trailers that either have a single rail axle permanently mounted to
the trailer, or connect to a special two axle rail boggie. The individual units are connected to each other in elephant
train fashion. A special connector on the nose of one trailer is used to connect that trailer to a receiving socket at
the back of the preceding trailer. A large pin locks the two units together.
4.2.2.9 Trailers
The size and weight of truck trailers operating over highways are controlled by state and federal law. Federal Law
permits up to 80,000 lbs gross weight, trailers up to 102 inches wide and semitrailer portion of a tractor-semi-
trailer combination up to 53 feet long on sections of the federal aid primary system highways. The allowable load
limits and the seasonal weight restrictions on the access roads to the TOFC/COFC terminal are important.
4.2.2.10 Containers
Containers come in a variety of common sizes, however their fittings and securement devices are usually
standardized based on the location of these devices on 20 feet and 40 feet ISO (International Standards
Organization) marine containers. Common container lengths include 20 feet, 40 feet, 45 feet, 48 feet and 53 feet.
24 feet and 35 feet containers are found in the fleets of some steamship lines. Introduction of a 28-foot unit is
anticipated. Widths are generally 96 inches or 102 inches with heights being 4 feet, 8 feet, 8-6 and 9-6.
4.2.2.11 Securement
a. Trailers are secured to the railcar with a stanchion support that locks onto the trailers kingpin. These
stanchions may be a fixed type if the car is only designed for TOFC service. The stanchions are retractable if
they also accommodate container service or if they are designed for loading by the “End Loading” method
(Article 4.2.3.1.1). Two types of retractable tie-down mechanisms or trailer hitches on flatcars are presently
in use, the “wrench-operated” and “tractor-operated.” Trailer wheels are not secured, but lateral movement
is resisted by curbs in the wheel support area.
b. Containers are secured in a variety of ways. On flat cars or most skeleton cars, the container is supported on
pedestals at all corners. The pedestal provides vertical support plus lateral and longitudinal restraint. A
special spring clip provides vertical restraint. Double-stack container cars restrain lateral and longitudinal
motion of the lower container with fixed guide pins on the support plate. These pins mate with a standard
casting on the container at the 40 96 location. The container sits deep within the frame of the car so that
lift out is not a problem. For well cars, the upper container is locked to the lower container using standard
marine type interbox-connectors at the 40  96 location. On bulkhead cars the upper container is also
supported on the lower container, but all other restraint is provided by the bulkheads. A special saddle is
being proposed to carry two 28 foot containers in the upper position on double-stack well cars.
4.2.2.12 Chassis
Provisions for chassis storage should be made in the design for all terminals that will handle containers.

4.2.3 DESIGN FACTORS (2004)
The design factors that must be considered include the type of terminal, layout and configuration, pavement types,
parking and storage, security, facility services, environmental controls, the terminal buildings and the
maintenance and service buildings.
4.2.3.1 Terminal Types
The facility should be designed so the truck driver can check in at the gate and then park the trailer in a well-
marked parking area or at an assigned trackside position for subsequent loading.
4.2.3.1.1 End Loading
a. The ramps for stub-end tracks can be constructed from timber, steel, or concrete filled with earth. Tracks for two-
directional unloading can be provided by paving an area level with the top of rail on which a portable ramp may be
maneuvered. Portable ramps can be used to eliminate the need to turn cars. The unloading track must be tangent.
Between-track platforms or platform walkways adjacent to the tracks are desirable. These platforms, which permit
easy worker movements between cars, should be about 2 3 wide and 3 6 high or car floor-height. Laws
governing track clearances affect the width of these platforms.
b. A small efficient low-volume end-loading terminal with the configuration shown in Figure 14-4-1 can handle 30 to
50 trailer loadings per shift. The configuration will vary in accordance with the land available.
4.2.3.1.2 Side Loading
a. The track and adjacent parking configuration shown in Figure 14-4-2 with a length of five to ten cars can
1
easily handle a volume of 50 lifts per shift. This low-volume configuration can be expanded for higher-
volume terminals: up to 300 lifts per day can be attained with multiple-shift operations. The single track
facility can be readily expanded as shown in Figure 14-4-3 and Figure 14-4-4. A second track is added about
110 feet from the first track, with its own adjacent parking area outside of the track area. One-way traffic
flow should be provided to minimize interference with the load/unload operation.
b. Traffic control and communications become very important when a medium-volume terminal approaches a
3
volume of 300 lifts a day. An efficient operation will, therefore, require road and parking stall markings and
signing.
c. An alternative to the outside parking shown in Figure 14-4-3 is a configuration with adjacent parking
between the two tracks as shown in Figure 14-4-5. The traffic-flow patterns are good with minimum
interference with the side-loading operation.
4
d. Side loading of containers requires the coordinated efforts of the equipment operator and several truck or
hostler drivers as the container chassis must be removed from trackside to allow the equipment to approach
the railcar.
4.2.3.1.3 Overhead Loading
a. Replacing side-loader equipment with crane-loading equipment should be explored when lift volumes
approach 250 to 350 lifts per day. Overhead loading is usually provided at high-volume terminals with 300 or
more lifts a day. The high-volume terminal shown in Figure 14-4-6 equipped with two cranes can be used for
daily volumes in the range of 300 to 600 lifts a day. This terminal configuration can then be expanded from
600 to 1,200 lifts a day by adding tracks and cranes. Figure 14-4-7 and Figure 14-4-8 show a configuration
for loading double stack rail equipment using long span and short span overhead equipment.
b. Terminal operators will vary in their opinion regarding the merits of sidelift equipment versus overhead lift
equipment. This is generally a speed vs. flexibility argument. The overhead equipment has faster cycle times
and is very efficient when moving from one end of the track to the other loading or unloading a unit at each

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-1. Low-Volume Terminal with End Loading
Figure 14-4-2. Low-Volume Terminal – Side Loading

Figure 14-4-3. Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Outside Parking 3
Figure 14-4-4. Side Loading Double Stack Cars Between Parallel Tracks

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-5. Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Inside Parking
position. Side loading equipment generally has a higher ground travel speed allowing it to move around the
facility quicker to handle “Hot” loads at random locations.
c. Expanding terminals to volumes of more than 1,000 lifts a day should be considered only after a very
thorough analysis has been made of truck-traffic flow-patterns. In major cities where volumes of these
magnitudes may be available, the efficiency of several high-volume terminals located at strategic points
around the city should be contrasted with the efficiency of a single very-high-volume terminal.
4.2.3.1.4 Lift and Travel Loading
Straddle (van) carriers provide a variation on the other mechanical systems in that the lift and travel functions are
provided by a single piece of equipment. This approach allows a terminal to expand through a range of throughput
rates without altering the basic organization of the facility.
4.2.3.2 Layout and Configuration
a. The type of loading-unloading equipment to be used in a terminal influences the terminal layout and
configuration.
b. Terminal layouts also affect the efficiency of loading/unloading and parking activities. Rail-mounted cranes
require the least amount of lateral space but may complicate the problem of movement between rail cars.
Rail-mounted machines are used where they can serve several tracks from a single travel path. While
portable ramps are inexpensive, access room is required at the end of the rail cut. Side-loaders are flexible,
but need adequate operating space between parallel tracks. Rubber-tired, overhead-lift equipment can
function in a wide range of layout widths, but when configured for the maximum operating flexibility has

Figure 14-4-6. High-Volume Terminal, Crane Loading with Outside Parking
Figure 14-4-7. Long Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-8. Short Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars
the widest site requirement per track. Van carrier systems require the least site width per track of all the
mechanized systems, but always require an independent parking area. The parking area for a van carrier
facility requires more land per parking stall than other systems because of pathways required for the
carriers wheels. The requirements of a combination TOFC/COFC facility should be considered when
determining the most effective equipment and layout.
c. Medium-volume terminals consist of multiple parallel tracks with the appropriate space between each set of
tracks for equipment operation. The tracks vary in length from about 1,000 to 3,000 feet and are usually
stubbed although some facilities have flow-through trackage.
d. High-volume terminals have typical track lengths of 3,000 to 8,000 feet with a driveway crossing near the
middle for ease of trailer handling by yard hostlers. High-volume terminals can handle up to 1,000 units per
day flowing through the facility. The typical high-volume terminal does not have the track capacity needed
for a full day’s volume of rail car traffic and cars must be pulled into or out of the facility several times a day.
e. Curves on the approach track should have the longest radii possible, with a minimum allowable radius on a
constant vertical gradient of 441.68 feet (13 degrees). Due to extreme length of rolling stock, design of
minimum radius may result in operating difficulties.
4.2.3.3 Pavement Systems
4.2.3.3.1 General Considerations
There are a variety of requirements for pavement design considerations at TOFC/COFC terminals.
a. The capacity to support parked, loaded semi-trailers and containers based on short and long term
projections of equipment utilization.
b. The capacity to support lifting equipment while carrying and lifting maximum loads. (Side-loading
equipment in particular have heavy concentrated front-wheel pressures when under load, and under the
steering wheels when empty.)

c. The pavement should require minimum maintenance because closing part of the terminal for such work can
seriously impair service to customers as well as cause operating problems.
d. Long and short term planned facility development should be considered as business types (trailer vs.
container), and customer base may effect pavement considerations. Potential changes in labor organization
contracts (ports), operations/ownership, track expansion, ingress, egress, loading equipment, initial capital
cost, pavement life, and serviceability all play a role in pavement design.
4.2.3.3.2 Design Criteria
Most pavement design models incorporate four key components: soil condition, environment, design loads, and
pavement life/serviceability. Of these, the first two are site-dependent, with in-situ mitigation measures the only
means to change the input parameters.
a. Design Loads. Vehicular loading can be classified as four types:
(1) Loading/Lift equipment
Loading equipment generally takes one of four forms; side-loading, reach-stackers, gantry crane, or
straddle carrier. Side-loading and reach stacking equipment, though extremely flexible, have a highly
concentrated load about the front axle. The mobility of these machines generally requires significant
increased pavement depth over a large area (effectively all areas where the equipment can be operated).
Further, the tight turning radii relative to the machine’s size cause significant lateral surface loads,
which can lead to rutting and plastic flow of paving materials. Typical loading ranges and footprints can
be found in figures/tables following text. 1
Gantry cranes and straddle carriers generally have a more evenly distributed wheel loading. Furthermore,
their mobility throughout the facility is generally concentrated along defined runways adjacent to the
tracks or over blocks of stacked containers. However, the overall vehicle weight coupled with the
concentration of loading cycles generally results in the paved runways being at least as substantial as
pavement designed for side-loading equipment. Typical loading can be in the area of 120 psi.
3
Figure 14-4-9. Typical Rubber Tired Gantry Crane

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-10. Typical Container Handler

Table 14-4-1. Range and Average for Reach-Stackers, Side-Lift and Gantry
(2) Trailer/container storage (loaded or empty)
Pavement loading considerations for trailer storage must address these four questions:
(a) Is the pavement designed for the parking of full semi-trailers?
(b) Will the aisles between the parking rows be accessed only by truck traffic, or will lift equipment also
be operating in the area for ‘turning’ of containers?

Yards and Terminals
(c) Are the chassis (dolly) wheel pads adequate? (Dolly or chassis wheel pads, usually 5-8 feet in width,
are subject to much higher concentrated loads. The older style, round steel wheels have
significantly higher loadings than do the newer flat-plate style.
(d) Will stacked containers by adequately supported? Stacked container storage (without dollies) will
have concentrated loads at the four lock-down pins located about the base of the containers. The
concentrated loads at these pins will be higher than most any pavement can withstand, resulting in
localized punching until the body of the container is resting upon the ground. The limit of most rail
facility loading equipment is a stack 4-containers high. The aisles in stacked container storage
must be designed for side-loading lift equipment which can exert very high loads.)
(3) Hostlers vs. Over-the-Road trucks
Though similar in nature, hostlers differ from OTR tractors in the incorporation of a single rear driving
axle versus the tandem arrangement employed by OTR’s. This will result in higher loads throughout
the facility where hostlers are driven.
(4) Chassis storage
Empty chassis are generally stored either as parked trailers or in special racks. Where racks are not
employeed, light duty pavements are frequently used.
b. Pavement Life. The life of any pavement is comprised of two factors; load cycles and serviceability. Over the
life of the pavement, it will support a number of load repetitions at a given severity. Each load will damage,
or in effect, wear the pavement. The relationship to load versus frequency is not linear, with a single heavy
load causing more wear than several, or even many loads at half the weight. In summary, every pavement
fails, the goal is to ensure maximum service life for the least overall cost.
As the pavement wears, it cracks, pumps, shifts, ruts, shells, and otherwise deforms from the original flat,
smooth condition that existed when it was constructed. Over the life of the pavement, maintenance
measures may be incorporated to correct the damage, or to reduce its advancement. The point at which a
pavement is worn or damaged beyond the economic effort to maintain it, thus requiring replacement, is the
practical end of its service life. This point is a function of both the level of corrective maintenance applied
over the life of the pavement, and the acceptable level of damage over which facility vehicles can be
operated.
The terminal serviceability level of the pavement is defined by the facility operator. This is impacted by the
level of maintenance that will be performed over the life of the pavement. Assuming the number and
severity of load cycles can be calculated, the pavement design can be defined.
From these considerations several conclusions can be deduced:
(1) A facility which will not receive much maintenance over its life due to cost or operational considerations will
require a more durable pavement section than one under like conditions which receives regular maintenance.
(2) Temporary or short-term pavements can be employed which have a lower cost of installation, but they will
require heavy maintenance or frequent replacement. The ultimate choice of a short term pavement versus long
term solution must not only include allowances for changes in area use, but an economic decision of the total
cost of the pavement over the total life of the facility.
(3) Though gate facilities which only handle highway traffic experience light loads over their life, the number of
load cycles in these areas will be significantly higher as all highway traffic must pass through them. Likewise,
aisles and frequently traveled routes will generally require a more durable pavement than parking areas.

(4) The total facility cost of a side-load operation is generally much greater than a gantry only, due to the overall
surface area which is subject to side-loading equipment loads. Careful planning must be undertaken to ensure
that the limits of pavement designed for side-load equipment closely match the actual operation.
(5) The use of ridged pavements under stacked container storage is not advised as the concentrated loads result in
the fracture of the pavement rather than the deformation. Flexible pavements with pockets from loading pins
can be healed without replacement.
4.2.3.3.3 Portland Cement Concrete Wearing Surface
a. Gantry crane runway widths vary from 5 to 10 feet. Thickness will depend upon factors referenced in
Article 4.2.3.3.2.
b. Concrete pads for semi-trailers landing gear are often necessary. The pads should be at least 5 feet wide and
8 inches thick, but actual dimensions should be governed by soil conditions.
c. The consideration of sub-base layers may be as crucial as the design thickness of the concrete.
d. The use of concrete roadways normally provides the following benefits:
(1) Assures stable, non-erodable, skid-resistant, uniform platform surface.
(2) Increases possible uses of overall platform area as business conditions change, assuming this was taken
into account when pavement section was designed.
(3) Historically has longer service life between maintenance cycles if designed properly. 1
4.2.3.3.4 Asphalt-Concrete Wearing Surface
This paving is frequently used for roadways, trailer/container parking space, and for truck driveway maneuvering
areas.
a. Use of asphalt-concrete in the roadways, parking, and maneuvering areas, normally provide the following 3
benefit to the owner or operator of the facility.
(1) Lower initial capital cost
(2) Historically lower maintenance costs per individual failure point
(3) Assures stable, non-erodable, uniform platform design 4

(4) Facility disruption is minimized during periods of surface repair
b. Use of asphalt-concrete should use maximum design criteria for local DOT or airport design specifications.
c. As in concrete design, consideration should be given to aggregate type (slag, processed miscellaneous base or
large crushed aggregate) as non-traditional mixes have shown positive results in many cases. Pavement
design procedures link pavement performance to the material’s elastic modulus or stiffness, and Poisson’s
ratio, as well as their performance under load repetitions and environmental changes. These can be
summarized in the form of fatigue performance during service for different temperatures.
4.2.3.3.5 Liquid Asphalt Surface Treatment
This type of paving can be constructed where economy in initial capital expenditures is vital, yet a dust-free surface
is necessary.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.3.6 Waterbound Macadam
This is the least expensive type of paving and can give satisfactory performance at small to medium sized ramp-
loading terminals. It can also be used in empty storage areas. After compaction under use, a stronger type of
pavement can be overlaid for facility expansion.
4.2.3.3.7 Roller Compacted Concrete
Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero slump concrete mixture that is mixed, placed, and rolled with the same
commonly available equipment utilized for asphalt pavement construction. Because of low water content, the mix
can have similar or greater strength than conventional Portland concrete cement. Potential problems arise from
the fact that few contractors have experience with the process, it tends to unravel over time, and it cracks
continuously making it susceptible to water migration, hence freezing and thawing. The attendant unsightly
cracking, is usually offensive to management.
4.2.3.3.8 Pavers
The use of pavers has had limited use in the U.S. and has been tried at a few port facilities. They are reputed to
provide a highly durable surface, while tending to perform in a manner of flexible pavements.
4.2.3.3.9 Unbound Granular Materials
Granular materials consist of gravel or crushed rock that have a gradation which makes them stable and workable.
Recycled concrete and/or asphalt should not be overlooked as an excellent base material. Dust control and surface
maintenance is an accepted liability with the use of this product.
4.2.3.3.10 Cement Treated Materials
Cement treated materials are produced by adding a sufficient amount of cement to the granular materials or soil to
create a bounded layer with higher stiffness and strength than unbound materials. The layer should not be so thin
that it cracks under load, thereby permitting pumping of underlying soils if water is present.
4.2.3.3.11 Specifications and Construction Procedures
Individual state department of transportation standard specifications can be used with airport pavement and
drainage specifications for constructing the pavement and drainage systems. In most circumstances, ASTM tests
are still the standard testing benchmark for soil and materials testing.
4.2.3.3.12 Soil Treatments
Existing soils play a major role in their potential to influence the type and cost of surface material used on a given
site. Certain fundamental treatments applied to soils have shown to be successful.
a. Lime/Flyash: Incorporated into certain soil types, it can lower the Plasticity Index and actually strengthen
the soil. It will leach out and lose strength if not under a water repellant wearing surface.
b. Cement can:
(1) Provide an impermeable, uniform, support for the pavement.
(2) Eliminate subbase consolidation.
(3) Improve load transfer at joints.
(4) Expedite construction since it stabilizes the working base during adverse weather.

(5) Provide firm support for slipform paver or side forms.
(6) Be cost competitive over granular materials in certain areas.
(7) Increase strength of substandard granular materials.
c. Geo-Webs: Consolidate granular material in confined spaces, bridges sub-standard soil support conditions.
d. Geo-Grids: Combined with layers of granular materials and/or select fill, can bridge substandard soil
conditions.
e. Fabrics: See Geo-Grids.
In summary, the sensitivity of subgrade strength to moisture content should be assessed in detail. In general the
following rules apply:
a. For sandy soils, small fluctuations in moisture content produce little change in stiffness/strength or in
volume,
b. For silty soils, small fluctuations in moisture content produce little change in volume, but can produce large
changes in stiffness/strength,
c. For clay soils, small fluctuations in moisture content may produce large changes in volume and in
stiffness/strength characteristics.
1
4.2.3.3.13 Drainage Structures
Drainage structures can be of most varieties, but must be able to withstand the loading of lift equipment.
Generally, those grates and drainage structures approved for airport use are readily applied to intermodal facilities.
4.2.3.4 Parking
3
Parking facilities should be near the loading tracks with additional parking for storage, as required.
4.2.3.4.1 Trailers
a. Yard and road tractors are the primary method of moving trailers within a terminal. The trailer parking
configuration shown in Figure 14-4-1, Figure 14-4-2, Figure 14-4-3, Figure 14-4-5, and Figure 14-4-6
should be adequate to accommodate the daily traffic in each type yard. A 10-by-50-foot parking area should 4
be provided as a minimum for each trailer. Additional length may be desirable to avoid having 53 feet units
encroach upon aisleways. Wider slots may make maneuvering easier but does so at a significant loss in the
total number of parking slots that can be provided on a given piece of land.
b. A trailer parking area of approximately two-and-one-half times the number of trailers handled each day
should be planned. This ratio is based on historical trailer dwell periods experienced at intermodal
terminals. The amount of parking necessary may vary widely for terminals that primarily serve a single
customer, such as a marine terminal, the U.S. Postal Service or UPS.
4.2.3.4.2 Containers
a. A crane is used to move the container from the chassis or flat bed pulled by a yard tractor. Alternatively, the
containers can be left on the chassis. A large number of containers are loaded or unloaded at marine
terminals in a short period of time and the storage-yard capacity will control operational efficiency.
b. There are three basic configurations for parking/stacking the containers.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.4.2.1 Herringbone Layouts
Used to store containers either on chassis or on support legs, with no stacking.
4.2.3.4.2.2 Block Layouts
The best use of scarce parking areas; containers are stacked three or four high in a tight block. Block layouts are
often used for storing empty containers and for long-term storage of containers awaiting outbound movements.
4.2.3.4.2.3 Ribbon Layouts
Offer better container selectivity than block layouts.
NOTE: For further information and typical design drawings on container terminals, refer to the report of Committee 14,
Assignments entitled “Terminal Facilities for Container Handling,” in Bulletin No. 635, Proceedings Volume 73,
Nov. – Dec. 1971.
4.2.3.5 Security
TOFC/COFC facilities are easy targets for both organized and random burglary. Further, the terminals are often in
high-crime environments where theft operations can be highly organized. Security for TOFC/COFC facilities is
therefore essential. Security measures include fencing, lighting, guards and patrols, closed circuit TV to scan the
terminal and sensor systems.
4.2.3.6 Facility Services
4.2.3.6.1 Electrical
a. Lighting and power outlets in the track area may be provided to assist tie-down operations. Parking areas should be lighted if there
are extensive night operations or for security and safety reasons.
b. Typical design procedures and criteria are published in the Illuminating Engineering Society’s IES Lighting Handbook.
4.2.3.6.2 Communications
Communication facilities within and beyond the operation area should be provided for efficiency. In addition to
traditional phone systems and two-way radios, modern communications systems include computer-in-cab systems
for both cranes and yard hostlers, radio frequency automatic equipment identification systems, and localized
geopositioning systems.
4.2.3.6.3 Utilities
Underground utilities are desirable to avoid conflict with operation. Sanitary, water, HVAC, electrical utilities and
possibly engine block heaters should be provided in accordance with the facility requirements. Fire Protection
should be provided as stipulated in Part 1, Generalities, Section 1.6, Fire Prevention in Yards.
4.2.3.6.4 Grading and Drainage
a. A typical drainage system layout usually consists of a trunk line parallel to the tracks with lateral lines
running under the tracks at about 200 to 300 feet intervals with catch basins between each track. Inlets
should be located at all gutter low points and at any planned low points in parking areas. Other methods use
trench drains between the track and pavement sections, or slotted drains in large paved areas.
b. Local, state, or national agencies may have drainage-design requirements and may specify certain design
procedures. In the absence of any jurisdictional agency, county or state highway department procedures are
suggested for use.

c. It is imperative to follow good engineering practice in all elements of design and construction, including
preparing and compacting of the subgrade, increasing the bearing capacity of soils as necessary, erosion
protection, proper sloping of cuts and fills and surface and subsurface drainage systems.
d. Care should be taken with the design of drainage systems where containers are staged or stored in grounded
stacks. Where possible drainage should be directed away from these areas. Other methods include providing
slightly raised concrete pads to support containers on their corner castings, allowing a few inches of space
under the body of the container for the passage of surface water.
4.2.3.6.5 Water Pollution Control
Water pollution control ranging from oil/water separators to full treatment and pH balancing may be required at
the following service areas:
• Fuel.
• Maintenance Building.
• Outside Maintenance Areas.
• Trailer and Truck Washing Facilities.
• Paved Parking Areas.
4.2.3.6.6 Truck Scale 1

A truck scale meeting state highway specifications may be needed to check the weight of loaded trailers. When
required, it should be installed in the facility entrance/exit area. See AAR Scale Handbook included in this manual
for details.
4.2.3.7 Terminal Buildings

3
Complete design criteria available in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities. However, for information note
the following:
4.2.3.7.1 Offices
The larger-volume operations will require an office for supervisory and clerical staff, with the normal amenities for
operating personnel. Standard office design criteria should be used, including provisions for communications, 4
uninterruptable power supply and employee parking.
4.2.3.7.2 Storage Building
A storage building should be provided for blocking and bracing material for adjusting shifted loads.
4.2.3.7.3 Air Compressor Facilities
Air compressor facilities are required for making brake tests on cars and for the use of air tools.
4.2.3.7.4 Interior Washing Facilities
Interior washing facilities and appurtenances may be necessary if refrigerator trailers are handled in sufficient
quantity.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.7.5 Container Transloading Building
A container transloading building may be required.
4.2.3.7.6 Guard Building
a. When the office is not located at the entrance, a separate guard building should be provided for check-in and
check-out and equipment condition inspection. If not provided elsewhere, the guard building may also be
used to support security activities and provide for outside communication.
b. There are several methods of making trailer/container roof inspections when required.
(1) Overhead mirrors;
(2) High platforms with ladders or stairways; and
(3) TV cameras monitoring from the interior of the office building.
4.2.3.7.7 Transfer and Customs Inspection Dock
A transfer and customs inspection dock may be provided for transferring loads from damaged trailers and for
making customs inspections.
4.2.3.7.8 Gate Check-in Facilities
High volume facilities require efficiently functioning gates to maintain a smooth flow of vehicles into and out of the
terminal. Special lanes may be provided for bob-tail tractors. Telephone pre-check stations allow drivers to give
clerks all necessary information before they proceed to scales and inspection stations. By executing a pre-check, an
interchange document can be printed at the inspection station before the driver arrives.
4.2.3.7.9 Hazardous Material Containment
A special area of the terminal may need to be set aside where hazardous material can be contained if a leaking
container or trailer is encountered.
4.2.3.8 Maintenance and Service Buildings and Facilities
4.2.3.8.1 Locomotive and Car Maintenance
a. Maintenance operations for locomotives and cars at TOFC/COFC facilities are usually done at nearby
service facilities.
b. Much of the maintenance of both freight cars and locomotives is closely regulated by either the FRA or the
AAR, and it is important to consider their repair procedures in designing a maintenance facility. EPA and
state environmental agency requirements must also be considered. Car repair at a TOFC/COFC facility
normally includes light repair performed in the yard, however with the intense use of double-stack
container cars, heavier repairs such as wheel changeouts are also undertaken while the car is in the
terminal rather than sending it to a shop location for this work.
4.2.3.8.2 Trailer/Container and Tractor Maintenance and Servicing
a. The corner-post securing devices (for containers) and the fifth wheel/trailer securing devices must be
periodically checked to ensure the devices are secure. In the case of refrigerated units, diesel-powered
generators must be checked. Tractor maintenance and service may be provided when necessary.

b. Other repairs that may be accommodated at an intermodal facility include:
(1) Watertightness repairs to trailers and containers.
(2) Tire repairs to hostlers, trailers and chassis.
(3) Lamp and lens replacement for chassis and trailers.
4.2.3.8.3 Equipment Fueling Facility
Fueling facilities for equipment should be considered. The equipment requiring fueling facilities are:
a. Tractors.
b. Refrigerated Trailers.
c. Gantry Cranes.
d. Side Loaders.
e. Portable Generators.
f. Straddle Cranes.
g. Other Mechanical Equipment.

1
4.2.3.8.4 Side-Loader/Crane Maintenance Facility
a. A separate building will improve maintenance of this equipment, especially in colder climates.
b. Complete design criteria and additional pertinent information are readily available in Bulletin 696,
Proceedings Volume 85, May 1984, pages 157-190.
3
SECTION 4.3 AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK LOADING/UNLOADING FACILITIES
4.3.1 AUTOMOBILE LOADING/UNLOADING (1993) 4

4.3.1.1 General
a. The transfer of automobiles to and/or from rail cars (i.e. rail-truck, rail-rail, truck-rail, ground-rail or rail-
ground) generally requires a separate facility to accomplish this task. This separation is required to insure
protection and security of the automobiles.
b. Domestically-produced automobiles are frequently loaded on rail cars within the confines of the
manufacturing plant. Foreign-produced automobiles are usually loaded on rail cars at dock-side. Many
transfer variations can be utilized; however, in each case, securing the operation is of prime concern. This
type of facility may also be used for automobile ferry services.
c. Items to be considered in selecting an automobile loading/unloading (transfer) facility are as follows.

Yards and Terminals
4.3.1.1.1 Location
A site should be selected with easy access to main highways, as well as ease of rail switching. Consideration should
also be given to the potential of vandalism so as to avoid missile damage and theft. Proximity to areas that may
generate air pollution which could damage automobile finishes should also be examined. It is also desirable to not
locate in low lying areas to avoid potential flood damage to vehicles.
4.3.1.1.2 Size
a. The size of the facility, its trackage, ramping and vehicle storage areas, should be large enough to handle the
maximum expected load under the proposed operating conditions. Some of the conditions to be considered
are: the average work week, type and quantity of vehicles handled and the number of agencies using the same
facilities. The auto production and distribution process, by its very nature, requires a considerable degree of
advance planning, including volume predictions. All auto manufacturers can and do make rather good volume
predictions which can be utilized for planning purposes. Future needs should also be evaluated if possible.
b. Factors which affect the sizing of an unloading facility are:
(1) Automobile Parking. Requires estimate of maximum number of vehicles in facility at one time.
(2) Truck Transport Area. The number of truck transport loading stalls must be determined.
(3) Track Capacity. Adequate multilevel rail car capacity should be provided to allow one switch or spot per
shift.
(4) Rain Runoff Retention Ponds. Consideration should be given to retaining runoff from the large paved
areas to prevent flood damage to adjoining properties.
(5) Buildings. Office space, washrooms and locker facilities should be determined. Cleanliness of employees
handling automobiles is important to prevent soiling of vehicles. Office buildings or servicing facilities
for haul-away trucks may be necessary. However, separation of these facilities from the primary
automobile area is desirable to maintain automobile security.
(6) Employee/Visitor Parking. Consideration should be given to providing a separate secured parking area.
(7) Miscellaneous. Dead battery parking, damaged vehicle parking, specialized vehicle handling
requirements (i.e. van, truck, luxury and military).
4.3.1.1.3 Security
Since the vehicles are left with the keys in them, security is of prime importance. The entire area should be fenced
to discourage unauthorized entry and theft. Many facilities are arranged so that automobiles can only be driven
out of the parking area over haul-away docks or ramps. Provisions for checking employees and visitors in and out
should be made. Parking stalls should be away from security fence to provide an unobstructed buffer area around
inside of fence. Other electronic security devices can also be utilized. (See Article 4.3.5.)
4.3.1.1.4 Lighting
Lights should be provided for entire area adequate for security and for loading, unloading and inspection, if
required. Poles should not be located in fence line. (See Article 4.3.5.)
4.3.1.1.5 Zoning, Building Codes and Permit Requirements
All Local, State and Federal requirements must be met. Considerable time may be required to obtain some Permits.

4.3.1.1.6 Special Requirements
Customers’ needs or standards should be evaluated.
4.3.1.2 Design Considerations
4.3.1.2.1 Parking
Layout configurations vary from facility to facility. Most patterns are determined by the overall size and shape of
the land available. Four patterns of parking are available. They are 90 degrees head to head, angle parking-head to
head or angle (herringbone) pattern. Parallel line parking, head to tail, is sometimes utilized for direct loading. The
advantages or disadvantages of each must be addressed for each facility.
a. Typical Configurations (right angle parking-head to head). See Site Plan Example – Figure 14-4-11.
(1) Stalls:
• Standard – 10  20.
• Luxury or Van – 10  22
• Dead Battery – 11  20
• Damaged Vehicles – 12  22
• Clearance from security fence – minimum 10 feet.

1
(2) Aisles:
• Between Stalls, One Way – minimum 22 feet.
• Main Trafficways, Two Way – minimum 30 feet. 3

(3) Number of stalls:
• Approximately 125 vehicles per acre with 10  20 stalls.
b. Surface Asphalt Paving Recommended:

4
• Many facilities are built with 4 inch asphalt thickness made up of 2-1/2 inch base course and 1-1/2 inch
surface course on a suitable soil or rock subbase.
• However, pavement design, including subbase, should be based on local design considerations with asphalt
thickness consistent with site conditions.
c. Grades.
(1) Grade:
• As near level as practicable but with sufficient slope to promote drainage.
(2) Sub-Grade:
• Consistent with local conditions and adequate to support automobile loading.

Yards and Terminals
d. Row and Stall Identification.
(1) Striping recommended for parking stalls and lanes. Direction arrows may also be desirable.
(2) Rows designated with Capital Letters:
• Desirable to locate row letters on signs (12-inch high letters) at end of rows, minimum 8 feet to
bottom of sign.
(3) Stalls numbered with numbers placed on left near aisle.
e. Staging Area – Bumper to bumper staging (aisles 9 feet – 12 feet wide) may be used for common destination
movements.
Figure 14-4-11. Automobile Loading/Unloading Site Example

4.3.1.2.2 Track
a. Grade. As near level as practicable.
b. Centers.
(1) 15 feet minimum.
(2) 25 feet or more where service vehicles drive between rail cars and for placement of bridge plate storage
racks.
c. Structure.
(1) Open (unpaved).
(a) Advantages.
1 Ease of maintenance.
2 Easier drainage if ballast above pavement.
(b) Disadvantages.
1 Requires crossings and/or unloading areas every four to six car lengths and unloading
configuration is fixed. 1
2 Ballast must be kept out of roadways.
(2) Paved.
(a) Advantages.
3
1 Can spot rail cars for unloading from either end in any grouping (from one to six cars).
2 Less restricted driving when tracks unoccupied.
(b) Disadvantages.
1 Track maintenance difficult. 4

2 Requires sub-drainage.
3 Additional cost.
d. Lengths.
(1) All (un)loading tracks same capacity if possible for uniformity of switching (approximately 95 track feet
required for typical rail car).
(2) Multiple of four to six car segments with paved (or planked) unloading area (120 feet minimum length)
at each end and between each four to six car segments.
(3) Tangent track required for each multiple rail car spot.
e. Turnouts.

Yards and Terminals
(1) Unpaved for ease of maintenance.
(2) Recessed switch stands where high switch stands might be struck by vehicles.
f. Limits for Rail Car Spotting.
(1) Stripe in paved areas.
(2) Steel bumping posts with heavy impact break-away design.
(3) Wheel stops placed for cars with least end overhang.
(4) Concrete dock with wood or mechanical bumper at coupler level.
g. Other Features.
(1) Auxiliary trackage.
(a) Secondary rail car storage tracks may be necessary, depending on volume of automobile shipments.
(b) Additional tracks may also be needed for rail car inspections and/or repairs prior to loading.
(2) Bridge plate storage racks.
(a) Serve two adjacent tracks.
(b) Should be opposite car couplers.
(c) Can also serve as mounts for fee extinguishers.
(d) Paint bright color to inhibit vehicles striking.
(3) Protection of (un)loading personnel.
(a) Provide Blue Flag protection at entry ends of all (un)loading tracks with rack for unused flag
storage.
(b) Provide private locks on entry switches, derails and/or gates.
(c) Provide audible rotating light alarms on rail entry gates.
4.3.1.2.3 Rail Car Loading/Unloading Equipment
a. Should be designed to allow quick drive on/off of automobiles. Automobile manufacturers should be
consulted to determine maximum permissible ramp angles.
b. Typically self-propelled, rubber-tired, ramps used which can be raised and lowered to reach the three levels
of a standard rail car.

c. Consideration should be given to provide concrete pavement or planked crossing surface at

loading/unloading area under portable ramp since area is heavily travelled, has frequent twisting of wheels
and is exposed to hydraulic oil and gasoline leaks.
d. Track or rail-mounted ramps used at same locations either from ground level or on elevated dock.
4.3.1.2.4 Transport Truck Loading/Unloading Area
a. The truck haul of automobiles is normally handled by a separate company or contractor. There are many
variations of transport trucks in existence. It is important to verify transport truck dimensions before
designing this area.
b. Provide sufficient space to permit turning and spotting of truck for loading/unloading of automobiles.
c. Volume predictions required to determine number of transport truck spaces. Stalls normally 12 feet wide.
d. Consider use of concrete pavement for durability.
e. Provide physical separation of area from automobile parking-staging area for security. Fence and/or low
guard rail normally used. Guard rail must be low enough to allow placement of ramps over rail and high
enough to prevent driving automobiles over the rail. Verify transport truck dimensions.
f. Ground mounted, adjustable, steel ramps sometimes required to load some types of transport trucks.
4.3.2 TRUCK CHASSIS LOADING/UNLOADING (1989)

1
4.3.2.1 General
Factors regarding location, size, buildings, surfacing, security and lighting enumerated above for automobiles
apply equally as well to truck chassis. The rail equipment and the placement of the trucks on the rail equipment
differs. Trucks with cabs, but without bodies (truck chassis) are commonly shipped in “saddleback” fashion on a
specially equipped flat car. Thus, the use of a crane is required for loading and unloading. While the loading may be
done at a plant site exclusively devoted to trucks, the unloading operation can conveniently be incorporated into
3
and made a part of a typical automobile unloading facility.
4.3.2.2 Unloading Track
Truck shipping volumes being considerably less than autos, a single truck set apart from, but adjacent to, auto
facilities should suffice. Volume and economic considerations will dictate the degree of separation from, and/or 4
incorporation within, auto facilities.
4.3.2.3 Unloading Facilities
Trucks loaded in “saddleback” fashion must be removed from the truck they have been set upon and secured to for
transport to a level position on the car deck before being started and driven from the car. The job can be
accomplished by a mobile crane of sufficient capacity operated adjacent to the rail car where volume is light and
the need only occasional. Where volumes require a greater degree of specialization, it is recommended that an “A”
frame crane, track-mounted and electrically operated with running rails located outside of regular track rails, be
provided. The “A” frame straddles the car to be unloaded and can be positioned to handle any car spotted within its
reach. Figure 14-4-12 details a tie layout to accommodate the “A” frame. Access to the unloading track for pre-
starting service should be given consideration. Air supply sufficient to release truck brakes is a necessity.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-12. Typical Layout or “A” Frame Truck Unloading
4.3.3 MILITARY VEHICLES (1989)
This type of facility may also be used for receipt and transfer of new military vehicles. Special provisions may be
necessary to handle some of these vehicles due to weight, size or other considerations.
4.3.4 CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING (1989)
Some new automobile shipments are also being moved in standardized containers or enclosed trailers. These
shipments can be moved directly from loading point to the dealer’s site without actually handling the automobile
while in transit. A TOFC-COFC facility is more appropriate for these types of shipments rather than the above-
noted configurations.

4.3.5 SECURITY (1996)
Rail served auto terminals are specialized facilities designed to transfer autos, trucks, and other vehicles to and
from rail cars. Their designs are as unique or individualized as the companies that construct and operate them.
The design criterion, however unique, has a common denominator, security. Security not only protects the
customer’s commodity, but provides a safe working environment for all employees. Security can be enhanced
through various methods, including lighting, fencing, barriers, gates, alarms, closed circuit television, card access
systems, signs, security guards, or through any combination of these methods.
4.3.5.2 General
The level of security commitment can be a direct result of facility design or operational concept. It is also
influenced by citing environmental demands, local building codes, capital commitment, volume of traffic, history of
thefts or vandalism in area, and combined day/night operation.
4.3.5.3 Influence of Operational Concept
a. Currently there are two major methods utilized by the trucking companies that pick up and deliver vehicles
to the facility:
• standard or end loading (Figure 14-4-13).
• perimeter loading (Figure 14-4-14). 1
Figure 14-4-13. Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Standard or End Loading)

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-14. Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Perimeter Loading)
b. Trucks that use end loading never actually enter the vehicle baying or rail car areas. They back their truck up to a
fixed barrier, which should be part of the perimeter barrier, drop their ramps over the barrier, and load or unload
vehicles onto or from their trucks. Fixed ramps are also utilized in the same manner. This method ensures that the
integrity of the vehicle storage area is maintained. No trucks are permitted in the vehicle baying area.
c. Although originally end loading was the standard for most auto facilities, this method is rapidly giving way to
perimeter loading due to perceived operational efficiencies of the latter. Trucks using the perimeter system actually
enter the vehicle storage area, and as a result, security demands are increased due to the required monitoring of the
additional vehicles and personnel in the storage area. This monitoring may require security guards and/or electronic
card reader systems. Exit and entry gate design, as well as camera systems, are influenced by this additional liability.
4.3.5.4 Physical Design Criteria
4.3.5.4.1 Lighting
a. Proper lighting provides a safe working environment for employees and customers. It helps prevent theft
and vandalism of a shipper’s product by enhancing the power of the human or electronic observer. It can
also act as an effective psychological deterrent.
b. At this time, high pressure sodium lighting has proven to be the most efficient and cost effective in security
applications. It provides more than twice the illumination of a standard mercury vapor light. Depending on
the size and shape of the facility, 200, 400, and 1,000 watt high pressure sodium lights should be considered.
Every effort should be made to maintain a minimum of 1 foot candles throughout the facility, with an
average of 1.5 feet candles.

c. Additional localized lighting will be required for facilities with camera monitoring or where truck loading, or
other operations, is prevalent at night.
d. All light poles should be located as far from the perimeter fence as possible.
4.3.5.4.2 Perimeter Barriers
a. Perimeter barriers prevent the unauthorized removal of vehicles from the facility. The barrier should be within
or a part of the perimeter fencing and completely encompass the interior except those areas protected by gates.
b. Barrier types include scrap rail, standard highway barriers, pipe, horizontal rails in fences, bollards cable,
and concrete.
c. Barriers should be of a sufficient strength and planted to a depth as to withstand a direct impact by a vehicle.
d. In facilities using an end loading or standard concept, barriers in the loading/unloading area should be just
low enough to allow truck ramps to clear.
4.3.5.4.3 Fencing (or Walls)
a. Proper fencing can prevent the unauthorized entry of persons onto a facility. A fence or wall should
completely surround the facility with exit/entry gates incorporated into the system.
b. Chain link fence is one of the most cost efficient and effective types of fence. Fencing should consist of
galvanized steel fabric with horizontal rails and tension wires. Fabric should be at least #9 gage hot dip
galvanized per ASTM A-392, Class 1, 2-inch mesh. Minimum height of fabric should be 8 feet. Tension 1
wires, top and bottom, should be #7 gage and conform to ASTM A-824. Posts should be steel pipe per ASTM
A-120. Fence should be constructed in a manner that will not allow deformation to occur. Considerations for
maximum fence strength include diameter of posts, depth planted, bracing, post spacing, fabric tension, and
concrete footings.
c. Regardless of fence or wall type, the addition of barbed wire should be considered to compliment the
structure. Wire should be attached to a V or Z\x V rake, placed on every pole or no less than every 10 feet. 3
There should be a minimum of three strands of wire per leg of V.
d. In high crime areas razor ribbon or concertina wire should be considered in addition to the barbed wire strands.
4.3.5.4.4 Gates
a. Gates should be designed to prohibit the entrance or exit of unauthorized vehicles and persons, and to 4
control the traffic flow of trucks entering and exiting the facility. Gates are also used to control the entrance
and exit of locomotives and rail cars.
b. Gates can be constructed from iron, tubular steel, flat steel, and chain link. They should be at least as high
as the perimeter fence. The structural integrity should be reinforced and greater than the fence alone. They
can be opened and shut by swinging, sliding, or rolling up. Drop bars should be solid steel. All gate hinges
should be tack welded to gate posts to prevent gates from being lifted off.
c. Electronically controlled, motorized gates can be activated on site, from a remote location, or self activating
underground wire using loops and a card reader system. A telephone or intercom will be required at the gate if
it is monitored from a remote site. Gate stability is a primary concern if the facility has a fence alarm system.
4.3.5.4.5 Tire Spikes
a. Depressible spikes can be used at gate areas to control traffic flow and prevent unauthorized exit of vehicles
from the facility. They should be well signed and considered a secondary system.

Yards and Terminals
b. Heavy snow and ice may interfere with the operation of these units and available heating systems may be
required, along with appropriate drainage to carry off melted snow and ice.
4.3.5.4.6 Fence Alarm Systems
a. Fence alarm systems detect the presence of a person or device against the fence. They sound an alarm,
either audible, silent, or both when someone tries to climb, cut or jack up the fence.
b. These systems use point or line sensors, or fiber optic strands to discern impact. A circuit of electricity or
light passing through the sensor or fiber is altered when the fence material deflects or breaks. A processing
unit is required to respond to circuit changes and signal an alarm, either locally or to a remote location, via
telephone modem.
c. The system should be installed in zones, the number of which to be determined by the size of the facility.
d. Terrain, environmental, and weather conditions should be taken into account when considering such a
system.
4.3.5.4.7 Closed Circuit Television
A closed circuit television system acts as both a deterrent to theft and vandalism, and as a means of obtaining an
accurate record for the investigation of criminal cases. They can be positioned for total or partial coverage of the
facility. They can also work in conjunction with the gates, running continuously or activated only when the gates
are utilized. Cameras should be capable of recording in color, onto a VCR recorder. The use of color cameras will
require additional lighting, up to 10 feet candles.
4.3.5.4.8 Card Access Systems
a. A card access system is an effective method of monitoring or maintaining an inventory of all persons
entering and leaving an auto facility.
b. Authorized persons are issued preassigned cards in advance. Upon entering or departing the facility, they
activate the gate/card system with their cards. The monitoring/gate access decision making can be
performed on site or from a remote location using a computer and phone modem. It is tied directly to the
gates, authorizing and monitoring their functions.
c. The card access system consists of cards, card readers, processing controller, software, and a computer. Each
card reader may contain its own microprocessor that permits memory and decision making at individually
secured gates and doors. It should also include a battery backup system for use in the event of a power
failure.
d. The card access system can be tied electronically to the fence alarm system, monitoring both functions.
4.3.5.4.9 Signs
a. Signs placed around the perimeter of the facility can deter trespassing. When placed within the facility they
are beneficial in controlling traffic flow.
b. They should be located as not to obstruct the view of the drivers and other personnel. For easy recognition,
they should be constructed in a manner similar to those recommended by the Manual of Uniform Traffic
Control Devices. Preferably, signs should be made of aluminum with a reflective backing.
4.3.5.5 Buildings and Employee Accommodations
Accommodations should be provided for security guards if applicable. Parking for employees should be provided in
a separate, secured area.

4.3.5.6 General Comments
a. A maintenance and system testing schedule for all electronic equipment should be developed and followed.
b. Emergency stand-by generators should be considered. This system will provide power for lighting, card
readers, gates and/or the perimeter detection system if desired. It should be actuated automatically upon its
sensing the loss of commercial external power to the facility.
SECTION 4.4 BULK-SOLID
4.4.1 GRAIN ELEVATORS (2003)

4.4.1.1 General
a. Track facilities to serve large grain elevators involve special yard design. Cooperation between the elevator’s
engineer and the railway engineer is essential to the development of a satisfactory plan.
b. The location of elevator site, type and capacity of elevator, topography and local conditions will influence the
arrangement of tracks.
c. When selecting the site, consideration should be given to property values, possible arrangement of
connections to plant tracks, local railway operating conditions, future expansion of elevator plant and of
existing railway facilities. 1
d. Proposed method of railway operation should be established and approved by the elevator operating
company and operating officials of the railway.
4.4.1.2 Types
There are three general types of grain elevators, viz., 3

• rail to rail,
• rail to water, and
• water to rail.
Specific plants may be combinations of these types. 4

4.4.1.3 Tracks
a. The number and capacity of unloading tracks will depend upon the type, arrangement and capacity of
elevator unloading facilities, but may be limited in some cases by the space available.
b. The car capacity of the tracks in advance of and beyond the loading or unloading facilities should be the same.
c. Where the car capacity of the unloading tracks on each side of the unloading facilities is equal to the normal
daily unloading capacity of the elevator plant during the grain handling season, and where the car capacity
of the loading tracks on each side of the loading facilities is equal to the normal daily business handled, the
plant switching will be reduced to a minimum.
d. Double-ended tracks will permit the continuous movement of cars in one direction and facilitate switching.

Yards and Terminals
e. Spur unloading tracks may necessitate switching cars through unloading shed and over unloading facilities,
requiring the use of idler cars. Locomotives should not be permitted to enter the unloading shed.
f. Adverse gradients and curvature in tracks will limit the capacity of car haul and should be avoided. An
assisting gradient to and from the loading and unloading facilities should be provided. A short runoff
gradient below the unloading facilities will speed up the movement of empty cars.
g. Where car unloaders are used, the track arrangement should provide for the relative increased capacity of
this device. A small plant locomotive or other special car handling equipment should be considered in
connection with car unloaders. Flexibility of track layout in the vicinity of car unloader, to facilitate the
operation of plant locomotive, should be given special attention.
h. Loading tracks may be located on the same or opposite side of “workhouse” from unloading tracks.
i. Certain unloading tracks may be used for loading or to augment the capacity of the loading tracks.
j. Some of the auxiliary buildings, such as storeroom and dust house, may be served by the loading tracks.
4.4.1.3.2 Other Tracks
a. A running track, located outside of unloading shed, should be provided where double ended tracks are
installed.
b. A separate track should be provided to serve the power house.
4.4.1.4 Storage Yard
a. The use of a separate storage yard will require additional handling of cars; therefore careful consideration
should be given to the advisability of such a yard.
b. Where the elevator is located near an existing yard and sufficient capacity is available, or can be
economically provided, a separate storage yard may not be required.
c. A separate storage yard may be justified where it can be used to augment the existing yard during seasonal
increases in business, or where the elevator is located some distance from the main or an auxiliary yard.
d. The capacity of either the loading or unloading tracks, or both, may influence the necessity for a separate
storage yard, as well as the capacity of such a yard.
e. Facilities for inspection of cars and lading should be provided.
4.4.2 DESIGN OF BULK GRANULAR SOLIDS TERMINALS (2003)
Railroad bulk granular solids terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk lading
from point of origination to rail cars, transfers from rail cars to point of destination or to transfer bulk lading
between rail and other modes. For additional pertinent information regarding design of bulk granular solids
terminals, refer to Bulletin 660, Proceedings Volume 78, November-December 1976, pages 255-259, and Bulletin
713, Proceedings Volume 88, December 1987, pages 395-424. This section is applicable to dry bulk solids such as
aggregates, coal, phosphates, ore, and coke, which suffer little or no damage from normal handling or from
exposure. A search of other bulletins may offer additional information on other materials or design options.

4.4.2.1.1 General
Factors affecting terminal design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of shipment (unit
train, ship or barge, multiple car, single car), the physical characteristics of the site, and the degree of processing
and storage to be done on the site.
4.4.2.1.2 Site Selection
The site should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the site. The following factors
should be considered during layout and planning of the site.
4.4.2.1.2.1 Environment
Environment factors to be considered include:
a. Air, especially dust control and collection.
b. Water.
c. Noise and lighting.
d. Rainfall runoff.
e. Archaeological and Historical Sites.
f. Adjacent development. 1
g. Proximity to residential areas.
h. Adjacent development.
i. Avoidance of wetlands and other ecologically sensitive areas.
4.4.2.1.2.2 Economics 3
Site selection and arrangement should allow for economy in movement of materials and transportation operations.
4.4.2.1.2.3 Size
The terminal should include sufficient land area to accommodate the ultimate development of the terminal. Sizing
of equipment and structures should allow for expansion and flexibility. 4
4.4.2.1.2.4 Access
a. Design of highway access should consider the requirements for service vehicles and heavily loaded trucks
normally associated with bulk terminals. Water access should include sufficient draft maneuvering space
and berthing for the size and type of vessel anticipated at the terminal.
b. Rail access should be designed for the longest and heaviest anticipated shipments arriving or departing by
rail at the terminal.
4.4.2.1.2.5 Utilities
Siting and planning should account for required utilities at the site. Water will be required for fire protection, dust
control, and washdown. Bulk handling equipment may require a significant amount of electrical power, and some
sewage disposal is generally necessary.

Yards and Terminals
4.4.2.1.2.6 Zoning
Siting near residential, commercial, or recreational areas is almost always a controversial issue, with potential
delays from hearings and other legal process. Many governmental entities have enacted zoning laws that govern
construction of these facilities. It is desirable to avoid areas where rezoning is necessary in order to construct the
facility.
4.4.2.2 Facilities
Facilities vary with the size and function of the terminal, but can be classified into the following categories.
a. Unloading.
b. Loading.
c. Storage and Reclaim.
d. Conveyance.
e. Sampling and Weighing.
f. Service Facilities.
4.4.2.2.1 Unloading Facilities
Unloading facilities vary from low volume single or multiple-car systems to the high-volume terminals capable of
unloading unit trains. The unit train terminals may be rotary or bottom dump unloading. In some specialized
applications, side-dump equipment or trains equipped with under-hopper conveyors may be more economically
utilized, which simplify or eliminate fixed unloading facilities.
4.4.2.2.1.1 Unloading Facilities for Single or Small Multiple-Car Shipments
a. A small under-track pit with lading removal by conveyor or small mobile equipment is economical in many
cases for small shipments. Design of a pit of this type is shown in Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Section 8.4,
Unloading Pits. Car shakers may be used to aid in clearing lading from the car.
b. Rotary dumpers can also be used for multiple-car shipments. Rotary dumping may offer advantages if
lading tends to freeze or to clog during unloading from bottom-dump equipment. Rotary dumpers can be
equipped to take various sizes of cars when the cars are uncoupled before dumping.
4.4.2.2.1.2 Unit Training Unloading
a. Unit train unloading facilities must be designed to unload as quickly as possible to take advantage of the
high utilization economies of unit trains. Unloading without uncoupling or switching should also be a high
priority in most instances.
b. Fast unloading automatic bottom dump hopper cars unloading in-motion over a pit or trestle provides the
fastest unloading time of any bulk granular material unloading system. The unloading facilities must
therefore be designed for high mass flows through the facility. Particular attention should be directed to
prevention of “bridging” of material in the bottom of the unloading pit, and reliability of feeders and
conveyors to minimize expensive delays in train unloading.

c. Rotary dump facilities using train positioners and rotary coupler equipped cars also have a high unloading
rate. Rotary dumper systems generally utilize cars with lower tare weights, and thus higher capacities per
car. Reliability of the dumper machinery is a key item in the design of rotary dump unit train facilities to
minimize expensive delays in train unloading. Train positioner design should provide sufficient power to
handle the unit train easily during unloading.
4.4.2.2.1.3 Frozen Lading
To aid the unloading of frozen lading in cold weather climates, provisions should be made for thawing lading which
is susceptible to freezing. Additives to the lading, thaw sheds or pits, and car shakers are all methods which have
been used to aid the unloading of frozen lading.
4.4.2.2.2 Loading Facilities
a. For all loading facilities, accurate weighing of lading is essential to take full advantage of the car capacity
without overloading.
b. Loading of small shipments may be accomplished with clamshell-equipped cranes, shovels, or other mobile
equipment. Hoppers over the track, or conveyors can also be used to load single or small multiple car
shipments economically.
c. For unit trains, a high capacity load-in-motion system should be considered to minimize train delays.
Weighing bins to accurately meter lading into each car, based on the car’s empty weight, will allow
maximum advantage of the capacity of the train.
d. In general, excess switching should be minimized during loading operations.

1
4.4.2.3 Storage and Reclaim
a. Most bulk granular materials handling systems require some type of storage and reclaim system. Storage
may be necessary for seasonal or environmental reasons, surges in material flow, blending, or through put
demands. Multiple types of materials may be stacked, and blending of materials may be required.
3
b. Design of storage and reclaim systems should take advantage of gravity flow wherever possible, and also
minimize handling of materials. Stacker/reclaimer equipment should be sized for the expected terminal
throughput, so that train loading and unloading are not limited by this equipment. Covered stacks, silos, or
sheds should be utilized to protect materials from exposure if necessary. Dusty materials should be covered
or otherwise protected to control fugitive dust emissions.
4
4.4.2.4 Conveyance
Conveyors are the links between the functions of most bulk terminals. Conveyor design should consider the desired
material flow rate, material density, and angle of repose. If the terminal may expand at some future date,
provisions for dual conveyors or other necessary facilities should be included in the initial design. Some conveyors
may be critical enough to require dual systems so that delays in loading or unloading trains, ships, or vehicles may
be avoided.
4.4.2.5 Sampling and Weighing
Sampling and weighing provisions should be provided where required for each material handled. The AAR Scale
Handbook (included in this manual) provides guidance on weighing facilities.

Yards and Terminals
4.4.2.6 Terminal Tracks
a. Bulk handling terminals will very likely be served by 100 ton cars, with a trend toward larger capacity cars.
Trackage and subgrade in bulk handling terminals should be designed for these heavy axle loadings.
b. For rotary dump installations, heavy anchorage of rail should be used on the inbound side of the dumper to
prevent rail creepage into the dumper platen or other machinery.
c. Rail lubricators may be beneficial for reduction of rail and flange wear.
4.4.2.6.1 Track Geometry – Unit Train Facility
a. For unit train trackage, consideration should be given to train action and conservative curvature and
gradient standards. The following criteria are recommended for unit train trackage design:
• Maximum recommended curvature on loops and lead tracks: 7 degrees, 30 minutes.
• Maximum recommended gradient on approach to loop: 1%, compensated for curvature.
• Gradient on unloading loop: (level), or slight upgrade to unloading trestle or pit.
• Minimum recommended size loop and lead turnouts: Number 10.
• Maximum recommended rate of change for vertical curves: 0.12 per 100 foot station in sags. 0.20 per 100
foot station in summits.
b. The AAR Train Performance Calculator or other similar programs can be run to verify train performance
over the new design.
c. Trackage affecting the operation of dumpers, train positioners and other material handling equipment
should take into account the requirements and recommendations of the equipment manufacturers.
4.4.2.6.2 Track Geometry – Non-Unit Train System
a. Trackage of non unit-train terminals varies widely with the type of terminal. Switching is more common in
this type of terminal, and trackage should be designed accordingly. Yard design criteria from other sections
in this chapter should be considered in trackage design.
b. Sufficient car storage track should be available to accommodate surges in traffic with adequate room
allowed for switching cars through the loading or unloading facilities.
c. In general, the following track design standards are recommended:
• Maximum recommended curvature: 12 degrees, 30 minutes.
• Minimum recommended turnout: Number 8.
• Lead Tracks: as long as the longest storage track.
• Gradients: preferably flat, unless cars are moved through the dumper by gravity. Grades for storage
tracks should be such that the application of hand brakes is not necessary.
d. In some terminals, where cars are moved by a combination of gravity and barneys or other car movers, the
principles of hump yard design and automatic classification yard design can be used to design the trackage.
These principles are found in Part 2, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals.

4.4.2.7 Structures
Structures in granular bulk material handling terminals should be designed for durability and easy cleaning.
Electrical equipment and other sensitive equipment may require air conditioning and dust-free environment.
Clearances for railroad and mobile equipment should be considered. Additional guidance for structural design and
construction are found in the Manual, Chapter 5, Track; Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities; Chapter 8,
Concrete Structures and Foundations; and Chapter 15, Steel Structures.
4.4.2.8 Maintenance and Housekeeping
Bulk materials facilities should be designed for easy maintenance and housekeeping. Areas where potential
material spills are likely should provide access for loaders and trucks for easy removal of spills. Particular attention
should be given to the prevention of dust accumulation. Materials used in construction of a bulk material terminal
should be resistant to deterioration from the materials handled.
SECTION 4.5 BULK-FLUIDS
a. Bulk fluid terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk lading from point of
origination to rail cars, from rail cars to point of destination, or between rail and other modes of
transportation. Some terminals may be designed purely for the transfer of commodities to other modes or 1
directly to a customer, whereas other terminals may provide intermediate storage between modes, or
storage on behalf of the customer.
b. This section is applicable to bulk liquids such as chemicals, petroleum, fertilizers, food-grade liquids and
oils. Also, some dry bulk solids such as powders and granules, which have physical characteristics similar to
a liquid, and are handled as fluids rather than as solids.
3
c. These commodities could be transported in single or multiple railcar blocks, or in unit train service. Some
commodities, such as petroleum products, may be transported in railcars with interconnected piping to
allow unloading and loading of several railcars from a single point.
d. Contingent upon the customer service to be afforded and the commodity to be handled, terminals may range
in size and purpose from a single track, single car spot facility to a multiple track facility capable of
unloading or loading unit trains. Individual customers may be served at a terminal or multiple customers 4
may share the facility and its equipment. One or more different commodities may also be handled in the
same terminal.
e. Factors affecting terminal design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of shipment
(i.e. unit train, ship, barge, multiple car, single car), the physical characteristics of the site, and the degree of
processing and storage to be done on the site.
f. Although consideration herein is primarily directed to such common transfer terminals, design principles
may be applicable to in-plant and other transfer facilities.
4.5.2 SITE SELECTION (2003)

a. The site should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the terminal to handle
the volumes of traffic projected for each commodity. Ease of access for customers and all modes of
transportation involved are critical in selecting a site suitable for a terminal. Site selection and

Yards and Terminals
configuration should allow for economy in movement of materials, unloading and loading equipment, and
transportation equipment.
b. Modification of an existing yard, particularly a team yard, may permit utilization of little used assets and
use to advantage a site with good access. In other instances, selection of an active, new or undeveloped
location may be prudent.
c. The following factors should be considered during the selection, planning and construction of the site.
4.5.2.1 Environment
Various chapters of this Manual discuss environmental considerations in detail. Environmental items relating to a
site that typically impact terminal design that should be considered include:
a. Air pollution (vapor and dust control and collection).
b. Water pollution (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities).
c. Spill containment (for liquids and solids).
d. Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas).
e. Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment).
f. Proximity to archaeological and historic sites.
g. Proximity to residential areas.
h. Adjacent development.
i. Proximity to ecologically sensitive areas including wetlands.
4.5.2.2 Size
a. The site selected for a terminal should have sufficient land area to allow future expansion and development
of the terminal. Sizing of equipment and structures should allow for expansion and flexibility of operation.
b. The length of time allocated to discharge vessels, railcars, trucks and storage areas and the frequency of
transportation service will impact the sizing of various elements of a terminal.
4.5.2.3 Access
4.5.2.3.1 Roads
a. Highways, streets and other roads to be used for access must provide an efficient route for customers.
Routes to the site should be carefully studied for their ability to accommodate trucks and equipment that
will serve the terminal. Road weight restrictions including seasonal restrictions, pavement widths, curves,
intersections and existing traffic volumes and patterns should all be considered relative to the size and type
of trucks and equipment that will use them.
b. Routes for trucks serving the terminal should also be carefully studied to determine whether they will pass
or be near schools, hospitals, parks, community centers, residential areas, and other sensitive areas. Local
ordinances may exist that prohibit truck traffic on certain roads. Also, site selection should consider public
opposition that may prevent new or additional traffic on certain roads.

c. Site access for emergency vehicles should also be considered, incorporating specific access roads or gates
into the site plan as necessary for use by emergency vehicles only.
4.5.2.3.2 Waterways
Water access should provide sufficient draft, maneuvering and turning basins, and berthing space for the size and
type of vessels to serve the terminal.
4.5.2.3.3 Rail
Rail access should be designed to efficiently accommodate rail traffic serving the terminal’s customers. The length
of cars, locomotives and trains, frequency of switching movements serving the terminal, and the characteristics of
existing mainline train movements and other operations, should be considered.
The availability of existing tracks or the ability to construct new tracks in yards or along running or main tracks to
support the short and long term needs of the terminal should be considered.
4.5.2.4 Utilities
Utilities required for the site should be considered during the terminal site selection process. Water will be
necessary for fire protection, employee washdown (i.e. showers, eye washout), dust control, equipment cleaning
and employee facilities. Electrical power will be needed for commodity handling equipment, lighting,
heating/cooling/ventilation equipment and other equipment. Sewage disposal is likely to also be needed.
4.5.2.5 Zoning and Permitting 1

a. Many governmental agencies have enacted laws which may impact the selection and construction of bulk
fluid terminals. Proposals to locate this type of terminal in areas not properly zoned or near residential,
commercial or recreational areas including schools and hospitals are frequently controversial to the public.
Public hearings and other legal processes frequently become necessary when a zoning change or when a
controversial site is selected.
3
b. Permits of some description are generally required at nearly all locations.
c. Schedules for placing a terminal in-service should consider the time associated with such hearings and legal
processes and obtaining permits. In situations in which the timely completion of a terminal is critical, it may
be prudent to select a site that will not arouse controversy.
4.5.3 UNLOADING AND LOADING FACILITIES (1996) 4

a. Unloading and loading facilities at terminals may vary from low-volume, single or multiple car and
customer systems to high-volume systems for unit trains. Contingent upon the function of the terminal and
the commodities to be handled, the transfer of commodities may be between railcar and truck, railcar and
storage tank, railcar and water vessel, truck and storage tank, and/or truck and vessel. In any case, the
facilities must be carefully designed to meet the needs of its customer or customers.
b. For low-volume terminals, small portable or fixed pump systems may be utilized, and similarly, small
portable or fixed vacuum systems may be utilized for powders or granules. Some commodities being
transferred between a railcar and truck in low-volumes may be handled using the truck’s onboard pump or
vacuum equipment. Intermittent unloading of commodities is also common in smaller terminals and will
impact the equipment for the terminal.
c. For larger terminals, stationary, high-capacity equipment may be necessary.

Yards and Terminals
d. In any situation, typical railcar and truck length should be determined for the installation of loading booms
or unloading connections at the appropriate interval. Careful consideration must be given to the type of
commodity and railcars, trucks, vessels and unloading/loading equipment to ensure compatibility. Also, a
careful analysis of the equipment, piping, connections, storage tanks, and other facilities should be done to
ensure that they are composed of materials that will not corrode or deteriorate when exposed to the
commodity.
e. All equipment, including loading booms and unloading connections, must be retractable to enable it to clear
railroad tracks pursuant to the guidelines found in the chapter for Clearances of the Manual.
4.5.3.1 Services
a. Certain commodities may require specialized services to effect their transfer between modes or to and from
storage, such as electricity to power transfer machines, compressed air to move powders or granules
between vehicles, steam or hot water to decrease viscosity of liquids, and nitrogen to purge railcars and
pipelines. Provisions for these services at convenient locations along tracks or in other areas must be
considered and incorporated in the design of the terminal.
b. Railcars, trucks and vessels, particularly those with special linings, may require specialized cleaning after
each unloading or prior to use for other commodities. Specialized equipment, personnel, and facilities may
be necessary to perform these functions to meet regulatory, customer and equipment owner needs and to
protect equipment from damage and failure.
4.5.3.2 Walkways
Elevated walkways may be necessary to permit personnel to safely access the top of railcars and trucks for
unloading and loading purposes. Retractable, telescoping or hinged walkway sections to reach the tops of railcars
and trucks from elevated walkways parallel to the track or driveways, are common. Typical railcar and truck
length should be determined to construct these sections at the appropriate intervals.
4.5.3.3 Sampling and Weighing
Sampling, weighing or metering provisions may be necessary for certain customers and commodities. The AAR
Scale Handbook (included in this manual) provides guidance on such facilities.
4.5.3.4 Environmental Facilities
a. It may be necessary and required by laws or regulations to construct spill containment systems such as
dikes, paving and other appurtenances at unloading/loading areas and in commodity storage areas. To
prevent contamination of the atmosphere, vapor or gas collection systems may be necessary or agency
required. For some powders and granular commodities, dust collection or abatement systems may be
necessary or required. Also, special treatment and pre-treatment facilities for the discharge of water may
also be necessary.
b. Various chapters of the Manual discuss environmental considerations and design criteria in detail.
4.5.4 COMMODITY STORAGE (1996)
a. Most bulk fluid terminals require some level of storage capability to accommodate fluctuations in
commodity demand, unloading and loading constraints between transportation modes, and blending of
materials on-site.
b. The transfer and storage systems for a bulk fluid terminal should be designed to utilize gravity, minimize
the handling of commodities as much as possible, and be of appropriate size or capacity to unload or load
railcars, trains, vessels and/or trucks. Covered unloading or loading areas, stacks, silos or sheds may be

desired to protect commodities from exposure and loss. Commodities composed of fine particle size, that are
prone to become airborne by wind or other air movements, should be covered or otherwise protected.
4.5.5 BUILDINGS (1996)
a. Buildings may be required for a variety of purposes. These could include offices and supporting facilities for
employees, commodity storage, enclosure of commodity transfer areas, protection of boilers, water heaters
and transfer equipment, security and any other function or item needed given weather and general site
conditions.
b. Structures in bulk material handling terminals should be designed for durability and ease in cleaning.
Electrical equipment and other sensitive equipment may require air conditioning and a dust-free
environment. Lighting and ventilation must be designed to assure the safety of employees and allow the
efficient execution of their duties. Clearances for railroad and mobile equipment should be considered. All
structures must meet all applicable OSHA requirements and any local building and fire codes. Additional
guidelines for structural design and construction are found in various chapters of the Manual.
c. Office buildings should be located for convenience near the entry to the terminal to allow monitoring of
traffic in and out of the terminal, and to monitor the activities within the terminal itself. Separate offices
and facilities may be necessary for outside contractors operating all or various portions of the terminal.
d. Certain customers and environmental regulations may require that commodity transfers be performed
within an enclosure to protect the commodity from degradation or escape into the atmosphere.
e. Buildings for storage and servicing of transfer and other terminal equipment is typically required at most 1
terminals. It is particularly critical that buildings be provided for equipment handling food grade
commodities which require cleaning and protection from contamination. An appropriate work area as might
be required for cleaning and maintenance of equipment, and a storage area with racks for hoses, fittings and
other items for maintaining the equipment, should be provided in the building.
4.5.6 SECURITY (1996)

3
a. In most instances, the commodities handled at bulk material terminals are of a unit value that security
concerns address preservation of purity and protection of equipment.
b. At many sites, no sophisticated security measures are justified, other than to restrict points of entry to the
terminal with perimeter fencing and a limited number of gates to allow ease of monitoring during operating
hours and closure of the terminal during non-operation.
c. Area and perimeter lighting aids in deterring intruders and allows monitoring at night. Lighting levels 4
should be such that shadowed areas are minimized.
d. Undergrowth and trees should be removed as needed around fences to prevent their use to breach or scale
fences, and to allow improved visibility for monitoring the terminal perimeter.
4.5.7 ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE (1996)

a. Bulk material terminals should be designed in conformance with all federal, state and local environmental
laws and regulations, and to allow easy maintenance of the infrastructure and equipment to minimize the
potential and resulting impact of spills and site contamination. Various chapters of the Manual discuss
environmental considerations in detail. Environmental items relating to the design of the terminal that
should be considered include:
(1) Air contamination (vapor and dust control and collection).
(2) Water contamination (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities).

Yards and Terminals
(3) Soils contamination.
(4) Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas).
(5) Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment).
b. Equipment and measures should be employed to control and/or collect airborne particles to prevent
pollution of the atmosphere, dust explosions, adverse affects on employee health, loss of commodity, and
deterioration of facilities and equipment from dust accumulation. The terminal’s equipment and facilities
should be constructed of materials resistant to deterioration from the commodities handled.
c. Areas where commodity spills are likely should be easily accessible for loaders and trucks to facilitate
cleanup. Paving in areas where not structurally necessary may still be desirable to provide a barrier between
commodities and the ground.
d. A drainage system should be provided which will effectively remove stormwater runoff to avoid deterioration
of work surfaces, contamination of commodities, and minimize the impact upon unloading and loading
operations. The systems should be designed to channel runoff to a central location for ease of containment,
cleanup and/or treatment of spills, and should be constructed of materials that will not interact with any
potential spill material. Similarly, the drainage system should be designed to allow the easy removal of any
residue or sedimentation to prevent any potential interaction with any other materials spilled.
4.5.8 TERMINAL CONFIGURATION (2003)
a. The terminal should be configured to provide the most efficient movement of commodities, transfer
equipment and transportation vehicles. Security, safety and environmental facilities and appurtenances
appropriate to the commodities handled should be considered in the design. Service facilities and utilities
should be strategically located to allow easy access without conflicting with other operations, activities or
movements within the terminal.
b. The length of time allocated to discharge vessels, railcars, trucks and storage areas and the frequency of
transportation service will impact the configuration of various elements of a terminal.
c. See Figure 14-4-15 and Figure 14-4-16 for examples of bulk fluid terminals.
4.5.8.1 Tracks
a. Bulk fluid terminals may be served by tank cars and/or covered hopper cars of varying lengths and
capacities contingent upon the commodity being carried. At low-volume terminals, railcars tend to be
switched individually or in relatively short blocks or “cuts,” whereas at high-volume or large terminals,
larger blocks or unit train movements may be employed. Track lengths, switching leads and ladders must be
designed pursuant to the type of operation or service planned.
b. The overall design of the terminal, including the track configuration, must provide adequate room to
accommodate driveways for unloading and loading equipment, service equipment and inspections. Also, the
design must minimize any conflicts between trucks, unloading and loading equipment, and rail movements
to allow the terminal to operate as efficiently as possible. Intermittent unloading of commodities is also
common in smaller terminals and will impact the configuration of the terminal.
c. For terminals to receive individual or short cuts, relatively short track lengths for unloading and loading
may be prudent to allow switch engines easy access to individual railcars. Multiple, short tracks may be
necessary to enable switching without having to halt or await the completion of other railcar unloading or
loading activities, or move partially loaded railcars.
d. For terminals to receive longer cuts or unit train service, longer unloading or loading, lead and storage
tracks lengths will be necessary.

Figure 14-4-15. Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Single End Switching Capacity: 3
80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Storage/Support Yard
e. In terminals where access is needed only on one side of a track for unloading or loading, tracks may be
configured in pairs with services and lighting required placed between the tracks. Paired tracks must have
track centers that provide clearances which conform with the guidelines presented in the clearance chapter
of the Manual and governmental regulations.
f. Covered hopper cars can be expected to range from 100 to 125 tons, therefore, trackage and subgrade
construction should be of a design to accommodate heavy axle loadings.
g. Blue flag protection should be provided at unloading and loading locations in the terminal, or any other
location where employees will be working on top of, beneath, or inside of railcars.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-16. Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Double End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Support Yard
4.5.8.1.1 Track Geometry – Non-Unit Train Operation
a. Trackage for non-unit train terminals varies widely with the type of terminal. In general, the following
track design standards are recommended:
• Maximum curvature – 12 degrees – 30 minutes.
• Minimum turnout – Number 8.
• Lead tracks – Length should be as long as the longest storage track.
• Gradients – preferably flat or sloping toward the end of track at a grade not to exceed 0.1%; grades for
storage tracks should be such that application of hand brakes is not necessary; a slight ascending grade
should be included at either end of the storage tracks to prevent rollouts.
b. In some terminals where cars are moved by gravity, the principles of hump yard design can be used. These
principles can be found in Part 2, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals.
4.5.8.1.2 Track Geometry – Unit Train Operation
a. For trackage to accommodate unit trains, curvature and gradients should be designed with unit train
dynamics considered. The following criteria are recommended:
• Maximum curvature on loops and lead tracks: 7 degrees – 30 minutes.

1
• Maximum gradient on approach to loop: 1% compensated for curvature.
• Gradient on unloading loop: Level or slight ascending grade.
• Minimum turnout for loop and lead: Number 10.
• Maximum rate of change for vertical curves: 0.12 per 100 feet in sags; 0.20 per 100 feet in crests. 3
b. The AAR Train Performance Calculator or other similar train dynamics simulators can be run to verify
train performance over a proposed design.
c. Trackage affecting the operation of unloading and loading equipment, train and other material handling
equipment should take into account the requirements and recommendations of the equipment
manufacturers. 4
4.5.8.2 Driveways
a. At locations where the transfer of commodities between rail and trucks is to occur, driveways of sufficient
width must be provided on at least one side of each unloading or loading track to permit a truck to park. The
width allowed for each truck should be 12 feet plus any width required to angle a truck relative to the track
and railcar. Additional width must be provided to allow other vehicles to safely pass the parked truck and for
sufficient space to position any transfer equipment. Adequate turning radii for trucks must be provided to
promote the unobstructed and efficient flow of traffic and equipment.
b. Parking for employees and visitors should be provided in a separate area from the terminal operations to
minimize traffic congestion and promote security of the terminal’s equipment and supplies. Parking should
be located in close proximity to the office building, but positioned so that pedestrians and vehicles are clear
of the circulation of trucks, equipment and other vehicles.

Yards and Terminals
c. Paving must be designed to support the loads anticipated from fully loaded tractor trailer trucks and
transfer equipment. Selection of pavement materials must be appropriate to the service. Some commodities
may damage pavement if spilled, such as petroleum products in contact with bituminous concrete. Crushed
stone or gravel may be appropriate at smaller terminals, however, some aggregate particles may interact
with commodities or its dust may contaminate commodities. Also, spills onto stone areas can be difficult to
clean up and could allow contamination of ground beneath the stone paving.
d. For guidelines concerning road and pavement design, see the “AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement
Structures,” published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Chapter
4. Paving materials and construction methods for a given area are typically specified to meet state or local
highway authority specifications.
4.5.8.3 Truck Scale
1. Many customers require that commodities and drayage be weighed at the terminal. The location of the scale
should be carefully planned to allow trucks easy access to the scale without adversely affecting activities
elsewhere in the terminal when entering and exiting the terminal. The location of the scale should also permit
trucks to easily return to an unloading area if necessary to “top off” their load.
a. It may be desired to position the scale in close proximity to the terminal office to allow scale equipment to be
placed within the building for protection and use by office personnel.
SECTION 4.6 MERCHANDISE TERMINAL
4.6.1 PRODUCE TERMINALS (2004)

4.6.1.1 General
a. Produce terminals are designed for expeditious distribution and transfer of various commodities such as
fruits, vegetables, some dairy products, meat and meat products, seafoods and dry groceries between truck
and rail modes of transportation. However, these terminals are generally no longer built and operated by
railroads. Separate companies have taken over this function so that railroads now only provide switching
services for the facility. In addition much of the produce is now handled in refrigerated trailers which are
then handled through the railroad’s intermodal facility. From a railroad perspective, the railroad only
coordinates with the shipper or owner of these facilities.
b. Terminals should be located and designed to handle peak business.
c. A union terminal serving the entire trade of a community is preferable.
d. The location must be convenient for dealers, with easy access over wide and well improved highways and
easy gradients. It should have convenient railway connections. A location adjoining a railway terminal yard
is advantageous.
4.6.1.2 Functions of Railway and Marketing Facilities
a. A produce terminal should be considered to include:
(1) railway facilities.
(2) wholesale marketing facilities.
(3) team yards.

b. Railway facilities include the primary units for handling carload shipments prior to distribution or
reconsigning. Any or all of the following facilities may be required:
(1) Receiving and delivery yard.
(2) Hold and inspection yard; with or without supplemental classification tracks.
(3) Team yard.
(4) Buildings for sorting, reconditioning and transferring of lading.
(5) Administration building.
(6) Motor truck sales.
(7) Buildings for coopering and supplies.
(8) Buildings for heaters and supplies.
(9) Rest rooms for yard crews, stevedores, truck operators and laborers.
(10) Incinerator.
(11) Communication facilities.

1
(12) Yard lighting.
(13) Icing facilities.
(14) A track system for serving the yards.
(15) A system of driveways for movements to and from the team yard and the hold and inspection yard. 3
(16) Fire protection facilities.
c. Wholesale marketing facilities include units for the sale and distribution of produce and may be situated
adjacent to or within easy access of the railway facilities. In either case certain units should be served
directly by railway tracks. Any or all of the following units may be required:
4
(1) Buildings divided into separate stores.
(2) Buildings for display and private sales.
(3) Buildings for display and auction.
(4) Auction rooms.
(5) Offices, restaurants, etc.
(6) Cold storage warehouse.
(7) Bulk delivery platforms.
(8) Ripening facilities.

Yards and Terminals
(9) Reconditioning facilities.
(10) Motor truck and other scales.
(11) Incinerator.
(12) Communication facilities.
(13) Fire protection facilities.
(14) Farmers’ market.
(15) A railway track system serving the buildings.
(16) Driveways serving the buildings.
(17) Separate buildings for individual large firms.
(18) Adequate parking areas.
d. The location of a team yard should be such that it will be convenient for use by shippers and consignees, and
also as convenient as possible to a freight house, so that the receipt and shipment of freight may be easily
under control of the freight agent’s force.
(1) Equipment. A crane for handling heavy freight should be provided when required. A motor truck scale,
with office, should be provided near the main entrance to the team yard when required.
(2) Tracks.
(a) Switching tracks for holding and working cars should be provided in the immediate vicinity of the
team tracks and so arranged as to facilitate the switching of these tracks.
(b) The spacing of tracks, where multiple team tracks are built, may be fixed by regulatory bodies, but
it is recommended that the minimum distance between track centers be 14 feet.
(c) The distance between track centers where the driveway is located between tracks should be 16 feet
greater than the width of the driveway.
4.6.1.3 Layouts
4.6.1.3.1 Track
a. The track layout should be as compact and flexible as possible, and extensive enough to take care of traffic
without delay. It is governed by the number of cars handled at peak periods, the different kinds of produce
received, and the average standing time until cars are released.
b. A receiving and delivery yard is sometimes desirable for receiving transfers from various roads and for
assembling outbound empties and reconsigned cars.
c. A hold and inspection yard is sometimes provided. This yard should have two-lane driveways between pairs
of tracks to permit access for inspection and icing from trucks.
d. Inspection platforms are sometimes provided. It may be a separate yard or combined with the receiving and
delivery yard or with a small classification yard.
e. Team yards should have ample standing capacity. Extremely long tracks should be avoided.

f. Track centers should be not less than 14 feet.
4.6.1.3.2 Buildings
a. Ample floor space should be provided for mechanical handling from cars to warehouse floor, display of
produce and assembly of various lots for delivery to trucks.
b. The column spacing should be given careful study and be as wide as possible, consistent with economic
design.
c. The backup space for trucks should be as liberal as possible.
4.6.1.3.3 Platforms
a. Platforms used for inspection or jointly for inspection and handling of produce should be not less than 12
feet (3.7 m) in width, 35 (1.1 m) above top of rail when the center line of tangent track is 59 (1.75 m)
from the platform, or 47 (1.4 m) above top of rail when the center line of tangent track is 80 (2.45 m)
from the platform. Platforms should be covered, and light and water should be provided. Roof supports
should be located to minimize interference with handling crates. Space for crate storage and repairs is
usually required.
b. House platforms, when served by both highway vehicles and railway cars, should be 44 (1.3 m) above top
of rail and 8 feet (2.45 m) from the center line of tangent track.
c. Clearances must comply with state regulations.

1
4.6.1.4 Facilities
4.6.1.4.1 Garbage and Refuse Disposal
Cars should be thoroughly cleaned after unloading, and all refuse and garbage removed from platforms, buildings,
etc. Cleaning of cars may be accomplished on a one-spot basis with mechanized devices. Special equipment such as
sweepers, dump carts, etc., should be provided in large terminals. Garbage may be handled by city collection, by 3
contract, or incinerated. An incinerator, if required, should be of ample capacity to handle each day’s collection in 6
to 8 hr, conveniently located, and designed to burn garbage having a high water content.
4.6.1.4.2 Mechanical Refrigeration
The cooling and in some cases heating of rail cars and trailers is now provided by mechanical refrigeration units.
In some instances rail cars also are treated with various types of gases or chemicals to inhibit deterioration of the 4
produce. Provisions may be required to perform maintenance functions on this equipment.
4.6.1.4.3 Miscellaneous
a. Ample drainage is essential for buildings and yards.
b. Floodlighting the entire area is desirable in addition to local lighting.
c. The entire area should be strongly and closely fenced to prevent trespass.
d. Definitely assigned entrances and exits should be provided.
e. A cold storage warehouse, if required should have suitable track service and convenient means of
communication with other buildings.
f. Adequate parking space should be provided.

Yards and Terminals
g. Motor truck scales, when required, should be located at a point convenient for the drivers and near the
freight office. The location should not interfere with truck movements in the driveways.
SECTION 4.7 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) TERMINALS
4.7.1 GENERAL (2000)
a. The conveyance of MSW usually begins and ends with short truck hauls, with a long rail haul in between.
b. Rail haul of MSW may be in unit trains or in cuts handled in regular freight consists.
c. The ultimate destination of MSW may be either a sanitary landfill or a power generating plant.
d. Construction of MSW handling facilities may involve extensive government permitting and public hearings,
for which adequate time should be allotted.
e. MSW handling facilities should be constructed so as to shield the public from offensive odors, sights, lights,
sounds, dust and vermin.
4.7.2 MSW RAIL HAUL EQUIPMENT (2000)
a. The type of container to move MSW is dictated by:
(1) Volume of MSW to be moved.
(2) Configuration of MSW collection system
(3) Proximity of rail terminal to disposal site
(4) Proposed ownerships of facilities and equipment
b. Various containers used for hauling MSW:
(1) Truck trailers on specialized flat cars (TOFC)
(2) Containers on specialized flat cars (COFC)
(3) Convertible road-rail truck trailers
(4) New or used boxcars modified by adding interior dividers and removable roofs.
(5) Hopper and gondola cars
a. Desirable site attributes:
(1) In industrial or rural area
(2) Properly zoned for proposed use

(3) Minimum of environmental issues involved (wetlands, endangered species, etc.)
(4) Good highway access with minimum city street use
(5) Near sources of MSW, with balanced hauls and cycling times for collection trucks
(6) Adequate room for receiving, brief storage, sorting and handling of MSW
(7) Accommodates efficient transfer of wastes between road and rail modes without conflicts
(8) Proper site drainage can be achieved
(9) Room for future expansion
4.7.4 CONSTRUCTION OF FACILITIES (2000)
a. Transfer station – truck to rail car
(1) Consider truck axle loadings and turning radii, and density of traffic to be generated
(2) Develop location of truck entrances and exits with local highway agencies
(3) Determine if weighing of entering trucks may be necessary to establish dumping charges
(4) Determine if weights of loaded rail cars: 1

(a) May be needed if agreed to average lading weights are not to be used
(b) Should be remotely read using electronic coupled-in-motion scales
(5) Transferring waste from truck to rail cars:

3
(a) Minimize exposure of waste to air and light
(b) Move directly from truck to hopper to car, or move from truck onto station floor for sorting out
recylables and/or compostables, and then shredding, baling, and loading wastes into rail cars
using front end loaders, grappling hooks, etc.
(c) Use grapples to assist in loading and compacting waste in rail cars, and for removing objectionable 4
materials (gas, canisters, hazmat, etc.)
(d) For open top cars provide covers ( of metal, canvas, plastic, or netting) to restrain waste during
transit
(e) For use of trailers or containers on flat cars, refer to Chapter 14, Section 4.2 Design of Intermodal
Facilities
b. Unloading (Disposal) Facilities
(1) Place rail car unloading as close as practical to ultimate MSW disposal
(2) Minimize exposure of waste to air and light
(3) Include system for removing car covers, if any, and returning them to transfer station

Yards and Terminals
(4) When using TOFC or COFC, refer to Chapter 14, Section 4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities
(5) For modified box, gondola or hopper cars:
(a) Movement through (un)loading areas may be by indexer, barney, or cable and winch, mobile car
mover or slow speed locomotive
(b) Unloading may be by rotary dumper, clamshell or backhoe. (see Chapter 14, Section 4.4 Bulk-solid
(6) Transportation of MSW from rail unloading point to sanitary landfill or power generating plant.
(a) Use trailers or containers in which MSW arrives
(b) Unload open top cars with rotary dump, backhoe, grapple, etc.
(c) Use large truck trailers loaded by hoppers, conveyors, backhoes, etc.
(d) Unload containers or trailers at fill using tipping chassis or device
(e) Make final placement of MSW in landfill using grader-scrapers, bulldozers, front-end loaders and
patrol graders
(f) Most sanitary landfill operators are required to cover MSW with earth the same day it is placed.
(7) Sanitary landfills for disposal of MSW
(a) Are usually lined with sealed rubber or plastic membranes underlaid with clay to prevent escape of
liquids (leachate)
(b) May have a system of perforated pipes to collect and convey leachate to storage tanks for holding,
treatment and disposal
(c) If leachate is to be moved from the landfill site by tank car or truck, handling facilities are needed at
origin and disposal locations.
(d) Pipes may be installed to gather flammable gases (usually methane) generated by decomposition of
wastes, for burning as a power source or flare.
c. Aspects common to transfer and unloading facilities
(1) Provide sufficient utilities:
(a) Electric power for: lighting, waste processing equipment, hydraulic equipment, air compressors,
maintenance operations, wastewater pumping and treatment
(b) Water for: sanitary and washdown purposes, fire suppression
(c) Sanitary sewers and treatment facilities (on or offsite) to handle wastewater and
car/trailer/container cleaning effluents
(d) Treatment facilities for stormwater runoff, if contaminated
(e) Compressed air for: cleaning operations charging air brakes
(f) Adequate lighting for night operations, safety, and security

d. Layout of trackage
(1) Make extensive enough to easily handle in simple, direct moves the longest MSW unit trains or cuts of
cars expected
(2) Provide escape track for road-haul locomotives
(3) Provide room for overnight storage of trains or cars, if required
(4) Track curvature and turnout configurations
(a) Make compatible with equipment to be used for waste train and switching operations.
(b) Make (un) loading and holding tracks as straight and level as possible, with grade not more than-
0.1% in direction of movement
(c) Make vertical curves at least 100 ft. (30 in.) long.
(d) Make minimum curve radii at least 460 ft. (140 in.).
(e) Provide at least 100 ft. (30 in.) of tangent between reversing horizontal curves.
(f) Use No. 8 or flatter turnouts.
(5) Use CWR (115# or heavier) in paved areas to eliminate pavement heaving at rail joints. 1
(6) Use concrete modules in grade crossings to be used by heavy mobile equipment.
(7) Locomotive holding tracks:
(a) Make environmentally safe

3
(b) Provide facilities for fueling, servicing and light repairs
(8) At waste facilities using TOFC and/or COFC:
(a) Road-haul locomotives usually spot MSW unit trains directly on (un) loading tracks.
(b) Trailers and/or containers are lifted on and off of flat cars using straddle and gantry cranes, front 4
end lifters, etc.
(c) Intermodal flat cars are usually left in place on (un) loading tracks.
(d) Light repairs to intermodal cars (including changing wheel sets) are often done in place on (un)
loading tracks.
(e) A spur track may be provided for heavy car repairs if there is room at site.
(f) Prior to arrival of road-haul locomotives, unit or cuts of cars ready for departure should have their
air brakes charged using a portable or stationary air compressor, or a switch engine.
e. Buildings
(1) Station for transfer of wastes between modes:

Yards and Terminals
(a) Largest building in facility
(b) Larger at origin if public allowed to dump, and/or there is sorting or salvaging
(c) Keeps wastes out of sunlight and weather
(d) Captures odors, dust and noise
(e) Controls vermin
(f) Shields operations from public view
(g) Any tracks through building need proper clearances (see Chapter 28 Clearances)
(2) Other buildings
(a) Office building
(b) Truck scale house (may be in office)
(c) Locker and washroom facilities
(d) Repair garage for trucks, trailers, grading and other equipment
(e) Building to hold supplies and materials for railroad locomotive, car and track maintenance and
repairs
(f) Trailer tipper building at landfill
(g) Gate houses for monitoring and security
f. Security
(1) To inhibit unauthorized entry into sites by trespasser to prevent:
(a) Unauthorized dumping and/or salvaging
(b) Accidents and injuries
(2) Methods:
(a) Have passes and waybills for authorized entrants
(b) Construct fences (or sound wall) around entire facility, with slats where in public view.
(c) Have adequate level of lighting at night.
(d) Install closed circuit TV and gate alarms where few guards are used.
(3) Provide adequate signing:
(a) To inhibit trespassing
(b) To promote orderly flow of authorized traffic

g. Vector Control
(1) Vermin and other animals are attracted by animal and vegetable matter in wastes.
(2) Best method of control is to move waste quickly from origin to disposal at landfill or power generating
plant.
(3) Keep wastes covered and away from sunlight and heat to minimize odors caused by putrefaction.
(4) Do essential good housekeeping wherever wastes are handled, sorted or stored.
(5) Do thorough cleaning of waste handling areas and equipment using high pressure water and air.
SECTION 4.8 TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER THAN BULK)
4.8.1 GENERAL (2003)
Transloading facilities are designed for the transfer of various carload or multiple carload commodities from railcar
to truck, truck to railcar or from railcar to short term or long term ground or protected storage. They differ in
configuration and purpose from Bulk Terminals in that the commodity handled is generally not fluid or granular in
nature. Handling and movement of the commodity is generally more time and labor intensive than that required of
Bulk Terminals, therefore design of Transloading facilities poses a different set of requirements from that
1
encountered in Bulk Terminals.
The simplest type of Transloading facility may be nothing more than a level compacted surface adjacent to a rail
siding permitting the manual transfer of lading between a truck and railcar. Facilities of this nature, referred to as
“Team Tracks”, were typically located adjacent to small railway freight or passenger stations. The consignee
would, upon notification of arrival of shipment, transfer cargo to truck. 3
More complex facilities may include dedicated areas, environmental controls and material handling equipment,
such as rail or rubber tire straddle cranes or heavy duty forklifts, specifically suited to a particular commodity.
The site location should provide access to a primary highway network, as well as convenient railway connections.
Impacts of increased vehicular traffic attributable to the operation of the facility should be evaluated during the
site selection process. Particular attention should be given to traffic patterns that may develop subsequent to the 4
commencement of operations. These include impacts resulting from increased highway traffic, as well as increased
railroad movements.
Noise generated by transload operations must be considered. Material handling equipment, highway trucks and
the general handling of cargo may generate significant amounts of low frequency noise. Local noise ordinances may
preclude 24 hour operations and should be considered during the site selection process.
The owning Railroad, a contract operator, a lessee, or a consignee may own and/or operate the facility.
4.8.2 CONFIGURATION (2003)
a. The configuration of the facility may entail one or more single or double ended rail sidings. Vehicular access
to the siding(s) should be provided on each side of each track to accommodate various types of railcar
configurations or the specific unloading requirements of the lading. Sufficient distance from track
centerline to obstructions such as fence lines, building faces or adjacent parallel tracks must be provided in
order for material handling equipment to be able to maneuver. The capacity and geometry of the rail sidings

Yards and Terminals
will be determined by several factors such as the type of rail equipment employed, frequency of railroad
switching service, volume of rail traffic, nature of commodity mix, and the capacity of and dwell time in,
material storage areas or warehousing. Depending on the volumes expected to be handled, designated areas
and traffic patterns for transfer operations to “over the road” trucks may be provided.
b. Unloading operations may take place from railhead level or require fixed or portable loading docks
depending on railcar type. The costs of providing fixed unloading facilities such as docks or ramps will be
governed by the expected commodity volumes and the storage requirements of each commodity. Generally,
commodities shipped in covered railcars, such as box cars, requiring loading docks are stored under cover.
Therefore the loading dock may be an integral part of on-site storage warehousing. Care must be taken to
accommodate railcars carrying lading which, due to shipping constraints may only be unloaded from one
side of the railcar. Portable ramps can be employed as a flexible alternative to fixed masonry, timber and
earth docks.
c. In the absence of any specific zoning requirements, the site should be located a sufficient distance from
residential areas to avoid conflicts resulting from the generation of noise or dust from normal operations. In
addition, the impacts of spillover from the site security lighting, where provided, should be considered.
d. Available real estate will ultimately dictate facility design constraints. In order to minimize construction
costs, rail sidings should be located as close to the serving rail spur as possible, with consideration given to
operating and site development requirements.
4.8.3.1 SITE SURFACE
The vehicular operating area of the transloading site may consist of densely compacted gravel or dense graded
aggregate sub base material for low to medium volume facilities. The impact of the generation of dust from
vehicular operations inherent with this type of paving surface should be evaluated with respect to the nature of the
commodities stored on site, as well as any environmental regulations or local building or health code requirements.
Consideration should be given to expected wheel loading exerted by materials handling equipment when designing
any pavement sections. See Article 4.2.3.3 regarding pavement types.
4.8.3.2 ANCILIARY FACILITIES
A truck scale may be required for weighing commodities prior to departure from the terminal in order to prevent
overload situations or to satisfy the requirements of a particular customer. The location of the scale should be
carefully planned to permit easy access without adversely affecting the other operations of the terminal.
A terminal office, located adjacent to the entrance/exit gate may contain welfare facilities for terminal employees
such as showers, a lunchroom and lockers, as well as administrative offices for the terminal operator.
Material handling equipment maintenance facilities may be included at larger terminals where the level of service,
nature of equipment or location of the terminal precludes off site repairs. Generally, the equipment maintenance
facilities will consist of:
• Portland Cement Concrete pad to facilitate jacking of heavy equipment
• Storage buildings or trailers for parts and tools
• A small shop.
Other site-specific items to be considered are:
• Lighting

• A compressed air system
• Water for fire protection and maintenance purposes
• Equipment fueling apparatus
• Weather protection such as a canopy or enclosed garage
Storm water runoff from the maintenance facility should be routed through an oil water separator in order to
collect lubricating and fuel oil spills and leaks resulting from maintenance operations.
4.8.3.3 SECURITY
Minimum site security measures should include perimeter fencing and a lockable entrance/exit gate. While some
commodities by their nature pose little potential for pilferage, others such as dimensional lumber represent an
attractive target for thieves. In any case, perimeter fencing will serve as a deterrent to trespassers. As an added
enhancement to perimeter fencing, highway type steel guide rail on H posts concrete “jersey barriers” or other
types of obstructions may be installed inside the limits of the perimeter fencing.
A perimeter alarm, security cameras or security guards may be considered where potential for theft is high due to
the site location or nature of commodity handled.
Site lighting in the form of pole mounted floodlights or high mast area lighting should be considered as an added
security measure where operations may occur during hours of darkness.
1
4.8.3.4 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Means may be provided to attenuate or prevent discharge of storm water originating within the transload facility
in order to satisfy the requirements of state or local regulatory agencies. In addition, measures may be necessary to
contain spilled lading to prevent entry into the local watershed or local storm water or sanitary sewer systems.
These storm water management measures may include detention or retention basins, settlement ponds, storage
tanks, oil-water separators or complex treatment facilities by virtue of the nature of certain commodities handled 3
by the particular facility.
4.8.4 FACILITY TYPES (2003)
Some examples of facility types are as follows.
4.8.4.1 LUMBER TRANSFER FACILITIES

4
a. Lumber handling and transfer facilities are designed for the transfer from railcar to truck, or from railcar to
short term ground or protected storage, of dimensional lumber and other building products such as roofing
shingles, brick, building block, plywood sheet or other manufactured building materials.
b. Lumber transfer facilities may include open sided sheds or fully enclosed storage warehousing to provide
protection from the elements, as well as open areas for simple ground storage.
c. The site location should be level and well drained to facilitate movement of material handling equipment, as
well as prevent damage to stored materials from standing water.
d. Sufficient water for fire protection purposes should be available.

Yards and Terminals
4.8.4.2 STEEL TRANSFER FACILITIES
a. Steel handling facilities are designed for the transfer of semi finished or finished steel products from railcar
to truck or from railcar to short term ground or protected storage. Products may include structural shapes,
slabs, billets, bar, tubular and pipe stock, as well as coiled sheet steel.
b. Steel transfer facilities may include open storage areas suitable for slabs, billets or structural shapes which
are not affected by the elements or may be equipped with fully enclosed climate controlled warehousing for
non coated coiled sheet steel.
c. Vehicular travel areas should be paved with a suitable pavement material and section to support the heavy
axle loading exerted by both material handling equipment and over the road truck operations.

14
Part 5
Locomotive Facilities1
— 2007 —
FOREWORD
In the establishment or modification of any large railway terminal it is necessary to determine whether separate
locomotive facilities should be provided for freight and passenger equipment, or whether both types should be
handled in a single facility. Convenience, expedition, low unit operating costs and carrying charges involved in
these alternatives must be given proper consideration. Usually a single facility is more efficient and produces lower
unit operating costs.
1
The locomotive facilities must be correlated to all other facilities for efficient handling of each locomotive.
Servicing facilities required for the various types of locomotives should be arranged in an efficient sequence.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2

5.1.1 Requirements (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2
5.1.2 Site Selection (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.3 Track Layout (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.4 Buildings (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.5 Miscellaneous Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-4
5.1.6 Design Considerations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-4
5.2 Servicing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5

5.2.1 Fueling Stations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5
5.2.2 Sanding (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-6
5.3 Inspection Pits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7

5.3.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7

5.4.1 Shop Building and Appurtenances (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.5 Main Line Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 94, p. 123. Revised 1993.

Yards and Terminals
5.5.1 General Considerations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8

5.5.2 Types of Fueling Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-9
5.5.3 Common Design Considerations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-9
LIST OF FIGURES
14-5-1 Section Through Fueling Pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-12

14-5-2 Schematic Layout Large Fixed Fueling Facility Rail Car Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-13
14-5-3 Schematic Layout Small Fixed Fueling Facility Truck Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-14
14-5-4 Schematic Layout Bi-Directional Single Track Mainline Fueling with Bypass. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-15
SECTION 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 REQUIREMENTS (2007)
The following items should be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
a. Some locomotive facilities may serve both freight and passenger locomotives, and in some cases used by more
than one railroad or entity. In deciding whether to enlarge an existing facility or to build a new one, proximity
to the terminals where locomotives are to be released from trains should be an important deciding factor.
b. In the case of joint freight facilities it may be advisable, as in joint passenger terminals, to substitute new joint
freight locomotive facilities for several layouts and space/function planning unless existing separate facilities can
be merely coordinated and delegated to joint management in such a manner that they will function adequately.
c. New locomotive facilities should be located to minimize:
• usage of tracks on which there are other movements,
• reverse or conflicting movements, and
• light engine mileage in the movement of locomotives to and from their trains.
In designing a locomotive terminal layout a thorough study of the traffic and operating requirements of the
terminal should be made jointly by the engineering, transportation and mechanical departments. This study
should include consideration of the following data, keeping future expansion in mind:
• Type(s) and size(s) of locomotives to be handled.
• The level of service to be performed.
• Number of locomotives handled in each direction daily.
• Schedule of arrival and departure of locomotives.

Locomotive Facilities
• Number of locomotives arriving during peak period.
• Time within which locomotives arriving must be hostled.
• Maximum number of locomotives in terminal concurrently.
• Number of locomotives repaired daily, by classes of work.
• Number of locomotives under repair concurrently, by classes of work.
• Amount of fuel issued, water consumed, lubricant consumed and sand consumed, and any other
consumables, daily.
• Number of staff required to operate the terminal.
• Turning locomotive consists.
The selection of a proper site requires a study of all factors affecting costs of construction and operation, including
cost of preparing site; local permitting and zoning requirements, soil and foundation conditions, drainage; sewage
disposal, utilities (fire protection and domestic water, gas, electricity, storm sewer, industrial waste); relation to
existing or proposed yards and to passenger and freight stations; labor supply, including housing facilities and
transportation; tax rates; and availability of public fire fighting apparatus and stations.
1
5.1.3 TRACK LAYOUT (2007)
a. At most locations it is preferable to have locomotives enter a locomotive facility at one end and leave from
the other to provide a flow through the servicing facility.
b. Entrance tracks should be so located and of such capacity as to permit the prompt receipt of locomotives 3
immediately on arrival, with adequate space between those which may have to wait their turn for servicing.
Sufficient tracks should be provided near the exit for holding locomotives already prepared for service.
c. The layout should provide at least one runaround track for flexibility of locomotive movement.
d. At the ends of locomotive runs where the operation requires quick turnaround service, facilities should be
provided for standing locomotives, sanding, fueling and watering with or without inspection pits. 4
e. Escape tracks should be provided where possible.
f. A wye, turntable or loop track should be considered for turning locomotive consists.
5.1.4 BUILDINGS (2007)
5.1.4.1 Office
Adequate office facilities should be provided for the officer in charge of the terminal and his staff.
5.1.4.2 Amenity and Service
One or more structures of fire-retardant construction should be provided at a convenient location to house the
following:

Yards and Terminals
a. Welfare facilities for employees.
b. Storage for equipment, material and other consumables.
5.1.4.3 Reference
Complete information on the design of shop buildings and other buildings required in an engine terminal, together
with pits and other appurtenances, will be found in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities.
5.1.5 MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES (2007)
Items to be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
5.1.5.1 Communications
a. Computer Network
b. Telephone, including portable or cellular.
c. Radio.
d. Paging – Talk-back speakers.
e. Pneumatic tube (if necessary).
5.1.5.2 Lighting
The entire locomotive terminal area should be provided with adequate lighting.
Items to be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
a. Fire control system:
(1) Water storage tank.
(2) Various types of fire fighting equipment, extinguishers, hydrants, monitor nozzles, etc.
(3) Special fire lanes.
(4) Emergency shut-off valves.
(5) Special storage areas for solvents, paints, etc.
(6) Spill containment around fuel tanks and other bulk flammable storage.
(7) Special fire protection systems and fire alarm systems.
b. Pollution:
(1) Water pollution by oils, radiator treatment and other chemicals.
(2) Methods of solid waste disposal.

(3) Noise pollution and applicable regulations.
(4) Emissions into air from exhaust(s), etc.
(5) Possible prevention strategies and solutions.
(6) Stray light issues.
(7) Spill containment.
c. Locomotive Servicing:
(1) Load testing facilities for diesel locomotives.
(2) Cab signal test facilities.
(3) Retention type toilet servicing.
(4) Solid waste disposal facilities, compactors, etc.
(5) Restocking of consumables.
1
SECTION 5.2 SERVICING FACILITIES
5.2.1 FUELING STATIONS (2007)
5.2.1.1 General
3
a. At locations where locomotives are to be fueled, facilities must be provided for receiving, storing and
dispensing the fuel, unless fueling is to be direct from tank truck to locomotive.
b. In the design and construction of fueling stations provisions should be included to prevent the pollution and
contamination of public waters from spilled fuels through surface and subsurface waters, sewers and other
conduits.
4
c. Diesel fuel may be delivered to a fueling station by rail tank car, truck, pipeline or boat.
d. Fueling may be performed at stationary facilities to which locomotives are moved, or by mobile servicing
units which go to the locomotives.
5.2.1.2 Location
a. Stationary fueling facilities should be located at locomotive terminals concurrent with other servicing
facilities, where provided.
b. If run-through trains are to be fueled, consideration should be given to locating fueling facility on main line
or thoroughfare track at crew change point.

Yards and Terminals
5.2.1.3 Tracks
a. Track(s) provided for fueling should have capacity equal to the largest diesel consist which is to be serviced
at the facility.
b. Where diesel fuel is to be received by rail tank car a separate unloading track should be provided with
sufficient capacity for the largest fuel shipment to be handled.
c. A thoroughfare track should be provided to transfer locomotives to and from the fueling station.
d. Tracks on which fuel is to be unloaded or dispensed should have gradients as flat as possible, preferably but
not exceeding 0.1%. Portions of tracks where cars are to be spotted for unloading and where locomotives will
be fueled should have tangent alignment. Curvature should not exceed 12° on any fueling station tracks.
e. Tracks used for loading and unloading of fuels must be isolated from static electricity by insulated joints and
be grounded along with the apparatus being used.
f. A blue flag system should be provided on loading and servicing tracks.
5.2.2 SANDING (2007)
a. Sanding facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and leaving the terminal.
b. Sanding may be performed at stationary facilities to which locomotives are moved or by mobile facilities
which go to the locomotives. For design considerations for fixed facilities to unload, store and load sand into
locomotives refer to Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities, Part 6, Locomotive Sanding Facilities.
5.2.2.1 Location
Sanding facilities are usually situated adjacent to, and concurrent with, fuel and water facilities so that locomotives
can be completely serviced at one location. If sanding facilities are co-located with the fuel and water facilities, the
drainage system should include facilities to capture and remove sand from the waste stream.
5.2.2.2 Tracks
a. A sanding track should be provided with capacity not less than the largest locomotive consist normally
operating in, or through, the terminal.
b. If locomotive sand is to be received in covered hoppers or other rail cars, a separate unloading track should
be provided with sufficient capacity to hold the largest shipment.
c. The portions of track on which sand is to be loaded into locomotives or on which sand is unloaded into
storage should have the flattest gradient possible, preferably not exceeding 0.1%. Alignment of track
through loading and unloading stations should be tangent. Curvature on other portions of the track should
not exceed 12°.
d. If locomotive sand is to be received by truck, consideration should be given to receiving stations and
roadways for truck movements.
e. Blue flag protection should be provided at loading and unloading stations.

SECTION 5.3 INSPECTION PITS
5.3.1 GENERAL (2007)
Inspection pits are usually located on the inbound track near the entrance to the terminal, except such a pit as
described in Article 5.4.1f. These pits should have:
a. Suitable depth for inspection of the locomotives.
b. Length not less than the longest locomotive to be inspected, plus the length needed for access stairs.
c. Adequate drainage.
d. Stairway(s) for convenient access and/or tunnel direct to the inspectors’ office, and for emergency exit. For
long term inspection pits serving multiple locomotive consists, intermediate emergency egress points should
be provided.
e. Fixtures for lighting and service outlets.
f. Drop tables may be needed in some locomotive inspection pits to change out traction motors and axle
assemblies. Design considerations may include additional width, lifting capabilities for the assemblies and
other provisions.
g. Repair and maintenance services such as compressed air, journal oil, etc.
1
SECTION 5.4 DIESEL, DIESEL-ELECTRIC AND ELECTRIC
5.4.1 SHOP BUILDING AND APPURTENANCES (2007) 3

a. The size of the building is determined by the length of locomotives and the number to be housed
simultaneously. When locomotives are pooled, the back shop work will be done at one or more system shops,
and the building for such work will generally be much larger and have more facilities than the building for
running repairs at terminals located between such system shops. The structure, however, should be so
designed as to provide facilities for either running repairs or heavy repairs as outlined above.
4
b. The number and length of tracks should be sufficient to accommodate all of the locomotives to be housed at
any one time. Stub-end heavy repair tracks may have certain economic advantages, and if such a layout is
used there should be at least one through running repair track along side of the heavy repair tracks. The
desirable distance between track centers should not be less than 23 ft, which allows for a 12 ft wide working
platform. However, wider track centers are preferred.
c. See Article 5.3.1.b for pit length.
d. Wheel storage facilities adjacent to repair shops should be provided to assure a convenient supply of wheels,
including wheels with their traction motors attached.
e. The lubricating oil facilities may be handled in the repair shop proper or in a separate structure. Meters
should be provided to measure accurately the lubricating oil delivered to the units. Storage for new
lubricating oil should be of sufficient size to support the facility. Facilities may be provided for reclaiming
worn and dirty lubricating oil and should include tanks to collect the reclaimed oil.

Yards and Terminals
f. A track with an inspection pit adjacent to the shop building could be provided. Such a pit should be long
enough to accommodate several sets of locomotive units and should be near enough to the shop building for
the shop supervisor to direct the activities of the employees on this pit. Fueling and sanding facilities could
be located along this track.
SECTION 5.5 MAIN LINE FUELING
Main line fueling facilities are installations for adding fuel to locomotives while they are still on their trains. Other
servicing functions may be performed concurrently as capacity and convenience dictates. Main line fueling may be
considered when schedule is important, or when there is no reason to take power off of the train to refuel, or to
yard the train and refuel.
5.5.1.1 Operational Considerations
The number of locations and delivery time for fueling locomotives must be consistent with the schedules and
characteristics of the railroad operations through the location.
a. Each fueling track must be of sufficient length clear of all other tracks and any public road crossings to
permit the trains to be fueled without interfering with other concurrent activities, both of the railroad and
of the public.
b. The configuration should provide flexibility to perform other desired operations to a train as may be
required. (e.g., access to inspect, add or remove cars or locomotives, etc. immediately prior to or following
the actual fueling.)
c. Consideration must be given to changing operations. Where practicable, room should be provided to allow
for expansion. It is best to design the facility so that portions of it may be conveniently removed or restored
to service depending on operational requirements.
d. Wherever blue flag protection is dictated, provisions need to be made to place and remove these flags as
efficiently and safely as possible.
5.5.1.2 Fueling Considerations
A significant consideration when evaluating site alternatives is the delivered cost of fuel itself.
a. Fuel cost may be quite volatile, but the elements of the fuel price generally follow a percentage of the basic
price of the fuel.
b. Proximity to pipelines and storage farms. Some railroads may own their own storage facilities fed by
pipeline at existing locations.
c. Transportation from storage to delivery. Private roadways or branch pipelines to bring the fuel to the
fueling pad may be justified.
d. Taxes.
e. An additional consideration is source reliability. Consider the reliability of the fuel source if the source is
not a pipeline.

5.5.1.3 Other Fuels
It may be necessary at some locations to provide fuels other than diesel fuel, such as alcohol or natural gas. Such
fuels require dedicated delivery systems and specialized fittings. In planning for a new fueling site, provision could
be made for multiple fuels and delivery systems as required now or in the foreseeable future.
5.5.2 TYPES OF FUELING FACILITIES (2007)
There are two basic types of fueling facilities, fixed facilities and direct truck loading facilities.
5.5.2.1 Fixed Fueling Facilities
A fixed facility will generally be operated by the railroad company, and incorporate several common elements,
including but not limited to fuel pumping platforms with high-speed pumps, fuel storage tanks, and unloading,
pumping and distribution facilities for the incoming fuel. At a fixed fueling facility, a train comes to the loading
platform, and the locomotives are spotted for fueling.
As a train arrives at the fueling platform the locomotive consist is positioned such that the fueling booms and hoses
can reach all (or the greatest number of) locomotive fuel tanks to perform the operation.
A fixed fueling facility may incorporate other mechanical functions, such as 1,000 or 1,500 mile inspections and
provisions for adding lube oil and water. Facilities for adding locomotive sand might be considered if operational
constraints permit. Crew supplies such as water may also be added.
Depending on the individual railroad’s operations, it may be convenient to re-crew trains at the platform. 1
5.5.2.2 Direct Truck Loading
At a direct truck loading (DTL) facility the fuel comes to the locomotive. That is, a fuel truck pulls up next to the
locomotive consist, and the fuel is transferred directly to the locomotive fuel tanks, without the need for any
additional pumping, storage, or spill containment facilities. DTL can be significantly more flexible than the fixed
facilities, but does not have the delivery speed or capacity of the fixed facilities. Large access roads are required to
3
accommodate fuel trucks. If the DTL facility utilizes trucks that do not need to leave railroad property and
traverse public roadways, substantially larger volumes of fuel may be handled in each truck.
5.5.2.3 Comparison
a. Fixed facilities can offer significantly higher loading speed and capacity. 4
b. DTL can offer much greater flexibility.
c. A hybrid of the two may offer the advantages of each, but would likely increase total cost above that of either
alone. A hybrid may also be necessary to handle the fueling of remote or Distributed Power Units (DPU).
d. Roadways to and from all DTL locations must be constructed to higher standards of curvature, strength and
capacity than would roadways used solely for mechanized train inspection. High capacity, off-highway fuel
trucks would require the most substantial roadways.
5.5.3 COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2007)
A number of factors must be considered when designing a fueling facility, regardless of type. Several of the
significant factors are discussed below:

Yards and Terminals
5.5.3.1 Access to Fuel Tracks
5.5.3.1.1 Locomotives
Fueling tracks may be located on main tracks or on adjacent tracks. If fueling tracks are on or adjacent to main
tracks, consideration must be given to the operational speed of the fueling tracks. The track geometry must allow
trains to enter and leave at speeds that minimize the time in which the main track is fouled. The tracks must be
long enough to clear the main track and brake safely at the facility.
5.5.3.1.2 Vehicles
Vehicular access is vital to the fueling tracks. Roadways must be designed to accommodate the vehicles that will be
delivering the fuel, both geometrically (turning radii and ground clearance for semi-tractor trailer trucks) and
structurally (pavement type and thickness). For DTL, vehicular access must allow for the efficient movement of
fueling vehicles and others requiring access during fueling operations. If two or more fuel trucks might be operated
on the same roadway to access one or two trains, width is needed for them to pass each other. Also, the trucks may
back-in between tracks a short distance, say from the front of the head end locomotive to a unit in that consist, but
not a substantial distance down the train. To reach units within the train a flow-through truck traffic pattern is
necessary. This will not work if a fixed platform is located at one end of the space between the two tracks. The
DTL would need to operate on roadways between the alternate track pairs from those accessing a fixed platform.
5.5.3.2 Fueling Track Length
The fueling tracks should be long enough to accommodate the longest train that is to be fueled without fouling
other tracks or blocking other operations.
5.5.3.3 Locomotive Consist Length
The length of the fueling area must consider the normal and maximum locomotive consist that is to be fueled.
5.5.3.4 Fueling of Distributed Power
If distributed power is to be fueled, the designer must determine how it will be fueled. At a fixed facility it would be
necessary to have a platform at each location where distributed power may be located throughout the train, or to
move the train forward one or more times to spot distributed power at a single platform. In most operations, it is
extremely difficult to predict the distance between the front of the train and any given distributed power
locomotive unit. Thus, it would be necessary to provide long platforms to serve units located within the train, and
significantly increase cost. If trains are to be re-spotted, sufficient fueling track length must extend beyond the
platform to allow for the length of the longest train to pull forward to fuel the last locomotive units in that train. It
may be preferable to use DTL to fuel one end of each distributed power train.
Grade crossings should be avoided through the fueling tracks.
5.5.3.6 Track Gradient
The track gradient for fuel unloading tracks should be level, or as close to level as possible.
5.5.3.7 Signal Considerations
a. Signal placement must be carefully considered with respect to fueling facilities.
b. A blue flag system should be provided on fueling tracks.

c. All fueling tracks should be bonded and grounded.
5.5.3.8 Power Supply
The fueling facility should be sited such that commercial power is readily available. Generators should only be
provided as back-up power.
5.5.3.9 Facility Lighting
Lighting design should consider the need to provide a safe working area. Fixture design and placement should
avoid “blinding” of the crews of other passing trains. Lighting design should also consider the impacts on adjacent
properties.
5.5.3.10 Fire Protection
See AREMA Manual Chapter 14, Sections 1.5 and 1.6.
5.5.3.11 Environmental Considerations
When located in an existing yard, the regulatory process may be less burdensome and key support functions may
already be in place (Fuel, sewer, water, etc.).
5.5.3.11.1 Emissions
See AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Article 4.9.2. 1

5.5.3.11.2 Noise Pollution
See AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Article 4.9.1.
5.5.3.11.3 Spill Containment

3
Spill containment must be included at al designed fueling locations for both fixed facility and DTL facilities.
5.5.3.11.4 Track Structure
Track Structure must be designed to accommodate full tonnage at track operating speed. There are several
different approaches to the track structure and containment:
4
• Direct Fixation
• Cross Ties w/Track Pans
• Other Methods
5.5.3.12 Clearances
Clearances for the facility must be in conformance with requirements of the carrier railroad and state regulations.
See AREMA Manual Chapter 28.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-5-1. Section Through Fueling Pad
Figure 14-5-2. Schematic Layout Large Fixed Fueling Facility Rail Car Unloading
Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-5-3. Schematic Layout Small Fixed Fueling Facility Truck Unloading
Figure 14-5-4. Schematic Layout Bi-Directional Single Track Mainline Fueling with Bypass
Yards and Terminals

14
Part 6
Passenger Facilities1
– 2004 —
FOREWORD
The designation “passenger facilities” as herein employed includes the platforms, platform canopies, tracks,
passenger thin yards and other accessory features necessary to conduct mass transit, suburban and intercity rail
transportation. AREA Committees 6 and 14 collaborated to develop manual recommendations. For design criteria
on railway passenger stations and other buildings, refer to Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Terminal Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2 3

6.1.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2 Station Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2

6.2.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2.2 Site (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-4
6.2.3 Activities (1985). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-6
6.3 Passenger Train Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8

6.3.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.3.2 Site (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.3.3 Activities (1985). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-11
6.4 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12

6.4.1 Mechanical Systems (1985). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
6.4.2 Electrical Systems (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 76. Rewritten 1985.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.1 TERMINAL PLANNING
6.1.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. Studies for passenger facilities should be made by a committee consisting of representatives from
Engineering, Mechanical, Transportation, Passenger Service, Real Estate, Police, and other departments as
required. Preferably the officer to be placed in charge of the new facility should also be a member.
b. Information should be gathered as to the intended use of the facility including projections for future years.
Field investigations of terminal activities at similar sites to the planned one should be carried out to verify
assumptions made on previous design projects. Current literature should be reviewed to assure that the
latest methods are utilized in design and construction. Committee members should meet with
representatives of other railroads having engaged in similar projects to exchange planning techniques and
to look for ways of avoiding problems encountered.
c. Numerical criteria should be formulated for each activity. Examples include frequency of train movements,
number of passengers arriving per hour (peak), average baggage count, gross ticket sales, and retail revenue
per square foot of space. Regional Planning Agencies are good source of data on population densities, travel
patterns, etc.
d. Operation of passenger service in North America has in all but a few situations been assumed by
government agencies, public supported corporations, or special departments within private carriers in order
to isolate the attendant costs of providing such service. As a result, new passenger station facilities are
publicly funded as distinct from facilities required for freight operations. Committee members should be
aware of the restrictions on such funding and allow adequate time for the various approvals involved.
e. A passenger terminal should be so located and designed as to coordinate as far as reasonably practicable
with other civic activities. Frequently it is found desirable to make general civic improvements at the same
time the terminal is being constructed. Modification of street approaches is almost always involved. The
costs should be assumed by the parties benefited. Close cooperation between the terminal committee, the
planning board and executive officers of the municipality, and perhaps other civic groups, is necessary in
order that any new legislation as may be necessary shall be fair and equitable to all.
SECTION 6.2 STATION ENVIRONMENT
6.2.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. The station environment includes all facilities required for the complete accommodation of passengers and
their belongings between public entrances and the trains. Comprising this is the main building, connecting
concourses, platform access, platforms, parking and station approaches.
b. The location of the station should be determined by the economic balance among the following factors:
(1) Accessibility to business and civic activities and other modes of transportation.
(2) Land values and land use.
(3) Cost of construction.
(4) Size and shape of real estate.

Passenger Facilities
(5) Ease of approach from all associated rail lines, without excessive curvature or gradient, and preferably
without grade crossings.
(6) Possible need for future expansion.
c. Factors to consider when designing a station that will be used by connecting intercity passengers include:
(1) Transfer passengers occupy a station for a longer length of time and require more extensive facilities
per passenger than commuter or through passengers.
(2) Reducing the time interval between incoming and outgoing trains decreases requirements per
passenger for waiting room space and for certain other facilities.
(3) The number of passengers handled during the rush hour does not alone determine the size or number of
facilities required. Local conditions must be studied, as they affect requirements for any particular
situation.
(4) The size or number of facilities must be modified to make allowance for the time of arriving and
departing trains and the span in minutes between them; the ratio between passengers commencing or
terminating their journey and transfer passengers; number of hold over passengers arriving or
departing outside of the rush hour but occupying space and requiring service during a portion of the
rush hour; and the departure from a reasonably uniform spread of passengers entering and departing
within the rush hour.
d. Factors to consider when designing a station that will be used by suburban commuters: 1
(1) Suburban passengers occupy a station for a minimum length of time and move faster than the through
passenger and therefore requirements in the way of station facilities per passenger are substantially less.
(2) When suburban business is heavy, it is desirable to separate the through and suburban service, as their
requirements are not similar. This may be done by handling the two classes of service at different levels
different sides or ends of the station; or different stations, one beyond the other. 3
(3) Indicator boards are the only directional information required, as a rule, by commuters. They should
show track number, scheduled leaving time, and essential identification of the trains.
e. Factors to consider when rehabilitating or moving existing stations:
(1) Railroad stations have previously been an important element of communities serviced by railroads. 4
Often, the railroad station was the focal point of the community.
(2) In order for the railroads to effectively and actively compete in the transportation marketplace, they
must have efficient comfortable stations and station environments.
(3) Station environments should be created to cause the using passenger to enjoy and be comfortable in the
facility.
(4) Station environments must be designed with enough flexibility to meet changing travel patterns. They
must be easily expandable when ridership levels show marked increases.
f. When designing any passenger facility the designer must realize that it is subject to vicissitudes of weather,
delays and derailments to trains, late connections, power failures, surges in traffic, bad order equipment,
special trains or cars requiring special handling, excursion travel, conventions, and special functions at
irregular periods.

Yards and Terminals
6.2.2 SITE (1985)
6.2.2.1 Track
a. The track layout at any station should be designed to accommodate the planned schedule of trains stopping
at that station, trains passing through it, sections combining or splitting, special cars on or off, locomotive
changes, delayed trains, special movements, and future increases in traffic. The track layout should not be
solely designed around a specific timetable, since train schedules can be altered very quickly.
b. Sufficient throat tracks should be provided to permit at least two simultaneous parallel movements. The
track layout should be sufficiently flexible to provide for complete interchange of routes. A ratio of three
station tracks to one throat track should be adequate if the throat is properly designed.
c. The track layout should be designed with the length between turnouts as required for the proper signal
indications and necessary clearances for operation of track circuits so that a system of fixed signals or
interlocking may be installed whenever desired without restricting the use of any of the routes or the
necessity of additional track changes.
d. The number of station tracks should be determined by the schedule of trains and switching desired;
allowances for delayed or special trains, schedules changes, and future expansion; layover time and the
proximity of the passenger yard; track lengths available; and the type of operation used. Servicing may be
performed in the station when a maintenance facility is not available.
e. The track length is determined by the size of the consists operated, the maximum platform length available,
and allowances for flexibility in the assignment of tracks for the longest trains.
f. Through track stations are preferred to stub stations from an operational standpoint. Loop tracks are
preferable to wyes and generally expedite service at terminal points when nonreversible equipment is used.
g. Freight or industry connections on the station approach tracks or on lines within or adjacent to the terminal
zones should be so arranged as to avoid or minimize interference with passenger train traffic.
h. It is generally acceptable at stations where dwell time is less than 10 minutes to provide platforms adjacent
to the main line trackage. Where other activities such as section splits occur, a separate station track is
usually necessary.
6.2.2.2 Platforms
a. In planning a passenger station it is important to devise a coordinated arrangement between the track
layout and the station proper which will, at reasonable cost, provide maximum convenience, expedition, and
economy in rendering all the platform services. Particularly at high traffic stations, it is extremely desirable
that baggage, mail and express trucks shall not ordinarily have to traverse or occupy platform space being
used for the accommodation of passengers. Determination of the type of platform (i.e. combined or separate
trucking and passenger) best suited to a particular situation is dependent upon the character and volume of
the various kinds of traffic handled, the type of station (i.e. stub, through or loop), the location and type of
approaches to the platforms for the various kinds of traffic, the relation of the various approaches to each
other, the relative lengths of platforms and trains, space available for station track and platform
development, and the method of operation. Because there are so many variables involved, final conclusion
as to the best arrangement can only be reached with a thorough study.
b. For a high traffic intercity through station, with track level below or above the station floor level, combined
platforms could be installed sufficient in length to permit berthing the passenger carrying cars in the center
zone leaving the end zones clear for trucking. Passengers would reach or leave the platforms via ramps,
stairways or escalators at the middle third of the platforms; and trucks would reach or leave the platforms by
elevators or ramps, at or near the ends connected with subway runways and assembly areas. If platforms cannot

be built to such length or if two trains are regularly berthed on the same track simultaneously, interference
between passengers and trucking will result and the installation of separate platforms may be justified.
c. For a high traffic intercity stub station, with tracks at the same level as the station floor, combined
platforms could also be installed. Provision should be made for all trucks to reach or leave the station
platforms near the outer ends, via elevators or ramps connecting with subway facilities. In the event that
baggage, mail or express cars would normally be placed against the station side of the stub then
consideration should be given to provide separate unloading areas to minimize passenger interference and
improve aesthetics.
d. In either case, if platform elevators are used, an alternate access should be designed for use in the event of
elevator failure.
e. Suburban service stations generally do not handle freight so are normally designed with platforms between
pairs of tracks with elevator service then limited to elderly or handicapped patrons.
f. For light traffic stations where both passenger and truck movements will be relatively light and train
arrivals and departures will occur mostly at separate intervals, a careful predetermination of the balance
between investment and advantage may be required to decide whether or not grade separation is justified,
either for passengers or for trucks, and which method of rendering the platform services is to be selected.
g. Combined passenger and trucking platforms should be at least 20 feet in width, assuming a row of canopy
columns located in the center of the platform. Passenger platforms shall vary in width at stations with
relatively light traffic or where train arrivals and departures occur at separate intervals. This width varies
between 10 to 15 feet. 1
h. Exclusive passenger platforms should have a minimum width of 17 feet, which is sufficient to accommodate
the passengers from one arriving train, one line of travel for passengers to a departing train, and a row of
columns in the center of the platform. This width will normally meet all requirements for through passenger
train operation, as it is seldom necessary to berth two arriving trains simultaneously at the same platform.
i. Exclusive trucking platforms without columns should have a minimum width of 11 feet to permit two trucks 3
to pass. Where the volume of trucking is sufficient to justify three lanes, a minimum of 16 feet should be
provided to avoid blocking the platform when two trucks are serving cars on opposite sides. If columns are
necessary, platform widths should be increased accordingly and columns located so as not to interfere with
trucking lanes.
j. In combined passenger and trucking platforms in through stations, it is desirable to have a clear width of
approximately 6 feet on one side of the stairs to permit trucking operations past the stairs. 4
k. Generally the platform is placed 8 inches above the adjacent top of rail. In stations where a large number of
passengers must be handled quickly, the relation of platform to floor height should be considered to expedite
the handling of passengers. However, high platforms interfere to some extent with switching and inspection
of equipment.
l. In a through station, the placement on the platform of the approach to the concourse has a bearing on the
required capacity of the approach. If it is located at the end of the platform, the concentration will be but
one-half as intense as if it is located at the middle of the platform, although the duration of the maximum
intensity of congestion will be much less in the latter case. If a double approach is located at the center, the
intensity of the concentration will be the same as in the first case, and the duration of the maximum
intensity of congestion will be the same as in the second case.
m. Canopies should be considered for any exposed platforms. If funds do not allow full coverage, then canopies
should be used where most of the waiting is expected to occur. Canopies should be architecturally integrated
into the station building design through the use of common fascia materials and color schemes.

Yards and Terminals
n. Platform graphics should divide the platform into boarding sectors of two to three cars each. Sectors should
be identified with alphabetical characters to avoid confusion with track numbers.
6.2.2.3 Access
a. When passenger platforms are placed above or below station floor elevations, access to the platforms should
be by steps, ramps, elevators, or escalators. The placement of these should be carefully planned to be
convenient for the passenger and baggage handling.
b. Escalators have a maximum carrying capacity of approximately 5000 passengers per hour for 32 inches
width and 8000 passengers per hour for 48 inches. They are being used in both suburban and intercity
passenger service.
c. Stairways should be a minimum of 48 inches wide using a maximum tread riser of 7 inches.
d. Ramps provide ideal means for movement of passengers to and from station platforms if they can be so
installed as not to increase materially the distance traveled by passengers, nor materially decrease the space
on the station platform available for the accommodation of trains. Good results can be accomplished in
many cases by the use of both stairways and ramps.
e. Under normal conditions, passenger elevators are not recommended as approaches to individual passenger
platforms. They are required as a supplement to stairways for the use by handicapped and elderly patrons.
f. In large passenger stations where trains operate in both directions through the station, baggage elevators
are desirable at both ends of combined passenger and trucking platforms to reduce the interference between
trucking operations and passengers.
g. Ramps are a very desirable means of providing vertical transportation for trucking operations, if the design
of the station is such as to permit their installation without a material sacrifice in space. Ramp gradients in
excess of 8% are not recommended. The ramp surface should be finished with an abrasive or nonskid
material. The minimum clear width which should be considered for trucking ramps designed to
accommodate one line of traffic is 6 feet, and for two lines of traffic is 11 feet.
h. Grade crossings may be used in light traffic stations for platform access. They should be located for the
convenience of the passengers, baggage handling and commissary services. For best results, the crossing
should be located adjacent to the entrance/exit locations of the station building. Platform extremities are
best crossing locations for baggage handling and commissary services. If the platform is raised then
allowances must be made to reduce the platform height near the crossing location. Care should be used in
selecting crossing material for passenger use to avoid tripping hazards and problems with luggage carts.
i. Use of automatic fare collection or any type of barrier control system requires advance planning of locations
to ensure that the designed capacity of the platform access is not reduced materially. Throughput values of
gates can be obtained from the proposed manufacturer.
j. Street approaches should receive particular attention in station planning to provide convenient access and
sufficient capacity but bypassing areas of traffic congestion. Separate routes should be provided so that
pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic can be safely and expeditiously handled. Ample accommodation for
vehicles handling mail, baggage, and express should be provided in a manner that will not impede the free
movement of busses, automobiles and pedestrian traffic on the public approach to the station.
6.2.3 ACTIVITIES (1985)
a. Primary requirements for a passenger station include a waiting room, ticket office, telephones, and
restrooms. These areas should be connected by ramps (preferably) or other means to the train platforms. A

separate concourse allowing direct exit to the street from the platforms is an advantage in suburban service
stations or high volume intercity stations.
b. Secondary requirements include information booths, baggage handling facilities, parcel rooms, check
lockers, train announcing systems, retail food service or vending, newsstands, and passenger service offices.
c. Company requirements may include space for train crew check-in, commissary operations, on-board service,
administration, mechanical department, operations, station service, safety, and other administrative offices.
d. Office or hotel space may be constructed as part of an integrated design with the station. Care should be
taken to avoid requiring tenants to pass through the station when not necessary but encouraging the shared
use of facilities where beneficial.
e. Circulation requirements include concourses sufficient to gather a full trainload at the gate without a
blockade, but should be so arranged that it will not be a convenient thoroughfare for nonpassengers. A clear
width of 20 feet is usually adequate for non-trucking situations.
f. Trucking requirements should be considered when designing concourse widths and expected environment.
g. Waiting room seating should be arranged so that traffic is not impeded. Ticket lines should be considered in
such planning. Baggage arrangements can include checking at the ticket counter, single baggage counter for
inbound and outbound service, separate service counters, or carousels.
h. Concessions
1
(1) Concessions of proper character have proved profitable in most stations and are desirable, not only from
a revenue-producing standpoint, but as a facility which adds to the comfort or convenience of the
passenger.
(2) The number and character of these concessions can be greatly expanded in terminals located in cities of
large size, with benefit to all concerned.
3
(3) To be successful, concessions should be conspicuous, accessible, neat, attractive, and well lighted.
Concessionaires should be experienced, responsible and progressive.
(4) Booths opening directly on to the corridor, where service is rapid, appeal more to the commuter, while
stores appeal to the intercity traveler and particularly to the transfer passenger who has time to spare.
i. Adequate areas to handle refuse should be provided. Consideration should be given to using compactors to 4
reduce volume.
j. A good security plan using digital and video monitors, master keying, fencing and coded padlocks can
prevent many problems.
k. Consideration must be given in some areas to snow removal operations, salt storage, and snow dumping
area.
l. Adequate fire protection devices should be incorporated including hydrants, stand pipes, sprinklers, smoke
detectors, centralized alarms, and extinguishers.
m. The presence of 3rd rail and/or overhead catenary power systems require special consideration and
planning.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.3 PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS
6.3.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. It is desirable that a single coach yard and its associated facilities for car inspecting, repairing, cleaning,
watering and stocking be an integral feature of every large passenger terminal, whether or not more than
one railway is accommodated. It is definitely preferable to have all coach switching performed by and under
full control of the terminal management either as a joint operation or as a separate company. Separate
facilities may be provided for particular trains or types of equipment, although the servicing of all passenger
train equipment in a single yard is preferable.
b. The location of a coach yard should be determined by the economic balance among the following factors:
(1) Available sites.
(2) Land values.
(3) Cost of construction.
(4) Convenience to the station and other facilities.
(5) Nearby utilities.
(6) Cost of moving equipment between station, coach yard and engine house.
(7) Possible need for future expansion.
c. The capacity required in a coach yard depends upon:
(1) Number of cars and trains to be handled.
(2) Type of equipment.
(3) Level of maintenance.
(4) Schedule of equipment layover.
(5) Frequency of cleaning.
d. The ability to secure the proposed yard against trespassers to reduce theft and vandalism should be
considered.
6.3.2 SITE (1985)
6.3.2.1 Tracks
a. There are two general types of coach yard layouts: Stub track and through track. There is also an
intermediate type made up of through tracks, but operated generally as two systems of stub tracks.
Operation is most efficient in a system of through tracks.
b. Tracks of equal length and equal to the length of the longest trains give greatest operating efficiency.
c. An alternating spacing of 28 feet/20 feet between track centers is desirable for tracks on which servicing work
is done. This allows service vehicles to pass each other on the wide platform and utilities to be centralized on

the narrow platform. Where platforms between tracks are obstructed by supports to overhead service lines,
brake shoe racks or above-platform service outlets, such obstructions should be located off center of
platforms to provide a wider passageway on one side. Obstructions may require increasing the track centers
to allow service vehicles to clear. Obstructions must be located so that they do not foul minimum State
clearance requirements. Utility equipment should be placed on the narrow platform at convenient locations.
d. Tracks used for storage of extra cars do not require particularly wide spacing or any special car servicing
features other than utilities necessary to support the car’s equipment while idle.
e. Tracks with wide centers are usually arranged in groups at the leads to facilitate switching. Auxiliary leads
and tail tracks of ample length should be provided.
f. Curvature of tracks should not be less than 450 feet radius through turnouts or otherwise. Make-up tracks
should be as straight as practicable to afford long sight lines for operating crews.
g. Tracks should be placed on as nearly a level gradient as possible.
h. A wye or loop track should be provided for turning equipment. Movements on a loop track are more
expeditious.
i. Special tracks for making up or breaking up trains are sometimes required.
j. Only light or running repairs are normally made in a service yard. Cars needing additional work are usually
switched to a Car Shop.
1
k. Yards must be well drained.
l. In the interests of cleanliness, sanitation, and possible reduced maintenance expense; consideration should
be given to track construction calling for rails supported by longitudinal concrete slabs with paving between
slabs to present a completely paved area which can be washed. Such construction is especially desirable for
tracks at commissary platforms or on which diners are restocked.
3
m. Yard trackage is the most inflexible item in a yard. Due to severe curve and grade restrictions, all buildings
and utilities should be located after the necessary track and leads are designed.
n. Where tracks will be surrounded by platforms, consideration should be given to the use of concrete ties as
any future tie removal will be very complicated.
6.3.2.2 Platforms 4
a. Platforms should be placed between all tracks on which cars are to be serviced.
b. Platform construction preferably should be of concrete, crowned not less than 3/16 inch to the foot. The
width will vary with the track centers but should be at least 10 feet for utility platforms and 18 feet for
service vehicle platforms. The edge of a platform adjacent to a track constructed with ties and ballast
usually is placed level with top of rail and approximately 5 feet from the center of the track. If any service
lines are to be carried below the surface, the platform should provide for adequate manholes or other entry.
c. Roadways should connect all areas of the yard to the platforms and outside entry. Multiple access paths may
be provided to avoid equipment blocking crossings. Roadways designated as fire lanes should be designed so
that the turning radius restrictions of local fire department trucks are considered.
d. Crossings should be located where equipment will not likely be parked and preferably outside blue
flag/derail protection areas. Public crossings should be adequately marked. Care should be used to avoid
placing crossings adjacent to structures that will limit sight lines causing “blind” crossings. If at all possible,

Yards and Terminals
crossings should not be placed through switch points. In heavy snow areas, markers may be placed alongside
crossings to identify the limits of the crossing material. Plastic, asphalt, wooden, and rubber crossings are
suitable except in locomotive areas where special consideration must be made due to the oil drippings.
6.3.2.3 Repair Pits
a. Where underneath inspection of standing cars is desired, one or more pits equal in length to the longest
train may be justified. These may be combination inspection and repair pits depending on their location in
the yard. If underneath inspection of cars in motion is desired, a short pit located on the yard lead or the
mechanical washer track may be used. Where rails are elevated above adjacent paved areas, inspection and
repair work will be facilitated to some extent, especially under conditions of heavy snow, but such elevation
will make ramps in platform paving necessary at fire and service roadways which cross the yard.
b. Pit construction preferably should be of concrete. The rails can rest directly on the concrete walls without
plates and cushions, and be anchored in place by bolted down rail clips; however, better results will
generally be experienced with rails installed on bearing plates and cushions. The pit should be well drained
and equipped with recessed flood lights for general lighting and receptacles for service lights and small tools.
c. Where all inbound trains pass over a single pit for inspection, other tracks should be provided for servicing
and repair work. Work performed at such a single pit should be confined to inspection only.
d. Where servicing and light repair work is done on an inspection pit, several tracks, each with a full length pit
may be required, the number depending on the number and schedule of the trains to be serviced and the
length of time required to service each train. A multiple track pit arrangement should provide for several
wheel drop pits with jacking pads so spaced that several wheels can be dropped simultaneously on any given
track with a minimum of car spotting. Each track should also be provided with the other facilities for the
complete servicing of cars, such as paved platforms, service outlets for water, air, steam and electricity, and
an adequate drainage system.
e. An average depth of pits for car inspection and light repairs of about 2-9 below the top of running rails will
provide good working space below cars, although depths ranging from 2 feet to 4-6 are in use.
f. Concrete jacking pads should be provided along car repair track pits. The pads should be built integrally
with the track pit walls and extend laterally each side a minimum of 6 feet, from the center of the track, and
for a sufficient distance along the track each way from the drop pits to provide proper jacking space. On
track pits assigned to repair work only, continuous jacking pads extending the full length of the pit are
desirable.
g. An inside width of 3 feet for repair pits will provide a ledge for jacking or blocking on the inner side of rails.
h. A jacking pad, at least one car in length and continuous between rails for center jacking, is sometimes
provided beyond the repair pit on one or more repair tracks.
i. Consideration should be given to covering at least a portion of the area devoted to car servicing and repair
work. The protection afforded by a building with at least semi-covered sides, preferably of fire resistant
construction, will reduce the expense of conditioning trains and expedite repair work under unfavorable
weather conditions. Complete housing of pits on tracks assigned to repair work is desirable, but at repair
pits where wheels are changed or truck work is performed the housing should be at least sufficient to cover
a car spotted either way over the wheel drop pits and provide a passageway at end of car. The extent to the
enclosure and heating should depend on the severity of the climate. Snow melting devices should be
considered if the pit is located outdoors or in an area that might be receiving equipment with impacted snow.
j. Side entrances to pits should be provided at sufficient intervals to allow quick evacuation if necessary.

6.3.3 ACTIVITIES (1985)
a. Train servicing requirements include car washing, cleaning, light repairs, and stocking. If a mechanical
washer is employed, it should be located on a lead after a wye or loop track, but before the servicing yard,
with access to all servicing tracks. Care must be taken in selection of a car washer site as the slow moving
trains will block crossings and switches for long periods of time. Adequate drip space should be provided
following the washer. The platform and utilities sections further describe requirements for cleaning, light
repairs and stocking.
b. Car repair facilities’ requirements include drop tables, wheel storage, jacks, and craft shops. Ideally the car
repair shop should be located so that individual cars can be easily removed from trains, repaired and
returned to consists with a minimum of switching.
c. Locomotive service facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives require much the same facilities
as freight locomotives. The engine house is best located on the end of the yard that corresponds with the end
of the trains that are most likely to receive locomotives.
d. Locomotive repair facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives may have steam generators or
head-end power units that must also be maintained. An in-truck wheel truing facility is great advantage
over individual sets being replaced by drop tables.
e. Commissary facilities will depend on the type of food service but, if provided, should be located away from
the main yard due to the high volume of outside truck traffic.
f. A parts-supply warehouse and purchasing office on site will speed repairs and allow for bulk purchases of 1
materials.
g. Administrative offices including Mechanical, Engineering, Transportation, Security, Personnel, Training,

Safety and a Dispensary should also be located convenient to work locations.
h. Employee amenities such as locker rooms, showers, restrooms, and lunch rooms should be located
convenient to work locations. 3
i. A tower with a good view of the facility is an advantage to operations.
j. Buildings to house track, facility, and vehicle maintenance are sometimes provided to reduce the cost of
contract services.
k. Adequate areas to handle refuse should be provided Consideration should be given to using compactors to
reduce volume and eliminate wind-borne debris.
4
l. A good security plan including digital and video monitors, master keying, fencing, and coded padlocks can
prevent many problems.
m. Consideration must be given in some areas to snow removal operations, salt storage, and snow dumping
areas.
n. Adequate fire protection devices should be incorporated including hydrants, stand pipes, sprinklers, smoke
detectors, centralized alarms, and extinguishers.
o. The presence of 3rd rail and/or overhead catenary power systems require special consideration and
planning.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.4 UTILITIES
6.4.1 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (1985)

a. Steam standby connections, if needed, should be provided at all tracks on which cars will stand without a
locomotive attached. For stub tracks, steam connections should be located at the ends, one connection for
each track. For through tracks they should be placed to serve each track at the point or points where the
rear of a train would normally be placed and an inside derail protection when in yards. Pressure of 125 lb
delivered through a 2-1/2 inch connection is standard. Appropriate control and bleed valves should be
provided. Locomotive boiler water facilities may also be needed if steam generators are utilized. Steam may
also be used for thawing, cleaning, and heating. Due to rapid pipe deterioration, steam lines should normally
be built above ground or in accessible underground tunnels. Steam pipes must be anchored and thermal
expansion controlled through the use of expansion joints or loops.
b. Compressed air connections should be provided at all tracks where the method of operation or servicing
requires that an air brake test be made while the train is standing without locomotive attached. Air
pressure should be between 120 and 140 lb and be delivered through 1-1/2 connection with appropriate
control and bleed valves. Compressed air may also be used for cleaning and portable tools. If used in this
manner, connections of 3/4 inch size should be distributed as needed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is
normally necessary. Tool outlets should be provided with a regulator to reduce pressure to match tool
working pressures.
c. Natural gas may be used for building heating. Pipe routing should be shown on site plans and the pipe
identified at convenient intervals. Appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that if a pipe is ruptured
the utility involved can be notified as soon as possible. These measures would include ready availability of
pipe plans, utility phone contacts, and easy accessibility to shut off valves.
d. At yards or stations where train equipment may be watered, hydrants spaced two car lengths apart,
preferably serving two tracks, should be provided. Where station dwell time is short, hydrants may be
spaced for every car. Water service should be distributed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is necessary
to reach a car. Water hydrants in yards are usually placed on alternating platforms allowing service vehicles
an unobstructed path on non-utility platforms. Freeze protection should be applied where necessary. If
backflow preventers are required, a heated cabinet is preferable. A potable connection of 1 inch size should
be provided for car watering and a minimum 3/4 inch non-potable connection may be used for washing
purposes. By looping and interconnecting water pipes, a better flow pattern can be a achieved. Adequate
control valves should be installed to allow sections to be taken out of service without affecting all operations.
e. Adequate drainage should be provided to drain track structures, catch paved area runoff, and collect roof
drainage. Where necessary, piping should be separated to allow for treatment of polluted wastes. Sanitary
drainage should be kept separate until delivered to city facilities, if available.
f. Pipe lines may be installed for fuel oil, lube oil, sand, cleaners, foam, and other specialized products. These
and all other pipe lines should be identified at adequate intervals. A spill prevention plan is usually
necessary for such installation.
6.4.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (2004)

a. Adequate power supply should be designed to handle current needs with at least 50% available for
expansion, if anticipated. Building supply of 480V/277V is common along with 208V/120V systems. Where
required, head end train standby should be provided at the end of the platform corresponding to the end of
the train not subject to switching. Modern North American systems provide 480V 3 standby for train
power. Amperes of 400, 800, and 1600 are standard. Recording ammeters are useful in determining consist
power requirements. Equipment and climate variations preclude the use of universal sizing by train length.
See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization for more information. Older 240V 3 100 amp standby may

also be provided for steam heated equipment with outlets provided so that no more than 100 feet of cable is
necessary to reach each car. Convenience outlets of 120V may be provided where necessary such that cord
lengths do not exceed 200 feet. Electric vehicle charging stands should be located so as not to disrupt
operations while vehicle is being charged. Emergency platform standby power systems should be considered.
Block heater outlets are necessary in parking lots in certain areas of extreme cold. Electrical power may
also be required to support the needs of trains equipped with Head End Power (HEP).
b. Platform lighting should be provided at a minimum 20 foot candle level. Parking lot illumination should be
a minimum of 5 foot candles. Walkways, entrances and signage should be lit at an appropriate level taking
into consideration adjacent lighting and security requirements.
c. Telephone service should be provided as needed. A trunking capability of at least three times current use
should be requested to ensure easy future expansion, if anticipated. Consideration should be given to
interconnecting telephone and other company communication systems to allow for faster information flow.
Platform jacks may be provided to permit the connection of train telephone systems.
d. Yard lighting should be provided where work at night is common or security is desired. A 5 foot candle
minimum will generally provide acceptable night lighting. Lights should be mounted as high as possible to
reduce shadowing between cars. High pressure sodium lighting is currently the most energy efficient source
although it does alter color perception. Mercury vapor or metal halide lighting should be used if color
perception is important.
e. Train status reporting systems covering waiting rooms, gates, and platforms should be provided as required.
Equipment ranges from simple moveable sign boards to elaborate video and flip-sign systems where the
entire system is interfaced with the train operations.
1
f. Public address, intercom, talk-back, and message tube systems may be included in yards. They speed
problem resolution and increase security. Public address systems should be provided to reach all station
areas including the platforms. Microphones or telephone deluxe paging may be used to initiate
announcements. By designing such facilities in advance, wires can be installed underground avoiding
weather and vehicle contact. Particular care should be used when determining control and terminal
locations to avoid conflicts between operating hours of those locations and other users. Spare ducts should
be provided in all duct banks, where possible, for future expansion. 3
g. Adequate conduit should be provided in buildings to carry radio antenna wires to the roof. As the FCC limits
the number of broadcast stations in a close area, consideration should be given to remote base stations when
needed. Radio antennas should be located so as not to detract from the facility but allow clear coverage to
the entire site. See Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities for roof penetration information.
h. Signal, fare control, computer, fire, security, and alarm systems should be designed carefully in advance of 4
construction on a master plan to avoid overhead wires and afterthought appearances. Video cameras can be
used for security, car observation, drawbridge control, and to improve existing sight lines. Since they require
power, an adequate source must be identified before locations are committed. Signal systems, when present,
should be interfaced with yard operations to avoid excessive radio or intercom use.

Yards and Terminals

14
Part 7
Other Yard and Terminal Facilities1
— 1990 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the several and varied activities, such as stores, material yards and reclamation facilities,
which are necessary for the continued functioning of the railroads. Although these facilities are normally located
within or immediately adjacent to a yard or terminal complex, they are not necessarily intrinsic to them.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
7.1 Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-2

7.1.1 General (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-2
7.1.2 Types (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-2
7.1.3 Buildings and Structures (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-2 3
7.2 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.2.1 Material Yards (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.2.2 Lumber and Timber Yards (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.2.3 Reserve Oil (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.3 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3

7.3.1 Introduction (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-3
7.3.2 Roadway Material Reclamation Plant (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-4
7.3.3 Frog Shop (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-5
7.3.4 Bridge Fabrication Shop (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-6
7.3.5 Turnout and Track Panel Fabrication Facility (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-6
7.3.6 Site Selection (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-8
7.3.7 Grading, Drainage, Site Preparation (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-9
7.3.8 Track Design (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-9
7.3.9 Storage Facilities (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-10
7.3.10 Structures (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-10
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 91, 1990, pp. 107, 113.

Yards and Terminals
LIST OF FIGURES
14-7-1 Typical Layout Frog Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-5

14-7-2 Typical Layout Turnout Paneling Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-7
14-7-3 Typical Layout Track Paneling Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7-9
SECTION 7.1 STORES
7.1.1 GENERAL (1990)
The stores department is responsible for the ordering, care, control, distribution and, in some cases, accounting of
materials and supplies used or reclaimed in the construction, maintenance and operations of a railroad. The size
and extent of its facilities will vary in accordance with the requirements of the road. It is important to consult the
chief stores officer and receive his approval concerning any plans for the construction, alteration or elimination of
stores facilities.
7.1.2 TYPES (1990)
There are three types of stores, namely, general, district, and local.
a. The general also known as a system or regional store, is the largest store unit of the stores department. It
should be located on available railroad property and usually at a convenient point where large quantities of
materials and supplies can be efficiently received, handled, stored and shipped. The location of this store
will also be greatly influenced by the traffic problem created in the handling of these shipments and by the
freight charges involved on off-line items received. The general store will also operate reclamation and scrap
yards where needed and will handle stationery and office supplies.
b. The district and local stores have the same characteristics and functions as the general stores, except that
they are much smaller. These stores are generally established on larger railroads at various points to
expedite the handling of materials and supplies. Such stores operate under the jurisdiction of the general
store.
c. Dining car service supplies, including foodstuffs, may be handled by the general store, but in many
instances such items are handled separately at major terminals in a local store, called a commissary.
7.1.3 BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES (1990)
Storehouse buildings for the handling of all materials requiring inside storage should be constructed so as to create
the most efficient and expeditious material storage and handling methods. Office space to house the necessary
personnel to handle the records and accounting for the store’s operation may be part of a storehouse building if
suitable. Platform, docks, ramps, racks and shelters are erected according to the needs. All storage buildings and
related facilities should be served with tracks and hard-surface driveways for the efficient handling of materials by
rail or by truck. It is often possible to pave the track area so that one platform at car-floor level can serve both
means of handling.

Other Yard and Terminal Facilities
SECTION 7.2 STORAGE
7.2.1 MATERIAL YARDS (1990)
a. There are numerous items used in maintenance of way and of equipment that can be stored out of doors;
these items are handled in material yards. Whenever possible, such yards should be located adjacent to the
storehouse area so that trackage can be kept to a minimum. Material is stored on permanent racks and
platforms, and the areas between should be paved to facilitate the operation of rubber tired handling
equipment such as trucks, loaders, cranes, etc.
b. The storage of heavy items in a material yard is usually at a separate location served by at least two tracks
and an overhead crane or other types of cranes of suitable capacity. The material is stored in the area
between the tracks, one track being used for receiving, the other for shipping.
c. The ideal scrap yard has a receiving and a shipping track with the sorting area between them and is served
by an overhead crane of suitable capacity. The sorting area should be hard surfaced with paved driveways to
support the heavy wheel loadings of truck cranes and trailers used to handle scrap within the yard. All
cranes should be equipped with magnets.
7.2.2 LUMBER AND TIMBER YARDS (1990)
Lumber products are not generally stored in large quantities at the general storehouse, but are frequently shipped
direct from the dealer to the point of application. However a certain quantity of lumber, cross and switch ties,
bridge timber and poles must be stored. These products require outside storage. Unseasoned materials should be 1
stored on permanent racks in covered storage so they can season properly; treated timbers should be stored in the
manner approved by the stores department to prevent loss by fire. The areas between the racks should be paved
and so arranged that forklift tractors or truck cranes can handle these materials onto and off freight equipment on
a track serving the storage yard. This track is usually in the center of the yard unless the area is too large, then two
or more tracks serving storage areas on both sides of each track are required, and the tracks, if possible, are
connected at both ends.
3
7.2.3 RESERVE OIL (1990)
The stores department may be required to provide large storage reserves for fuel oils. When the size and location of
the facilities have been determined, the storage tanks should be installed in accordance with the requirements set
forth by the governing ordinances, building and fire codes.
4
SECTION 7.3 DESIGN OF ROADWAY MATERIAL RECLAMATION AND FABRICATION

FACILITIES
Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities, hereafter referred to as Plant(s), may be operated by the
Purchases and Materials Department, the Stores Department or the Engineering Department. Plants operated by
the Engineering Department handle only engineering and maintenance-of-way materials. As defined herein, a
Plant may include a facility to sort and classify used other track material (OTM); a Frog Shop to manufacture and
rehabilitate turnout components and fabricate insulated glued joints; a Bridge Fabrication Shop to fabricate new
girders and rehabilitate used girders; a Turnout Panel Fabrication Facility and a Track Panel Fabrication Facility.
A plant may include a Signal Shop but such a facility is not included in this report.

Yards and Terminals
7.3.2 ROADWAY MATERIAL RECLAMATION PLANT (1990)
7.3.2.1 Material Sorting
After laying rail, most railroads pick up the old OTM using a work train having a crane equipped with a magnet.
The unsorted OTM is put into a railcar. This method speeds up the removal of the OTM from the right-of-way and
reduces train delays. The unsorted material is then taken to a Roadway Material Reclamation Plant for sorting
and classifying. Another method of reclaiming OTM is hand sorting the material at the site and placing it into piles
to be picked up later. This method is very labor intensive and requires more track time. For considerations in
handling of OTM refer to “Economics of Methods to Dispose of Scrap and Obsolete Material” in AREA Bulletin
722, Vol. 90 (1989).
7.3.2.2 Material Handling Facilities
a. The Plant should be provided with tracks and hard surface driveways for the efficient handling of materials
by rail and by truck.
b. Incoming OTM for the Plant is unloaded along the track adjacent to the Plant with a crane equipped with a
magnet. The crane can be rail or rubber tire mounted. The material can be placed directly into a hopper for
sorting or it can be placed on the ground for sorting later. In sorting the OTM the material is fed from the
hopper to a conveyor belt for classification. The usable secondhand material is usually moved into the storage
area with forklift vehicles. Other vehicles used for intraplant transfer of OTM include trucks and railcars.
c. When unsorted OTM is to be delivered to the Plant in railcars, it is important to design the Plant so the cars
can be unloaded immediately and released for revenue service or for loading outbound shipments. The Plant
layout should be such that moving the material to a different location or double handling will not be
necessary prior to sorting and classification. This can be accomplished with an elevated conveyor belt
mounted on a gantry. Previously unloaded OTM is picked up with a magnet on a crane mounted on the
gantry. The OTM is loaded into a hopper that feeds it onto a conveyor belt. Workers along side the conveyor
belt, who are assigned specific items to inspect, remove reusable items and deposit them into another
hopper adjacent to the belt. The material deposited into the hopper falls into a container or railcar at ground
level below the hopper. The container when filled can be moved to storage with a forklift. Scrap material left
on the belt is deposited in a railcar or other container for shipment to a scrap dealer. A railcar containing
usable materials is either shipped out to be used for construction or unloaded for storage.
d. Plants may be movable or stationary. A stationary Plant has a lower first cost but usually requires double
handling, moving of materials several times, or storage in railcars until the materials are sorted and
classified. This system is similar to the plant described above but is fixed in one location.
e. Other layouts include conveyor belts near the ground with workers removing assigned items and putting
them in piles on the ground. Any items not removed are classified as scrap and dumped in a railcar or other
container.
f. The Plant layout, the flow of materials and the amount of automation should be determined by good
industrial engineering principles as specified in AREA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 16,
Economics of Railway Engineering and Operations, Part 6, Railway Applications of Industrial & Systems
Engineering. Studies should be made to determine to what extent automation is justified. Identification of
materials by the use of Closed Circuit Television and push-button controls to remove materials from the belt
should be considered, but used only when the cost of such an installation can be justified.
g. The materials normally sorted and classified in a Roadway Material Reclamation Plant are joint bars,
compromise joints, tie plates, rail anchors, spikes, nuts and bolts, and other small track material. Since the
value of reclaimed material usually exceeds the cost of sorting and classifying the material, most railroads
have facilities to perform this work. Often new material gets mixed in with the used material during track
relays which makes the reclamation operation even more profitable.

h. Some railroads straighten bent spikes, while others scrap all secondhand spikes. Spike straightening
machines are available, but a cost analysis should be made to justify spike straightening before this
operation is included in the Plant.
i. Nearly all railroads recrimp rail anchors so that they are tight when reapplied.
j. Most tie plates are reusable as is, but they may be repunched to be used with different rail sections or
spiking pattern.
k. Most bolts are reusable after rethreading them. A new nut and lock washer are usually used on rethreaded
bolts.
7.3.3 FROG SHOP (1990)
a. The Frog Shop receives rail, steel sections, and other heavy material, usually in railcars. Rail is used at the
Frog Shop for the manufacture of frogs, guard rails, switch points and stock rails. The fabrication of glued
insulated joints also requires pieces of rail, usually new. Rail is normally unloaded from railcars with an
overhead crane and placed on racks equipped with rollers for easy movement of the rail into the shop area.
Various materials are moved inside the shop with conveyor belts or rollers and jib cranes are usually used to
lift heavy items. Forklift vehicles are used to move the completed products out of the Frog Shop to load them
or place them in storage.
b. Other activities done in the Frog Shop include manufacturing of machine bolts and drift pins, fabricating of
slip joints and scale rails, explosive hardening of frogs and gluing of insulated joints.
1
c. A typical layout for a Frog Shop is shown in Figure 14-7-1.
Figure 14-7-1. Typical Layout Frog Shop

Yards and Terminals
7.3.3.1 Manufacturing New Turnout Components
Turnout components to be manufactured include switch points, stock rails, heel blocks, switch rods and clips, gage
plates, railbound frogs and guard rails. Equipment used in a Frog Shop to fabricate turnout components includes
lathes, planes punches, drills, overhead cranes, jib cranes and conveyors or rollers to move the rail and other
components through and in and out of the shop.
7.3.3.2 Rebuilding Turnout Components
Rebuilding frogs, guard rails, switches, switch stands and crossing diamonds should take place at or near the Frog
Shop, since some of the machinery and supplies needed to manufacture these items are also required to rebuild them.
7.3.4 BRIDGE FABRICATION SHOP (1990)
a. The Bridge Fabrication Shop receives girders and steel sections, usually by rail. Other incoming materials,
such as bolts, can be shipped either by rail or truck. An overhead crane or gantry is used to move materials
into, out of, and within the shop. Extending the overhead crane outside the building permits loading and
unloading railcars.
b. Most railroads want their own fabrication shop for bridge girders in order to have control over supplying
girders in cases of emergencies, such as a bridge washout, and elect to utilize this facility to fabricate girders
for their regular maintenance programs.
c. The Bridge Fabrication Shop should be equipped with overhead cranes and/or rollers for moving steel
sections and completed girders, compressed air for tightening bolts, saws for cutting steel, drills to make
holes for connections, and gas and electric welding equipment. A supply of new girders of appropriate
lengths for emergencies, and steel sections for building up plate girders and gusset plates is necessary.
7.3.4.1 Fabricating New Girders
The steel to fabric ate new bridge girders is usually ordered from the manufacturer in the proper lengths and sizes
if the bridge is part of a regular maintenance program.
7.3.4.2 Reconditioning Used Girders
a. Most railroads recover bridge materials from track abandonments, bridge washouts and replacement of
bridge spans due to damage or to increasing the bridge rating. During emergencies, such as bridge washouts
or damage by other causes, railroads often need a replacement span to place the line back in service quickly.
b. Bridge girder spans recovered from existing track are often repaired and put back into good condition for
bridge span replacement, emergencies or regular maintenance programs. The used bridge girder span is
straightened, damaged sections are replaced with new steel sections, rivets or bolts are checked and
replaced as required and the girder is cleaned and painted. The length of the girder is later adjusted to fit
the bridge span where it is to be installed.
7.3.5 TURNOUT AND TRACK PANEL FABRICATION FACILITY (1990)
7.3.5.1 General
a. The purpose of this facility is to build track and turnouts on a large scale assembly line basis more
efficiently than can be done in the field. The paneling operation therefore requires a large material supply,
with rail and ties normally being received by rail in open top equipment. The OTM may be received by rail
or truck. Sufficient ground storage area for track materials must be provided.

b. Panels fabricated for use in new construction or maintenance programs will normally be loaded as
completed and shipped directly to the location where they are to be used. Panels to be used for restoration of
track destroyed in derailments or washouts may be shipped to central terminals or held in storage at the
fabrication plant until needed. Crane(s) and/or heavy-duty fork lift(s) must be available to load or move the
panels to storage.
7.3.5.2 Turnout Paneling
Turnout panels are usually built in the open in two or more parts for ease of moving by rail to the point of
installation. A typical layout of a Turnout Paneling Facility is shown in Figure 14-7-2. The facility has the needed
materials for fabrication stored near the assembly area. The switch ties are moved into the assembly area on
rollers. The pre-plated switch ties are placed in the proper position using spacers. The frog, switch points, guard
rails, stock rails and precut closure rails are moved into place using a crane. The handset spikes are driven with an
air driven spike hammer suspended from a frame above the assembly area. The assembled turnout is then loaded
onto cars for delivery to the installation site or put into storage for future use. Some railroads use special railcars to
transport the turnout panels, and to assist in the removal of the old turnout and installation of the new one. It is
desirable to make several turnouts of one size before the tie pattern is modified for another turnout size.
Figure 14-7-2. Typical Layout Turnout Paneling Facility
7.3.5.3 Track Paneling
a. Paneling of 39 foot sections of track for movement to a construction site for assembly into the track is a fast,
and often an economical way, to build yard and other tracks and to restore derailment-damaged track to
service quickly. A typical Track Paneling Facility is shown in Figure 14-7-3.

Yards and Terminals
b. Facilities for assembling track panels are usually under cover. Pre-plated ties are moved into the proper
position using spacers; the rail is placed on the tie plates; spike holes are pre-drilled; spikes are set by hand
and driven with spike hammers suspended from a frame above the assembly area. All ties are usually fully
boxed with rail anchors to keep them square with the rails during storage, transportation and placement.
Joint bars are usually bolted to one end of each panel, and bolts are loosely fastened in the unused bar holes.
Panels are often stored, on the ground or on specially fitted flatcars, with every other panel upside down to
make a stable, compact pile.
7.3.6.1 Location
The site for the Plant should be on a main line at a location near the center of the railroad system and have good
highway access. It may be desirable to locate the Plant adjacent or in close proximity to a Rail Welding Plant.
7.3.6.2 Size
The size of the property required for the Plant should be consistent with the functions performed and the volumes
of materials being handled, and include adequate storage space.
7.3.6.3 Zoning and Permits
As most governmental jurisdictions have zoning laws it is important to determine if the proposed site is zoned to
permit constructing the facility. The facility must also conform to building codes.
7.3.6.4 Environmental Considerations
Environmental factors to be considered are air quality, water, noise and lighting, rainfall runoff, archaeological and
historical sites, and housing displacement.
7.3.6.5 Utilities
Electrical power compatible with the machinery used is required. Power for inside and outside lighting is also
required. Normally the only outside lighting needed is for security. Sanitary sewers, water, and HVAC should be
provided in accordance with the facility requirements. Communications facilities within and beyond the operation
should be provided for efficiency.

Figure 14-7-3. Typical Layout Track Paneling Facility 1
7.3.7 GRADING, DRAINAGE, SITE PREPARATION (1990)
a. It is imperative to follow good engineering practices in all elements of design and construction, including
preparing and compacting the subgrade, increasing the bearing capacity of soils as necessary, protecting
against erosion, proper sloping of cuts and fills, and providing surface and/or subsurface drainage systems. 3
b. Disposing of surface and subsurface water is an essential element of design and construction. The
subsurface investigation program includes obtaining information on subsurface water conditions and a
reliable determination of the ground water table. Historical data that may be available can be very useful to
the designer.
c. Local, state or national agencies may have drainage design requirements and may specify certain design 4
procedures. In the absence of any jurisdictional agency, county or state highway department procedures are
suggested for use.
d. U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps and aerial photographs are useful for analyzing both topography
and drainage. They show elevations, contours, bodies of water, streams and other features from which the
rate of runoff can be established.
e. It is desirable that roads and storage areas be surface treated to prevent dust and to expedite movement of
material within the Plant.
7.3.8 TRACK DESIGN (1990)
The track layout must be developed to fit the size and shape of the property available for the Plant. The track
gradient should be as flat as possible, preferably not exceeding 0.1% grade. The curvature should not exceed 12
degrees. Turnouts should be No. 8, or the size that is standard for the railroad. The mainline should be protected
by derail and any track on which people are working should be protected by a blue flag system. A bumping post

Yards and Terminals
should be considered for the end of each track. Road crossings should be provided as necessary to facilitate
movement of materials.
7.3.9 STORAGE FACILITIES (1990)
The efficient operation of a Roadway Materials Reclamation Plant is very dependent on proper storage and good
housekeeping. Materials held at the Plant for later shipment can be stored either inside or outside. Large items,
such as frogs, glued joints, track panels, and other items that will not deteriorate under normal weather conditions
can be stored outside. Other items, such as signal equipment, require inside storage. All materials stored inside
should be put in a bin, on a shelf, on pallets or neatly stacked in an area convenient for loading out. Material stored
outside should be neatly placed in its assigned area. Racks, pallets and paved areas should be utilized to keep the
material off the ground and convenient for picking up and loading. All bins, shelves or stacked materials should be
clearly labeled with a sign describing the items stored therein. It is imperative that all items be kept in their proper
places.
7.3.10 STRUCTURES (1990)
a. An office with the normal amenities will be required for supervisory and clerical staff. The size of the office
will be determined by the number of employees. Standard office design criteria should be used, including
provisions for employee parking. An employee lunch and locker room should be provided at or near the
office.
b. In general, all shop functions should be carried out in a building. The shop buildings can be pre-engineered
buildings, modified as required to accommodate cranes and other special appurtenances. Windows and
skylights improve the building lighting and contribute to a pleasant environment. The floors should be
concrete. All shops, when required, should be served with tracks and hard-surfaced driveways for the
efficient handling of materials by rail or truck. It is often possible to pave the track area adjacent to a
platform so that it can be used to load either railcars or trucks.

14
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals is placed here in alphabetical order for
your convenience.
1. Assessment of Classification Yard Speed Control Systems, SRI.
2. Innovation in Classification Yard Technology, TRB record 927, 1983.
3. Proceedings of the Second Workshop for Classification Yard Technology, May 1981, report FRA/ORD-81/41.
4. Proceedings of the Workshop for Classification Yard Technology, May 1980, report FRA/ORD-80/17.
5. Railroad Classification Yard Technology Manual, FRA/ORD-81/20 I, II and III.


0
CHAPTER 17
HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS1
FOREWORD
This Chapter contains AREMA recommended practice with respect to the planning, engineering, construction
and maintenance of commuter, passenger and high-speed rail systems. It also includes recommendations
relative to an incremental approach such as the upgrading of existing facilities for increased speeds, recognizing
the possible joint use by freight and passenger services. These joint usage issues should be addressed at the
preliminary planning stage. The manual, as it is now structured, is not stratified by speed ranges, but rather by
the function of the facility or component. Where speeds are a factor of the element upper limits are not
stressed. The purpose of this chapter is to identify the applicable speeds for the elements in the manual
common to this chapter and use them as a base for developing high-speed criteria. The speed range 1
stratification starts with that practical, given the limitations of existing facilities, to the super speeds of new
facilities.
Chapter 17 considers present foreign high-speed rail technical capabilities and operating characteristics and
extrapolates them to North American passenger and freight railroad experience to develop recommended
practice for high-speed rail systems. Previous experience with imported technologies and practices has shown
that modifications are often needed to successfully adapt them to the climatic, maintenance, operating, and 3
regulatory environments found in North America.
System safety parameters, economics, and design philosophies must also be evaluated in the North American
context.
The traditional manual material, for the most part, contains “stand-alone” recommended practices for the fixed
plant of railways. This Chapter encompasses high-speed rail as a system; i.e., combining the planning, design,
and construction of the facility with the specification and operating characteristics of the vehicle, including
propulsion and control system considerations.
There are subparts of the Chapter that are the same as existing recommendations in the manual and where
this occurs a reference is made to the existing Chapter and paragraph number. New and existing material that
requires technical enhancement is presented based on existing high-speed rail systems and the expertise of
committee members.
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1

2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7 Multi-modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
3 Track and Roadway Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-1

3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
4 Facilities and Structural Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-1

4.2 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3 Multi-modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.4 Yards and Shops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

5.2 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9

6.2 Operations Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.3 Signals Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-16
6.5 Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-16

7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.6 Track Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-R-1
INTRODUCTION
(specifications, recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered 1
3
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified. 4
information.


17
Part 1
Introduction1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1

3
1

High Speed Rail Systems

17
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3

2.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.2 User Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3 1
2.2.3 Ecomonic Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.4 Environmental Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.5 Social Acceptance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.6 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.7 Institutional Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.2 Demographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.4 Zoning Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.5 Environmental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3

2.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.3 Operations Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.5 Route Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.6 Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.7 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.8 Route Owner Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
1

2.5 Corridor Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4

2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.2 Selection of Route within Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.4 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.5 Multi-modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.7 Community Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.11 Equipment Capability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.13 Shared Trackage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5.14 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5

2.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.2 Vehicle Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.3 Track Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.4 Propulsion Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.5 Signal Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.6 Communications Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.7 Safety and Security Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.8 Fare Collection Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6.9 Stations and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7 Multi-modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5

2.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7.3 Urban Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7.4 Suburban Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7.5 Rural Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.7.6 Special Use Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5

2.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.8.2 Operations Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.8.3 Implementation Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.8.5 Operations and Costs Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6

2.2.1 GENERAL
2.2.2 USER NEEDS
2.2.3 ECOMONIC ACCEPTANCE
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE
2.2.5 SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE
2.2.6 SAFETY/SECURITY
2.2.7 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

1
2.3.1 GENERAL
3
2.3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
2.3.3 ATTITUDE SURVEYS
2.3.4 ZONING DATA

4
2.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
2.3.6 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA
2.3.7 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA
2.3.8 TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA
2.4.1 GENERAL

2.4.2 RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA
2.4.3 OPERATIONS CRITERIA
2.4.4 TRAFFIC SOURCES AND DESTINATIONS
2.4.5 ROUTE IDENTIFICATION
2.4.6 CONSTRAINTS
2.4.7 LAND AVAILABILITY
2.4.8 ROUTE OWNER INTERFACE
2.4.9 REGULATORY INTERFACE
2.5.1 GENERAL
2.5.2 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR
2.5.3 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE
2.5.4 LAND AVAILABILITY
2.5.5 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
2.5.6 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES
2.5.7 COMMUNITY RELATIONS
2.5.8 JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
2.5.9 SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS
2.5.10 PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS
2.5.11 EQUIPMENT CAPABILITY REQUIREMENTS
2.5.12 SHARED RIGHT OF WAY
2.5.13 SHARED TRACKAGE

SECTION 2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 GENERAL
2.6.2 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
2.6.3 TRACK TECHNOLOGY
2.6.4 PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY
2.6.5 SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY
2.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
2.6.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY TECHNOLOGY
2.6.8 FARE COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY 1
2.6.9 STATIONS AND FACILITIES
3
SECTION 2.7 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
2.7.1 GENERAL
2.7.2 TYPES OF INTERFACES

4
2.7.3 URBAN STATIONS
2.7.4 SUBURBAN STATIONS
2.7.5 RURAL STATIONS
2.7.6 SPECIAL USE STATIONS
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
2.8.1 GENERAL

2.8.2 OPERATIONS SIMULATIONS
2.8.3 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES
2.8.4 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES
2.8.5 OPERATIONS AND COSTS ESTIMATES

17
Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations1
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.2 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger and Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.4 Speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.5 Cant Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.8 Propulsion System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.10 Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.11 Reliability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.12 Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5

3.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.3 Passenger Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.4 Freight Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.5 Fixed Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.6 Movable Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5

3.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.2 At Grade Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.3 Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.4 Vegetation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.5 Environmental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
1

3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6

3.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.2 Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.4 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.5 Gage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.6 Track Structure (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-6
3.5.7 Alignment, Horizontal (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-7
3.5.9 Signal Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-24
3.5.10 Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-24
LIST OF FIGURES
17-3-1 Common Spiral Transition Curve Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-13
LIST OF TABLES
17-3-1 Comparison of Cosine, Parabolic and Sine Spiral to Clothoid Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-14
17-3-2 Recommended Minimum Value for Vertical Curve Radius at 200 km/h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-21
17-3-3 Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-23
17-3-4 Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-23
17-3-5 Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-23
17-3-6 Tangential Turnouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-31

3.2.1 GENERAL
3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER AND FREIGHT
3.2.4 SPEEDS
3.2.5 CANT DEFICIENCY
Passenger comfort is associated with car body translational acceleration in the vertical, lateral and longitudinal
directions and rotational acceleration about these axes. These accelerations can be either a single event such as a
sudden acceleration due to an isolated track geometry irregularity, or a series of accelerations over time due to
continuous track irregularities. The waveform of single event accelerations must not exceed peak-to-peak safety 1
limits established by FRA. The series of varying accelerations over time is a performance-based measurement
represented by a root-mean square (rms) ride quality acceleration value. The ISO 2631 standard provides ride
quality rms-type acceleration limits that are often used to judge the severity of the car body vibration over time.
The physiological response of the human body to vibration of various frequencies has been studied and found to be
more sensitive to certain frequencies than others. For example, a well-known response is “sea-sickness” which
results from cyclic motion at low frequencies typical of naval vessels and not commonly observed on a rail car. 3
However, for the range of acceleration frequencies common to rail vehicles it is noted that some produce more
physiological distress than others. Therefore the ISO standard recommends the use of certain filters to be used on
the measured acceleration data which give larger weighting to some frequencies for which the human body is more
sensitive, and less weighting for others.
Because the ride quality measurement averages car body acceleration over time, the contribution of a small
number of sudden jolts from isolated track geometry irregularities is usually not a significant contributor to the 4
ride quality value. The rms acceleration ride quality data is typically taken as a measure of car body response to
track geometry over long distances.
The interaction between track and passenger rail vehicles is both a safety and a performance issue. Wheel-rail
force safety limits are defined by FRA with criteria that relate to single wheel flange climb derailment, rail
overturning, lateral track panel shift and vertical wheel lift off from the rail. Wheel-rail contact characteristics
such as wheel flange angle and wheel-rail friction coefficient are critical to safety as they affect these force limits.
Wheel-rail effective conicity is also safety critical because the speed at which truck hunting occurs is largely
dependent upon it. Vehicle performance is mainly measured by ride quality which is also highly dependent upon
vehicle-track interaction as described in the section above. In general, vehicle-track interaction is dependent upon
the track geometry, wheel-rail characteristics, and the speed, mass, and suspension parameters of the vehicle.
In rail vehicle design there is a tradeoff between truck resistance to hunting in tangent track and truck curving
ability. Although a truck with a relatively soft primary suspension may have good curving performance with low

wheel-rail forces and wear, it also may be less resistant to truck hunting in tangent track. Similarly a truck with a
stiff suspension is better at resisting hunting but may curve poorly and provide large lateral wheel-rail forces and
wear. Depending on the suspension parameters and other vehicle design factors chosen, a rail car may be designed
to obtain a reasonable compromise between these two conditions.
To provide proper vehicle-track interaction, in addition to the track geometry being compliant with the FRA track
class, a high speed track should also have rail that is free from corrugation and have rail profiles with at most only
minor wear on the crown and rail gage face. Also, innovative track design methods such as improved spiral
geometry have been shown to reduce the lateral wheel-rail forces and car body motions of high speed trains in
curves compared to conventional spiral design.

3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
3.2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.2.11 RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
3.2.12 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
3.3.1 GENERAL
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS 1
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS

3
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL
4
3.4.2 AT GRADE CROSSINGS
3.4.3 DRAINAGE
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL
3.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY

SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.1 GENERAL
3.5.3 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
3.5.5 GAGE
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE1 (2004)
High-speed traffic places different and possibly more severe demands on the track structure than slower, heavier
freight traffic. Although dynamic loading considerations under freight traffic are important, they can become a
predominant issue for high-speed passenger traffic, requiring the track engineer to consider dynamic properties of
material, the effects of vibration, and the behavior and failure modes of track components associated with high
frequency loads. Additionally, the more restrictive tolerances for track geometry associated with higher speeds
places a greater value on the engineers’ ability to design the track structure to withstand these forces. The
challenge becomes even greater if the track has both freight and high-speed traffic.
Track structure of conventional construction can be divided into superstructure (rails, ties and fastenings) and
substructure (ballast, sub ballast and sub grade). Superstructure components are usually more safety-critical and
their performance more dependant upon their dynamic properties. The substructure primarily affects the longer-
term track geometry performance because most of the permanent deformation under repetitive loading will occur
in these layers. By using adequate design methods and maintenance procedures, substructure settlement can be
kept tolerably small.
3.5.6.1 Structural Design Considerations
3.5.6.1.1 Superstructure
Chapters 5 and 30 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering consider many aspects of track components
from a static strength perspective. However, the higher frequency loads of high-speed traffic make it necessary to
consider the effects of dynamic loads generated in the track structure by the vehicles. Due to the superstructure
components’ accessibility and their large effect on dynamic track performance, they are often designed to provide
the desired dynamic response. The damping characteristics of tie pads and other resilient materials in the
superstructure can be selected to minimize the forces and vibrations transmitted by high-speed vehicles.
3.5.6.1.2 Substructure
Chapter 1 of the Manual for Railway Engineering should be referenced for construction practices of new track, and
for a wide variety of general maintenance practices on existing track related to the substructure. But whether the
engineer is concerned with an existing track or new construction, a design-oriented approach is needed to address
1
References
[1]Li, D., and Selig, E. T., “Method for Railroad Track Foundation Design,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, April 1998, Vol. 124, No. 4.
[2]Selig, E. T., and Waters, J. M., Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management, Thomas Telford, Ltd., London 1994.
[3]Chrismer, S. M., and LoPresti, J., “Track Substructure Assessment with the Cone Penetrometer,” Association of American Railroads
Research and Test Department, February 1996, TD-96-002.

or prevent substructure instability. In recent decades track geotechnology research has provided new insight into
substructure behavior allowing development of investigation tools and improved design methods. Additionally, the
importance of dynamic properties of the substructure, particularly the subgrade, is becoming more apparent as
vehicle speed is increased.
3.5.6.1.2.1 Ballast/Sub ballast Layer Thickness Design and Sub grade Strength Considerations
Because of the greater challenges posed by smaller geometry error tolerances for track with high-speed traffic, and
the possible combination of freight with high-speed passenger traffic on the same track, an improved approach to
substructure design is needed. The practice recommended in Chapter 16, Article 10.3.2.1 of using 25 psi as the
assumed sub grade strength in the calculation for the required ballast depth under tie, should only be used with
caution for track with high-speed traffic because a lesser sub grade strength is quite common.
The methodology described in Ref [1] is recommended to design the granular layer (ballast and sub ballast)
thickness over sub grade because it allows consideration of the distribution of load magnitudes and number of load
repetitions for the actual traffic, the tonnage by MGT, the moduli of granular materials and sub grade soil, and soil
type and soil compressive strength. The two most common types of sub grade failure are addressed; progressive
shear, and excessive plastic settlement (ballast pockets). The method lends itself well to individual locations with
sub grade instability where soil type and strength can be somewhat site-specific, but can apply equally well to
granular layer thickness design over many miles. Also, the relative contribution of sub grade deformation due to
heavy freight loading and lighter passenger loads can be assessed.
The amount of sub grade permanent deformation that contributes to track settlement decreases with depth into
the soil, and this depth of influence varies with sub grade stiffness. For soils that are uniformly strong with depth
this zone of influence may be only a few feet, or it may extend to 20 or 25 feet for softer soils [1]. For weaker soils
it is important to characterize soil strength over the depth of influence to use a design approach to limit cumulative
1
sub grade settlement. Much of this sub grade settlement will be differentially distributed along the track, and
hence, will increase track geometry roughness.
There are a number of methods available to characterize sub grade over the depth of influence, as discussed in Ref
[2]. In particular, the cone penetrometer has been shown [3] to be well suited to rapidly assess soil strength and
type with depth, and the granular layer thickness. Such information is needed for a design approach to
determining the existing strength of track substructure and alternatives to improve it. 3
3.5.6.1.2.2 Alternative Means to Improve the Substructure
As an alternative to using a thicker granular layer, a relatively stiff layer of hot-mix asphalt, concrete,
geosynthetic-granular composite or other material placed over a soft sub grade can reduce loading stresses
transmitted to the soil and reduce sub grade settlement. While asphalt and concrete are inherently stiff materials,
the geosynthetic-granular composite attains stiffness due to lateral confinement of the granular material in the 4
open cores of the geosynthetic. A given layer thickness of stiffer substructure material is better able to withstand
imposed stresses without settlement and to reduce the stress passed along to the sub grade, compared to a granular
layer of the same thickness. Also, concrete slab track can provide a stiffer track structure and reduce stresses on
the underlying substructure layers compared to conventional tie-ballast track construction. The decision between
using an increased granular layer thickness or a stiffer material, or between using a conventional tie-ballast track
or slab track construction, to provide these benefits can be determined based on a cost analysis.
3.5.7 ALIGNMENT, HORIZONTAL (2005)
High-speed railway track alignment should provide for safe and comfortable operation. It should be designed to
permit continuous operation at high speeds. Constant acceleration and deceleration of trains along an alignment is
undesirable and therefore, track alignment design should endeavor to enable consistent train speeds along a high-
speed rail route.

In order to achieve continuous operation at constant speeds greater than 90 miles per hour, curves with civil speeds
less than the minimum desirable speed should be avoided wherever possible. For routes that have geographical
constraints requiring curvature that will not allow conventional high-speed trains to travel at minimum desirable
speeds, consideration of trains with tilting systems to counteract centrifugal forces in curves should be considered.
3.5.7.1 Design Speeds
Design speeds shall be based on Train Performance Runs (TPRs) that simulate actual train performance with
respect to equipment acceleration and deceleration, grade, civil speed at curves, braking rates and other conditions
that can affect train speed.
Consideration shall be given to providing an alignment that allows high-speed trains to run at consistent speeds
over the alignment. Similarly, high-speed alignment design shall take into account areas where slower modes of
railroad operation such as regional inter-city, commuter and freight trains may share tracks. Territories where
high-speed trains will operate in congested or urban areas may not be desirable or practical for high-speed
operation.
The desirable speeds for high-speed operation will vary with each system. Speeds will vary with respect to the type
of high-speed equipment, the average distance between stations and the overall length of the high-speed route.
Desirable speeds for high-speed rail operations may also vary with respect to the type of system originally
constructed. High-speed rail systems that are constructed through the incremental approach (that is the upgrade
of an existing conventional railroad into a high-speed rail system) will likely have a lower desirable speed than new
high-speed rail alignment.
The desirable design speeds for high-speed rail systems should be greater than 110 mph. In most cases, it will be
desirable to achieve speeds 150 mph or greater. The Federal Railroad Administration has recognized that high-
speed rail operation may achieve speeds up to 200 miles per hour by issuing Track Safety Standards for Track
Classes of Six and higher.
3.5.7.2 Curvature
Degree of curvature shall be limited to provide civil speeds that are consistent with continuous high-speed
operation. For conventional high-speed rail trains, curves of one degree or less are desirable. Desirable curvature
for high-speed rail systems that use equipment with tilt systems will have higher maximum desirable curvature
based on the criteria for lateral acceleration, the amount of effective tilt, and the train's suspension characteristics.
Generally, desirable curves for high-speed tilt trains will be 1 degree-30' or less.
3.5.7.3 Elevation
For high-speed rail systems with standard gauge, equilibrium elevation shall be defined by EQ 14 in Chapter 5,
Part 3, Article 3.3.1, such that,
E = 0.0007V2D
where E is equilibrium elevation in inches, V is speed in miles per hour and D is degree of curvature. The vehicle is
said to be at balance speed if the track has a superelevation equal to the equilibrium elevation, E for the
corresponding D and V values, meaning that the vehicle does not lean out or into the curve and the vertical wheel
forces on both rails are equal. Equilibrium elevation is limited by the allowable amount of superelevation.
3.5.7.4 Actual Superelevation
The maximum achievable actual super-elevation on high-speed track is considered six inches. Where ballastless
track construction is used, higher levels of actual super-elevation may be achievable.

Passengers, vehicles and track easily tolerate some unbalance when curves are traversed. Therefore, even if a curve
can be raised to balancing elevation it is normally desirable to elevate it somewhat less so that passenger
discomfort and vehicle-track forces will be reduced when trains stop on the curve or traverse it at lower speeds due
to traffic or other causes. It is common practice to limit actual super-elevation of a curve to 75% of the equilibrium
elevation.
In sections of track where trains are expected to operate at various speeds, actual super-elevation shall be designed
to prevent lower speed trains from experiencing overbalanced elevation. However, for high-speed rail systems with
a small amount of freight railroad traffic, curves may be super-elevated so that the actual amount of super-
elevation is approximately equal to the equilibrium elevation for a speed that is 10 mph below the maximum
authorized speed for freight traffic.
3.5.7.5 Lateral Acceleration (Quasi-Static)
Acceptable values of steady state lateral acceleration parallel to the floor of the car-body range from 0.04 to 0.1 g in
North America. It should be noted that vehicle characteristics and track geometry affect this quasi-static lateral
acceleration. The trip length should also be considered when deciding upon the maximum acceptable value of this
lateral acceleration.
Current North American practice for HSR service is to limit lateral acceleration to 0.1 g. This is used for
conventional trains operating at five inches of unbalance on the Northeast corridor, as well as both HSR train types
that utilize tilt technology. In Europe, however, it is common practice to limit lateral acceleration to values as low
as 0.05g. For HSR corridors where average trip lengths will be greater than 500 miles, it is desirable to limit lateral
acceleration to a 0.05g.
3.5.7.6 Unbalanced Elevation

1
Unbalanced elevation is the difference between equilibrium and actual super-elevation. Mathematically, this is
defined as,
Eu = E Ea
where Eu is unbalanced elevation and Ea is actual super-elevation. When Eu is a positive value, it is considered 3
underbalanced elevation providing a cant deficiency; when Eu is negative, it is considered overbalanced elevation
providing a cant excess.
Underbalanced elevation is the amount that actual super-elevation is less than equilibrium elevation for any
combination of speed and curvature. Overbalanced elevation is the amount that actual super-elevation is more
than equilibrium elevation. Without consideration of tilt, when a train traveling around a curve experiences
underbalanced elevation, the lateral acceleration is in the direction towards the outside of the curve; when the 4
train experiences overbalanced elevation, the lateral acceleration will be towards the inside of the curve.
Underbalanced elevation is generally limited by the FRA Track Safety Standards to three inches. However, current
Track Safety Standards allow unbalance up to four inches provided equipment meets certain FRA requirements.
The FRA may also grant underbalanced elevation waivers for high-speed rail equipment. Waivers for up to five
inches of underbalanced elevation have been granted for conventional passenger trains and passive high-speed tilt
trains. Active tilt trains may be allowed to run at speeds with up to nine inches of underbalanced elevation.
The following process is required to obtain a waiver or variance from the established FRA Track Safety Standards.
• Petition for a waiver to conduct testing.
• Provide test conditions.
• Provide a test plan for approval.
• Report on the test results.

• Petition for a waiver to operate at high cant deficiency based on test results.
• Obtain a waiver with specific conditions from the FRA.
3.5.7.7 Clothoid Transition Spiral Lengths
The minimum length of clothoid spiral transition curves shall be determined based on runoff and jerk rate. For
high-speed track alignments that will be used by high-speed trains with tilt active tilt mechanisms, minimum
spiral length shall be sufficient for the trains tilt rate.
3.5.7.8 Runoff
A minimum rate of super-elevation should be provided uniformly throughout the length of a spiral to prevent
racking and diagonal warp of the equipment. At least 1/2-inch runoff in 31 feet shall be provided such that,
L s  62E a
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet and Ea is the actual super-elevation in inches.
The rate that actual super-elevation run-off occurs between tangent track and the beginning of the circular curve
assists passenger comfort and the smoothness of the spiral operation. For speeds greater than 60 and less than or
equal to 125 mph, at most a 3/8-inch runoff in 31 feet should be provided. For speeds greater than 125 mph, at most
a 1/4-inch runoff in 31 feet should be provided. These runoff rates with respect to minimum spiral length may be
defined mathematically as follows:
60  V  125mph  L s  82.7E a
V  125mph  L s  124E a
where V is speed.
For dedicated high speed systems the maximum allowable value of track twist can be determined by considering
wheel unloading due to twist (including dynamic unloading as modeled by simulation), vehicle torsional stress due
to twist, vehicle roll mismatch at vehicle to vehicle passageways, effect of vehicle roll velocity at design speed on
passenger comfort, and excitation of roll oscillation (and effect of such oscillation on passenger comfort) due to
vehicle roll acceleration. Attention should also be paid to track twist limits of similar systems with successful
operating history.
3.5.7.9 Jerk Rate
The change in lateral acceleration with respect to time is the jerk rate.
Clothoid transition spirals shall be long enough to ensure that a proper build up or runoff of lateral acceleration
with respect to time is provided. This is to ensure that passengers do not experience uncomfortable levels of jerk
rate or jolts.
In general, conventional North American railroad practice is to limit jerk rate to 0.03 g per second where existing
conditions permit. Where necessary, jerk rates of 0.04 g per second are allowable conventional practice where
existing conditions warrant.
However, in high-speed operations, jerk rates may be increased when the change in lateral acceleration is low. In
some instances, the change in lateral acceleration may be small enough where no transition is required-this is
defined as jolt.
When the change in lateral acceleration is small enough, typically 0.01g or less, it is acceptable practice not to
require transition spirals. In general, this will occur when the change in unbalance is 1/2-inch or less. Some high-
speed train suspension systems may allow jolts at unbalanced elevation of up to one inch. Where the change in

lateral acceleration is 0.025g, jerk rates of 0.1g per second may be acceptable. It is recommended, however, the jerk
rate not exceed 0.03g per second where the change in lateral acceleration is 0.05g or greater.
When the acceptable level of jerk rate is known, the minimum spiral length can be calculated such that,
L s  vt = 1.46Vt
where Ls is the minimum clothoid transition spiral length in feet, v is speed in feet per second, V is speed in miles
per hour and,
LateralAcceleration aL
t = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = -----------------------------------------------------------
-
MaximimumAllowableJerkRate   A L    t   allowable
The above equation for jerk rate provides the length of spiral for any value of lateral acceleration. Where the
change in unbalanced elevation is directly proportional to the change in lateral acceleration, the equation can be
redefined recognizing that when,
E u aL
- = -------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E u atmaximumlateralacceleration AL
as,
 AL  Eu 
-  ---------------------
L s  1.46V  -----------------------------------------------------------

    A L     t   allowable
E u atA L
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet, V is speed in miles per hour, AL is the maximum 1
allowable lateral acceleration, (<AL/<t) is the maximum allowable jerk rate, Eu is the change in unbalance and (Eu
at AL) allowable is the unbalance at the maximum allowable lateral acceleration.
3.5.7.10 Tilt Rate
For alignments that will support the operations of high-speed trains with tilt mechanisms, clothoid transition
spiral lengths shall be long enough to allow the train to fully tilt to the required amount for the curve within the 3
spiral. There are two conditions that should be satisfied:
(1) Tilt rate of the car-body with respect to the truck, and
(2) Tilt rate of the car-body with respect to the horizon.
The maximum tilt rate with respect to the truck or track level should be available from the manufacture of the 4
equipment. As an example, a measured tilt rate for an active tilt system is 3.5× per second.
The time it takes to tilt is equal to:

t= max tilt angle
max tilt rate
The clothoid transition spiral must be long enough to allow the car-body to fully tilt to the degree required for the
amount of lateral acceleration at the truck. The length of spiral can be defined with respect to speed and time such
that,
L s  vt = 1.46Vt
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet, v is the speed in feet per second, V is the speed in miles
per hour and t is time required to tilt in seconds.

The above equation is only valid when car-bodies tilt throughout the entire curve. When the car-body partially tilts
within the spiral (that is its tilts in one section of the spiral and does not tilt in another section), the spiral shall be
long enough to ensure that the maximum allowable jerk rate is not exceeded in the section of the spiral where the
car-body does not tilt.
It is also desirable to limit the amount the train tilts with respect to the horizon. This ensures sufficient passenger
comfort when the train is subject to the rotation caused by super-elevation runoff and tilting.
3.5.7.11 Higher Order Spirals
3.5.7.11.1 Common Geometry
Higher order (S-shaped) transition spirals provide correct geometry that may be necessitated by high speeds and
heavy axle loads, which will be prevalent in North American high-speed operations. Higher order spiral transition
curves have been used throughout the world, but are currently not common practice for North American railroads,
which have traditionally used the clothoid spiral in railroad construction.
Clothoid spirals are considered third order curves while circular curves are second order curves. Although
acceptable at lower speeds associated with lower speeds, at higher speeds abrupt changes in jerk may be considered
to cause a reduction in the smooth operation of high-speed trains and passenger comfort.
Clothoid spirals provide a straight ramp with respect to change degree of curvature, unbalanced elevation (and
lateral acceleration), and actual super-elevation runoff.
Higher order transition curves provide correct geometry for both horizontal and vertical transitions to ensure
comfortable operation of high-speed trains and decreases in track maintenance costs. The higher order curves
provide a transition of the abrupt break caused at the beginning and end of the clothoid spiral ramp. This provides
a smoother ride both horizontally and vertically as trains transition between tangent track and circular curve.
There are at least three higher order spiral transition curve geometries that are considered to be standard in
railway alignment design practice. These curves are parabolic, sine and cosine, and are considered fourth and fifth
order curves.

Figure 17-3-1 illustrates four common spiral transition curve geometries including the clothoid. Table 17-3-1
shows all the main features of the four different transition curves geometries. Two of the most important features
are shift (f) and the increase in length, compared to the clothoid geometry with identical shifts.
Figure 17-3-1. Common Spiral Transition Curve Geometries
The cosine based transition spiral also known as the Bloss spiral provides the most favorable condition. Although it
offers the least improvement in shift and in increase in length, it still provides excellent conditions to speed 3
increases with minimum lateral movement of the existing clothoid transitions that means minimum overall track
shifts.

Table 17-3-1. Comparison of Cosine, Parabolic and Sine Spiral to Clothoid Geometry
Geometric Features Cosine Parobolic Sine Clothoid

Transition Geometry
(dg/dt)max(m2)  2/(RL) 2/(RL) Broken function
--- RL
2 (1/RL)
(d2G/dl2)max(m3) 4.93/(RL) 8/(RL2) 6.28/(RL2) Theoretically

Indefinite
The approximate value of L2/(42.23R) L2/(48R) L2/(61.21R) L2/(24R)
shift (f)
The approximate value of “y” 0.149 (L2/R) 0.146 (L2/R) 0.141 (L2/R) 0.16 (L2/R)
end coordinate (m)
The angle of the end tangent (J) L/(2R) L/(2R) L/(2R) L/(2R)
Increase of length compared 33 41 60 -
to the clothoid geometry with
identical shift (%)
Maximum lateral 0.017f 0.025f 0.024f -
displacement compared to the
clothoid, with identical shift
3.5.7.11.2 Minimum Spiral Lengths
For spirals of higher order than clothoids, minimum spiral lengths may be calculated for clothoid transition spirals
in accordance with Aeticle 3.5.7.8 and increased accordingly. This increase in spiral to allow for the additional
length needed to transition the clothoid geometry break at the ends. The increase is provided assuming that
maximum allowable jerk rate limits and actual super-elevation runoff gradients are the same as for clothoid
transition spirals.
The minimum length of a cosine, parabolic and cosine transition curve may be defined as
L r  1.33L s for sine spiral
L r  1.40L s for parabolic spiral
L r  1.60L s for cosine spiral
where Lr is the length of the higher order spiral and Ls is the calculated minimum length of the clothoid spiral in
feet.
Consideration can be given to reducing the lengths of the higher order spirals recognizing the S-shape spirals
provide a more smooth ride through the transition curve, thus slightly higher jerk rates and superelevation runoff
rates will be more tolerable in terms of comfort.

3.5.7.12 Effects of Tilt Trains
In order to maximize high-speed rail service, high-speed passenger trains can have a tilting system in order to
compensate for centrifugal forces on curves. This will allow high-speed passenger trains to travel around existing
curves at higher speeds than would be allowed for conventional (non-tilting) high-speed passenger equipment.
A passive tilt system is designed where the car body produces a positive tilt in response to centrifugal force acting
on the car-bodies center of gravity. It suspends the car-body from the top of swinging bolsters above the wheels,
and when the high-speed train rounds a curve at a higher than equilibrium speed, centrifugal force swings the
bottom of the car-body outward like a pendulum. Talgo tilt trains utilized by Amtrak on the Pacific Northwest
Corridor use a passive tilt system.
A tilt system that is actively controlled uses a design where the car-body tilt is actuated in response to controller
transmitted commands. In this design, measurements are made of various system conditions such as the lateral
acceleration, from which information is then processed by the Controller to activate the appropriate car-body tilt.
A computerized hydraulic tilting system causes the trains to tilt. Sensors in the lead trucks are used to measure the
amount of centrifugal forces in curves, and the computerized controller system tilts the car-bodies appropriately.
3.5.7.13 TOLERANCES
Track alignment tolerances are extremely important to the successful operation of high-speed service. Tolerances
have implications to safety, system reliability, passenger comfort and maintenance economics.
Three types of tolerances should be considered for high-speed track alignment. These are:
(1) Safety Standards: The absolute minimum tolerances where the train can operate safely. Safety 1
standards may not be exceeded without a reduction of the speed limit (slow order) or suspension of
service.
(2) Maintenance Tolerances provide a measure of the track alignment such that maintenance activity can
be scheduled and executed to ensure that the track never degrades to Safety Standard limits, passenger
comfort is maximized, wear and tear on equipment is minimized, the track maintains its reliability and
track maintenance remains economical. 3
(3) Construction Tolerances are the acceptable range of deviation from the theoretical (design) alignment
that will allow maintenance standards to economically be achieved once the track is entered into
service.
Tolerances for horizontal alignment should be based on allowable deviation from uniformity, where uniformity at
any point along the track alignment is established by averaging the measured mid-chord offset values for nine 4
consecutive points centered around that point and spaced according to the following:
Chord Length Spacing

31’ 7’-9”
62’ 15’-6”
124’ 31’-0
In high-speed rail both single and multiple deviations should be considered.

For high-speed rail service, classes of track are designated based on the maximum permissible speed for each class.
Maximum allowable speeds for high-speed passenger trains for each class of track are as follows:
Maximum Allowable
Class of Track Passenger Train Speed
Class 6 110
Class 7 125
Class 8 160
Class 9 200
For speeds greater than 200 mph, track alignment tolerances should be established based on current practices for
establishing track safety, maintenance and construction tolerances including testing and economic analyses.
Construction tolerances are measured from the theoretical alignment and should be verified by deviations from
uniformity. In other words, construction tolerances should meet two standards for ensuring that the track
alignment as constructed conforms to the design.
3.5.7.14 Safety Standards
In the United States of America, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) has established Track Safety
Standards for Classes of Track 6 through 9. These U.S. mandatory standards in the area issued as Subpart G of
Part 213 of Code of Federal Regulations 49.
Subpart G applies to all track supporting passenger train speeds of 90 mph and greater and freight train speeds of
80 mph or greater. Freight trains or mixed use (passenger and freight) may operate at passenger speeds when they
meet specific conditions of the FRA.
Maximum allowable deviations from uniformity of the mid-chord offset for 31, 62 and 124-foot chords for single
and multiple deviations may be found in FRA Track Safety Standards ß 213.327.
3.5.7.15 Maintenance Tolerances
Maintenance shall be performed when alignment values meet the following limits which were derived by using a
slightly lesser allowable value than the safety FRA limits:
For Track Classes 6 through 9, alignment should not deviate for a single deviation from uniformity more than the
amount prescribed in the following table:
Alignment Maintenance Limits-Single Deviatioin

Class of Track The Deviation from The Deviation from The Deviation from
Uniformity of the Uniformity of the Uniformity of the
Mid-Chord Offset for Mid-Chord Offset for Mid-Chord Offset for
a 31’ Chord should a 62’ Chord should a 124” Chord should
not be more than not be more than not be more than
(inches): (inches): (inches):
6 3/8 1/2 1
7 3/8 3/8 7/8
8 3/8 3/8 1/2
9 3/8 3/8 1/2

For Track Classes 6 through 9, alignment should not deviate for multiple deviations from uniformity more than
the amount prescribed in the following table for three or more non-overlapping deviations occurring within a
distance equal to five times the specified chord length:
Alignment Maintenance Limits-Single Deviatioin

Class of Track The Deviation from The Deviation from The Deviation from
Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid-
Chord Offset for a 31’ Chord Offset for a 62’ Chord Offset for a
Chord should not be Chord should not be 124” Chord should not
more than (inches): more than (inches): be more than (inches):
6 1/4 3/8 3/4
7 1/4 1/4 3/8
8 1/4 1/4 3/8
9 1/4 1/4 3/8
When the general alignment is to be corrected, such as the removal of long swings on tangents and the restoration
of curves to circular curvature, laying out of spirals, etc., the throws or lining should be to present monuments.
Surveying equipment, rail-mounted telescope or a long base automatic reference system should be used to
determine the corrections required on tangents. The string line method should be used to determine the alignment
of curves to and to calculate the required corrections or throws. For detailed corrections of an irregular line, the
required throws may be determined by using surveying equipment, a line wire and indicator device or plotting a
graph on curves with automatic lining equipment.
1
3.5.7.16 Construction Tolerances
The deviation of the designated mid-ordinate from a 62-foot chord should not be more that 1/8 inch for high-speed
track up to 200 mph. For high-speed tracks where speeds will be greater than 200 mph, analysis of acceptable
tolerances for construction should be performed.
3.5.8 VERTICAL GEOMETRY (2008) 3
Various track conditions influence the gradients used in the design of vertical curves on high-speed rail (HSR)
sSystems. These conditions include:
Track Usage
a. Track used by all types of trains including heavy freight trains 4

b. Track used by high-speed trains and light freight trains
c. Track used by high-speed passenger trains
3.5.8.1 Design Considerations of Vertical Geometry
The design of vertical geometry of track for HSR systems is not similar to that of commuter, intercity and freight
rail systems. The vertical alignment is subject to the constraints of the existing natural terrain and man-made
infrastructure. This section describes various aspects of vertical geometry for HSR highlighting the differences
between European systems designed and in use as compared to vertical geometry for commuter and intercity rail
in the United States.

3.5.8.2 Vertical Curves – North American Passenger and Mixed (Freight and Passenger) Operations
(AREMA)
Topographical conditions usually require vertical-longitudinal gradients. The preferred track profile would be as
level as possible with minimum changes in gradient. However changes in gradients of vertical tangents are
accomplished by using vertical curves (Vc) of correct length, rather than by “grade breaks” or “angle points”
providing a smooth transition (connection) between successive vertical tangent gradients. Vertical curves should be
designed as long as physically and economically possible. Properly designed vertical curves minimize adverse
effects on coupler angles, vertical acceleration, rolling stock suspension, ride quality, and train dynamics. If the
vertical acceleration on a crest is too great, wheels can unload causing the wheels to climb the rail causing a
derailment.
Chapter 5, Section 3.6 of the AREMA Manual addresses the design of vertical curves taking into account vertical
acceleration and passenger comfort as follows:
2
DV K
L = -----------------------------
A
Where:
A = vertical acceleration in feet/sec/sec (ft/Sec2); A = 0.10 for freight operations; 0.60 for passenger and
transit operations)
D = Absolute value of the difference in rates of grades expressed as a decimal
K = 2.15 conversion factor to give L in feet
L = Length of vertical curve in feet
V = Speed of the train in miles per hour
The recommended minimum length of the vertical curve = 100 feet. The minimum distance between vertical
curves shall not be less than 100 feet. When making curve length computations, vertical curve lengths are typically
rounded up to the next 50 or 100 feet.
The above criteria, represents a relatively recent revision to traditional, more conservative vertical curve criteria in
North America. It is important to note that North American vertical curves are parabolic while European curves
are designed as a function of the radius. Many passenger and freight railroads still maintain the traditional criteria
and require its use wherever practical resulting in potentially even longer vertical curve lengths.
The differences in vertical curve criteria will have minor effects on most track designs where the changes in grade
are small. However, in projects such as flyovers and grade separations where a substantial change in track
elevation must be designed in limited areas the differences can become dramatic.
3.5.8.3 Gradients
Gradients for shared passenger corridors may be restricted by consideration of freight operations. In general, the
ruling grade of a system should not be exceeded by the grade of a new passenger facility. The grade design of
exclusive passenger corridors or those with only slow speed or short distance freight service benefit from the
shorter vertical curves permitted by AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.6 (referenced above).
The grade or gradient of the profile is expressed as the percent of rise over run. That is, a 1% grade represents a
rise of 1 foot vertically for every 100 feet traversed horizontally.

The grade of the track may have a profound effect on train operations; typically more so than in highway design.
There are numerous considerations and restrictions that determine the allowable gradients to be used in design.
Factors include:
• Power supply and energy consumption which increase with large gradients
• Some freight trains with friction-based traction locomotive power may have problems ascending and/or
descending the gradients
• Braking distances increase in descending gradients
• Maximum speed achieved and or permitted
• Train handling issues
• Ride quality
• Climate effects which reduce adhesion
For North American freight operations, a 1% maximum gradient is typically preferred. However grades of 2% and
slightly more are fairly common on many existing lines. For freight service, it is important to consider the overall
territory and not to add a steep grade so as to change the operational characteristics of the line.
For North American commuter or passenger service where trains are typically operated at greater horsepower per
ton ratios than freight trains, the impacts of gradients are considerably less. However, on lines that support the
operation of mixed traffic (passenger and freight), gradients and curves must be selected that support the desired
1
operation of all vehicle and train types.
The following is a general guideline for gradients:
• 0% to 1.0% - generally considered acceptable for freight, and passenger service
• 1.1% to 2.0% - acceptable for combined passenger and freight service if they are in compliance with 3
maximum grades elsewhere on the line
• 2.1% to 3.0% - may be acceptable in passenger service and short ancillary freight service
• 3.1% to 4.0% - may be acceptable in passenger service, preferably only for short distances such as flyovers
• Grades above 4% are not recommended

4
• 0% to 0.2% - preferred for maintenance and layover facilities
In general, in designing high speed vertical curves, one should analyze the vertical curve length required using the
formula per AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.6. It is recommended that the designer compare the calculated vertical
curve against criteria developed and used in other international high speed systems, some of which have been
presented below for reference.
3.5.8.4 Reference – General European Design of Vertical Curves1
Vertical curves are to be provided when the change in two gradients is > 2 ‰ (promils). A promil is equal to a rise of 1 m vertically
for every 1000 m traversed horizontally. Therefore a 10 ‰ gradient is equivalent to 10/1000 = .01 or 1%.
R equivalent vertical radius = equiv = V2 / 2
1
See Reference 1

R extreme radius = ext = V2 / 4
R minimum acceptance in Europe = min = 2000 m (6,567 ft.)
Where;V is in (km/h)2
R is in meters (m)
Tangent distance for Vertical Curves = T = /2 * (i1 + i2) / 1000 where i1 and i2 are gradients measured in promils.
3.5.8.5 International Design Standards and Experience
Sweden1
The Swedish National Rail Administration (Banverket) describes the largest permissible gradient of 10 ‰ (1%) on track with
heavy freight trains. A 12.5 ‰ (1.25%) gradient is permissible if the mean value does not exceed 10 ‰ over each kilometer. On
tracks with passenger and light freight trains a higher gradient may per permissible.
1
See Reference 2

Banverket states that the vertical curve radius shall be in accordance to permissible speed as follows:
Rv min > 0.16 * V2
V = permissible speed in km/h
Rv = Vertical curve radius in m (multiply by 3.28083 to convert to feet)
The recommended vertical curve radius is derived as follows:
Rv rec min > 0.25 * (1.3 * V2)
Where 1.3 is a speed factor applied with respect to ride comfort and future increased speed.
For tilt equipment, the minimum vertical curve radius is calculated using an overspeed of 25%
Rv min tilt > 0.25 * V2
Germany1
The Deutsche Bahn (DB) has prescribed a 12.5 ‰ (1.25%) as the largest permissible gradient for mixed traffic main lines. On
commuter, secondary, and newly constructed high-speed lines, the maximum gradient is 40 ‰ (4%).
DB Vertical Curve Radii:
Rv = Vertical curve radius in m (multiply by 3.28083 to convert to feet) 1

Rv rec min > 0.40 * V2 (Recommended minimum value)
Rv limit > 0.25 * V2 (Limit value)
Rv crest > 0.16 * V2 (Vertical curve radius on a crest permission required)
Rv sag > 0.13 * V2 (Vertical curve radius in a hallow or sag permission required) 3
Rv abs min > 2,000 m (Absolute minimum vertical curve radius permission required)
Table 17-3-2. Recommended Minimum Value for Vertical Curve Radius at 200 km/h 4
Vertical Curve Radius 200 km/h (approx. 125 mph)
Recommended minimum 16,000 m (52,493 feet)
Limit 10,000 m (32,808 feet)
Permission value on a crest 6,400 m (20,997 feet)
Permission value in a hallow or sag 5,200 m (17,060 feet)
Taiwan
The Taiwan High Speed Rail Project specifies a desirable maximum grade of 2.5% with a maximum grade of 3.5%.
1
See Reference 2

Based upon a limiting value of .20 m/s of vertical acceleration (av) taking into consideration ride comfort where
there is a possibility of a non-optimal track the effective vertical radius is as follows:
Vertical Curve Radius

Recommended minimum 19,000 m (62,336) at 200 km/h (approx. 125 mph)
Limit 25,000 m (82,020) at 350 km/h (approx. 217 mph)
Japan1
Data for the Central Japan Railway lists the maximum gradient and vertical curve radius as follows:
Tokaido Shinkansen Sango Shinkansen Tohoku-Joetsu

Shinkansen
Maximum gradient, ‰ 20 ‰ (2%) 15 ‰ (1.5%) 15 ‰ (1.5%)
Minimum Vertical Curve 10,000 m (32,808 feet) 15,000 m (49,212 feet) 15,000 m (49,212 feet)
Radius, m
3.5.8.6 Technical Specifications of Interoperability (TSI)2
According to the draft specifications of the TSI and the Committee for European Standardization (CEN) provisional standards,
gradients as steep as 35 ‰ (3.5 %) shall be allowed for main tracks during the design phase. This value applies to high-speed lines
dedicated to passenger traffic only; however exceptions have been made for France and Germany which have lines in service
using 40 ‰ (4 %) gradients. Other restrictions are applied for freight trains.
The vertical curve radius is designed using the following formula:
Rv = V2max / 12.96 * av > Rv, limit value
Rv = Vertical curve radius in m (multiply by 3.28083 to convert to feet)
av = vertical acceleration taking into consideration ride comfort where there is a possibility of a non-optimal track
bed in (m/s2).
1
See Reference 2
2
See Reference 2

3.5.8.7 Limiting Values
3.5.8.7.1 Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av
Table 17-3-3. Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av
Vertical Mixed traffic lines Mixed traffic High-speed lines with

Acceleration designed for lines with dedicated passenger
passenger trains passenger trains traffic 200 < V < 300
200 < V < 300 (km/h) V < 230 (km/h) (km/h)
Recommended
limiting values (m/s2) 0.22 0.22 0.22
Maximum limiting 0.44 0.31 0.44
values (m/s2)
3.5.8.7.2 Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv
Table 17-3-4. Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv
Vertical Curve Mixed traffic lines Mixed traffic High-speed lines with
Radius designed for lines with dedicated passenger
passenger trains passenger trains traffic 200 < V < 300
200 < V < 300 (km/h) V < 230 (km/h) (km/h) 1
Recommended 0.35 V2 max 0.35 V2 max 0.35 V2 max
limiting values (m)
Maximum limiting 0.175 V2 max 0.25 V2 max 0.175 V2 max
values (m)
Possible vertical curve radii with limiting values according to the CEN provisional standards as presented below: 3
3.5.8.7.3 Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h)
Table 17-3-5. Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h)
Speed (km/h) 200 km/h (125 mph)

Vertical Curve Radius (m)
4
Recommended Value 14,100 m (46,260 feet)
Minimum value without tolerance 7,100 m (23,294 feet)
Minimum value on a crest 6,400 m (20,998 feet)
Minimum value in a hallow or sag 5,400 m (17,717 feet)
3.5.8.8 Practical Design of Profiles
The above elements of vertical curves and gradients are used in the design of an acceptable profile. For the design
of main lines it is typical to use the flattest (lowest gradient) profile that the topography and other physical and
operational constraints will permit, regardless of the intended operating speed. The maximum speeds desired will
dictate the minimum lengths of vertical curves and conversely, if the desired profile cannot be used, the lengths of
vertical curves will limit maximum speeds.

Once the gradients and operating speeds are known, the minimum length of vertical curve can be calculated.
Recognizing the need for increased corridor speeds in the future, the ultimate length of vertical curve for the
design maximum speed should be analyzed. Wherever, possible, the longest vertical curve should be used. Main line
vertical curve geometry should be reviewed taking into account planned corridor operations. Care should be taken
to avoid building future speed constraints by designing vertical curves that are too short. Conversely, unnecessary
expenditure to construct vertical curve that is longer than future operations will require should also be avoided. In
areas where there is a shared corridor (high speed rail and freight), the reader should refer to AREMA Chapter 11,
Section 3.5, Track and Roadway Considerations.
3.5.8.9 Vertical Geometry: Other Considerations
When reviewing and designing the vertical geometry, some additional factors should be considered:
• Turnouts, station platforms, bridges, and at-grade road crossings should not be placed in vertical curves.
• It is desirable to avoid placing vertical curves within the limits of horizontal curves.
• Undulating profiles consisting of many short vertical curves and tangents should be avoided. Frequently,
such profiles can be “improved” by using longer vertical curves to “smooth out” the profile.
• It is generally considered poor practice to design an erratic profile for the purposes of balancing earthwork
or to “hit” a series of existing elevations along the track.
• Vertical clearance to overpasses and other overhead structures must be considered. Future electrification
may have to be considered. It is recommended to allow 0.5 to 1.0 foot additional clearance to account for
future track maintenance.
3.5.8.10 Compensated Gradients
Train resistance increases on a curve, therefore a train on a grade that is on a horizontal tangent will encounter
even greater resistance when moving into a horizontal curve. In order to keep train resistance more uniform, the
gradient can be slightly reduced in the horizontal curve to account for increased resistance of the horizontal curve.
This is known as “compensated gradient”. As with other profile considerations, grade compensation may be critical
and should be considered in areas of mixed traffic (passenger and some freight operations). The reader should refer
to AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.7, for a discussion of “Compensated Gradients”.
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.10 GROUNDING
3.5.11.1 High-Speed Turnouts
3.5.11.1.1 General
3.5.11.1.1.1 Foreword
This recommended practice is based on the practices of North American railroads and may be used as a
guideline for the development of high-speed turnout specifications. Included are design options that will
enable the purchaser to develop specifications to meet its particular operations and conditions.
Two categories of turnouts may be installed in high-speed tracks;

(a) Turnouts in high-speed track where a high-speed diverging move is not a consideration. In this
category, AREMA designs or approved equivalent designs providing improved ride quality are
accepted practices. When impact forces acting on switches for industrial sidings or passing tracks
are reduced, ride quality improves and the need for maintenance is reduced. Alignment and ride
quality can be improved through the use of longer guard rails or improved guard rail design. The
continuous wheel tread contact resulting from the use of a movable point or spring frog provides
added ride quality.
(b) The second category includes turnouts in high-speed track where diverging speeds exceed 60 mph.
In this case, increased diverging speed and improved ride quality are attainable through the use of
tangential geometry or other alternative geometries and movable point frog designs. The following
recommended practice addresses this higher diverging speed scenario.
Safety, ride quality, reduced maintenance, and longer life cycles are major factors that should be considered
when selecting a turnout design. Improved line capacity and train operations are potential benefits that also
may result from passenger trip time reductions.
The investment required for the procurement and installation of high-speed turnouts is substantial. The
cost of premium components such as the movable point frog increases the total cost of high-speed turnouts.
When upgrading existing lines, the total length of high-speed turnouts may increase the limits of
interlockings, so the costs for modifying existing signal and electric traction components must be
considered. Longer switch rails and movable point frogs require additional switch machines, electric
detection, and signals circuitry. Concrete ties or premium wood ties should be used for high-speed turnouts
to ensure continuity of rail support.
1
High traffic density rail lines may require that turnouts be installed during off peak periods or weekends.
Installation time frames are of longer duration because of the greater amount of trackwork associated with
the longer turnouts. Track centers, availability of adjacent property for construction, and location of
construction will affect the length of time required for installation. Special material handling equipment has
been utilized to remove existing and install the new, longer high-speed turnouts. Panel systems delivered on
special turnout carrying, flat cars enable off-site, partial assembly thereby reducing track outage for the
installation. 3
3.5.11.1.1.2 Design Criteria
a. General
High-speed turnout components and geometry are designed to provide for increased diverging passenger
train speeds and specified passenger comfort criteria. Turnout component design must be adequate to 4
sustain the axle loads and annual gross tonnage anticipated over the line, the forces imposed by high design
speeds and should be durable enough to minimize maintenance at a reasonable initial cost.
b. Design Speed
Generally, high-speed turnouts in these recommendations accommodate diverging speeds exceeding 60

miles per hour.
c. Passenger Comfort
(1) Lateral Acceleration:
Passenger comfort relates to vertical and horizontal car body accelerations adjusted according to human
perception values as specified in ISO 2631, Mechanical Vibration and Shock -Evaluation of Human
Exposure to Whole-body Vibration. Generally, lateral accelerations should fall within the range of 0.04g
to 0.08g corresponding to unbalanced superelevation of 2.5 to 4.75 inches respectively (where g is the

acceleration due to gravity). It should be noted that FRA approval is required for the use of
underbalance greater than 4 inches.
(2) Wheel Impact:
High-speed turnout geometry aims at reductions in wheel impact especially at the point of switch.
Tangential geometry where the track center-line of the turnout is tangent to the center-line of the
normal track, effectively limits wheel impact forces. The closure curve should be designed in
conjunction with an appropriate theoretical turnout lead, such that the lateral acceleration remains
within acceptable passenger comfort limits in the course of normal wear/repair cycles.
With higher diverging speeds, the turnout radius must be increased to satisfy passenger comfort criteria
and the frog angle becomes smaller. This necessarily translates into long flange way gaps on the rail
surface of the inner running rail for rigid frog designs. For high-speed turnouts, movable point frogs
provide continuity of the rail's running surface to support the wheel tread. The movable frog point and
wing rail interface should be designed such that the lateral acceleration of a vehicle body is within
acceptable passenger comfort limits.
3.5.11.1.2 Products
3.5.11.1.2.1 Rail
a. Stock rails, closure rails, and other turnout rails for high-speed turnouts should be new, fully heat treated or
head hardened rail. Rail sections recommended in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering should be
specified. Rails should be produced in conformance with the latest issue of the AREMA, Manual for Railway
Engineering, Specifications for Steel Rails. Mill certification showing compliance with the specifications
should be furnished at the time of inspection. It should be the responsibility of the turnout supplier to verify
rail hardness prior to commencing machining.
b. Rails should be produced with a minimum Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of 350 and a maximum as
recommended in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 4 for premium rail.
c. Stock rails should be fabricated in conformance with the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Plan No.
221, Detail 5100 point design. Where stock rails do not require bending, they should be interchangeable
between right and left hand turnouts.
d. Rail lengths on high-speed turnouts should be designed so that neither a joint nor a weld lies on a tie nor
within 3 inches of the face of any tie.
e. Raised brands should be ground flush at joint bar locations.
f. Thermal restraint inserts should not be used in the base of rail.
3.5.11.1.2.2 Switch Rail
a. Switch rails may be fabricated from AREMA recommended rail sections or asymmetrical rail sections such
as the UIC 60 derived Zu 1-60 or Zu 1-65A rail sections. Alternatively, the European 60D40 canted rail
section may be considered. The asymmetrical rail section enables the incorporation of resilient fasteners on
the gauge side of the stock rail. Switch rails should be produced in conformance with the latest issue of the
AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications for Steel Rails. The asymmetric switch rail should
have a section compatible with that of the section of the adjoining rail to which it will be welded.
b. Switch rails should be produced with a minimum Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of 350 and a maximum
as recommended in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 4 for premium rail.

c. The overall length of the switch rail must be as specified by the Engineer.
d. The switch rail should be machined in conformance with AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Plan No.
221, Detail 5100 point design with 1/4" riser, to suit undercut stock rail design. The top of the switch rail
should be contoured to the turnout rail section and cant specified by the Engineer. Wherever possible,
switch rails should incorporate a radius of approximately 5/8 inch throughout the machined gauge face.
e. In the switch area of the turnout switch machine connection and snow melter requirements must be
accommodated.
f. The profile of the top of the switch point should be such that the point and the stock rail are of equal height
where the switch point thickness is one-half that of the stock rail head.
g. The heel of the switch rail must be forged to the rail section specified by the Engineer and welded to the
adjoining rail. After welding the switch rail, the forging, the weld and adjoining rail section efforts should be
made to reharden the rail as close as possible to its pre-weld hardness. Welds must be tested in accordance
with the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering.
h. Welds are not permitted in the flexible portion of the switch rail.
3.5.11.1.2.3 Frog
a. General
(1) Frogs used in high-speed diverging moves, should be of a movable point design. 1
(2) The movable point frog must be designed to carry the specified loads and permit frog point movements.
Toe and heel joint locations should be positioned midway between the center lines of adjacent ties.
(3) The body of the frog should be either cast manganese or fabricated from hardened rail steel. All running
surfaces of movable point frogs should be fabricated either of fully heat treated rail or of manganese
steel sections. 3
(4) Movable point frog rail sections may be joined to adjoining rail with welds or mechanical joints. Welds
must be tested in accordance with the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
(5) In the movable point frog switch machine connection and snow melter requirements must be
accommodated.
4
(6) Movable point frogs must have a minimum point throw distance designed for the applicable switch
machine.
(7) Thermal restraint inserts must not be used in the base of rail.
b. Frog Body
(1) Cast Manganese
(a) Casting may be explosive depth hardened at the running wheel contact and impact surfaces.
Hardness should be a minimum 352 BHN conforming to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans,
Specification for Special Trackwork, with the exception that paragraph M2.7.5 should be modified
as follows:
“casting failing to meet hardness requirements is not acceptable.”

(b) Should a hardness measurement fail to meet the specified requirements, two additional
measurements must be made, one on either side of the original impression about 1-inch distance
and parallel with the gauge line. If both follow-up measurements meet the requirement the original
reading can be discarded and those two readings recorded in its place.
(c) Cast frog bodies should be fully machined on the base side so that the running surface and the base
are parallel to within plus or minus 0.020 inches. Welding is not permitted on the running surface of
a manganese casting from gauge line to 3 inches from gauge line. Bolt holes for joining the casting
to the running rails, should be machined to standard AREMA tolerances for drilling. The fishing
surface of the casting should be fully machined to ensure satisfactory fit of the bonded joints with
the adjacent running rails. The running surface of the casting should be no higher than 0.010
inches above the adjacent running rail, as measured with an 18-inch straight edge and feeler gauge.
(2) Fabricated Steel
(a) The base of a fabricated steel frog body should be such that the gap between the edge of the body of
the frog and the plate on which it sits, does not exceed 0.030 inches. If during fabrication heat
treatment is removed from the running surface of the body, heat treatment of this area must be
repeated. Welds should not be permitted on the fabricated body except where required to connect to
adjacent running rails.
(b) The heel of the wing rail must be designed to deflect dragging equipment.
(c) The wing rails must be designed to allow for worn wheel treads.
c. Frog Point
(1) The frog point “V” should be manufactured from fully heat treated steel rail, cast manganese steel or
forged steel.
(2) The two sections of the “V” may be joined by electro-slag welds or mechanical connections. Steel rail
should conform to the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications for Steel Rails.
Manganese steel castings shall conform to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Specifications for
Special Trackwork. Brinell Hardness of the weld and heat-affected zone must be as close as possible to
the pre-weld rail hardness.
(3) The frog point “V” should be welded to the adjoining rail and the weld must be fully ground. Welds must
be tested in accordance with the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering. Where required by design,
low-impact mechanical slip joints may be incorporated on the diverging side of the turnout.
(4) The point of the “V” must be suitably situated in the frog body to prevent wheel flanges from striking
any part of the frog point. A method must be incorporated into the frog point design to prevent the frog
point from lifting under load.
(5) Wherever possible, the point should incorporate a radius of approximately 5/8 inch throughout the
machined gauge face.
(6) Length variations due to the frog movements must be accommodated in the heel of the frog point “V”
either through flexing the steel or incorporation of a slip joint. No portion of the base of the frog point
“V” should be cut to lower the stiffness in the vertical axis. Variations in vertical section modulus may
disturb smooth wheel running or introduce stress risers.
(7) The front switch connection lug should be located to allow proper switch operation and obstruction test
compliance.

3.5.11.1.2.4 Guard Rail
a. High-speed turnouts with movable point frogs should be designed to operate without guard rails.
3.5.11.1.2.5 Rail Joints & Joint Bars
a. All joints should be field welded with the exception of bonded insulated joints. All field welds and bonded
insulated joints should be suspended.
b. All field welds must conform to the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering.
c. All bonded insulated joints must conform to the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications
for Bonded Insulated Rail Joints.
d. The location of insulated rail joints are dictated by signal requirements and the train control system.
Insulated rail joints should not be located within the range of the movable switch rail.
3.5.11.1.2.6 Switch & Frog Plates & Fasteners
a. General
(1) All plates should be designed and fabricated or cast to suit the switch and frog components, the switch
ties and the rail base for the appropriate rail section. An elastic rail fastening system should be used on
all turnout ties. Toe load for elastic fasteners must be sufficient to provide longitudinal restraint and
prevent rail roll-over. 1
(2) All plates should conform to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Specifications for Special
Trackwork.
(3) Frog base plates and pads should be provided where required to protect the ties and for the integrity of
the frog assembly.
3
(4) In the design of turnout plates, efforts should be made to minimize the number of different plates used
for each turnout and also between different sized turnouts.
b. Switch Plates & Fasteners
(1) When asymmetrical switch rail sections are specified in the design, switch plates should be fabricated
with a raised chair design capable of incorporating a high capacity, elastic rail fastening system. 4
Resistance to lateral forces and overturning of the stock rail should be incorporated into the design of
the switch plates. Stock rail clips should have a toe load sufficient to provide longitudinal restraint and
prevent rail roll-over. It should be possible for the stock rail to be removed by rolling it out of the chair
plates rather than sliding it out longitudinally.
(2) Switch plates throughout the switch rail area must be designed with the stock rail mounted at the
design rail cant.
(3) Transition switch plates should be used to lower the 1/4 inch raised switch point rail with vertical
transition increments of 1/32 inch per plate in an area clear of rail joints.
(4) At the heel end of the switch rails the rails should rotate from vertical to the specified cant through the
use of transition plates. Heel plates should be manufactured in such a way that the same plate may be
used on either right or left hand turnouts.
c. Frog Plates & Fasteners

(1) When non-handed movable point frogs are specified in the design, frog plates should be oriented
perpendicular to the bisector of the frog and should allow the frog to be fully interchangeable between
right and left hand turnouts. Tie plates should not be used under the running rail adjacent to the frog.
(2) At the toe and heel of the frog provision should be made to transition the rails from vertical to the cant
specified by the Engineer.
(3) In the frog area where plates may not be required, rail shoulders should be incorporated into the tie.
d. Pads Under Turnout Plates:
(1) Elastomer pads should be used under turnout plates on concrete ties. The pad dimensions, hole
diameters and locations should be equal to the plates they are under. The pads must be permanently
marked to identify manufacturer, year manufactured, pad identification number and installation
orientation if required by design.
(2) The secant static as well as the dynamic spring rates for pads under frog and switch plates should be
specified to provide a uniform track modulus in line with that of pads on adjoining ties. The spring rate
for pads should be determined by testing at least two samples in accordance with the AREMA, Manual
for Railway Engineering Chapter 30, Part 4.
(3) Pads should be produced in conformance with the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter
30, Article 4.2.5 Tie Pads (2003).
3.5.11.1.2.7 Switch & Frog Connections
a. Switch Connections
(1) The switch must be operated by a sufficient number of switch machines to throw the switch. Helper
rods may be used to supplement the throw requirements of the switch machines.
(2) A sufficient number of switch rods must be provided to ensure proper movement of the switch rails
when the switch is thrown.
(3) Switch rails must move satisfactorily with the specified number of machines and should be designed to
comply with 49CFR, Part 236, Rules, Standards, and Instructions Governing the Installation,
Inspection, Maintenance, and Repair of Signal and Train Control Systems, Devices, and Appliances.
(4) The switch rail should be web drilled for the application of a front-mounted detector and lock rod
mounting brackets.
(5) Switch rods should be designed for nominal throws specified by the Engineer and required for the
switch machine configuration.
b. Frog Connections
(1) General
(a) The switch must be operated by a sufficient number of switch machines to throw the frog point “V”
and to comply with 49CFR, Part 236, Rules, Standards, and Instructions Governing the
Installation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Repair of Signal and Train Control Systems, Devices,
and Appliances.
(2) Operating Rods

(a) Operating rod connections should be designed to be as close as practical to the point detector,
having taken into account the required tie spacing to remain compatible with the switch machines.
(b) Movable point frogs should be designed to accommodate the installation of switch rods and
insulated detector rods in accordance with purchaser’s specifications. The frog point locking should
be in the switch machine. Frog point clamp locks are not acceptable.
3.5.11.1.2.8 Switch Ties
a. High-speed turnout ties should be prestressed concrete monoblock design with reinforcing strands to be
located by design. Alternatively, wood ties may be used if fabricated from a high-integrity species such as
Azobe wood.
b. Concrete ties should conform to the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 30, Part 4 Concrete
Ties.
c. Wood switch ties should be designed to accommodate elastic rail fasteners, plates and plate fixation devices.
Toe loads on fasteners should be as recommended for concrete switch ties.
3.5.11.2 Turnouts for High Speed and Commuter Systems
Table 17-3-6 lists the Tangential Turnouts that are currently in use in High Speed and Commuter Rail Systems in
the United States. The design of these turnouts offers the advantage of increased operating speeds through the
diverging routes and improved ride quality. The highest diverging speed that is operated in the US is 80 MPH. The
intial capital cost of these installations is high compared to the cost of the standard AREMA Number 20 turnout, 1
which is the most common higher speed turnout in most commuter and passenger service.
Tangential turnouts are fabricated with asymmetrical switch rails sections, which enables the incorporation of
resilient fasteners on the gage side of the stock rails. Rigid frogs are used in Number 15 and 20 Tangential
turnouts. Movable point frogs can be used in all tangential turnouts and are required in turnouts above Number
20. Tangential designs have been used in turnouts smaller than Number 15 in commuter terminals and on some
transit systems. Speed is not a factor in these installations. 3
Table 17-3-6. Tangential Turnouts
TURNOU FROG LEAD PS/PITO FROG TPF/HEEL C.L. DIVERSION RAIL

T ANGLE LENGTH RADIUS SPEEDS ROAD
NUMBER MPH
15 3°49'06'’ 122.52’ 51.40’ 36.00’ 24.29’ 1622.17’ 30 AMTRAK
4
20 2°51’51” 170.30’ 76.14’ 44.17’ 29.75’ 3212.01’ 45 AMTRAK
20 2°51’51” 192.11’ 93.40’ 42.23’ 27.81’ 3937.26’ 60 MNRR
20 2°51’51” 171.97’ 76.96’ 34.17’ 21.05’ 3217.01’ 45 NJT
20 2°51’44.6” 187.26’ 95.72’ 60.47’ 27.81’ 3937.29’ 60 MNRR
25.47 2°14’54.5” 277.78’ 128.04’ 51.93’ 30.47’ 5577.43’ 65 MNRR
26.5 2°09’39.9” 276.36’ 153.90’ 76.00’ 55.08’ 8556.76’ 60/80 AMTRAK/NJ

T
26.5 2°09’40” 211’ 125’ 40.65’ 24.66’ 5347.00’ 60 LIRR
32.75 1°44’52.4” 299.73’ 145.42’ 72.00’ 47.65’ 10116.26’ 80 AMTRAK

LIRR/MNRR
20 2°51’51” 167.33’ 72.33’ 47.66’ 25.46’ 2250.00’ 50 CALTRAIN**
Note: ** CALTRAIN Turnout is not a Tangential design and has a standard switch point and a spring frog.
Design Criteria and more information on Tangential Turnouts is found in Chapter 17, Article 3.5.11.1.2.


17
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3

4.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.2 Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3 1
4.2.3 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.4 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.5 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.6 Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.7 Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.8 Finish Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3 3
4.2.9 Landscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.10 Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.11 Passenger Information/Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3 Multi-modal Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3

4.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.3 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.4 Parking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.5 Baggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.6 Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.7 Passenger Information/Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.5 Environmental Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.6 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.7 Engine Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
1

4.4.8 Car Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.4.9 Maintenance of Way Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.10 Layover Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.11 Material Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.12 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.13 Utility Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.2.1 GENERAL
4.2.3 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
4.2.5 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
4.2.6 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
4.2.7 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
4.2.8 FINISH MATERIALS 1

4.2.9 LANDSCAPING
4.2.10 AMENITIES
4.2.11 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE 3

4
4.3.1 GENERAL
4.3.3 CIRCULATION
4.3.4 PARKING
4.3.5 BAGGAGE
4.3.6 AMENITIES
4.3.7 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE

4.4.1 GENERAL
4.4.2 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
4.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
4.4.7 ENGINE SHOPS
4.4.8 CAR SHOPS
4.4.9 MAINTENANCE OF WAY SHOPS
4.4.10 LAYOVER YARDS
4.4.11 MATERIAL YARDS
4.4.12 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
4.4.13 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS

17
Part 5
Vehicle Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.2.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.2.2 Interface Requirements (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2 1
5.2.3 Modification to Service – Proven Technology (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3

5.3.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.3.2 Design Criteria (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.3.3 General Description (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3 3
5.3.4 Performance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-4
5.3.5 Safety and System Assurance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-6
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9

5.4.1 General Description (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9
5.4.2 Trucks and Suspension (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9
5.4.3 Current Collection and Primary Power System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.4 Brakes (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.5 Train Control and Communication Systems (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.6 Car Body Exterior (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.7 Crashworthiness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.8 Car Body Interior and Environment (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-11
1

Parts 5 and 6 describe vehicle, control and propulsion system considerations that apply to high-speed rail operation
in the North American environment. While the success and commercial maturity of existing European and Japanese
high-speed rail technologies is recognized, certain modifications will be necessary to address North American
operational practices and safety requirements. This Section discusses the necessary modifications and features,
together with references to other sections of AREMA “Manual for Railway Engineering” where appropriate.
High-speed rail rolling stock and control systems must be compatible with their high-speed infrastructure. Rolling
stock must also be suitable for operation over existing rail lines at conventional speeds. Vehicle control and propulsion
systems must be compatible with the installed signal and communications systems on a route-specific basis.
5.2.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. While regulatory requirements for high-speed rail operations in North America continue to evolve, it is
expected that many of the current requirements regarding vehicle and control system designs will remain
applicable. Areas that have required modification or regulatory waiver for high-speed demonstration service
in the U.S. have included car body structural strength and crashworthiness, safety appliances, and hand
brakes (or parking brake arrangements).
b. High-speed rail systems must be designed and implemented in accordance with federal and local regulatory
and safety requirements applicable to the project. The designs and systems may incorporate an incremental
approach with accommodation for intermediate speed ranges up to 125 mph (201 kph), use of non-
electric/fossil fuel propulsion systems, and inclusion of tilt-suspension systems.
5.2.2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS (1996)
a. High-speed rail operations involve a number of physical, operational, functional and electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) interfaces. Some are critical to system safety and all contribute to reliable system
operation. Formal identification and control of these interfaces is mandatory and should be addressed in the
form of a dedicated system integration effort.
b. For newly-built or otherwise dedicated high-speed trackage, control of vehicle-infrastructure interface

requirements can be based upon the technical specifications of the applicable proprietary technology. For
existing trackage shared with other “conventional” rail operations, additional care must be taken to ensure
full compatibility of the high-speed vehicles and operating systems with current or evolving track and
control installations in a manner acceptable to all user agencies.
5.2.3 MODIFICATION TO SERVICE – PROVEN TECHNOLOGY (1996)
a. Current European and Japanese high-speed systems have generated good records of performance and have
been proven in service. The application and proprietary details of these technologies vary in accordance with
the railroad operating practices and the physical and economic constraints of the home country.
b. Past history in the application of offshore rail technologies to the North American environment has indicated
the need to review and alter even service-proven designs in light of North American service requirements.
Changes have been made as necessary to accommodate the climatic, operating and maintenance environment

and include car structural strength, brake system capacity, and other safety and safety-assurance functions.
It is likely that other existing high-speed rail technologies would require similar modifications.
5.3.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The purpose of this section is identification of issues and interfaces that should be addressed in development
and design of high-speed and very high-speed rail systems. The following comments apply to these systems
defined as specified in Article 6.3.1.2 by using the generic term “high-speed”. The articles will also cite other
portions of this Manual as well as additional standards issued by relevant authorities. While very high-speed
rail operations are mature technologies in other countries, they are relatively new in North America,
particularly in the very high-speed range. There is only one U.S. high-speed rail operation, along Amtrak’s
Northeast Corridor, that is confined to an improved, existing right-of-way and that uses the available
infrastructure and systems. Consequently, a comprehensive body of suitable North American technical
standards does not exist. Some current requirements may be incompatible with aspects of technologies
under consideration, and the development of suitable standards is a desirable objective. The foreign
technologies have been developed, built and operated as systems encompassing all aspects of route geometry,
right-of-way, traction power, signal and communications, vehicles, shops, terminals, maintenance practices,
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), and operations.
b. Application of more advanced foreign systems standards to development of new services may involve
1
adaptation for North American operation. It may be preferable to modify or adopt such standards for new
projects to ensure that system integrity is maintained, since they are already compatible being directly
evolved from relevant technology. When high-speed systems are evaluated for application in North America,
the underlying standards, operating environment, and design criteria must also be considered as part of the
technology transfer process.
3
5.3.2 DESIGN CRITERIA (1996)
a. Current AAR, AREMA and FRA standards and regulations should be investigated to identify applicable
requirements. The standard practices and safety codes established by engineering and technical governing
bodies (e.g. ASME, IEEE, NESC, etc.) are typically incorporated by reference rather than by quoting specific
provisions. Applicable sections should be identified and dated and divergences should be explicitly stated.
These codes and recommended practices normally comprise a portion of design requirements. Local, state or 4
regional codes and requirements should also be reviewed for relevant items appropriate to the system.
These may address localized effects of the system, such as noise, speed, safety, aesthetics, vibration, land
use, accessibility and service. The California General Public Utilities Code (GPUC) is typical of this type of
code and establishes requirements for electric traction railroads and signaling systems. Governing
jurisdictions may also identify unique requirements for high-speed rail systems such as earthquake or
wind/weather provisions.
b. If foreign technologies are selected, then the associated design criteria should be reviewed, adapted for the
planned application and incorporated in the procurement documents. Other design criteria will describe
system parameters, equipment, and component characteristics that define the technical features and resulting
performance. It is beyond the scope of this Manual to specify the extent and detail of these requirements.
5.3.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION (1996)
a. The system technology, route location and service characteristics should be evaluated to determine the
applicability of Federal regulations. These will have significant impacts on the design standards and safety

features that have to be incorporated. Examples are buff strength requirements, track standards and
signaling standards, which are applicable to all US railroads that serve interchange traffic. An exclusive
right-of-way dedicated to high-speed passenger traffic to be operated within a single state or province, or by
a specially constituted authority, may permit more latitude for selection of suitable design requirements.
This evaluation will have significant implications for cost, safety and liability considerations borne by the
operator, especially for train movements beyond exclusive right-of-way.
b. The sections below discuss aspects of high-speed rail systems and vehicles and are not intended to be a
design specification. They focus on high-speed and very high-speed rail as defined in Article 6.3.1.2.
5.3.4 PERFORMANCE (1996)
Performance is assumed to fall into a range of 110 mph (177 kph) or higher, within the specified speed ranges, and
also includes acceleration, braking, and curving response. Active or passive suspension or tilt systems may be used
but may not be essential to achieving or maintaining this level of performance.
5.3.4.1 Characteristics
Vehicle consists may be comprised of locomotive hauled individual cars, unit trainsets, or multiple unit
configurations. Standard coupling or articulated trucks can be used, and axles/wheelsets are likely to have
steerable or radial capabilities, provided via linkages or suspension components. Axle loads should not exceed
acceptable high-speed rail industry limits in current use. Disc brakes appear to be the most suitable for friction
braking, however, dynamic braking should be a primary system with blending capabilities. The unsprung weight of
the vehicle should be minimized. Propulsion systems can be electric traction power supplied by a catenary system
or with interim on-board generation by gas turbine, diesel or other fossil fuel. However, a catenary based system is
the most practical approach for the foreseeable future since the state-of-the art offers many performance,
operational and economic advantages for future upgrading above 125 mph (201 kph).
5.3.4.2 Performance Requirements
Acceleration rates and brake rates should achieve the maximum levels permitted by passenger comfort and safety.
Jerk limiting systems controlling external acceleration effects and wheel slip/slide control should be provided. Top
speed is 110 mph (177 kph) or higher, with sufficient power for acceleration up to the top speed.
5.3.4.3 Operations and Controls
Load shedding control should be provided to limit current draw and maintain traction system voltage stability.
Electro-pneumatic braking controls will maintain an even brake rate on all cars. The control console, ergonomic
factors and cab layout will be established by the vehicle manufacturer in accordance with Federal regulations and
should incorporate comment by vehicle operators. Operation at higher speeds has a significant effect on stopping
distances, sight distances, power requirements, and control system response times. Operator and vehicle control
topics are discussed in Section 6.3, Signals Systems.
5.3.4.4 Compatibility
a. The traction power, signal and communications system, infrastructure, vehicles, terminals, facilities and
operating practices should be internally compatible and be designed as parts of a system to ensure
coordination of all elements and components, and the nature of the operation dictates compatibility issues.
While it is preferable to provide high-speed service on a dedicated right-of-way with specifically designed
systems, other combinations of equipment and service are possible. However, the broader the range of
service, equipment and travel speeds, the more complex the issue of compatibility becomes. Safety for
passengers, employees, equipment and operations becomes an increasingly complex consideration as speeds
and service mixtures are varied.

b. The design should also be responsive to owner/operator service and economic objectives. This could include
number of tracks, station locations, track configuration, speeds, frequency of service, parking, stopping
patterns, interlockings, etc. Intermodal or other connecting transfer facilities must be suitable for each type
of vehicle or system and adequate for the anticipated passenger volume and peaking characteristics.
5.3.4.5 Passenger Environment
a. The passenger environment is also addressed in sections relating to rail vehicles and passenger facilities.
Passenger comfort, safety, amenities, and accessibility topics are detailed under specific requirements and
headings. The primary consideration is provision of systems, vehicles and infrastructure to support and
facilitate compliance with these requirements while enhancing the passenger environment. Passenger
environment should be viewed from an all-inclusive perspective (portal-to-portal), from entrance to a
system facility, whether by car, on public transportation or on foot, to departure from the system. The
station and passenger facilities and services should equal or exceed airline standards of service and be
commensurate with the service quality and cost. The passenger environment should remain relatively
consistent with respect to temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure whether in a station, tunnel or
on a moving or stopped vehicle.
b. Vehicle crashworthiness should be considered for both passengers and employees. This characteristic will
influence the vehicle structural design, interior layout and choice of materials. Passenger cars should be
joined with a fully enclosed weatherproof passageway between cars and all vehicles should be equipped with
anti-climbers, collision posts, and appropriate draft gear. It may be useful to consider the presence of
hazards to rolling stock along the right-of-way in the event of a derailment or train separation. Access for
emergency vehicles onto and along the right-of-way should be incorporated in the right-of-way design. Route
alignment and geometry will have a significant impact on passenger comfort because of its effect on speed 1
and forces which the passenger experiences. Therefore coordination is essential between the civil aspects of
the route and equipment behavior and tolerance for changes in route alignment, grade or curvature. Track
maintenance standards should also be considered by designers since deviations from system designs will
have a significant impact on passenger comfort, noise and ride quality, and wear and tear of the vehicle
suspension and unsprung components. Designers of vehicles and right-of-way must consider the trip time
and the duration of exposure to noise levels, centrifugal forces, vertical and lateral acceleration and jerk
rates, and vibrations in relation to passenger comfort. The use of spiral transitions, superelevation and 3
other features should contribute to maintaining passenger comfort levels. Additionally, the tolerance limits
for right-of-way parameters should be easily maintained using standard maintenance equipment.
5.3.4.6 Environmental Impact
a. The operation of the vehicle, its systems, and facilities should be designed to prevent damage to the
environment and protect against potential hazards. Such features could include containment or 4
countermeasures for accidental release of undesirable fluids or substances, and strategically placed
materials and equipment for response to emergencies. Any new project will be the subject of an
environmental impact assessment. This assessment should include the offsetting benefits of the system if,
for example, automobile and airline trips are reduced. Furthermore, the no-build impact on the
environment needs to be analyzed, since it might result in increased auto travel, different commercial
growth, or new airport construction. Construction of the system will normally be covered by applicable
requirements to protect or restore adjacent disturbed sites, habitats and bodies of water, etc.
b. No substances or effects that are significantly harmful to human, animal or plant life should be produced or
expelled. The potential effects of natural disasters such as earthquakes or extreme weather in causing
secondary damage should not be overlooked. This should apply both within the confines of the vehicle and in
its operating right-of-way and facilities and to employees, passengers and the general public.
c. Environmental considerations should include impacts on the air, water, and soil. Effects can be the result of
normal operation or be caused by abnormal incidents and can include combustion, spillage, chemical
reaction, heat, cold, wind, electrical conductivity or magnetic energy. Other less significant effects such as

interference with radio, television (cable or airwave), telephone (hardwire or cellular) and utility services
should be considered. The tendency for utility pipes, casing, and conductors which cross or run parallel to
the route to conduct or attract electrical energy or provide a path for spilled fluids should not be overlooked.
d. If the trains are electrically powered via utility lines, substations and a traction power distribution system
(e.g. catenary), all effluents and pollutants can be controlled at the point of power generation by the
generating authority. This may be preferable and more effective than multiple local or individual controls.
However, the transportation system owner should endeavor to incorporate regenerative braking technology
to minimize the demand for energy. Operational practices or technologies to smooth out demand peaks
should be encouraged. Renewable energy sources should be considered for power supply to remote field
facilities or to supply battery chargers where feasible.
5.3.5 SAFETY AND SYSTEM ASSURANCE (1996)
The primary objectives of safety and system assurance are to provide a high degree of protection and reliability and
minimize downtime during maintenance and malfunctions. Quantitative goals/requirements should be specified
for system elements where applicable. In addition to the quantitative goals to be met, requirements may be defined
for a reliability program plan, specific analyses, prediction, and reliability demonstrations, depending on available
field experience data for system elements from railroad industry sources.
5.3.5.1 Reliability Program and Submittals
a. Manufacturers of system equipment should establish, submit for approval, and maintain a Reliability
Program and Plan, including:
• A detailed listing and description of each task.
• The timing of each task and related milestones.
• The organizational element responsible for each task.
• Identification of reliability problems requiring resolution.
• Procedures for recording reliability problem resolution.
b. Contractors for the Rail Vehicle, Train Control, Signaling, Traction Power and Communications Systems
should be required to prepare Reliability Analyses and submit them for system coordination and approval.
5.3.5.2 Reliability Requirements
Contract documents should require the achievement and demonstration of reliability both by analysis and
demonstration testing. Systems contractors should be required to develop and obtain approval of Reliability
Demonstration Test Plans. New vehicle types should be subjected to a planned qualification test program at the
Transportation Technology Center, Pueblo, Colorado or at an equivalent facility. Warranty provisions can be
included in all civil and system contracts, to assure that costs of replacing and repairing defective materials and
components are clearly the responsibility of the contractor. In addition to general warranties, which cover a time
period from start up of operations, acceptance or delivery of a facility or piece of equipment, additional time
warranties can be included in the vehicle contract. In addition to warranties included for specified time periods,
additional warranty requirements relating to the maximum failure rates on particular components can be imposed.
5.3.5.3 System Maintainability
Each system element and its constituent equipment should be designed to permit ready access for maintenance.
Maintenance personnel should have access for performance of maintenance functions, including failure location

and isolation, disassembly and reassembly, repair/replacement as well as routine inspection/testing. Quantitative
and qualitative maintainability goals should be specified for system elements where applicable.
5.3.5.3.1 Maintainability Program
a. Manufacturers of the system equipment should be required to establish, submit for approval, and maintain
a Maintainability Program and Plan, which should include:
• A detailed listing and description of each task.
• The timing of each task and related milestones.
• The organizational element responsible for each task.
• Identification of maintainability problems requiring resolution.
• Procedures for recording maintainability problem resolution.
b. Quantitative and qualitative maintainability requirements should be established, as appropriate, and

should be incorporated into the appropriate contract documents. Maintainability should be analyzed during
design, production, and testing of the equipment to evaluate the degree of achievement of maintainability
design requirements.
5.3.5.3.2 Maintenance Concepts

1
A detailed Maintenance Concept should be developed and submitted by each system equipment contractor for
approval. The maintenance concept should include a description of how the contractor intends to achieve
maintenance requirements identified in contract documents.
5.3.5.3.3 Maintenance Analysis
A Maintenance Analysis should be developed and submitted by each system equipment contractor for approval. 3
The analysis should describe all the maintenance tasks that operating authority personnel may be required to
perform on the equipment.
5.3.5.3.4 Maintenance Manuals
Maintenance department employees should be provided with detailed instructions that cover the servicing and
repair of all system components. All suppliers and contractors should be required to submit maintenance manuals 4
for approval that contain all the information needed to service, maintain, repair, inspect, adjust, troubleshoot,
replace, and overhaul each component or subsystem.
5.3.5.3.5 Training
Maintenance personnel should undergo a comprehensive training program for maintaining all system elements.
The training should be sufficient for, and compatible with, system start up requirements, and should provide a
level of education and ability to ensure the competent maintenance of the high-speed rail system and associated
equipment.
5.3.5.4 System Safety
There should be a management policy that safety be the primary consideration throughout the evolution of a
system, from preliminary engineering through revenue operations. To fulfill the obligation of this policy, all
applicable codes and regulations, technology and industry standards, should be used to ensure that each system
achieves a level of safety that equals or exceeds that of the passenger railroad industry. Safety can be achieved

during the preliminary engineering and final design phases by eliminating, minimizing, or controlling hazards
through analysis, review and design selection. This includes provisions for emergencies such as an emergency
communications network, on-site emergency equipment, access by emergency forces, and emergency preparedness
planning in general.
5.3.5.4.1 Safety Program
The objectives of the safety program should be overall elimination or control of hazards and assurance that no
single point failure or undetected latent failure in combination with any additional failure would result in a hazard.
A resulting acceptable level of risk and full compliance with FRA safety regulations should be achieved. The system
should include health and safety provisions for maintenance and operational personnel that are equal to or exceed
the requirements of state, province or regional Occupational Safety and Health regulations, and any Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), U.S. Department of Labor, and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requirements.
5.3.5.4.2 System Safety – Basis of Design Approach

Prior to preparation of specifications and design development, a Failure Modes Effects Analysis or Functional
Hazard Analysis should be prepared to analyze the loss or malfunction of each system function and categorize its
affect on the system, personnel, passengers and general public.
5.3.5.5 Human Factors
a. The objective of a human-factors program is to ensure compatibility between the physical and functional
system design features and the human element during operation, maintenance and support of the system.
This objective should be accomplished by applying human-engineering criteria to the design of the
equipment. This effort is supported by design studies, operator-task analyses, maintenance-task analyses,
and test programs to assess the inherent human-factors characteristics of the system. The primary
measurement of human factors is expressed in terms of safety and cost (staffing) and system effectiveness
(the influence on system availability, dependability, and capability).
b. The human-engineering characteristics of a system directly influence the mean time between maintenance
(MTBM) and mean down time (MDT) quantitative factors of maintainability. As an example, if human error
in operation of the system induces a failure, MTBM will be affected. Or, if maintenance tasks are difficult for
the technician to perform, then MDT will be affected. In this regard, human-engineering and
maintainability-design features combine to aid in establishing the operational-availability characteristics of
the system. The two disciplines are also related in a number of other respects, as follows:
• Maintainability and maintenance-analysis reports form the baseline for generation of maintenance-task
analyses.
• Manpower-requirement reports are considered in making maintenance policy decisions.
• Defined skill-level needs aid in establishing training requirements.
• Environmental needs are considered in facilities planning (lighting, heating, etc.).
• The content of maintenance instructions is made consistent with the abilities and needs of the system
personnel.
• Maintainability and human-engineering design features reflect on one another.
c. Human-factors program requirements often result in generation of a system analysis, operator and
maintenance-task analyses, personnel-requirements data, and training/instructional aids planning
information. Certain aspects of such data analysis should parallel the maintenance analysis, specifically

from the standpoint of facilities, maintenance tasks, personnel assignment and skill levels, and training
requirements. In some instances, depending on organizational interests and available manpower, it may be
feasible to cover these areas on a joint basis. In any event, the maintainability engineer should maintain full
cognizance of available human-factors data when completing the maintenance analysis.
SECTION 5.4 ROLLING STOCK
a. High-speed rail systems have been under development in various parts of the world since the 1960’s. These
systems have evolved over the years to the greatest maturity in France, Germany and Japan, with more
recent development in Sweden, Italy and Spain. The rolling stock for these systems have varying
characteristics which are specific for operation in their respective countries. Each system has been designed
to meet specific requirements including unique infrastructure and subsystem characteristics to which the
rolling stock must conform. In addition, each rolling stock supplier has developed its own proprietary
technology to satisfy those requirements.
b. North American conditions will present an additional set of design requirements as compared with the
European and Japanese experience. Climatic conditions may be more severe, maintenance regimens may be
less intensive, and regulatory requirements are likely to be more stringent. Lessons learned in the
successful design of conventional North American rolling stock should be carefully applied in modifying
existing proprietary designs for North American service.
c. This Section is concerned only with a brief review of the parameters required for a systems approach to
high-speed rolling stock design. Because its design must be undertaken as one part of a high-speed rail 1
system, it is most important to identify the specific interfaces of the rolling stock to other parts of the
system.

3
a. The design of any high-speed rail service must be undertaken from a systems standpoint, where the rolling
stock is merely one of a number of major components of the total system. To this point, rolling stock, track,
catenary, traction power supply, and signal and train control systems must be designed to function together
to ensure successful operation.
b. Because of the proprietary nature of the various successful foreign high-speed trains, this Section of the
Manual will not attempt to address all of the various features of train design that must be accommodated, 4
but rather will merely cite the necessary interfaces between the rolling stock and its operating environment.
The manner in which each of these interfaces is addressed is worthy of detailed consideration in subsequent
development of the entire system design; however, only a brief description of each interface is given in these
guidelines.
5.4.2 TRUCKS AND SUSPENSION (1996)
a. High quality track, with very tight maintenance tolerances, has been developed for all of the successful
high-speed rail systems constructed to date. Equally important is the interface between the rolling stock
and the track. Trucks, wheels, and suspension parameters should be addressed in a manner that allows
them to function at their optimum as required by the track interface. A thorough investigation of
track/train dynamics should be undertaken to assure that ride quality and safety of the vehicles are
maintained. In particular, appropriate design tradeoffs are necessary in balancing high-speed stability

requirements with truck curving and wheel load equalization requirements, and with operation on lower
class tracks in terminal and yard areas.
b. Further in this regard, if high-speed service utilizing existing rights-of-way is undertaken on an incremental
basis, the use of tilt-body equipment may be desirable. Tilt-body vehicles must be carefully designed to be
fail-safe and to move the car bodies to offset the effects of high cant deficiencies in a smooth, safe and
predictable manner while maintaining passenger comfort levels.
5.4.3 CURRENT COLLECTION AND PRIMARY POWER SYSTEM (1996)
a. High-speed current collection by means of pantographs presents a serious design issue.

Catenary/pantograph dynamic conditions must be carefully addressed to ensure the minimum interruption
in contact continuity as well as to avoid undue stress and dynamic input to the flexible catenary system.
Aerodynamics and power collection capability are extremely important aspects of pantograph design.
Operation of a train with more than one pantograph raised at the same time has been found to excite the
catenary excessively, thereby causing excessive loss of contact, especially if the pantographs are not at
opposite ends of the train.
b. The development of the traction power supply must account for the power requirements of a number of
trains operating on the same circuit at the same time. Regenerative braking can be used to augment the
power supply system but care must be exercised to optimize line receptivity when incorporating this
function.
5.4.4 BRAKES (1996)
The ultimate safety of any high-speed rail system will be dependent on the effectiveness and reliability of the
vehicle braking system. Braking must match the characteristics of the right-of-way and the signal and control
system, as well as provide comfortable deceleration. In most cases, this will require a primary dynamic brake,
either regenerative or rheostatic, supplemented by friction braking with discs. Wheel tread friction braking, if
used, should be minimized to preserve the integrity of the wheels and avoid overheating. Under some
circumstances, foreign high-speed rail networks have allowed the use of magnetic track brakes; this is an interface
with the track system that should be carefully designed and considered before its implementation. Eddy current
electric braking is also a possibility that is becoming more feasible with advances in the technology.
5.4.5 TRAIN CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (1996)
The train interface with the signal system is clearly of critical importance to operating safety, In this regard,
stopping distances must be ensured for the worst-case braking conditions. In addition, the security and integrity of
the signal system must be protected from the influence of electromagnetic interference and transients arising from
the vehicles’ propulsion systems. Many new signal systems utilize solid state devices that require special attention
to preclude difficulties of this type, particularly with modern traction systems utilizing inverter drive propulsion.
5.4.6 CAR BODY EXTERIOR (1996)
Other significant issues that must be addressed in the design of the rolling stock include environmental concerns
such as noise and sound levels, both to the interior of the equipment as well as external wayside noise, which could
disturb the public. Aerodynamic noise from car bodies and pantographs, as well as wheel/rail noise, may require
special abatement procedures for very high-speed operation.
5.4.7 CRASHWORTHINESS (1996)
In contrast to conventional North American rolling stock design, where car body buff strength has been a
predominant concern, high-speed rolling stock design focuses on maximizing the crashworthiness of vehicle car

bodies through use of energy absorption techniques. Designs for crash energy management providing vehicle crush
zones or zones of increasing strength have been applied. In addition, the interior of vehicles requires special
treatment to preclude injuries from secondary collisions of passengers with other interior objects in the event of a
serious accident. Other wayside interfaces dealing with safety are addressed in Section 6.3, Signals Systems.
5.4.8 CAR BODY INTERIOR AND ENVIRONMENT (1996)
a. A very important interface of the vehicles is with the passengers themselves. To this end, the design of the
vehicles must provide for a good ride in a comfortable environment. Simple as this concept seems, there may
be considerable difficulty in optimizing these two major features. Good ride quality is primarily dependent
on the proper design of the suspension and car body tilting system (if used) and their interface to the track.
But, in addition, the passenger seating must be properly addressed to optimize the interface with the
passengers.
b. The HVAC system is another important passenger interface. Temperature and humidity control must be
carefully addressed to ensure a comfortable environment for the specific climate conditions encountered by
the service. The car body ventilation and fresh air provisions may require special attention. Depending on
speed and certain wayside characteristics, special consideration may be necessary in the vehicle HVAC
system design to accommodate the pressure changes of fast moving vehicles as they enter and leave tunnels
or pass other trains or structures. Some foreign high-speed vehicles have addressed this concern by sealing
the train to preclude the development of rapid pressure changes inside the train. However if this is done, it
should be addressed in the early stages of the vehicle design. In some cases, the design of the tunnel can be
such as to avoid the development of pressures in excess of those acceptable to passengers and crew.
c. Finally, with respect to car body interior features, the Americans with Disability Act of 1990 (ADA) has 1
imposed specific requirements on all rail equipment built for use in the United States. In this regard, there
may be design features of foreign high-speed trains that will not be acceptable in this country. Some of the
more significant features to be addressed in the design of the car body include the placement of hand rails
and provision of turning areas and clearances for wheelchairs and other mobility devices, particularly in
doorways and aisles. The provision of wheelchair parking spaces and special facilities for their access to the
cars, as well as to other features within the train such as good layout of service areas and toilets, is required.
3


17
Part 6
Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.3 Signals Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2

6.3.1 General Definitions and Objective (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.3.2 Automatic Train Control (ATC) System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-4
6.3.3 Control System – Propulsion System Electromagnetic Compatibility (1996) . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-6 3
6.3.4 Interlocking System (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-6
6.3.5 Communications (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-7
6.3.6 Hazard Detection and Surveillance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-9

6.5.1 Electric Traction Power (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-15
1

SECTION 6.3 SIGNALS SYSTEMS
For a set of applicable terminology and associated definitions refer to:
• AREMA Communications and Signals Manual Section 1.
• Appendix A – Glossary, Safety of HSGT Systems, State-of-the-Art and Assessment of Safety Verification
and Validation Methodologies. Report # DOT-VNTSC-FRA-95-8.I.
6.3.1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND OBJECTIVE (1996)
a. The objective of this Section is to provide a general overview of signal control systems and to highlight the
signal control system requirements for high and very high-speed train operation. The regulations and
recommendations for train control provided in 49 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 236, the AREMA
Communications and Signals Manual, or in expected future regulations provide a basis for all signal control
systems.
b. The objective of a train control system is to control the movement of trains from point of origin to final
destination in a safe and efficient manner. The operation of trains at very high-speeds requires a control
system that, at the minimum, continuously informs the operator of the allowable safe speed and that applies
the train’s brakes if the operator fails to comply.
6.3.1.1 Available Technology
The train control system can vary from a simple installation where information is made available to train
operators via wayside signals (to assist them in the decision making process in the control of the movement of their
trains) to a completely automated system in which manual involvement in the normal movement of the trains is
unnecessary. The level of safety and efficiency achieved will depend on, among other things, personnel selection
and training, human/equipment interface design, operational and emergency response procedures, and traffic
density, in concert with the level of automation implemented.
6.3.1.2 Current/Proposed Requirements
a. The signal and control requirements are established based on the operating environment and speed range of
the trains. Different signal and/or control systems can be used for different sections of the rail
transportation network, as long as the maximum train speed in a section of the network is limited to be
consistent with the signal and control system in effect and with the specific train’s onboard control system.
Refer to FRA Regulation 49 CFR Part 236, and to Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation
Systems – Collision Avoidance and Accident Survivability – Volume 4: Proposed Specifications – Part 3.6.2 –
Signal and Train Control, Report # DOT-VNTSC-FRA-93.2.IV, for additional information.
b. Wayside equipment capable of supporting moderate, high and very high-speed operational ranges can be
used to allow the control of trains in these three speed ranges as a function of the train’s onboard control
system. Thus, trains equipped to operate at moderate, high or very high-speeds can be operated over the
same territory depending on a complete risk analysis of the specific mix of freight, passenger and/or speed

parameters. Obviously very high-speed trains following closely behind moderate speed trains will not be
able to take advantage of their total capabilities. In such an operation the maximum authorized speed limit
will be restricted to the moderate speed range speed limit, unless the train control system positively
determines that it is safe to permit correctly equipped and properly functioning high and very high-speed
trains to operate at higher speeds.
c. In general:
(1) Low speed range (0–59 mph [0–95 kph]) train movements are permitted under manual control with
verbal instructions or train orders from an operations control center or dispatcher. All trains operating
in territory that has no signaling system are restricted to this speed range regardless of their onboard
train control capabilities.
(2) Moderate speed range (60–79 mph [97–127 kph]) train movements are permitted under manual control,
using line side signals. Automatic means of detecting the position of the train on the track structure are
used to activate restrictive line side signals for other trains. At junctions, interlocking systems prevent
setting or changing switches or signals to a position that would permit conflicting train movements.
(3) High-speed range (80–125 mph [129–201 kph]) train movements are permitted under the requirements
stated for the moderate speed range except that a cab signal system is required but lineside signals are
not required (operation from 80 to 110 mph [129–177 kph] is allowed with automatic cab signal,
automatic train stop or automatic train control). This added system must provide cab signals, provide
an audible warning whenever the cab signal indication changes to a more restrictive condition, remove
propulsion and apply the brakes if the operator does not acknowledge the more restrictive cab signal
indication within a preset time. An automatic train protection system as described for the very high-
speed range below is highly recommended for trains operating in the high-speed range. 1
(4) Very high-speed range (above 125 mph [201 kph]) train movements require an automatic train
protection (ATP) system. The ATP system continuously compares the actual train speed to the
maximum permitted speed, taking into account speed limits for the individual train, temporary or
permanent speed limits imposed because of track structure conditions, train control instructions and
train braking capability. The ATP system must provide positive enforcement of all civil and operational
speed limits. If the actual speed exceeds the permitted speed by more than 9 mph (15 kph), automatic 3
propulsion removal and brake application must be initiated to reduce speed to a level at or below the
permitted speed before manual operation can be resumed. The train operator must not be able to
override the automatic removal of propulsion and brake application in any way that would allow the
train to operate at a speed exceeding the maximum permitted safe speed by more than 9 mph (15 kph).
NOTE: These definitions do not supersede any established speed definitions existing in applicable
operating or maintenance rule books, Federal or State regulations, guidelines or recommended
4
practices. Thus for high-speed and very high-speed rail operations all trains must, as a
minimum, be protected by a fail-safe control system, i.e. component or subsystem failures
always result in the system reverting to a known safe state. The minimum system shall include
fail-safe route control and locking, in-cab display of current maximum safe operating speed,
current actual speed and overspeed warning, and overspeed protection. If potentially unsafe
situations, such as train overspeed, should develop and the operator does not take proper
action, the system must automatically enforce safe operation.
6.3.1.3 Vital Subsystems
A minimum system requires vital subsystems incorporating system components that are highly reliable, have a
minimum number of known failure modes, and have been designed as a system to ensure safe train movement.
Vital subsystems are functionally responsible for train detection, speed limit determination, route interlocking,
and overspeed protection (including actual speed measurement, overspeed determination, and train brake control).
These subsystems must be highly reliable, fault tolerant (exhibit low down time) and ultimately be fail-safe.

6.3.1.4 Nonvital Subsystems
There are a number of nonvital subsystems available for train control, which are not necessary for safe train
control but are useful in improving the efficiency of the system’s operation. They may include diagnostic functions,
route control (automatic or remote), train speed regulation, automatic station stopping, scheduling, dispatching,
management information (e.g. on time performance, operating statistics, etc.), communications systems, system
status display (central control), etc. These subsystems are included to improve the train control system and to
provide information to a central control operator for use in determining the best way to provide required services
to the passengers. These systems do not need to be fail-safe. They must be implemented in such a way that their
functions (or lack of functioning) do not interfere with those of the vital subsystems.
6.3.2 AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL (ATC) SYSTEM (1996)

An ATC system may be comprised of Automatic Train Protection (ATP), Automatic Train Operation (ATO), and
Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) functions. ATP provides protection for passengers, personnel and equipment
from accidents due to unsafe train operations. ATO controls basic operations that would otherwise be performed by
an operator and does so within the safe operating limits imposed by the ATP. ATS is the link between the central
control operator and the system. It provides system status and provides means for the central control operator to
monitor and initiate control requests for specific operations such as route alignment and schedule changes.
6.3.2.1 Automatic Train Protection (ATP)
a. The ATP function provides for safe operation. Safety shall be maintained under all circumstances, including
any combinations of wayside power on or off, train power on or off, and all possible conditions of automatic
operation. Under any of the above conditions or combinations of conditions where the ATP is inoperable or
overridden, emergency and procedural means shall be invoked by operating personnel to assure safety of
continuing operation.
b. The ATP system must provide protection to prevent personal injuries to passengers and personnel, and
prevent physical damage to equipment or the appurtenant facilities within its area of control. Safety is of
paramount importance. The system must be safe not only when all elements are operating normally as
intended, but also when malfunctions occur. In order to maintain safe conditions when malfunctions occur,
the system must be designed to be fail-safe. Acceptable means of verification and validation of software,
firmware and hardware must be employed for all vital systems and subsystems to assure their fail-safe
capabilities.
c. The ATP system includes as a minimum the vital subsystems listed in Article 6.3.1.3. For high-speed and
very high-speed passenger movements, the following provides a general description of their vital subsystem
requirements.
6.3.2.1.1 Train Detection
a. A train detection subsystem that determines the physical location of all trains is required. Any error
between the actual train location and the detection subsystem’s determination of its location, under normal
operating characteristics or due to failure conditions, must result in safe train operation. This subsystem
will interface with the subsystems used to determine safe maximum speed limits and safe route control.
b. The train detection subsystem should provide broken rail detection as an integral part of its operation or a
separate subsystem/detection methodology should be used to ensure that broken rails are identified and
train protection against this hazard is achieved.
6.3.2.1.2 Route Interlocking
The route interlocking system will interface with the train location and speed limit determination subsystems. It
will ensure that train movements will be permitted only when they do not conflict with other train movements and
are in accordance with the switch settings. This system will also ensure that switch settings and routes cannot be
altered unless it is safe to do so by properly implementing the concepts of approach/time locking, route locking, and

detector locking as needed. For further definition of these concepts refer to Article 6.3.4.
6.3.2.1.3 Speed Limit Determination
The determination of the maximum safe speed for a train at any point within the system is a function of the
location and route of trains in its path, the status of switches in its path, the civil speed limits in its path (curves,
stations, switches, etc.), the horizontal/vertical inclination of the tracks (grade affects the braking performance of
the train), and the train’s braking characteristics (including reaction times, worst case failure modes and safety
factors). Therefore, this subsystem requires wayside (infrastructure) information, train location information and
train characteristic information. In all cases (normal operation and for all failure modes) this subsystem must
determine the actual maximum safe speed limit or a speed limit that is lower. This system must also have the
ability to enforce temporary restricted maximum speed limits for track sections. These restrictions may be
necessary due to track work or temporary conditions that make the normal maximum speed unacceptable.
6.3.2.1.4 Overspeed Protection
a. The overspeed protection function should provide absolute speed enforcement, ensuring that speed of the
train never exceeds the safe speed limit. The overspeed protection subsystem includes speed measuring
devices that furnish signals that are a measure of the train’s actual speed. If actual speed is below the
maximum safe speed limit for the current section of track, then braking is not initiated by the subsystem.
b. In a high-speed system, if the actual speed exceeds the safe speed limit, the operator should be given an
audible warning. If the operator fails to acknowledge within a preestablished time limit (1 to 3 seconds), the
overspeed protection system should remove the signal that allows propulsion to be applied and holds the
brakes off, causing propulsion to be removed and brakes to be applied. It should be possible either to reapply
the brake hold off signal and allow the operator to resume control once the actual speed is below the
maximum safe speed, or the system can be configured such that the train will be brought to a complete stop
1
by the overspeed protection equipment and only then will it allow the operator to reset the system and
resume control.
c. In a very high-speed system, if actual speed exceeds the current safe speed limit, the ATP system should
automatically remove the brake hold off signal which removes propulsion and applies the brakes. The
vehicle operator cannot override the automatic brake application under any circumstances if the actual
speed is greater than the speed limit. 3
6.3.2.2 Automatic Train Operation (ATO)
ATO functions may be included as options in the train control system to improve system efficiencies. These
functions automatically perform operations normally completed by the operator in accordance with prescribed
operating criteria but within the safety limits imposed by the ATP subsystem.
4
6.3.2.2.1 Motion Control
The motion control portion of the ATO subsystem is responsible for starting, stopping and controlling the train’s
operating speed such that acceleration, deceleration and jerk are within acceptable passenger comfort levels and
the maximum speed is below the safe speed limit established by the ATP subsystem.
6.3.2.2.2 Station Stop
The station stop portion of the ATO subsystem is responsible for bringing a train to a controlled stop at the correct
location within the station platform limits.
6.3.2.2.3 Passenger Information Control
The passenger information control portion is capable of interfacing with equipment to provide audio and visual
information to passengers. This information may be onboard the train and/or in station areas. The information to
be displayed may include train route or destination, next station, arrival time, station being entered, train
departing, train departure time, transfer information, special messages, etc. The exact messages to be displayed

and the method of displaying these messages will be established by specific system application and the current
applicable regulations (e.g. ADA). Audio messages may be in the form of prerecorded or preprogrammed messages
triggered by the control system at the correct time.
6.3.2.3 Automatic Train Supervision (ATS)
a. The ATS subsystem monitors and assists in the management of the overall operation of the system. The
ATS is not essential to continuing automatic system operations by ATO and ATP once they are initiated.
ATS provides the link between the central control operator and the high-speed rail system. The ATS system
provides information to the operator describing the status of the tracks and trains on a real time basis. This
information allows the operator to assess conditions throughout the system and to take appropriate actions.
The operator may issue commands to initiate and terminate system operations, override selected automatic
commands and perform other system management functions subject to the constraints imposed by the ATP
system. No action or lack of action by the central control operator nor any malfunction of the ATS system
may cause an unsafe condition or otherwise subvert or compromise the functions of the ATP system.
b. The system requirements during emergency situations should be considered in planning, design and
implementation of the central control/ATS system. Depending on the role that the ATS system performs in
the total system’s operation, contingency plans, backup operating procedures and/or backup systems should
be included.
c. Descriptions of all the possible ATS functions is beyond the scope of this section, but ATS may include
functions such as: status and performance monitoring, performance control (reduce system operating
speeds and acceleration rates to conserve power/fuel), train tracking, data logging, headway and schedule
management, train routing, train dispatching, passenger information control, fire and security alarm
monitoring, malfunction reporting, etc.
6.3.3 CONTROL SYSTEM – PROPULSION SYSTEM ELECTROMAGNETIC

COMPATIBILITY (1996)
Modern electric propulsion, electric generation and inverter equipment, especially that which employs solid state
power switching devices, has been shown to generate energy in the frequency ranges used by signaling systems.
Although the energy levels of these potentially interfering signals are a small percentage of the power handling
capabilities of the generation equipment, they are significant when referenced to signaling equipment sensitivity
levels. In the worst case, such electromagnetic interference may compromise the safety of signaling systems.
Proper systems engineering practice, including frequency allocation and immunity filtering, should be applied to
ensure system safety and compatibility.
6.3.4 INTERLOCKING SYSTEM (1996)

a. An interlocking system is employed to facilitate and safeguard the movement of trains at terminals and
junction points. It is defined as: “An arrangement of signals and signal appliances so interconnected that
their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence and for which interlocking rules are in effect.
It may be operated manually or automatically.” See the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Part
1.1.1, 1991, Page 29. The interlocking system must protect against the track switch machine from unlocking
and/or moving the track switch:
• When permission is being displayed (via cab signal or wayside signal) to allow a train to proceed over the
switch.
• For a predetermined time after permission to proceed has been removed and a stop has been displayed with
a train occupying the track section in approach of the switch.
• When a train is passing over the switch.
b. Route locking or signal indication locking is the part of the locking that prevents the changing of the switch
position once permission to proceed has been displayed. Approach locking or time locking is the part of the

locking that prevents the switch from being moved for a predetermined time after the permission to proceed
has been replaced by a stop signal. The predetermined time is established to be long enough to ensure that
any approaching train will have come to a complete stop (and not be within the interlocking) before the
locking is released. Detector locking is the part of the locking that prevents the switch from being moved
when a train is passing over the switch. The rules and recommendations for the application of interlockings
is included in FRA regulations 49 CFR Part 236 Subpart C and in AREMA Communications and Signals
Manual, Parts 2.2.10 and 2.2.12.

Several types of communication systems should be considered when installing or implementing a high-speed rail
system. Some are essential for operations and control, others can be added later to enhance passenger services or
upgrade from a basic control system. If there is any thought given to enhanced passenger services, such as direct
broadcast of radio or television programs to trains, then the communications infrastructure initially installed
should have the basics for such additional communications implanted so that upgrading is easily done by adding
terminals or modules without the need for a separate communications link.
6.3.5.1 Essential Communications

a. Digital and voice radio can connect the wayside stations to moving trains. For dispatcher to train crew
communications, this can be a voice link or a digital voice system. A digital data link is needed for
transmitting data between control centers and the train. The link from the moving train to the wayside is
via radio, but the link from the control center to the nearest wayside radio station can be via fiber optic
cable, microwave or even UHF or VHF base radio station segments. The fiber optic cable provides a good
solution for high capacity including allowance for future expansion, and has immunity to electromagnetic
fields created by electrified lines. 1
b. Inductive communications technology is often used to transmit data from track to train via beacons, “wiggly
wires,” inductors or transponders. Even coded track circuits in the rails can transmit signaling data, speed
commands, etc., to the train cab. Other systems that do not use coded track circuits can use digital radio
links from the wayside to a train equipped with an onboard computer to handle the control function.
6.3.5.2 Onboard Communications 3

a. Onboard the train, voice radio may be advisable with portable handsets for crew member communications.
Some suitable location on the train, such as a dining car or other mid-train position, should be equipped
with a conductor’s station including a 30 to 50 watt output radio to facilitate contact with the control center
or local dispatcher. The conductor’s station radio transceiver would be powerful enough to reach a wayside
radio base station, which a handset normally could not reach because of its limited power (often less than 1
watt).
4
b. Additionally, a public address system incorporating a backup power supply is essential on the train to keep
passengers informed of the train’s progress and to provide service and station announcements. This PA
system often has a built-in intercom so that train crew members and service personnel can communicate
with each other. Visual station announcement signs and other visual signs are required by new federal
regulations for aiding disabled passengers.
6.3.5.3 Emergency Communications
a. During an emergency when the train is not operating under normal conditions, communications is of
extreme necessity. Certainly, battery-powered handheld radio sets or intercom systems will be most useful,
but standby power sources or batteries should be provided for the 30 to 50 watt radio to enable train crew
members to contact a control center and local emergency services. There should be good, clear, prearranged
interference-free, reliable communications to local fire and police departments along the high-speed train
route to ensure quick response to emergency situations by means of predetermined access points along the
right-of-way. The radio communications load should be considered when sizing battery power for cars and
locomotives.

b. From a communications standpoint, high-speed rail will require a “smart” communications infrastructure
to handle all the communications needs. Computers may play a key role in the communications facilities
and can be provided to handle numerous functions.
6.3.5.4 Wayside and Onboard Defect Detection
a. Present communications links between trains and wayside detectors, such as hotbox, hot wheel, cracked or
broken wheel and dragging equipment detectors should be used on high-speed rail lines. Detector actuation
by trains could provide voice/data transmission of detection results to engine and train crews. “No defect
found” should also be transmitted so crews know it is safe to continue the journey. This information is
usually also sent to a control center when a defect is found. Additionally, some railroads find it helpful for
maintenance purposes for all hotbox detector readings to be sent to central control, especially when defects
are alarmed.
b. Locomotive system status monitoring is an important feature of high-speed motive power. Thus, data
collected during operations could be downloaded via a radio link or via a hardwire connection after arrival at
terminals. If problems develop enroute, alarms could be transmitted to a control center and to the
locomotive engineer. Here again, a digital data link should have sufficient capacity to transmit data to and
from trains.
6.3.5.5 Enhanced Passenger Communications
a. In addition to the communications systems previously discussed, enhanced passenger services may require
additional facilities. A few are listed below:
• Public telephone service with phone booths at convenient locations or phone sets at each seat, which may
need a separate train-to-wayside communications link.
• Radio or television reception would require a train-to-wayside interface; TV screens could be placed in seat
backs for convenient viewing and radio earphone connections could be provided at each seat.
• Provision of a communications interface could permit the computer user to reach out to the “outside world”
from the train. Also, electrical outlets could be provided at selected seats to conserve lap top computer
battery power.
• Facsimile transmission to/from the high-speed train could be considered, requiring a communications link
and a facsimile machine.
b. As technologies in personal computing and telecommunications fields are subject to constant change and
rapid evolution, it is important that vehicles and stations be designed to readily accommodate improved
computer and communications systems. The basic railroad system designs should provide sufficient capacity
(in terms of space, electrical power, conduit runs, etc.) to support technology retrofits that will naturally
occur over their service lives.
6.3.5.6 Connecting with External Services
An important aspect of communications for high-speed rail is interface with public services, including facilities
such as medical and police departments. Also important is communications capability for ticket orders and
reservations, etc., including hotel and motels reservations and car rentals. High-speed rail passengers could be
provided with reservation facilities for a complete trip.
6.3.5.7 Communications: A Phased-In Process
The communications infrastructure need not be installed initially to get a high-speed rail system up and running.
It can be phased in, often on a modular basis, but one should consider what a complete system providing all the
passenger enhancements might do to help market the service to the public. With this expanded system in mind, a
basic system can be installed with enough capacity to handle added communications requirements without
replacing the installed system. One should note that where high-speed rail can be applied to an existing railroad,

the basic system of communications for train operations might be in place, but it may not be cost-effective to retain
such a system unless capacity enhancement is already provided.
6.3.6 HAZARD DETECTION AND SURVEILLANCE (1996)

This discussion outlines the various means of hazard detection and surveillance that have been employed on
conventional rail systems as well as on existing high-speed systems. The potential need for new or more elaborate
devices to protect against hazards not previously addressed on existing systems is also noted. Specifically not
included in this discussion are the signal and train control systems that provide the first line of safety for any rail
system. It is assumed, however, that specialized detection and surveillance devices will utilize signal and control
systems to annunciate hazards or to activate the preventive measures necessary to preclude accidents. In addition,
no attempt is made to discuss highway grade crossing warning systems, and it is generally agreed that the presence
of highway grade crossings is incompatible with high-speed rail operations at speeds over 110 mph (177 kph).
a. Hazards that may develop into potentially unsafe conditions are separated into two categories, based on
their location: 1) onboard and 2) wayside. Onboard hazards have been, until recently, most often detected by
wayside sensors that “watch” the train as it passes certain locations. Recent developments with automatic
sensors and microprocessor control systems permit the condition or health of vehicles to be monitored
onboard the train and thus provide real-time continuous observation and timely detection of potentially
hazardous conditions. Wayside hazards, however, are most practically detected by sensors at the most likely
locations of the potential hazard. Hazard detection and surveillance systems may also be characterized by
their placement in onboard or wayside locations. Onboard detection systems are intended to detect
hazardous conditions developing on the train, while various specialized wayside devices have been developed 1
to detect both onboard (e.g. hotbox, dragging equipment) and wayside (e.g. floods, slides) faults or
hazardous conditions. Note that train control systems typically provide broken rail detection through use of
track circuits.
b. It is anticipated that developing North American high-speed rail systems will operate at conventional speeds
on certain segments of existing freight and passenger trackage to gain access to urban areas. At other times,
the high-speed trains may operate at higher speeds on routes shared with commuter, conventional 3
passenger and freight trains. In either case, it is expected that a basic level of protection would be provided
by conventional wayside detection devices and vehicle-borne detectors. High-speed rail technology has
proven to rank extremely high in terms of operational safety, and the risk of accident on routes devoted
exclusively to high-speed rail systems (operating on dedicated rights-of-way) may actually be lower than for
other types of rail passenger service. But the risk of accident is dependent on traffic density among other
things, and high-speed rail equipment operating on the same track or shared rights-of-way with other types
of traffic could experience an increase in that risk. In addition, the consequences or severity of accidents will 4
clearly increase with speed.
c. The purpose of the wayside and vehicle-borne detectors on high-speed rail systems is to further reduce the
risk of accidents in recognition of the potential for an increase in their severity. Therefore, existing systems
should be supplemented as necessary by additional devices designed to detect specific types of high-speed
vehicle failures. In addition, because of the potential for more serious accidents at high-speed, the threshold
for the application of detection systems may have to be lowered in certain cases. The details and operational
functions of the various systems are not discussed herein, but rather a general description of the hazards
and some of the usual and/or most likely means of detection is offered.
6.3.6.2 Onboard Detection and Surveillance Systems
At conventional speeds, the detection of some on-vehicle conditions can be accomplished by wayside detection, but
as the speed of operation increases there is a need for more frequent monitoring, and continuous onboard detection
may be necessary to protect against vehicle malfunctions and minimize human error.

6.3.6.2.1 Operator Alertness
The most basic operator alertness (“dead-man”) device applies the brakes if a spring-loaded pedal or handle is
released. It can be easily defeated by the operator. More recent use of movement or function detecting devices are
less problematic, but still can be defeated so that they fail to detect abnormal operation or unsafe conditions.
Improvement of the reliability and certainty of function of these devices is necessary to ensure they are impossible
to defeat. In most cases, complete speed supervision is warranted including control of both traffic responsive
(signal) and civil speed restrictions.
6.3.6.2.2 Hot Journal
Although some high-speed systems have found wayside detection adequate for their level of journal inspection and
maintenance, wayside detection may be less suitable for high-speed operation because it is intermittent.
Continuous onboard detection of each journal bearing with temperature sensors, with wayside detection systems
as a support system may be more desirable. The onboard system may have one or two trip levels – “warning” and
“danger” – with the indication transmitted to the train’s operating compartment where the operator can take the
action prescribed by rules. It may also be appropriate to monitor the rate of change of bearing temperature. Local
car odor or visual indicators will not be suitable.
6.3.6.2.3 Hot Wheel
No existing onboard system has been used for this hazard, which would most commonly be associated with tread
brakes. Some extension of the hot journal detection system or application of a second similar system would appear
possible. Another possibility is the development of a stuck brake detector for both disc and tread friction brake
systems.
6.3.6.2.4 Derailment Detection
Development of systems that sense the degradation of ride quality or truck performance has been suggested as an
index to incipient derailment. Ride quality detectors that monitor vertical and lateral acceleration are sometimes
used to establish maintenance cycles for trucks and wheels and to ensure that truck hunting is detected quickly.
Other possible parameters for detection include broken or deflated springs, and differences in wheel speed. Such
devices have been subject of experiments but some have not yet been fully or reliably developed for derailment
detection applications.
6.3.6.2.5 Pantograph Condition
Although not yet in use or deemed necessary in North America, some means of sensing the potential failure of a
high-speed train’s pantographs may become necessary to avoid a total failure. The pantograph/catenary interface
is very delicate and failures are usually catastrophic to the overhead catenary system and can also cause significant
damage to vehicles.
6.3.6.2.6 Doors
a. Passenger carrying vehicles must have a door control system that prevents train movement if doors are
open while the train is stopped and that stops train movement if doors become unlocked or open while it is
moving slowly. Such protection is usually provided by “zero-speed” detection and “propulsion-inhibit”
circuitry along with sensors to detect the position and lock condition of each individual door. Door control
circuits and mechanisms must make door opening impossible above “zero” (+ some tolerance) speed.
b. Door control systems should be equipped with obstruction detection and automatic reopening features to
protect passengers against entrapment if any doors are prevented from fully closing. Systems should also be
equipped with bypass functions to permit train movement under prescribed rules in the event of a sensor
failure or other fault in the door safety circuitry.
c. Emergency door operation must be possible without operating power so that entry/egress can be made in
emergency situations. Apparatus for emergency manual door operation should be clearly marked and
provided on both the interior and exterior of vehicles, together with instructions as to how and when
emergency door opening is to be initiated. The entire door system should be subject to a detailed safety
analysis.

6.3.6.2.7 Pressure Sealing
There is a possible need for on-vehicle detectors to sense the degradation of internal vehicle pressure if the trains
are sealed or carry positive pressure in a manner similar to aircraft cabins. This is a matter of both safety and
comfort for passengers and crew with regard to the effects of pressure waves generated by passing trains and
operation through tunnels.
6.3.6.2.8 Fire
a. Protection against fire is a key element of system safety, and fire in a moving train is a major hazard to
passengers, made worse by high-speed. Vehicle-borne fire and smoke detectors should be provided to provide
prompt annunciation of unsafe conditions to passengers and personnel, since safety is of prime importance.
In addition, dedicated fire suppression systems with automatic initiation should be considered in areas
where high temperatures or high voltages are normally present in locomotives, without requirement for any
crew involvement.
b. Fire detectors and suppression devices should also be provided in other appropriate areas and controlled as
determined by a comprehensive system safety analysis. In particular, careful consideration should be given
to how and where conditions are annunciated to operating personnel, to the protocols for activation of fire
suppression systems, and to procedures for passenger evacuation including avoidance of train-stops at
locations where evacuation may not be feasible. The HVAC systems in affected and adjoining vehicles should
be immediately shut down to prevent mixing of smoke and fumes with fresh air.
c. All vehicles should be built utilizing fire-resistant materials, which will not produce toxic fumes or smoke,
and should have readily accessible fire extinguishers.
1
6.3.6.3 Wayside Detection and Surveillance Devices
A number of wayside hazard detection devices have been developed in various parts of the world for both high-
speed and conventional passenger, and freight routes. These devices are not used universally but have been
developed for and applied to detect specific types of hazards.
6.3.6.3.1 Broken Rail or Guideway Integrity 3

Both conventional and audio-frequency railway track circuits provide detection of broken rail conditions through
the signal system. The track circuit is interrupted when the circuit is opened by a break in a rail. Both types of
track circuits have limitations in their ability to detect broken rail conditions due to current leakage through
ballast, joint bars, tie plates, incomplete breaks and similar circumstances.
6.3.6.3.2 Hot Journal

4
a. For conventional North American railroad practice, protection against hot journals and the hazards of
derailment due to journal failure is provided by wayside “hotbox” detectors. Detector spacing is determined
by individual railroad policy and the speed of operation. Spacing is typically on the order of 15 to 20 miles
(24 to 32 km). Detector placement is intended to protect interlockings, bridges, and other high-value
facilities.
b. The use of wayside “hotbox” detectors on high-speed rail routes can be considered to supplement the
protection provided by onboard hot journal systems, particularly near stations, interlockings, and in other
limited speed territory. It is expected that complete reliance on wayside “hotbox” systems for high-speed
routes will not be economically or technically feasible, due to the high density of installations required to
provide a suitable level of protection as well as potential difficulty with the speed of detection.
6.3.6.3.3 Wheel Impact Load Detector

Eccentric wheels or flat spots can cause impact loads that threaten the integrity of concrete ties and other track
material in addition to accelerating the fatigue of bearings, axles and other truck components. Ride quality and

wayside and interior noise levels are also adversely affected. Wheel Impact Load Detectors (“WILD”) utilize
wayside sensor installations to detect impacts (above a predetermined threshold) to the track for defects such as
out-of-round wheels. This type of detector has been installed by railroads using concrete ties or slab track
construction at locations such as tunnels or bridges. Such devices would be useful for screening rolling stock prior
to its entry into high-speed territory.
6.3.6.3.4 Dragging Equipment

Dragging equipment detectors have heretofore been placed at wayside locations to detect vehicle-borne apparatus
or parts that have become disengaged and hang below the level of the top of rail. These devices are placed on the
track in advance of interlockings or switches where equipment dragging from the train could pose the threat of
derailment. These devices should continue in use on high-speed systems but should be more closely spaced to
provide more frequent sampling.
6.3.6.3.5 Over Dimension (High-and-Wide)

Many railroads have developed reliable and generally simple photoelectric cell-activated high-and-wide detectors
for freight routes to detect lading or car equipment that has shifted out of the clearance envelope. While such
devices would not be generally necessary for high-speed rail services on routes where the train makeups are of
known and consistent size and cross section, it is possible that devices of this type could be used at junction points
to protect high-speed routes from over-dimension cars and lading which might at times use them as detours from
the normal freight routing, and at other selected locations where the high-speed right-of-way is shared with freight
trains. The clearances of the high-speed route might be more prohibitive in these cases than on the normal
dedicated route or shared rights-of-way.
6.3.6.3.6 Earthslide
Slide detection fences have been used historically to protect the right-of-way in areas where avalanche, rock fall or
other loose earth hazards could encroach on the right-of-way. Such fences are usually connected into the signal
system in a manner that will drop all approaching signals to “stop” on either side of the condition when debris falls
against the fence and causes the activation of electrical contacts.
6.3.6.3.7 Washouts
Areas subjected to frequent or historic conditions of high or rapidly moving water, such as flash floods, may be
provided with detection devices to sense the rise or velocity of water in or near culverts which may be inadequate to
carry the total storm runoff. The right-of-way may be washed away or flooded in such cases and significant damage
could occur. When such conditions are imminent, wash out protection devices would provide sufficient warning to
stop all nearby trains.
6.3.6.3.8 High Water

Similar in nature to washout protection is the high water detection device, which detects the rate-of-rise and
absolute level of water around particularly vulnerable locations such as bridge piers, embankments, levees and
culverts, which could face inundation by rapid storm runoff conditions. Conventional rain gages could also be
utilized to provide early warning of impending high water conditions. Some railroad operators routinely utilize
private weather forecasting services to provide real-time notification of localized but severe weather conditions
which might affect operations.
6.3.6.3.9 Earthquake
Seismometers have been used in Japan to detect earth movement and shocks near the Shinkansen lines. These are
site-specific applications of special seismometers, which are connected into the signal system and the central traffic
control office to provide early detection of earth movement and shock in order to stop trains as soon as such
problems are noted. Freight railroads in the western U.S. also monitor earthquake-sensitive locations, although
not so directly, by utilizing the services of professional seismology laboratories to keep them advised of earthquake
related conditions.

6.3.6.3.10 Wind
Anemometers to measure wind velocity and direction could be set to trigger when conditions reach predetermined
levels considered hazardous to the movement of trains or to the catenary. Conditions or areas where local
vegetation or debris accumulations could be blown into the right-of-way should also be considered for such devices.
6.3.6.3.11 Snow
In the northern sections of the Japanese Shinkansen lines, snow detectors have been installed to annunciate the
onset of snow fall and to measure its rate of fall which, along with prevailing and forecast temperature and wind
conditions, can be used to predict the accumulation. In such cases, the operation of automatic or remotely
controlled snow removal apparatus (i.e. water sprays and heaters for melting snow) can be initiated at all track
switches and other appropriate locations.
6.3.6.3.12 Bridge and Guideway Alignment
Protection of bridges and guideway is most important, particularly where high water or earth movement is
possible, or where structures are vulnerable to collision from highway vehicles or marine shipping. The
development of optical devices to verify proper alignment of selected critical guideway members could be useful in
providing for early detection of misalignment.
6.3.6.3.13 Catenary Tension and Position
The application of a catenary tension detection system is suggested to alert a control center or to provide a local
indication of a degradation of catenary tension. A system to detect or sense physical displacement beyond allowable 1
limits would seem to be technically feasible with doppler or optical techniques. Such conditions may occur through
either structural failure or by the catenary’s failure to properly adjust to temperature changes. Catenary tension
and position, together with pantograph performance, is one of the most delicate of the vehicle-to-wayside
interfaces.
6.3.6.3.14 Fire
Smoke or fire detectors are most frequently used in congested areas or on wooden trestles, snow sheds, bridges or 3
near other track-side structures where train movement would likely be endangered by fire. These detectors take
the form of smoke, heat, and/or toxic fume sensors which may be used to alert authorities or control signals, fans,
or sprinkler systems, etc. The need for use of fire detection devices is site specific. Logical candidates for high-speed
rail applications include station areas, electrical equipment rooms, control facilities and other areas where
passengers, personnel or high value equipment are present.
6.3.6.3.15 Train Presence or Movement Detection 4

The use of presence detectors is usually associated with track circuits and the signal system to detect the
occupation of tracks in specific areas. Movement detectors may also be used to show motion and direction of
movement.
6.3.6.3.16 Tunnel Protection
Particular attention should be given to tunnels, where the hazards of derailment or accident are amplified by the
confined quarters and the impeded access for evacuation. Response to concerns of this type requires well lighted
walkways and the proper ventilation of the tunnel throughout its length, the detection of abnormal pressure
conditions and particular attention to the potential for abnormal temperature, smoke, fire and fumes. In addition,
of course, there is a need to detect tunnel lining material which may loosen and fall to the track from the sidewalls
or ceiling. Further, dependent on climatic conditions, it may be necessary to monitor moisture and temperature
conditions to predict the formation of stalactites, stalagmites and other ice formations. Attention to some of these
hazards in tunnel design can minimize their risk. Various types of detection devices would be needed to provide
these types of protection, however, all are within the realm of existing technology.

6.3.6.3.17 Intrusion Detection
a. In addition to the normal hazards expected through the operation of trains and the general degradation and
wear and tear of the right-of-way, a high-speed rail system is also more vulnerable to intrusion into its right-
of-way by vehicles, other foreign objects, and persons, and must be more carefully protected. Particular
consideration should be given to fencing - especially in densely populated areas and perhaps for the entire
length of the right-of-way. Guideway fencing will also protect against wildlife, trespassers, and vandalism.
Many existing high-speed rights-of-way are walled or fenced for their entire length to prohibit intrusion of
this type. In addition such fencing will at least deter the migration – either deliberate or accidental – of
other foreign material such as rock fragments and discarded residential or industrial items onto the right-
of-way. Such fencing might also be equipped with a means to detect tampering or climbing, which should be
connected to the central control office that would be responsible for initiating appropriate action.
b. Areas of particular concern for intrusion to the high-speed rail right-of-way are locations where the high-
speed rail line passes under a highway or other type of structure. For the French TGV system in such areas,
it has become necessary to provide special vertical fencing or barriers (depending on the level of risk) to
prevent automobiles and debris from dropping or being thrown by vandals to the track from the bridges. At
some locations, horizontal fencing is installed over the catenary and track and interlocked with the train
control system to detect intrusion. Special intrusion attention of this type could be confined to specific
vulnerable areas of the high-speed rail route (cuts and tunnels etc.). The adjacent tracks of other carriers
should also be considered for high-speed systems utilizing common rights-of-way with other networks.
However, it is difficult to predict where hazards of this type might take place and, recognizing the likely
consequences of such intrusion, it may be prudent to fence or otherwise protect the entire right-of-way.
c. Occasionally it may be necessary to provide crosswalks across the high-speed right-of-way for maintenance
workers and other staff. In such cases there will be a need for some sort of signal system for pedestrians to
permit safe crossings. The TGV line has such a system which annunciates the approach of trains with a red
crossing signal light when there is less than 30 seconds of time to negotiate the crossing.
6.3.6.3.18 Grade Crossings
For the purposes of this Section, it is recommended that highway grade crossings in high-speed territory be
completely eliminated. However, where highway grade crossings cannot be eliminated and in densely populated
areas where the high-speed trains may be traveling at more conventional speeds, special attention will be
necessary. Discussion of grade crossing safety issues is beyond the scope of this Section.
6.5.1 ELECTRIC TRACTION POWER (2004)
The information and guidance provided with respect to Electric Traction Power aspects of High-Speed Rail
Systems is supplementary to information given in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. A section cross
reference is given in each instance where the existing guidelines are relevant also to high-speed rail applications.

6.5.1.1 General
When high-speed rail service is electrified, electric traction power is comprised of power supply from utility
companies to substations with power distribution by means of an overhead catenary system. High-speed rail
systems may be dedicated to high-speed train services, which then requires that the system design of electric
traction power be totally specific to those services.
6.5.1.2 Traction Power System (1996)
The general outline of the power supply system is similar to that of other electrified railroads, with transmission
lines feeding into dedicated substations, usually railroad-owned, as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy
Utilization.
6.5.1.2.1 Lines to be Wired
All tracks of electrified high-speed routes should be electrified for train operation purposes. Where high-speed
trains run on other routes for access to passenger terminals, to maintenance facilities or for through running
purposes, only assigned tracks and alternates need be considered for electrification. Route/track diagrams can be
used to verify the choice of operating scenarios with all affected departmental personnel of the railroads involved.
6.5.1.2.2 Performance to be Achieved
The electric traction power demand for high-speed trains is considerably higher than that for other types of
passenger trains, due to the higher speed and to the longer sustained acceleration required. It is recommended that
all or most substations have two transformers, providing sufficient capacity in reserve to enable all conceivable
power demands to be met with only one transformer in service. The use of dual transformers, dual power supply
sources and dual busbars provides a high level of redundancy and ensures that the probability of total loss of
1
supply is extremely small.
6.5.1.2.3 Traction Power Systems
a. In addition to reliable operation and performance of substation equipment discussed above, it is important
that the utility company power supply maintain a very high level of reliability. There should be two separate 3
sources of incoming power supply, preferably direct from major high voltage supply grid circuits with proven
high availability ratings.
b. The safe electrical operation of the traction power system requires safety standards for insulator creepage
paths, air clearances and electrical switching arrangements. The switching and feeding subassemblies
should provide for fault detection and protection relay operation, including zone relays, that can distinguish
between heavy load currents and fault currents, and can attain virtually instantaneous disconnection of 4
electrical supply when a fault condition occurs. Full information and details are provided in Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.2.4 Sectioning Diagram
a. The full extent of the catenary system and associated substation, switching station and paralleling station
locations should be shown on an electrical sectioning diagram. The catenary system should include
sufficient sectioning to facilitate isolation of electrical faults to individually controlled sections of the
operational track system. Starting with the normal feeding configuration, a number of disconnect switches
are used to energize all catenary sections with all normal and alternate feeding scenarios.
b. Some disconnect switches may need to be included for abnormal situations such as the temporary loss of
power supply from a substation or main feeding point, or the inadvertent stranding of a train at a phase
break. Disconnect switches for these situations are normally open and would only be closed when the
abnormal situation occurs, after appropriate adjustment from the normal arrangements. Additional
information concerning the principles and normal sectionalizing practices recommended for use are
provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.

6.5.1.2.5 Substation Feeding and Supply Locations
The selection of substation locations is an iterative process involving a number of factors which sometimes conflict
with each other. The nature of the high-speed rail route or network and the situation of routine high power
demand zones creates natural locations for preferred siting of substations. The high reliability requirements for
utility power supply sources will usually restrict the number of alternative locations to a few choices. The
availability of environmentally acceptable substation sites may further limit those choices, especially in urban or
scenic areas. A provisional scheme for substation siting should be developed and verification procedures should be
applied by implementing a series of computer studies. More than one scheme may need to be studied in difficult
situations, involving the alternative types of feeding systems available for use, and providing alternative solutions
for management review. Further information and details of recommended procedures are provided in Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.3 Catenary System – General Description
A catenary system provides the means of distribution of electrical power to moving railroad trains, specifically in
this instance to high-speed passenger trains. All new catenary systems consist of a constant tensioned contact wire
supported by one or more messenger wires which are in turn supported by brackets or cross span assemblies on
adjacent poles. Some older catenary systems have variable tensions with fixed wire deadends. Detailed
descriptions, definitions, standards and concepts relating to catenary systems are provided in Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization, Section 4.1, Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts.
6.5.1.3.1 Car Clearance Gage
See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 2, Clearances for information and guidelines on locomotive and
car clearance gages, subject to potential superelevation, sway, tilt and bounce allowances relevant to high-speed rail
operations.
6.5.1.3.2 Electrical and Mechanical Clearances
See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 2, Clearances and Part 4, Railroad Electrification Systems,
Section 4.2, Catenary System Design Criteria for information and guidelines on electrical and mechanical
clearances. There are no significant additional clearance requirements for high-speed rail operations, but a greater
amount of pantograph uplift at supports may require provision of increased allowances for pantograph passing
clearance past support hardware assemblies.
6.5.1.3.3 Contact Wire Height
a. The range of contact wire height is normally controlled by the minimum height of overhead bridges and
structures, together with the maximum height of contact wire necessary to comply with high wire clearance
requirements at highway grade crossings or other facilities. The pantograph performance requirements for
high-speed rail include a design preference for small, low-mass pantographs and a catenary design need for
a small vertical range of contact wire height.
b. High-speed train operations over 110 mph (177 kph) should preclude the retention of highway grade
crossings, which virtually eliminates the need for contact wire heights greater than a nominal normal
height. This normal height is determined by the addition of wire sag allowances and tolerances to minimum
wire heights, plus allowances for long term track ballast rise and maintenance tolerances. The normal wire
heights may need to be increased where right-of-way is shared with freight service for local access or
through operation.
6.5.1.3.4 Dynamic Interaction and Compliance
a. The dynamic interaction that occurs between a catenary system and train pantographs traveling along the
catenary is a complex relationship. The operating requirement is that the pantograph provide a continuous
flow of electrical current to the locomotive for traction and auxiliary purposes, at all speeds and under the

most adverse vehicle and track tolerances. This is best accomplished without significant arcing or loss of
contact, which in turn is achieved by maintaining a reasonably uniform contact pressure between the
pantograph and the contact wire. Minimum contact pressure for acceptable performance would typically be
in the range of 8 to 12 pounds (36 to 53 Newtons).
b. A proven dynamic simulation should be developed to confirm the compatibility of the selected pantograph
and catenary system scenario before undertaking any final design activities. The simulation should verify
that upward pressure applied by the pantograph on the contact wire, including dynamic increases due to
high-speed, will remain within an acceptable range for current collection purposes.
c. High contact pressures cause progressively greater contact wire uplift as a pantograph passes a given point.
This can cause excessive mechanical wear of pantograph carbon wear strips and the contact wire, especially
near catenary supports. The static pantograph contact pressure used in North America has traditionally
been in the range of 22 to 28 pounds (98 to 125 Newtons), especially where high electrical current levels are
involved. The increasing U.S. application of European and Japanese practice and introduction of modern
low mass pantographs has included use of lower static pressures in the range of 16 to 18 pounds (71 to 80
Newtons).
d. The contact wire rise and fall also manifests itself as a traveling wave, which moves forward at a speed
dependent upon the wire’s natural frequency, which in turn is a function of the wire weight and the tension
applied. A basic principle of catenary design is that this wave speed should always be greater than any
potential train speed, to avoid any prospect of a pantograph “traveling along” with its own standing wave.
This situation becomes more complex with multiple pantographs on a train, especially if they are relatively
close together, due to the interactions involved, especially at speeds over 150 mph (241 kph).
e. For high-speed rail applications, the inertial effects of pantograph reactions to catenary features, contact 1
wire gradients, and track irregularities become so significant that the following guidelines are applied to
catenary design procedures.
(1) Contact Wire Tension. Should be kept as high as possible, using present day contact wire materials, pole
spacing, blow off considerations and strength of support hardware, involving preferred use of constant
tension systems.
(2) Contact Wire Gradients. Should be at least 5 times train speed in miles per hour, doubled at transition 3
spans; for example, 1 in 750 gradients are used for 150 mph (241 kph) operation.
(3) Catenary System. Should have maximum feasible uniformity of compliance (vertical stiffness) in order
to minimize the fluctuation of dynamic pantograph response.
(4) Catenary configuration should be designed to accommodate the maximum pantograph pressure
developed at the highest speed, including aerodynamic uplift. 4
f. The following guidelines should be considered during selection or design of pantographs.
(1) Pantograph Location. Only one per train if at all feasible; otherwise two are used, placed at opposite
ends of the train preferably at least 1,000 feet (305 m) apart. If more than two are necessary, then mini
pantographs should be used with much smaller variation in contact wire height, since multiple
pantographs operating together suffer mutual degradation of their current collection performance,
especially at higher speeds.
(2) Pantograph Head. Should have a minimum feasible dynamic mass consistent with mechanical strength
and frangible design requirements.
(3) Pantograph Pressure. Tends to increase in proportion to the square of the speed. It should be kept as
constant as possible at all speeds, in both directions; often assisted by use of aerofoils.
(4) Malfunction and Damage Prevention. The potential damage that can be caused to a catenary system by
a malfunctioning pantograph before the high-speed train can be stopped is so great that the pantograph
head should incorporate an automatic dropping device and the frame should include a weak-point
break-away feature.

6.5.1.3.5 Safety Considerations
a. The principal information regarding the safety of Electric Traction Power for High-Speed Rail is given in
Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. The use of high level platforms may generate additional electrical
clearance safety considerations and compliance with the National Electrical Safety Code or equivalent
National Code is required.
b. All overpasses and other overhead structures on electrified high-speed rail routes will require the use of
safety barriers in all areas of feasible pedestrian access. Barriers should be at least 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m)
high, should extend at least 10 feet (3.05 m) longitudinally from the nearest catenary, and should include
features preventing any side access around the end of a barrier. The material usually selected is rigid
aluminum sheeting, which should not include any protrusions providing feasible footholds for climbing
access.
c. Grounded safety screens, barriers and anticlimbing guards should be included in the design of signals and
other railway facilities and features within 10 feet of a catenary system, and the use of fencing or safety
cages should be considered to prevent vandalism or unauthorized access when required by specific
circumstances.
6.5.1.3.6 Electrical Characteristics
The electrical characteristics for High-Speed Rail typically include sufficient power supply system capacity for
sustained acceleration from station stops or from in-route delays up to the high operating speeds required. The
electrical current demand for each train is substantially higher than for other types of passenger trains, due to the
high drag coefficient at high-speed and the current drawn by onboard facilities. The use of motive power utilizing
regenerative power capability may also be considered, subject to load limitation, traffic levels and potential for
future growth, over-voltage prevention and harmonic content limitations.
6.5.1.3.7 Grounding and Bonding
The requirements for grounding and bonding are generally in accordance with information given in Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization. The grounding system must prevent any risk of an unsafe condition occurring either
within the electric traction system, at stations, or in the immediate surroundings along the right of way. The
electric traction and signaling systems both require the use of appropriate bonding connections, circuits or other
devices at project-specific spacings to ensure the fail-safe operations of trains and supporting infrastructure.
Compliance with step-and-touch protection standards should be given high priority in all areas accessible to
passengers and other non-railroad personnel.
6.5.1.4 Catenary Safety Design
There are few standards, codes or specifications that directly refer to catenary systems for North American
applications other than the guidelines provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. The catenary industry
applies local engineering and construction procedures to their relevant extent, together with appropriate input
from overseas railroads. This composite design basis should be monitored to verify that all technical, operational
and environmental safety requirements are adequately provided for, to the satisfaction of the appropriate
regulatory organization. The following are some of the key requirements to be considered when an overhead
electric catenary system is required for a high-speed rail project.
6.5.1.4.1 Conductor Parameters
The conductors for an overhead catenary system consist normally of a contact wire supported by hangers from one
or more messenger wires. The conductor tensions at each operating and non-operating limiting condition have to
be reviewed to verify that adequate safety factors are provided. The recommended minimum safety factors for
high-speed rail projects are 2.5 on messenger wire tensions and 2.0 on contact wire tensions, relative to ultimate
conductor breaking loads throughout the lifespan of the wire. Supplementary factors to be considered are the wear
allowance for the contact wire, typically 25% or less for high-speed rail projects, and an annealing allowance in
respect of gradual reduction of ultimate conductor breaking loads.

6.5.1.4.2 Technical Design Data
The safety requirements applicable to the various types of support systems, poles, foundations, portal structures,
cantilevers and related items such as contact wire wear are detailed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization
Part 4, Railroad Electrification Systems, and the only additional need arising for high-speed rail projects concerns
the use of larger catenary pole offset discussed in Article 6.5.1.4.5.
6.5.1.4.3 System Features and Arrangements
a. The operational performance requirements for high-speed rail projects make it essential to incorporate
some form of automatic tensioning into the catenary system. This feature compensates for temperature
changes and maintains a constant high mechanical tension in the catenary conductors to facilitate optimum
current collection performance. The need for automatic tensioning creates a number of special system
features and arrangements. These include catenary overlaps between individual tension lengths of catenary,
typically spaced as needed at up to a maximum of about one mile (1.6 km), dependent upon the system
design selected.
b. The system design has to provide for safe pantograph passage at high-speeds through such system features,
including those at high-speed crossovers, while also providing for dynamic uplift and lateral sway of the
pantograph and the train. The pantograph horns provide an additional safety feature for pantograph
passage through catenary system features and arrangements, especially in view of the significantly greater
pantograph uplift experienced at very high speeds.
Some form of overrun protection should be provided wherever passenger trains are routed past facing connections
with diverging non-electrified track. This will prevent safety and operational problems in the event of a raised
pantograph being inadvertently routed onto the diverging track, with resultant potential teardown of overcrossing 1
feeder, static, communications or signaling cables and wires. Overrun protection can be provided by adding short
sections of catenary to guide diverging pantographs beyond overcrossing obstructions, or by raising or rerouting
such obstructions beyond the maximum pantograph reach and sway.
6.5.1.4.4 System Sub-Assemblies
The automatic tensioning system has to cater for temperatures ranging from minimum ambient to maximum
operating temperature, which includes provision for solar heating and peak levels of electrical load heating. The 3
pulley/balance weight tensioning assemblies (or spring tensioners used where space is very restricted) can be fitted
with inertial stops to hold the tensioning assemblies if sudden breakage of conductor occurs. Temperature stops
can be provided to operate below a defined wire temperature, typically 20 degrees F. (–7 degrees C.) to restrict the
amount of catenary system sag that would otherwise occur when heavy icing conditions are encountered, and to
reduce the need for severe speed restrictions at such times.
6.5.1.4.5 Poles and Foundations 4

The safety requirements for high-speed rail projects include those which apply to other types of railway
electrification activity, as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 4, Railroad Electrification
Systems. An additional consideration concerns the minimum and normal pole clearances from adjacent tracks.
Where feasible, especially when applied to new construction, the normal clearance should be at least 14 feet (4.27
m) to provide for passage of a high-speed train with one or more derailed vehicles which is in the process of making
an emergency stop, or experiencing a progressive derailment. Trackside features including catenary poles and
foundations can be set back sufficiently to permit such passage without sideswipe contact and increased risk of
injury to passengers and crew. The choice of pole design can include consideration of likely impact scenarios
involving high-speed trains to minimize the danger to passengers and crew. Features to be evaluated should
include the style, ductility and break-away elements of poles considered for use.
6.5.1.5 Catenary System Installation Design

,
The catenary system selection and design process should consider how installation of the selected system can be
undertaken in accordance with safe working practices and in compliance with OSHA and local regulatory
requirements.

6.5.1.5.1 Installation Procedures
The design process should take full advantage of feedback from prior construction experience, and should avoid
construction staging configurations that involve partly constructed system supports, conductors or other features
which are structurally weak or incapable of withstanding severe weather conditions. If construction work has to be
undertaken on an existing operating railroad, the catenary installation plan should be conceptually developed as a
number of individual work stages, most requiring relatively brief on-track time and incorporating a maximum
amount of advance subassembly work under more controllable conditions at a construction depot.
6.5.1.5.2 Shop Drawings
Wherever detailed design of material is part of a procurement contract scope of work, or where proprietary
materials are being supplied, the contractor should be required to submit detailed shop drawings. These should
illustrate the design, function, means of manufacture and specification appropriate to the specific item, and should
give reference to the originating conceptual design or assembly drawing.
6.5.1.6 Catenary Installation Procedures
a. Installation of high-speed rail catenary systems follows the normal practices of the catenary industry, as
discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. However, many catenary design features are much
more restrictive when designed for high-speed rail projects and most installation tolerances are considerably
less than customary for other types of electrified railroad construction.
b. Specific installation procedures should be developed during the detail design process for each construction
phase, with the ultimate objective of providing a high performance level of traction current collection by
high-speed trains.
6.5.1.6.1 Foundations
The interfaces between ground conditions and catenary pole foundations or footings are less crucial than most
other interfaces since the catenary support assemblies mounted upon the poles generally include adjustability in
all dimensions. Most foundations rely on side bearing loading capacity and the installation procedures should
ensure that excavation is accomplished without significant disturbance of the hole sides, roadbed or ballast
compaction. If precast foundations are used, the tamping material used to set the foundations in excavated holes
should be capable of filling all spaces and voids to avoid foundation movement or rotation when catenary system
loads are applied. Further information on foundations is given in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization,
Article 4.2.8.
6.5.1.6.2 Poles
There are two mounting styles used for catenary poles, being either a plain section pole directly implanted into a
cored foundation, or a bolted base pole mounted directly on top of a foundation or footing. Poles should be properly
aligned in conformance with primary catenary system loadings. The pole setting process should incorporate
backward unloaded rake of catenary poles when necessary to compensate for maximum loaded pole deflection
under normal environmental conditions. The cross bridge of portal structures should have an upward camber
while unloaded before erection to compensate for vertical weight and catenary system-induced loading deflection to
prevent the cross bridge sagging below a horizontal configuration. Further information on catenary poles is given
in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.2.7.
6.5.1.6.3 On-Site Measurements and Site Fabrication
a. The key interface between installed catenary poles and adjacent tracks is established when pole installation
is completed. The as-built pole settings from centerline of track should be measured, and information on
proposed track realignment and final superelevation should be verified. Where critical, the vertical
dimensions between high rail level, top of pole, and any fixed connection points should also be measured.

These measurements should be dated and recorded as the data base for all subsequent stages of the
catenary system installation.
b. Some on-site fabrication of catenary supports can be undertaken, especially to accommodate last minute
changes during the catenary installation process, but the overriding priority should be to fabricate
assemblies or subassemblies at off-site locations with better equipped and environmentally controlled
facilities. When some on-site fabrication becomes necessary, any cutting of support tubes, conductor strands,
or other materials should be carried out in accordance with approved supplier instructions, including
application of paint or other protective treatments to all raw surfaces or cut ends of ferrous items.
c. Splicing of conductor strands or other materials should only be undertaken with prior knowledge and
approval of the system operator, and should be in accordance with pre-approved supplier splicing
procedures.
6.5.1.6.4 Brackets, Support Assemblies and Dead-ends
a. The as-built pole settings discussed in Article 6.5.1.6.3 should be used to verify fabrication sizes of fixed
cantilever brackets prior to installation on site. This check should be carried out prior to fabrication where
dimensions and space requirements are particularly critical.
b. The single track hinged cantilever and deadend brackets to be mounted on support poles alongside or
between tracks should be pre-assembled using standard structural sections and hardware on a purpose
made jig at the construction base, using the as-built pole settings and superelevation data. They would then
be transported to site and erected by use of a highway boom truck or similar rail mounted vehicle. Further
information is provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.1.4.
6.5.1.6.5 Catenary System Conductors
a. All support brackets and dead-end arrangements have to be completed and in place before the installation of
catenary system conductors can be started. The process should begin with temporary attachment of running
out pulleys for the messenger wire, and continue by anchoring the messenger wire at a dead-end and
running out the wire at a sufficient steady tension to keep it raised clear of all obstructions, trains and other
on-track and trackside equipment. Care should be taken, particularly on curves, to keep the wire close to its
final height and lateral position. The wire is temporarily over-tensioned, typically overnight or longer and
by at least 5%, to take up most of its early life cycle creep before setting it at a nominal unloaded tension.
b. Preassembled hangers are then mounted on the messenger wire at predetermined positions, including a
temporary wire clip which can be used for instant contact wire attachment. A similar running out technique
is used for the contact wire, taking care to avoid creating any indentations, vertical kinks or rotational
twists during the running out process. Supplier or site splicing of catenary conductors is normally not
accepted and damaged wire-runs should be replaced in their entirety on a new installation project.
c. The completed conductor system should be set to its final tensions and all hangers and support clamps
should be set as required in their proper vertical and lateral positions.
6.5.1.6.6 Section Insulators and In-Span Materials
The catenary system is divided into electrical sections by insertion of section insulators and phase breaks at
predetermined locations, as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.1.5. Depending upon
the design selected, it will normally be necessary to install these items where the catenary is close to or coincident
and parallel with the pantograph centerline at the elevated contact wire level. Other special purpose in-span items
should be installed at this time, including all continuity jumper and feeding connections, and great care should be
taken to optimize the contact wire alignment and profile.

6.5.1.7 Catenary Testing
a. The testing of a catenary system installation for a high-speed rail system has to consider the higher degree
of accuracy, compliance with tighter installation tolerances and the electrical current collection performance
standards that have to be achieved. The testing procedures should be developed as a series of cumulative
steps which together should result in a fully adjusted catenary system ready for high-speed service.
b. It should be understood that satisfactory high-speed current collection performance is also dependent upon
well aligned and surfaced tracks, fully operative vehicle suspensions, and properly functioning vehicle
pantograph assemblies.
6.5.1.7.1 Pantograph Inspection
As installation and adjustment of the catenary system is completed for each tension length and feeding section, a
dummy pantograph mounted upon a trolley or on a mobile framework should be used to check contact wire and
messenger wire positions at support and midspan locations. The transition zones at overlaps and interlockings
should be checked to verify that vehicle pantographs achieve a smooth transfer between parallel or overcrossing
contact wires, making due allowance for pantograph uplift and sway expected at the specific location.
6.5.1.7.2 Height and Stagger Inspection
All contact wire heights and staggers (offsets) at supports, together with wire heights and offsets at midspan
between supports, should be measured and recorded. The data would be initially used as a cross reference with the
design to check for anomalies; subsequently, the data would become a permanent as-built record for use by
maintenance forces or during upgrade or modification of the installed system. 1
6.5.1.7.3 Electrical Testing
a. The installed catenary system should be visually checked to verify that all insulators are in place and are
unbroken and that all feeding and continuity jumper connections are complete and do not bridge electrical
sectionalizing arrangements. The placement of bonding and grounding connections should be verified and
all temporary grounding protection connections applied during installation are removed. 3
b. The electric utility supply to electrification substations should then be energized and a program of electrical
testing initiated to verify function and operation of all electrical equipment items, including step-down
transformers, circuit breakers and disconnects, relays and metering devices, supervisory control and related
circuits, and various types of backup systems including standby batteries and alarm circuits. Particular
attention should be paid to timely equipment operation for clearance of simulated faults at various
locations. 4
c. The catenary system should be energized, section by section, and correct function of lineside equipment
including disconnects, auxiliary power step-down transformers and phase break transponder units is
verified. The no-load voltage levels at substations and at extremities of long feeding sections should be
recorded, and clearance of simulated catenary faults verified. The presence and magnitude of stray currents
in wayside signal and communication circuits is verified for compliance with applicable standards; further
testing should occur in collaboration with slow speed and high-speed train operational testing.
6.5.1.7.4 Slow Speed Testing
a. A program of slow speed pantograph testing should be initiated as electrical testing is completed for each
area of the catenary system, typically for 20 to 30 track miles (32 to 48 track kilometers) of a project. This
slow speed testing can be undertaken either with a self-propelled, purpose-built test train equipped with a
live or grounded pantograph, or a standard locomotive or trainset suitable for slow speed running. If
feasible, the head of the pantograph should be calibrated with a scale so that the amount of any excess
movement of the contact wire towards or onto the angled horns can be noted.

b. The effectiveness of this slow speed testing will be further improved if the test train operates along every
feasible route through an electrified area, including emergency moves which may not ordinarily be
permitted by the signal and train control system. When possible, a video monitor and recorder should be
used to record inspection findings, including some means of correlation between catenary location, track
mileage and overhead obstructions.
c. Particular attention should be directed to electrical and mechanical clearances at supports, and to
alignment and level of incoming contact wires as they come into the operational riding area on top of the
pantograph head.
6.5.1.7.5 High-Speed Testing
A series of high-speed train test runs should be undertaken when construction of sufficient areas of catenary
system has successfully complied with electrical and slow speed testing procedures and requirements, and all
necessary adjustments have been made. A large amount of data may be recorded during high-speed test runs,
particularly with regard to train equipment function and operation. It should be verified that passage of the
pantograph along the contact wire complies with pantograph performance requirements under all operating
conditions. The pantograph mechanical performance should be monitored, particularly with regard to fluctuation
of pantograph contact pressure and general avoidance of any loss of contact during normal operation. Pantograph
operation should be monitored through areas with strong, prevailing side winds and across special purpose
catenary assemblies such as section insulators, phase breaks, moveable bridges, minimum clearance overhead
bridges and through overlaps.
6.5.1.8 Catenary Maintenance Manuals and Procedures
Overhead catenary systems are typically designed to have a service life of at least 30 years, ranging up to 50 years
in many instances. Systems are intended to be maintenance free, but the typical harsh railroad environment
requires that effective preventive maintenance procedures be adopted. The use of specialized custom-built
hardware also requires provision of supplier maintenance manuals, specifying necessary routine inspection
activities.
6.5.1.8.1 System Maintenance
a. An overhead catenary system and its component items should be subjected to a number of prescribed
periodic inspections to verify system functions and to check for component wear, misadjustments or faults.
b. Correct functioning of automatic constant tensioning systems is of particular importance, and routine
checks of termination assemblies should be carried out at regular intervals.
c. A dedicated maintenance team should be established at a strategic location, equipped with purpose-built hi-
rail and wire train vehicles sufficient to carry out both routine maintenance and emergency repair tasks.
6.5.1.8.2 Maintenance Standards
a. Maintenance standards for electric traction systems should either be established as part of the design and
installation basis, or be included in supplier documentation packages approved during procurement of
equipment, hardware assemblies or components. Many maintenance standards will be identical or similar to
construction acceptance standards and tolerances; a few may include additional tolerance or performance
nonconformance provisions not available to the original supplier or installation contractor.
b. The maintenance standards for catenary systems on high-speed train routes require close conformance with
contact wire heights and gradients to avoid high vertical acceleration of pantograph head assemblies, high
contact forces or momentary loss of electrical supply to the locomotive. Some maintenance standards
involve two or more levels of tolerance or other conformance parameters, which facilitate continuing

operation on a degraded basis, that could include lower acceleration rates or lower maximum speeds, similar
to track classification standards.
6.5.1.8.3 Periodic Tests
a. Part of the preventive maintenance program recommended for high-speed rail routes should be a series of
performance tests applied both to the power supply equipment and to the overhead catenary power
distribution system. Power supply equipment testing can routinely include one or more operations of circuit
breakers and disconnects which have no recorded operations within a defined period, typically one year.
b. Catenary system performance testing can routinely include one or more pantograph operation video
recording along each main track of the high-speed route. One video should be taken at or close to the
maximum operating speeds along the entire route. If any degradation of pantograph performance is
identified, a second video should be taken through route sections of interest or concern, with train speeds
controlled to match the design balancing speeds through each curve. Direct comparison and joint evaluation
of the two videos should help to establish the cause of any performance degradation, which typically could
be related to track misadjustment, vehicle suspension misadjustment, pantograph frame joint deficiencies,
catenary system misadjustment or any combination of deficiencies.
c. A permanent maintenance history log should be maintained for each power supply facility and for each
electrical catenary section. This log could highlight any long term recurrence of deficient conditions, and
help to develop corrective actions for implementation prior to system or equipment failure occurrences.
6.5.1.8.4 Safety During Electrical Fault

1
a. Electrical faults are caused by one or more factors, including inadvertent faults caused by wild animals and
birds, insulation failures in power supply and catenary systems, or equipment failures on board locomotives
or other motive power vehicles. All interconnected, energized equipment and systems have to be fully
bonded throughout to prevent any possibility of floating electrical potential remaining in conductors, wires
or equipment components when the traction power system is deenergized.
b. All non-energized metallic and other electrical conductive items including support poles and frames, lineside 3
fencing, station metalwork and all other such items within the traction power system electrical zone of
influence should be effectively grounded. Metal components should be bonded together and all assemblies
and isolated items should be connected to a ground wire system, a ground grid or to grounding rods, in
accordance with NESC requirements and electrification industry practice.
c. Circuit breaker and relay systems installed at power supply substations and switching stations provide
protection against electrical faults. Each circuit breaker provides connection of electrical power from an 4
energized busbar to an individual region or track-specific section of the catenary system. The occurrence of
an electrical fault would be detected by relays which cause the circuit breaker to open within a few
milliseconds. Since many faults are transient in nature, most circuit breakers should be set to reclose
automatically within a few seconds to restore power to the section. If the fault persists, the circuit breaker
will lock open until the fault is investigated and repaired. Special distance zone type relays should be used to
differentiate between high traction power loads and actual faults.
d. The circuit breakers for catenary sections at yards, station platforms and other areas where passengers or
railroad personnel are routinely present should not reclose onto a fault, but instead should lock out
immediately for on-site investigation of the fault cause and affects.
6.5.1.8.5 Safety During Switching Operations
a. The switching of electrical power is carried out in accordance with prescribed procedures by authorized
personnel at an electrification system control center that would usually control an entire route or region.
The procedures used should include some form of interlock or logic data-based system to prevent

simultaneous supply of power to a section from more than one source, phase or substation, particularly
when alternate feed arrangements have to be implemented while a fault is being investigated and rectified.
b. Safety measures adopted include siting of all switching equipment in high security situations, compounds or
buildings, with intrusion detection systems connected to the control center for all facilities which are
normally unattended.
6.5.1.8.6 Safety During Maintenance Operations
a. Maintenance of traction power supply and catenary system facilities should be preplanned for
implementation during light traffic periods or during short overnight system shutdowns. All access and
work activities should be in accordance with prescribed procedures that prevent any approach within
specified limitations until all power has been disconnected and permanent or temporary grounds have been
installed at either or both sides of the access area. Any circuit breakers or disconnects that could be
inadvertently closed and reenergize the area of access should be locked open and tagged by the person
responsible. The tags should not be removed until all personnel have been accounted for as being outside
the specified access limitations and maintenance grounds have been removed or disconnected, and the tags
should only be removed by the person who initially placed them. The remote operation of circuit breakers
and disconnects may require supplementary safety procedures to achieve safety of personnel and
equipment.
b. Safety during specific maintenance activity requires that all personnel should clearly understand and
acknowledge the limits of temporary access, and should be fully trained, regularly certified and checked in
respect of their knowledge and familiarity with maintenance procedures and activities being undertaken.
6.5.1.8.7 Safety During Abnormal Environmental Conditions
a. Some high-speed rail routes may run through regions subject to occasional abnormal environmental
conditions, requiring special parameters in the system design basis or special operating procedures. The
overhead catenary system design basis may need to include provision for abnormal conditions including
heavy ice on catenary wires and occurrence of very high wind conditions. To ensure the safety of passengers
and equipment, train speeds should be limited when wind speeds exceed some specified amount, typically
above 55 to 60 mph (89 to 97 kph). Furthermore, train operation should be suspended if wind speeds reach
hurricane levels of 75 mph (121 kph).
b. Other abnormal environmental conditions can affect the integrity of traction power systems, and these were
discussed in Article 6.3.6.3.
6.5.1.8.8 Security of Isolator Switches
The overhead catenary power distribution system incorporates numerous disconnect isolator switches, usually
mounted on trackside catenary poles or structures. Most disconnects should be motorized to facilitate operation by
remote control, but all disconnect isolator switches should incorporate some form of manual control for local or
emergency operation. The security of these disconnects is maintained by use of removable handles and special
locks to prevent unauthorized disconnect switch operation. Furthermore, other security measures should be
included in the prescribed procedures which control the operation of all control equipment items including isolator
switches.
6.5.1.9 Catenary System Tools and Equipment
a. A number of catenary system components and assemblies make use of nonstandard fixing and assembly
techniques requiring the use of special purpose tools, jigs and equipment. These are usually provided by the
relevant hardware suppliers as part of procurement packages, and are retained with maintenance
departmental tools and equipment stocks.

b. Specialized equipment as used by the installation contractor provides effective access to the catenary system
location above tracks, including hi-rail equipped bucket trucks and platform trucks. Extensive high-speed
rail systems benefit from provision of rail vehicles for catenary wiring and inspection, equipped with flat
roof working platforms and dummy working pantographs. These give an effective means of undertaking
routine inspection and rectification work, and facilitate rapid replacement of worn or damaged contact wire.
6.5.1.10 Environment
High-speed rail operations have to interact with a number of environmental requirements and conditions. These
include conditions that occur naturally, restrictions related to safety and operability, and man-made alterations to
the natural environment.
6.5.1.10.1 Physical Environment
The physical environment that a high-speed train travels through is partly dependent on the region traversed
between the route end points, which in turn is influenced by local decisions concerning routing choices. High-speed
trains usually have widely spaced intermediate stops, which provides flexibility for evaluation of alternative routes
when avoidance of undesirable physical environmental conditions is a major factor. Typical undesirable conditions
related to traction power and catenary system installations can include unstable land strata, recurrent heavy snow
and icing conditions, and high levels of isoceraunic activity (lightning frequency and intensity).
6.5.1.10.2 Meteorological Basis
The seasonal and recurrent weather conditions along a high-speed rail route have to be established for use as the
basis of design. Some parameters are provided in NESC and other codes and guidelines; icing levels are stipulated 1
to be heavy (0.5 inch/13 mm radial ice), light (0.25 inch/6mm radial ice) or not applicable, according to the region or
locality involved. More information is provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.10.3 Electrical Interference
a. Individual elements of traction power and catenary system installations have to coexist with the electrical
interference environment that is present. To a large extent, this environment is self-generated by current 3
flow and voltage present in major system elements including catenary system wires and feeders. Other
electrical interference may also be present, usually from parallel high voltage electrical transmission lines.
b. Other systems in the vicinity of high-speed rail routes also have to coexist with electrical interference
caused by the presence and operation of the railroad traction power facilities. Systems affected can include
low voltage power circuits and various kinds of communications, signalling and train control circuits,
particularly when they run parallel to the route for significant distances. A number of interference 4
mitigation measures and procedures are available for use when interference levels become excessive or
create safety concerns. Typical circuits that may be affected include local telephone and video cable circuits
installed along parallel residential streets.
c. Electrical interference does not affect fiber optic cable systems since no electrical conductor is present in the
longitudinal cable system.
6.5.1.10.4 Pollution/Contamination
Past experience on railroad electrification projects included the need for mitigation of industrial air pollution and
contamination. Most harmful forms of air pollution have now been eliminated, but some benign contamination still
exists in unique local circumstances. Such contamination may occur naturally and its presence should be
recognized by incorporation of appropriate design features, treatments or materials. One typical example is the
presence of high salt concentrations in moist onshore winds at route sections along stretches of sea or ocean
coastline.

17
Part 7
Maintenance of Way Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

7.1.1 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3 1
7.2.2 Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.3 Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.4 Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.5 Effects on Adjacent Land Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3 3

7.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.2 Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.3 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.4 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.5 Traction Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.4.2 Maintenance of Way Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.5.3 Ride Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.4 Gage Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.5 Vertical Deviations and Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.6 Horizontal Deviation and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.7 Component Wear Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
1

7.6.2 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.6.3 Normal Inspection Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5

7.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10.2 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10.3 Snow and Ice Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5

7.2.1 GENERAL
7.2.2 RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS
7.2.3 PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS
7.2.4 EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATIONS AND CUSTOMERS
7.2.5 EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES
1
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING
7.3.1 GENERAL
7.3.2 SIGNALS
3
7.3.3 TRACK
7.3.4 STRUCTURES
7.3.5 TRACTION POWER

4
7.4.1 GENERAL
7.4.2 MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT
7.5.1 GENERAL

7.5.3 RIDE QUALITY
7.5.4 GAGE LIMITS
7.5.5 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS
7.5.6 HORIZONTAL DEVIATION AND VARIATIONS
7.5.7 COMPONENT WEAR LIMITS
7.6.1 GENERAL
7.6.2 SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL
7.6.3 NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL
7.7.1 GENERAL
7.8.1 GENERAL

7.9.1 GENERAL
7.10.1 GENERAL
7.10.2 CLEANING
7.10.3 SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL


27
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 17, High Speed Rail Systems is placed here in alphabetical
order for your convenience.
1. American Railway Engineering & Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA): Practical Guide to Railway
Engineering, Second Edition 2003.
2. Martin Lindahl: Track geometry for high-speed railways (a literature survey and simulationn of dynamic
vehicle response), Railway Technology, Department of Vehicle Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, 2001.


CHAPTER 18
LIGHT DENSITY AND
SHORT LINE RAILWAYS1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 General Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-1

1.1 Engineering Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2 1
1.2 Budgeting (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
1.3 Contracting and Contract Management (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
2 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-1
2.1 Track Components and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.2 Track Inspection and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.3 Track and Roadway Rehabilitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10 3
3 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-1
3.1 Bridge Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2
3.2 Construction Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.4 Bridge Inspection Checklist (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-14
4 Communication and Signals (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4-1
1

SCOPE
The material in this chapter is supplementary guidance for railroad lines categorized as light density or short
lines. While these categories have no exact limits, for engineering purposes they are generally defined as
follows:
LIGHT DENSITY
A railroad line carrying less than 5 million gross tons of traffic per year. (Note: 1 million gross tons
approximately equals the passage of 7,600 loaded 100-ton cars, or an average of 21 of these cars each day of the
year.)
SHORT LINE
A railroad not large enough to economically justify the use of large scale production maintenance techniques or
to have fully staffed engineering and maintenance-of-way departments. Maintenance-of-way staff is sized for
routine maintenance activities and may not perform this work full time. Engineering and design work, and
perhaps much of the track and structure maintenance, are typically done by contract.
INTRODUCTION
information.

18
Part 1
General Engineering
— 2000 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Engineering Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2

1.1.1 Introduction (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.2 Valuation Maps (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.3 Contracts, Easements, and Agreements (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.4 Original Right-of-Way Grant Instruments (Deeds, etc.) (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-3 1
1.1.5 Operation and Maintenance Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-3
1.1.6 Bridge , Culvert, and Tunnel Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-5
1.1.7 Signals and Communications Plans and Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6
1.1.8 Building and Utility Plans and Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6
1.1.9 Environmental Information and Records (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6
1.1.10 Material Inventory Records (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7 3
1.2 Budgeting (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
1.3 Contracting and Contract Management (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7

Light Density and Short Line Railways
SECTION 1.1 ENGINEERING RECORDS
a. The following sections describe engineering records which are considered essential for the proper
management of a short line or light density railroad property. These records are valuable for legal as
well as engineering purposes. They also greatly aid maintenance planning and budgeting and decisions
for future construction and roadway improvements.
b. Whenever a railroad line is purchased or sold, these records should be included with the property
transfer, and purchasers should ensure that these documents are obtained, checked, and updated as
needed. If the acquisition is a lease, rather than a purchase, then good reproducible copies should be
obtained as well as several sets of reproductions. When available, computerized versions should also be
acquired.
c. As many of these documents define legal obligations and restrictions, they should be reviewed before
planning or conducting construction, excavation, or drainage work. A thorough review and
understanding will also minimize misunderstandings with other parties. Compliance with various
agreements may also affect annual maintenance plans and budgets.
1.1.2 VALUATION MAPS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Right-of-Way maps with index maps and sheets.
(2) Station maps with index maps and sheets.
(3) Track and structure maps with index maps and sheets.
b. Valuation mapping includes the predominate 1" = 400' right-of-way maps, special maps at 1" = 100' or
200' for stations, index maps and sheets showing only schedules of property, etc.
c. Track maps should show the length and degree of curves.
1.1.3 CONTRACTS, EASEMENTS, AND AGREEMENTS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Contracts for industry tracks railroad land.
(2) Easements for construction and maintenance of public highway crossings.
(3) Easements for construction and maintenance of private road crossings.

General Engineering
(4) Agreements for utilities to cross over or under the railroad, or run parallel to it on the right-of-way
(above or below ground level).
(5) Agreements for joint facilities operation and maintenance.
(6) Side track agreements.
(7) Track leases.
(8) Agreements for moveable bridges over navigable waterways and for wharves and docks.
(9) Permits issued by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.
b. Industry track contracts and land usage contracts (easements) specify the responsibilities of both parties
regarding maintenance, cost sharing, and property restoration when the contract ends or if it is
terminated.
c. Agreements for the road crossings, both public and private, will assist the new owner on liability
questions, maintenance responsibility and access rights.
d. Agreements for utilities include power lines, telephone lines, sanitary and storm sewers, irrigation
canals, pipelines and cable (fiber optic, telephone and television). These agreements will be needed to
avoid disruptions or liabilities through unaware excavations, for collection of periodic rents, and for
other maintenance purposes.
1
e. Joint facility agreements will assist in defining the responsibilities for the operation and maintenance of
the facility, such as interlocking, crossing diamonds, interchange tracks, trackage rights, towers, joint
stations, etc.
f. Documents relating to navigable waterways concern drawbridges and permits for docks and wharves
involving the Coast Guard, the Army Corps of Engineers, or similar agencies (including state or 3
municipal agencies).
1.1.4 ORIGINAL RIGHT-OF-WAY GRANT INSTRUMENTS (DEEDS, ETC.) (2000)
a. These are mainly right-of-way deeds.

4
b. Although legal challenges to the continuity of an operating railroad's right-of-way are rare, possession of
a complete set of original right-of-way deeds (or good copies from the county recorders) is essential. In
addition to defining ownership, these documents may also establish restrictions such as a duty to
construct and maintain right-of-way fences, or reversion clauses which affect the longer-term value of
the right-of-way land. Occasionally a lender may require title insurance regarding a borrowing short
line's properties, and the need for good information on the origin and quality of the railroad's right, title
and interest in its land is important.
1.1.5 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS (2000)
a. These records will assist in planning future maintenance activities. They include:

(1) Track charts.
(2) Track and turnout inspection records.
(3) Maintenance standards and special instructions.
(4) Operating rules, timetables, and special instructions.
(5) Clearance records.
(6) Rail replacement records.
(7) Tie replacement records.
(8) Ballast and surfacing records.
(9) Curve records.
(10) Grade crossings records.
b. Track charts are indispensible for maintenance planning, conducting track inspections, and most
activities and communications regarding track maintenance. A good track chart includes: track profile
(with gradients marked); curve location and degree; milepost locations and track stationing (surveyor’s
stationing); locations of bridges, structures, utility crossings, culverts, overhead bridges, and any
structure or feature which may restrict clearances; length of sidings; and for yards, track layout and
numbering (or names).
c. Track and turnout inspection records are essential for knowing the conditions on the railroad and are a
basis for determining annual maintenance and rehabilitation needs. In addition to regular visual
inspections, they should also include records of inspections for internal rail defects (ultrasonic
inspections). Thorough track, turnout, and internal rail inspection records are also required by the
Federal Railroad Administration.
d. Maintenance standards and instructions define the level to which each section of track is to be
maintained. These documents are further covered in Part 2 below. (It is important to note that Federal
Railroad Administration track standards are not, and should not be used as, maintenance standards.
They are intended to be only minimum safety standards for operating purposes).
e. In addition to train operations, operating rules, timetables, and special instructions govern the operation
of maintenance machines on the track, and knowledge of their contents is important for the safety of
track maintenance personnel while on or near the track. They also indicate areas with slow orders and
other operating restrictions including load and clearance limits.
f. Clearance records should show all locations where horizontal or vertical clearances are in any way
restricted, the structure or feature which limits the clearance, and the what the limiting measurement
is. (All states specify minimum required clearances through or past various structures. See Chapter 28
for more information on clearances).
g. Rail replacement records should show where and when rail was replaced due to in-service failures (i. e.
rails broken in-service), or internal defects, or from general wear. They should also show where rail has
been transposed in curves. Rail grinding records should show when and where grinding was done and
indicate the grinding pattern and grinding depth. The accumulated tonnage which has passed over the
rail should also be indicated.

General Engineering
h. Tie replacement records should show the number of ties replaced in each section or mile of track during
tie replacement programs.
i. Ballast and surfacing records should indicate where and when surfacing has been done; the amount the
track was raised; and the type, amount, and source of ballast used.
j. Curve records should detail the engineering information on each curve such as degree, length, amount of
superelevation, and length of spiral at each end.
k. Grade crossings records should show for each crossing the AAR/DOT (Association of American Railroads
/ Department of Transportation) inventory number, the name of the road crossing the track, and the
type of crossing protection there (signs, lights, gates, etc.). (See Article 1.1.7 regarding crossing warning
devices).
1.1.6 BRIDGE , CULVERT, AND TUNNEL RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) General and detailed drawings for each structure.
(2) Inspection reports.
(3) Repair records.

1
(4) Ratings and load limits.
(5) Bridge standard plans.
(6) Pile-driving records.
(7) Drainage studies and surveys. 3

(8) Tunnel plans.
(9) Clearance diagrams and records.
b. Bridge inspection records are critical for ensuring operating safety and for planning and prioritizing
maintenance and repairs; they may also indicate the needed to revise allowable loads permitted on the 4
structures. Records of past repairs may be included with inspection reports and may indicate the need to
update bridge drawings. Plans for the steel structures are especially needed for repair and rating
purposes. Pile driving records show the depth to which the piles were driven, etc.
c. Drainage studies and surveys indicate nearby water flow characteristics and capacities under bridges
and through culverts.
d. Tunnel plans are used for any maintenance repairs and clearance work which may be necessary at a
future date.
e. Clearance diagrams and records for bridges and tunnels are needed for routing any high or wide loads (as
well as heavy loads) over the railroad.

1.1.7 SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS PLANS AND RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Signal standard plans.
(2) Individual signal plans.
(3) Signal inspection records.
(4) Interlocking plans records.
(5) Road crossing warning device plans and inspection records.
(6) Communications system plans.
b. Signal, communication system, and interlocking plans show construction and wiring of signals and
signal systems, including manufacturers models and other information needed when ordering
replacement parts. The plans also indicate how the signals are intended to function, thus aiding in
diagnosing problems and making repairs. These plans will also help in determining the most cost
effective methods to use when upgrades or modifications are needed. Working on a system without these
plans could adversely impact train operations or create safety hazards.
c. Signal inspections and records, including those for active warning devices (flashing lights, gates) at road
crossings, are required by the Federal Railroad Administration. These must show the dates the devices
were checked for proper operation and what tests were performed.
1.1.8 BUILDING AND UTILITY PLANS AND RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Building plans and construction and repair records.
(2) Utility plans and construction and repair records.
b. The original architectural plans for significant buildings will be used for repair and improvement work.
Utility plans (water and gas lines, sanitary and storm drains, communication and electrical conduits,
etc.) will be necessary for locating the lines in case of emergency repair work or normal maintenance.
1.1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AND RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Phase 1 reports.
(2) Existing environmental situations
(3) Regulatory (State, Federal EPA) permits.
b. The current environmental conditions should be documented; this is often done through a “Phase 1"
environmental survey of the property prepared by a qualified contractor. Any reports detailing known
environmental situations on the property should be documented if the property is to be sold or leased;
the buyer or lessee should seek competent technical legal advice and obtain whatever records are

General Engineering
suggested by the experts. All regulatory permits need to be kept where conveniently accessible, as they
need to be produced when required for various construction or rehabilitation activities, and even to
verify permission for certain routine operations.
1.1.10 MATERIAL INVENTORY RECORDS (2000)
a. Material inventory records should show the track, bridge, signal, and building materials on hand to
accomplish needed maintenance and repairs, including material type, size, and location. Material on
hand is part of the engineering assets of the railroad and may represent significant dollar value.
Inventory records will assist in maintenance and rehabilitation budgeting and planning by indicating
what does or does not need to be purchased. Certain projects may be prioritized by the amount of
material already on hand to accomplish the work.
SECTION 1.2 BUDGETING (TO BE DEVELOPED)
SECTION 1.3 CONTRACTING AND CONTRACT MANAGEMENT (TO BE DEVELOPED)

1


18
Part 2
Track
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Track Components and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2

2.1.1 Subgrade (To Be Developed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.2 Drainage (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.3 Ballast and Sub-ballast (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.4 Crossties and Switch Ties (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4 1
2.1.5 Rail (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.6 Fastenings and OTM (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.7 Turnouts and Rail Crossings (To Be Developed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.8 Highway Grade Crossings (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2 Track Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4 3

2.2.1 Inspection Overview (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2.2 Preparation for an Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2.3 Inspection Procedures (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-6
2.2.4 Inspection Check List (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-6
2.3 Track and Roadway Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10

2.3.1 Definition (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10
2.3.2 Determining Rehabilitation Needs (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10
2.3.3 The Rehabilitation Plan (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-12
2.3.4 Guidance On Rehabilitation of Track and Roadway Components (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-13
2.3.5 Final Plans and Work Preparation (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-22
2.3.6 Construction and On-site Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-23
LIST OF TABLES
18-1-1 Ballast/Sub-Ballast Gradation Chart for Coarse Aggregate Suppliers in the United States. . . 18-2-3
See Plan 1001 in AREMA’s Portfolio of Trackwork Plans “Rail Sections -- In Use Since About 1980.”

SECTION 2.1 TRACK COMPONENTS AND DESIGN
2.1.1 SUBGRADE (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.2 DRAINAGE (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.3 BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST (2003)
The following table should be used as a guide when AREMA ballast gradations are not available. For quality
recommendations of ballast refer to Chapter 1, Section 2.4.

Table 18-1-1. Ballast/Sub-Ballast Gradation Chart for Coarse Aggregate Suppliers in the United States
Sieve Size
Size of Opening Number of Openings/
sq. in.
3” 2 1/2” 2” 1 1/2” 1” 3/4” 1/2” 3/8” #4 #8 #30 #200
Use Standard Gradation # Nominal Size Percent Passing Through Sieve Size (min.-max.)
Square
Openings
Mainline AREMA 24 2 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 24 2 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AREMA 25 2 1/2” to 3/8” 100 80-100 60-85 50-70 25-50 5-20 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 3 2” to 1” 100 95-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 3 2” to 1” 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
and ASTM
Mainline AREMA 4A 2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 60-90 10-35 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 4 1 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 4 1 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
and ASTM
Yard/Side AASHTO 5 1” to 1/2” 100 90-100 20-55 0-10 0-5
Track and ASTM
Yard/Side AREMA 5 1” to 3/8” 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Track
Yard/Side AASHTO 56 1” to 3/8” 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Track and ASTM
Yard/Side AREMA 57 1” to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Track
Yard/Side AASHTO 57 1” to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Track and ASTM
Sub-Ballast Generic DGA/ABC 1” to #200 100 90-100 60-90 30-60 10-40 4-13
AREMA - American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
DGA - Dense Graded Aggregate
18-2-3
Track
ABC - Aggregate Base Course
2.1.4 CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.5 RAIL (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.6 FASTENINGS AND OTM (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.7 TURNOUTS AND RAIL CROSSINGS (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.8 HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS (TO BE DEVELOPED)
SECTION 2.2 TRACK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
2.2.1 INSPECTION OVERVIEW (2000)
a. The main purpose of a track inspection is to ensure that the track is safe for the passage of trains. Next in
importance is to determine any aspects of the track and roadway which do not meet the designated
maintenance standard for that line.
b. The check list below is intended to provide a guide and refresher to the track inspector on defects to look for,
observations which may indicate a potential or actual problem, and important measurements to check.
Specific limits for the measurements have mostly been omitted as these usually depend on the maintenance
standards for each line.
c. To aid in obtaining a thorough and accurate inspection record, it is recommended that the inspector stop at
each significant point, such as a milepost or switch, and review the check list along with notes and items
observed since the previous stopping point. Any items omitted from the inspection report or detailed notes
should be added at this time, before inspecting the next segment.
d. Once the inspection is complete, the inspector should review all notes and group any deficiencies found into
the following three categories:
(1) Defects needing immediate action to ensure safe train operation.
(2) Deficiencies or defects which should be corrected soon to bring the track back into compliance with the
designated maintenance standard.
(3) Items or areas which should be closely or more frequently watched to ensure that unacceptable
conditions do not occur.
2.2.2 PREPARATION FOR AN INSPECTION (2000)
a. Before conducting an inspection the following documents and information should be obtained, reviewed,
and kept accessible while out on the track:
(1) Operating rules.
(2) Current timetable.
(3) General instructions.

Track
(4) Track car rules.
(5) First aid rules.
(6) Maintenance of way rules.
(7) Safety rules.
(8) Motor vehicle rules.
(9) Standard practice circulars.
(10) Railroad company maintenance standards.
(11) FRA (Federal Railroad Administration) track safety standards.
(12) Copy of the previous track inspection report.
(13) Blank inspection forms.
b. If using a vehicle when conducting an inspection the following tools and materials should be on hand:
(1) 25-foot or 50-foot measuring tape.
(2) 18-inch straightedge. 1

(3) 62-foot string.
(4) 6-foot folding rule.
(5) A box of (yellow) lumber crayons.

3
(6) Trouble light.
(7) Red flag.
(8) Goggles and hard hat.
(9) Track gage and level. 4

(10) Spike maul and track wrench.
(11) Shovel, ballast fork, and pick.
(12) Claw bar, jack bar (lining bar), and a small track jack.
(13) Drift pins.
(14) Several spikes, bolts, joint bars, anchors.
(15) Bundle of tie plugs.
(16) Switch broom.

2.2.3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES (2000)
a. Inspections should be done by walking the track or traveling in a vehicle on the track at a speed which is
slow enough to visually detect defects.
b. Over the year, it is best to alternate the direction in which a track section is inspected and to inspect it at
different times in the day. Varying the direction and time will often help an inspector pick up defects which
were not as obvious during the last inspection.
c. When track is normally inspected from a vehicle, the inspector should make it a point to walk at least some
portions of the track on a rotating basis, so that over a year's time, every piece of track will have been
walked a few times. Also, if practical, the inspector should ride in an engine over the track during each
season so that the track can be checked under a full load. At known or suspected trouble spots, the track
should be observed from the ground while the engine (and train) passes.
d. When time permits, the inspector should perform minor repairs that can be safely and easily done during
the inspection trip.
2.2.4 INSPECTION CHECK LIST (2000)
a. Rail Defects:
(1) Abnormal appearance or unusual marks.
(2) Rust streaks or discolorations.
(3) Deep chips or gouges.
(4) Excessive surface corrugations.
(5) Excessive vertical or horizontal head wear, especially in curves.
(6) Ordinary breaks.
(7) Breakouts in joint area.
(8) Vertical or horizontal split head.
(9) Vertical/horizontal mismatched ends.
(10) Damaged rails.
b. Rail Fastening Defects:
(1) Cracked, broken, or loose joint bars.
(2) Loose or missing bolts.
(3) Broken or missing lock washers.
(4) High, missing, or loose spikes.
(5) Condition of insulated joints.

Track
(6) Missing or broken tie plates.
(7) Improperly positioned tie plates, particularly at joints.
(8) Defective, missing, or improperly applied rail anchors.
c. Turnout and Crossing Defects:
(1) Unlocked or improperly aligned switches.
(2) Insecure switch stand and worn latches.
(3) Switch rods worn or out of adjustment.
(4) Stockrails improperly seated/worn braces.
(5) Switch/slide plates not clean and lubricated.
(6) Gapping, worn/chipped, poorly fitting switch points.
(7) Missing bolts and cotter pins.
(8) Loose joints in heel and frog area.
(9) Worn or chipped frog point and surface. 1

(10) Outer edge of wheel contacting gauge side of spring frog wing rail.
(11) Spring frog horn clearance less than 1/4 inch.
(12) Proper gage in turnout - particularly in curved closure rails.

3
(13) Proper guard check gage and guard face gage in frog.
d. Roadway and General Surface Defects:
(1) Pumping, loose, or hanging joints.
(2) Frost heaves. 4

(3) Sink holes.
(4) Washouts.
(5) Frozen or tight joints.
(6) Tight or creeping rail.
(7) Ice or sand build-up between tie plate and rail base.
(8) Curve and spiral alignment, elevation, and run-off beyond allowable tolerances.
(9) Track geometry measurements beyond allowable tolerances (gage, surface, cross level, alignment,
warp or twist).

e. Rail Lubricator Defects:
(1) Lubricator not properly adjusted or not operating.
(2) Reservoir not filled and puddled.
(3) Hoses not in good condition.
(4) Track area contaminated (too much being pumped out).
f. Tie Defects:
(1) Broken.
(2) Damaged.
(3) Split through.
(4) Rotted or deteriorated.
(5) Plate cut more than 2 inches.
(6) Spike killed.
(7) Skewed.
(8) Not properly supporting joints.
(9) Insufficient non-defective ties to support rail.
g. Ballast Defects:
(1) Not clean and free draining (fouled).
(2) Not properly supporting the track.
(3) Not restraining track laterally (shoulders not full).
(4) Not restraining track longitudinally (cribs not full).
h. Culvert Defects:
(1) Not structurally sound (loss of ballast over culvert).
(2) Not free of debris, drift, and silt.
(3) Not fully open for passage of water (ends not clean).
i. Ditch and Drainage Channel Defects:
(1) Not free draining.
(2) Not free of debris, drift, and silt.
(3) Washed out areas or scour present.

Track
(4) Allows ponding of water which could saturate subgrade or fill (embankment).
(5) Not deep enough (3 to 4 feet from top of rail down to invert).
(6) Not removing water quickly from: switches and frogs, rail crossings, bridge approaches, highway grade
crossings, tunnel portals, and areas with close clearances.
j. Vegetation Defects:
(1) Obstructing signs and signals.
(2) Restricting normal trackside duties.
(3) Interfering with signal and communication wires.
(4) Obstructing highway grade crossing sight distance.
k. Snow and Ice Defects:
(1) Blocking drainage ditch or culvert.
(2) Blocking visibility.
(3) Creating unsafe walking conditions.

1
(4) Restricting the movement of trains.
(5) Restricting clearances in tunnels and at bridges.
l. Highway (Road) Grade Crossing Defects:
(1) Flangeways filled with ice, snow, gravel, or dirt. 3

(2) Road surface and approach pavement in poor condition.
(3) High, loose, broken, missing, or deteriorated planks or panels.
(4) High, loose, broken, bent, or missing fasteners.

4
(5) Advance warning signs not in place, damaged, or not readable.
(6) Crossbucks or signs not in place, damaged, or not readable.
(7) Flashers or gates not functioning properly.
(8) Insufficient sight distance due to obstructions (weeds, brush, and trees).
m. Track Signal Defects:
(1) Not operational or not displaying proper aspect.
(2) Yard limit signs missing or damaged.
(3) Switch and derail targets not in place or damaged.

(4) Interlocking or block signals not functioning properly.
(5) Insufficient visibility of signs or signals.
n. Clearance Defects:
(1) Buildings and structures too close to track.
(2) Construction and/or excavation obstructing safe train passage.
(3) Overhead wiring too low (Do not use steel tape to measure).
o. Miscellaneous Defects:
(1) Stock fences or gates in poor condition.
(2) Stock on right of way.
(3) Right of way fires, if actively burning - call for help and/or extinguish. If there are signs of recent fire -
investigate with local fire fighters.
(4) Derails not locked in proper position (usually in derailing mode).
(5) Bridge and trestle approaches too low or have improper surface, alignment,crosslevel, or excessive
warp (twist).
SECTION 2.3 TRACK AND ROADWAY REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation is work which falls between routine maintenance and new construction. Rehabilitation involves
restoring track to a "like new" condition and/or upgrading it to meet current or anticipated traffic and load-carrying
requirements. A rehabilitation project may involve some new construction, such as lengthening, realigning, or
adding a passing siding or yard tracks.
2.3.2 DETERMINING REHABILITATION NEEDS (2000)
a. The need for rehabilitation may be indicated when:
(1) Track deterioration has progressed to the point where excessive maintenance is required or beyond the
point where routine maintenance can effectively correct defects.
(2) Slow orders become excessive in number or in the length of track covered by them.
(3) Derailments occur, either repeatedly in the same location or in an increasing number of locations.
(4) Additional traffic is expected or heavier cars are to be handled.

Track
b. If there are indications suggesting a need for rehabilitation work, the next step is to perform the three types
of evaluations described in the following articles. The purpose of evaluations is to determine whether the
track and roadway meet the requirements, and if not, in what respect they are deficient.
2.3.2.2 Operational Evaluation
a. The purpose of this evaluation is to clearly define operating, traffic, and load-carrying requirements. A
complete evaluation should incorporate a check of track and bridge capabilities as well as basic geometric
requirements. Information needs will vary, depending on location and extent of rehabilitation. An
operational evaluation may include any or all of the following:
(1) Current and projected annual traffic (carloads) for the route.
(2) Types, lengths, and axle loadings of heaviest cars, with current and projected percentage of traffic they
represent.
(3) Desired operating speed.
(4) Current and projected length of trains.
(5) Current bridge load ratings.
(6) Number of siding and yard tracks, along with usable car capacity of each.
(7) Side and Overhead Clearances. 1

(8) Track geometry.
(9) Track profile and maximum (or ruling) grade.
(10) Track curvature: degree and length of curves.

3
(11) Turnouts: quantity and size.
(12) Warning signs or devices and visibility at road crossings.
(13) Status of signal and communications systems.
b. For terminals, the adequacy of lighting, service roads, and security features should be evaluated. 4
c. Previous derailment sites and chronic problem areas should be included in the evaluation.
2.3.2.3 Condition Evaluation
a. Condition evaluations may occur in three stages or levels, depending on the size and scope of the project:
(1) At the first stage, a quick condition assessment may be appropriate. This assessment is based on
recent inspection reports, track and facility inventory information, and a brief field survey. This
assessment will help establish a general need for rehabilitation.
(2) The second stage may be an evaluation for developing a rehabilitation plan. This information should
be sufficiently detailed to determine generally what work needs to be done at which locations, and to
develop preliminary cost estimates for planning and budgeting purposes.

(3) At the third stage, condition is examined in sufficient detail so that exact work requirements,
quantities, and locations can be determined for detailed cost estimates and final contract plans and
specifications.
b. Track condition evaluation should be based on the railroad’s maintenance standards as well as other major
rehabilitation requirements. The evaluation should also show major deficiencies which are likely to occur
within the next three to five years if rehabilitation is not performed.
c. Bridge condition evaluation may be based on the last completed inspection if that inspection is less than 1
year old. Otherwise, it is recommended that a new condition assessment be performed.
d. If internal rail inspection records are available, these should be examined to help determine rail
replacement needs.
e. For all track, terminals, and facilities, adequacy of drainage should be investigated.
2.3.2.4 Structural Evaluation
a. A structural evaluation should be performed to determine the current load carrying capacity for all track
and bridges. Track structural evaluation may be done using the method given in Chapter 16 or by other
methods designed for this purpose.
b. The load-carrying capability of a railroad line is often determined by the design capacity and present
condition of the bridges along the route, thus an accurate structural evaluation of bridges is critical. If the
last inspection indicated any significant change in condition of a main bridge member since the previous
load rating was done, at least the included span (or spans) of the bridge should be thoroughly inspected and
load rated. In addition, all bridges which have not been thoroughly inspected and load rated within the
previous three years should be examined and if condition indicates, be rated by an experienced railroad
bridge engineer, in accordance with the criteria in Chapter 7, Section 2.10 for timber bridges; Chapter 8,
Part 19 for concrete bridges; and Chapter 15, Part 7 for steel bridges.
2.3.3 THE REHABILITATION PLAN (2000)
2.3.3.1 Purpose
a. The main purpose of the rehabilitation plan is to describe the work to be performed and to provide an
estimate of how much the work is expected to cost. It should be clear from the plan that the selected work
will restore the track and bridges to meet the railroad’s objectives in a cost-effective manner.
b. The plan may serve as a written guide to direct company forces in accomplishing the work, or it may be used
as a basis for producing plans and specifications for the work to be performed by contract. It is also helpful
for future reference to document in the plan why certain decisions were made or alternatives chosen.
2.3.3.2 Content
a. The plan should include the following:
(1) Statement of deficiencies, based on operational, condition, and structural evaluations.
(2) Statement of objectives to be met by the rehabilitation work.
(3) A work plan of remedial actions to correct deficiencies, along with a list of the intended locations for
each type of work to be done. It may also include an explanation of why the proposed actions were
chosen over other alternatives.

Track
(4) Cost estimates for each item in the work plan.
b. If not previously done, each track, bridge, and turnout should be assigned a unique number (or other
designation). Each track should be marked, in the field and on the plan, with standard surveyor's stationing
or other system to help determine work and material quantities (from track lengths) and work locations.
c. If the rehabilitation plan will also serve for final plans and contract specifications, then the work plan must
include all details of work to be done, including the type and grade of materials to be used.
d. Where appropriate, plans should also allow for the elimination of unneeded track, with the possibility of re-
using track materials elsewhere on the railroad (where traffic and structural requirements are lower), and
for the sale or disposal of scrap and salvageable materials.
e. When an initial plan is being made for budgeting purposes, preliminary cost estimates are usually based on
costing the major work items, with extra allowances for minor work at other locations and additional minor
work within the major work locations or work categories. When the rehabilitation plan is completed in one
stage, the cost estimates and listings should include all levels and types of work in sufficient detail.
2.3.4 GUIDANCE ON REHABILITATION OF TRACK AND ROADWAY COMPONENTS

(2005)
a. Among its various functions, the track system serves to distribute the large, concentrated wheel loads
longitudinally, laterally, and vertically away from the wheel contact area on the rail surface. A well
1
constructed and maintained track will distribute the loads in a relatively uniform fashion, with each
component supporting its share of the load. Thus, one objective of track rehabilitation is to restore the
track structure so that the wheel loads will be properly supported, without overstressing any of the four
main track system components: rail, ties, ballast, and subgrade.
b. Appreciation of the integrated nature of railway track components is key to effective rehabilitation. To
withstand loading without an excessive rate of deterioration, the various track components must interact
3
properly. An effective rehabilitation project will address each component and the interaction among them
over time, with emphasis on obtaining the best and most uniform track condition within the available
budget.
2.3.4.2 Roadway, Subgrade, and Vegetation

4
a. Roadway. The roadway includes all railroad structures and property within the boundaries of the right-of-
way, including the earth subgrade on which the track is built, drainage ditches and structures, and the
vegetation growing on the property. Rehabilitation planning should include an examination of the entire
roadway width to determine if there are any conditions present which adversely affect current or future
operations. Cut or embankment side slope defects may not be obvious unless a close examination is made.
b. Subgrade.
(1) Subgrade defects are most often the result of poor surface drainage or water trapped within the
subgrade. Subgrade defects may cause loss of track support gradually over time or lead to a sudden
support failure. Unless there is damage (a washout) from a heavy storm or a side slope failure has
occurred, subgrade defects are usually difficult to see, especially in their early stages. Suspect signs
include locations where track does not hold surface, where ties are covered with mud, and where trees
or poles on cut or embankment side slopes lean more than usual.

(2) Diagnosing subgrade problems and prescribing effective remedial work can be difficult unless done by
a person with good knowledge and experience with this subject. Without good diagnosis, remedial work
can sometimes make the problem worse. In addition, correcting subgrade defects is often expensive.
Thus, this is one aspect of rehabilitation where obtaining professional help is advisable.
c. Vegetation.
(1) An important aspect of restoring and maintaining good track and roadway condition is managing
vegetation: preventing it from growing in the roadbed, keeping it cut to the proper levels adjacent to the
track, and promoting its growth where required to control erosion.
(2) The control of vegetation has more than just esthetic consideration along the roadway. Vegetation
which chokes ballast, ditches, and other facilities soon creates drainage and track maintenance
problems. Uncontrolled vegetation can also result in safety hazards for personnel in executing their
duties. Objects covered by weeds cannot be seen and become a tripping hazard. Brush-covered signs
and derails cannot be observed. Inspections cannot be performed adequately when excessive vegetation
is present. In addition, excess vegetation next to timber bridges can be a fire hazard and should be
removed or trimmed back.
(3) If vegetation has been allowed to grow within the ballast section, later removal or spraying will not
undo all the harm done to the ballast, as extensive root structures, plant matter, and trapped dirt will
have partly or completely fouled the ballast (filled the voids between ballast pieces), preventing good
drainage from the ballast section.
(4) Vegetation must also be controlled at grade crossings. Most states have rules for the dimensions of the
areas adjacent to crossings which must be cleared of vegetation or other obstructions to view.
2.3.4.3 Drainage and Drainage Structures
a. Drainage is perhaps the most ignored element in track rehabilitation plans, yet poor drainage is responsible
for most subgrade problems and promotes track deterioration.
b. Good drainage must begin with a well-draining ballast section and extend to side ditches and other drainage
structures, which should be kept clear of debris and silt, and properly sized to efficiently carry away storm
water flow. The objective is to remove rainfall and runoff water away from the track and roadway as quickly
as practical, ensuring that water drained from one location does not cause a problem at another.
c. Water trapped in the ballast section leads to rapid loss of track surface and excessive tie deterioration.
d. Where bridges span waterways, good drainage includes clearing debris and drift from bridge piers and piles
to avoid excessive forces from stream flow which can destabilize bridge support or move a bridge out of
proper alignment.
2.3.4.4 Ballast and Sub-ballast
a. Ballast and Sub-ballast Functions. Ballast and sub-ballast (if present) anchor the track in its proper
alignment, support the track to maintain proper surface, drain water away from the track structure, and
distribute the loads from the rail and ties to the subgrade at greatly reduced pressure (to prevent
overstressing the subgrade). During rehabilitation planning, a check should be made to determine whether
the ballast is accomplishing these functions.
b. Raising Track When Ballast is Fouled.
(1) A common remedial action when ballast is fouled is to unload clean ballast on top (often 3 to 6 inches)
and resurface and raise the track with a tamping machine. This type of remedial action may actually

Track
increase the amount of water held in the fouled ballast, aggravating the drainage problem. As the track
is raised through the new ballast, pockets formed by the ties are left in the old fouled ballast. These
pockets can allow the ballast to trap more water.
(2) When a decision is made to raise track above old fouled ballast, the ballast shoulders along the sides of
the ties should first be plowed away, with this material spread out on the right-of-way or removed from
the site so that it does not adversely affect local drainage. Plowing the old fouled ballast away from the
tie ends opens the old ballast pockets formed by the ties. If clean ballast is then added, and the track
raised, water will be able to drain through the ballast shoulders.
c. Fouled Ballast and Track Surface. As a general rule, track surface will deteriorate about twice as fast in
fouled ballast as it will in clean ballast.
2.3.4.5 Ties
a. Types. Wood is the most common material used for ties in North America. Concrete, steel, and other types
may be viable alternatives, but their cost and suitability need to be investigated for each situation.
b. Wood Ties. Wood crossties are classified as either hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods resist mechanical
damage more readily and are often placed in areas where the crosstie will likely wear out before it decays
excessively. Softwood crossties, on the other hand, will absorb preservatives more deeply and therefore
better resist decay. Anti-splitting devices (end plates) are recommended for hardwoods and other wood
species which have a tendency to split at the ends. Softwood ties are often acceptable for light density/slow
speed lines, and are available at lesser cost. One disadvantage is that spike-holding ability of softwood ties is
about 1/3 to ½ that for hardwoods. This may be an important factor, especially on curves of medium or 1
sharper degree.
c. Wood Tie Size and Quality. For short line applications, a 6”x8”x8’6” cross tie is often adequate. Where
heavier tonnage is expected, a 7"x 9" (mainline) crosstie may be more appropriate. Other options, especially
for tracks which experience only occasional use or are mainly used for temporary storage of empty cars, are
“mainline reject” ties or industrial quality ties. Mainline reject ties are usually ones that have been
manufactured for a particular Class I railroad’s order, but rejected by its inspectors, often due to minor 3
defects or slight dimensional shortage. For lighter tonnage, typical of a short line railroad, these defects
may be irrelevant, leading to an better overall tie being available at lower cost. Industrial quality ties are
usually lowest in quality due to material and/or treatment. In any case, the railroad should have the ties
thoroughly inspected, before purchase, by a qualified person knowledgeable of the railroad’s requirements
to ensure the ties are suitable.
d. Switch and Bridge Ties. Due to their critical nature, switch and bridge ties should not vary from the 4
standard “Grade” quality used by Class I railroads.
e. Spiking Pattern.
(1) Each rail on every tie should have a tie plate. A minimum of two spikes per plate should be required
(one on the gage side and one diagonally across from it on the field side).
(2) Additional spikes are recommended in curves of 3 degrees or greater, or in softwood ties.
(3) Avoid allowing the head of a spike to be in a position where it can exert pressure against the end of a
joint bar to reduce the likelihood of rail kinking and/or tie skewing.
f. Tie Plugs. If spikes are pulled (to allow rail replacement, for example), tie plugs should be used to fill spike
holes before the ties are respiked.
g. Determining Replacement Needs.

(1) When the rehabilitation plan is being prepared, three separate tie-count categories should be recorded:
defective ties, non-defective (good) ties, and marginal ties (those which seem functional now, but which
may become defective within five years), all on a per-track panel basis for the sample section. For the
initial estimate, percentages can then be applied to the sampling frame to roughly estimate total costs.
Differing levels of rehabilitation can then be explored, first with elimination of all defective ties, then
with replacement of various proportions of the marginal ties depending upon the availability of funding.
Once the affordable level of rehabilitation is established, each tie to be replaced should be marked.
(2) Crosstie defects are defined in federal regulations. It is important to note in light-density applications
that spike-holding capability and the support of rail joints are the key factors in determining whether
the ties are performing their useful function. This helps in determining which ties are defective, and
which, despite some deterioration, are still marginally effective. Joint ties should be judged more
strictly.
(3) It is in the area of crossties, more than any other, where “partial rehabilitation” can still pay off when
budgets are tight. Each joint unsupported by a tie represents a potential derailment site. Nests of four
and five defective ties will rapidly accelerate the deterioration of adjacent ties. Breaking that nest by
inserting even one tie in the middle will prevent much of this collateral damage, avoiding a bad situation
turning worse.
(4) As in other respects, the inter-relationships among the project elements must be considered. If
significant rail replacement is to be accomplished in the project, or if the track is to raised or heavily
surfaced, much greater numbers of “marginal” ties will become “defective” ties. Although a marginal tie
may be supporting the rail and holding its spikes in its undisturbed state, disturbing it by pulling the
spikes or by heavy tamping may well destroy its functionality. Where such activities are planned, a
contingency account should be established for additional tie replacement (or a heavier replacement
percentage used in determining the final quantities).
2.3.4.6 Rail and Fastenings (Including Jointed and CW Rail)
a. Size. While larger rail sizes (115-lb and greater) are usually more desirable, rail always depends on its
support from below - through the ties, ballast and subgrade. Heavier rail is no cure for handling heavier
loads when supporting conditions are insufficient.
b. Rail Assessment. Existing rail may be acceptable if:
(1) The head does not have excessive top or side wear. Top and side wear limits will depend on rail weight
and original size of the rail head, as well as factors such as: location of the rail (tangent, curve, turnout,
main track, yard track), traffic level, and operating speed. Marks on joint bars indicating contact from
wheel flanges may be an indication of worn rail.
(2) If worn only on one side, and head height is still sufficient. In this case, the rail can often be turned
and the new gage corner re-ground to a properly rounded contour. This option may not be practical, for
example, for rail from a sharp curve which has a pronounced bend to it.
(3) The web and base do not have deep pitting and significant material loss from corrosion.
(4) The rail ends (if jointed rail) are not severely battered (although it may sometimes be economical to
have battered ends cropped off and rail redrilled and reused).
(5) The rail does not have an excessive number of external defects (such as engine burns) or internal
defects.
(6) The rail is not excessively surface bent (bent vertically from lack of support).

Track
(7) A structural evaluation of the rehabilitated track shows the rail and rail joints will be sufficient to
withstand the loading.
c. Joints. Where rail is jointed, rehabilitation should include re-tightening all joints, if not done within the last
year. If rail is replaced, the initial joint tightening may last only a few months, as joint bars settle into place.
In this case, a second tightening should be planned about 3 months after installation. (To determine the
need, a sampling of bolts may be checked with a track wrench to determine if bolt tension is still adequate.
If a person can put a quarter turn or so on the nut without great effort, the bolts need re-tightening). As a
general rule, where joints are very loose, the wheel loads on joint ties will be about 50% higher than when
the joints are tight.
d. Anchors. Sufficient anchoring is important, especially where rail is continuously welded. During
rehabilitation planning, the rail should be observed to determine if it is creeping in one direction or another
and if ties are skewing. Rail on steep grades and at the bottom of grades is especially prone to movement if
enough anchors are not present. These areas may need to have all existing anchors removed, the rail re-
stressed (thermally or length adjusted), and then be re-anchored with a sufficient number of good quality
anchors set firmly against the ties.
2.3.4.7 Track Surface and Alignment
If sections of track have poor surface and alignment, the probable cause should be investigated, as other work may
be necessary before resurfacing and relining is done:
a. Is the rate of surface and alignment deterioration about normal - due to traffic over time without any
remedial work done during the period? 1
b. Is poor surface mainly near joints, suggesting bolts need to be retightened (and perhaps joint ties replaced)?
c. Is poor drainage, poor tie condition, fouled ballast, or possible subgrade defect contributing to the problem?
If so these must be corrected before resurfacing or relining.
2.3.4.8 Turnouts 3
a. The condition of turnouts located within the area to be rehabilitated should be evaluated. Turnouts are high
maintenance expense items due to the large forces to which they are subjected. Turnouts are also an area of
high derailment potential when not properly maintained. Specific federal regulations govern various
minimum aspects of turnout inspection and maintenance.
b. Turnouts not in use or not likely to be used should be removed from track. This will save valuable railroad 4
resources and reduce the potential for derailment. If the turnouts cannot be removed entirely, they should
at least have their switch points, frogs, heel blocks, and switch plates replaced with regular rails. Turnouts
should be removed from curves where possible.
c. The general condition of the turnout should be evaluated with the following items being observed and
noted:
(1) The size of a turnout is dictated by the number of its frog. The larger the frog number the smaller the
frog angle allowing for higher train speeds through the diverging route of the turnout. Typically, most
railroads do not use turnouts with less than a No. 10 frog in mainline track and crossovers. Turnouts in
yards and industry tracks are more site specific. Data contained in Plan No. 910-41 of the AREMA
Portfolio of Trackwork Plans may be useful in determining the turnout number.
(2) Frogs should not be excessively worn or chipped. A frog gauge can be used to make this determination.
Special attention should be given to spring frogs to ensure the proper springs, housings, and clearances
are in good condition, and that the frog is operating properly. All frog bolts should be in place and tight.

Guarding faces, whether on the frog or by guard rails, should be checked for proper gage, condition, and
position.
(3) The condition of the switch ties should be inspected particularly under the frog, switch points, and rail
joints. Any indication of pumping in the track should be investigated and repaired. Cribbing and
shoulder cleaning or replacement are good initial repair techniques. More aggressive action up to and
including removal and undercutting may be required for more severe conditions.
(4) Switch points should not be excessively worn or chipped. Switch points should be securely fastened
with the appropriate switch rods, heel blocks, and clips, with all bolts present and tight, and all cotter
keys in place. Ballast and debris should be kept clear of the switch points to ensure that they move
freely when thrown. Switch points should also be of the proper length and type for the turnout with
appropriate switch plates. Recommended switch point lengths can be found in AREMA Plan No. 910-41
of the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans. Switch points should be flush against the rail with no
space between the point and stock rail.
(5) Switch stands should be securely fastened to the head block ties and in good working order. Connecting
rods should be securely fastened to the switch rods and switch stand with the crib areas occupied by the
rods free from ballast that may interfere with their movement. Switch stands should hold the switch
points tight against the stock rail. Switch stands should throw with equal effort for both movements.
Switch indicator signs or targets should be in good condition and clearly visible and installed per the
railroad’s operating rules.
(6) The general condition of the switch plates, rail braces, heel blocks, and other turnout components
should be inspected. Rail braces should be tight against the stock rails.
(7) The general condition of the rail, joint bars, insulated joint bars, spikes, tie plates, rail anchors, and
other general track materials should be inspected. Tie plates should be added to turnouts that do not
have them. Rail anchors may also need to be added depending upon the class of track.
(8) The condition of the track surface and alignment through and adjacent to the turnout should be
inspected. Track gage at the frog, guard check gage, and guard face gage should be measured and
recorded.
d. The AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans contains many turnout material plans and should be consulted
when developing a Rehabilitation Plan.
e. Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5.11, Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock Rail Changeout (1995)
of the this Manual for more information regarding turnouts.
2.3.4.9 Yards and Sidings vs. Main Tracks
a. Yard and siding tracks are often subject to different train operating requirements than main tracks. Yard
and siding tracks are often operated at lower speeds than main tracks. Some sidings and yard tracks may
only see an occasional train, while others may see significant tonnage.
b. A rehabilitation plan for a yard or siding track largely depends on the expected use for that track. A siding
frequently used by trains to meet other trains should be in a condition similar to the adjacent main track,
while infrequently used tracks could be maintained at a lower standard.
c. The spacing between yard tracks, sidings, and ladder tracks should be inspected for adequate clearance.
Many states have specific rules for the required clearances measured from the track centerline. Some older
sidings or yard tracks may have lesser clearances than modern railroad operating requirements may dictate,
and some states may require tracks to be brought to proper clearances when the tracks are rehabilitated,
see Chapter 28 of this Manual for more information.

Track
d. Public or private grade crossings in yards or sidings can present a significant safety hazard for both
motorists and railroad personnel and restrict track storage capacity. Attempts should be made to close and
remove or consolidate grade crossings where possible. Consideration should be given to placing “STOP” or
other traffic control signs. Approval from state or local authorities may be required before closing or
altering any public crossings.
e. Lack of adequate drainage is often a problem in rail yards, particularly large flat yards. The condition of
existing drainage facilities should be inspected as well as the general condition of drainage in the yard. With
some soil types and lack of an adequate ballast section, yard tracks that are used to store loaded cars for long
periods of time can experience subgrade failure, as evidenced by subgrade material squeezing up between or
around ties, or non uniform track settlement. Inadequate drainage leads to accelerated tie decay, therefore
tie condition in yards should be evaluated. The location of any existing drain pipes should be determined
prior to beginning any track work. Drains should be clear of debris and vegetation and clearly marked.
Operators of equipment that could potentially damage drains should be briefed of the location of drainage
structures before commencing work. Drainage structures should be repaired or replaced if damaged or in
poor condition.
f. The general condition of the yard should be evaluated with regards to trash, debris, or other materials
fouling tracks or walkways. Walkways should be kept clear to maintain a safe area for trainmen or other
employees to perform their required duties.
g. Yard tracks should be free of vegetation so that inspection of track and railroad equipment can be made, and
the yard is safe for trainmen switching cars in the yard. Vegetation is usually an indicator of fouled ballast
and poor drainage in a yard.
1
h. A yard should be evaluated to determine if derails are warranted where yard tracks meet main tracks. Great
care should be exercised when placing derails to ensure that derailing cars are directed into the proper
location with regard to any main tracks. Derails should be clearly marked or signed.
a. A study should be conducted to assess traffic and site conditions for a crossing intended for rehabilitation. 3
This study should include the items below, which will help establish crossing and protection design
requirements:
(1) Amount and character of vehicle and train traffic.
(2) Train and vehicle operating speeds.

4
(3) Crossing angle and horizontal and vertical approaches of road and track.
(4) Available sight distances, from all directions, for vehicles approaching the track and from trains
approaching the crossing.
(5) Previous accident or incident history.
b. It is suggested that a team perform the crossing study. The team may include a representatives of the state
or local highway department, state Department of Transportation (or Public Utilities), local governing
agency, and the railroad.
c. The investigation team and the railroad should select the most cost-effective crossing surface based on the
study results and also determine the need for crossing protection or additional protection.
d. The design and construction of the crossing should be done in accordance with applicable railroad and
highway industry standards. The following references will be useful for this purpose:

(1) Chapter 5, Part 8 of this manual.
(2) Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, FHWA.
(3) Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook, FHWA.
e. Grade crossings should be evaluated using a corridor approach to see if there are clusters of grade crossings
where some may be closed to vehicular traffic and the traffic rerouted to other nearby crossings. Reducing
the number of grade crossings improves public safety and saves valuable railroad resources. Approval from
state or local authorities may be required before closing or altering any public crossings.
f. Sufficient sight distance should be maintained around grade crossings. Some states require railroads to
keep their rights of way clear of vegetation and other obstructions for a prescribed distance along the track
from the crossing to optimize vehicle train sight distances.
g. The crossing surface condition and type should be noted. Generally, the grade crossing surface should
provide a similar ride quality to the motorist as the adjacent roadway. Grade crossing materials can include
gravel, timber, timber and asphalt, concrete, rubber, steel, and others. Timber crossings fastened with lag
screws or drive spikes should be inspected to ensure the fasteners are snug and not working out of the
timbers thus presenting a hazard for motorists.
h. Grade crossings can be an area of poor track drainage, and evidence of poor drainage could include pumping
or muddy track at or near the crossing. Track gage, alignment, and surface should be checked in and near
the crossing. Ditches near crossings, particularly at the four corners of a crossing, should be in good
condition and constructed and maintained to convey water away from the crossing.
i. Each crossing should be inspected to ensure that the existing warning devices are present and in good
condition. At a minimum, each public crossing should be equipped with standard reflectorized crossbuck
signs. Some grade crossings may have automatic warning devices, and they should be checked to ensure that
they are in proper working order.
j. For grade crossings with sidewalks, particular attention should be given to ensure a smooth surface for
pedestrians to cross the tracks especially at the flange way openings.
k. Each crossing should have its unique DOT identifying number displayed at the crossing. It is good practice
to have an emergency telephone number displayed at crossings, particularly those with active warning
devices, that law enforcement personnel or the general public can use to report any problems with the
crossing location.
l. Refer to Chapter 5, Part 8 of this Manual for more details regarding highway-railway crossings.
2.3.4.11 Bridges
a. Bridges can be an area of high maintenance for railroads. Light density and short line railroads often have
bridges that may have been designed and constructed to a lower standard than bridges on main lines.
b. The alignment and surface across a bridge and the bridge approaches should be consistent with no dips or
swags.
c. Refer to Chapter 18, Part 3 of this Manual for more details relating to bridges.

Track
2.3.4.12 Terminal Areas
a. Terminal areas often contain a number of different facilities or activities. Inadequate drainage around
terminal areas can cause many problems. The existing drainage facilities should be evaluated as well as the
general drainage condition as evidenced by standing water, or other problems.
b. Yard roads, air, water, power, and fuel lines should be inspected with their condition being noted.
c. Utilities, both overhead and underground, sound barriers, and similar items should be evaluated.
d. Hazardous materials may be present in terminal areas. If the materials must be moved or disturbed, then
the hazardous materials must be stored and handled in accordance with applicable laws, rules, and
regulations.
e. Refer to Chapter 14 of this Manual for more information regarding yards and terminals.
2.3.4.13 Signals and Communication
a. Signal and communication facilities include, among others, wayside signals, interlockings, highway-rail
crossing signals, hot box detectors, and radio systems.
b. The location of signal and communication facilities should be noted with regards to the availability of access
by maintenance personnel.
c. Signal locations and foundations should be inspected for adequate clearance, embankments, backfill 1
conditions, and elevation or height above nearby water ways, and the potential for flooding.
d. Specific federal regulations govern the minimum maintenance and inspection of railroad signal systems.
Additional information regarding signal and communications facilities can be found in the AREMA
Communications and Signals Manual of Recommended Practice.
2.3.4.14 Buildings 3
a. There are many types of buildings used in railroad service: office buildings, depots, shops, sheds, and others.
All buildings should be in habitable condition and safe for their intended use. Railroad buildings may be old
and subjected to years of deferred maintenance therefore careful inspection may be required.
b. Poor drainage around buildings can lead to excessive decay and deteriorate the structural stability of a
building. Buildings should be checked for standing water near or against the buildings and for adequate 4
gutters and down spouts, as well as noting where the water is directed or handled.
c. Buildings should be checked for leaks in the roof, around windows and doors, and through walls.
d. Some older buildings may contain asbestos products or lead based paints, which should be handled pursuant
to the latest applicable rules and regulations.
e. The condition of heating, air conditioning, water, sanitary sewer, electrical, and other mechanical systems
should be inspected and evaluated.
f. Buildings should be checked for adequate and proper ingress and egress to ensure that those pathways are
clear.

2.3.4.15 Utilities
a. The location and type of utilities occupying or crossing railroad property should be properly marked and
their locations recorded on the appropriate maps or plans. A copy of the agreement authorizing a utility
crossing should be acquired.
b. Any potential conflict between a utility and the proposed rehabilitation work should be reviewed well in
advance of the rehabilitation work so that any necessary utility adjustments can be made. Agreements
concerning affected utilities should be located and reviewed, as utility adjustments may have to be
performed by the utility owner at utility expense.
c. Refer to Chapter 1, Part 5 of this Manual for more information regarding the installation of utilities on
railroad property.
2.3.4.16 Clearances
a. Before any rehabilitation work is performed the overhead and side clearances along the length of railroad to
be rehabilitated should be verified and recorded. Vertical clearances are measured relative to the plane
produced by the tops of both rails. Side clearances are measured from the centerline of the track. Many
states have rules regarding the required clearances in these areas. See Chapter 28 of this Manual for more
information.
b. Overhead and side clearances should be reviewed at shops, terminal areas, sidings, and industrial spurs.
Areas with less than minimum required clearance should be properly identified and marked.
c. Overhead clearances should be verified and recorded where overhead utility lines cross railroad property
and tracks. The National Electric Safety code serves as the national standard for electric utilities.
d. Overhead and side clearances should be reviewed and recorded at all bridges or structures that cross
railroad track. Clearances should also be evaluated through all railroad tunnels.
e. Further information on clearances can be found in Chapter 28 of this Manual.
2.3.5 FINAL PLANS AND WORK PREPARATION (2000)
a. If work is to be performed under contract, final (contract) plans and specifications should spell out all work
in detail. If not previously done, a final check and inspection should be conducted to assure correctness of
work requirements, work locations, and work and material quantities.
b. All ties, rail, joint bars, bridge members, and other components intended for replacement should be
individually marked, as well as the limits for all work locations. When marking defective parts, especially
ties, bridge members, switch points, and frogs, those items which are in marginal condition (less than three
to five years additional life) should also be included (and marked) for replacement.
c. Before final plans and estimates are prepared, ditch profiles and cross sections should be taken to determine
final ditch gradients and verify earthwork quantities. This information is also needed to specify the exact
work to be done and to guide the work in the field.
d. Surveying existing and calculating proposed profiles (elevation measurements from a survey along the top
of the rail at points 50 to 200 feet apart) may be helpful when ballast is added to the track and the track is to
be raised by three or more inches. These profiles will help in checking the final surface and for checking the
ballast quantities actually used. Taking top-of-rail profiles is recommended where sufficient overhead
clearances may be of concern. A simple way of estimating track raise is to dig out the ends of a sampling of
ties and measure the depth of clean ballast under the tie.

Track
e. Clearance requirements should be marked on the plans and at the site locations.
2.3.6 CONSTRUCTION AND ON-SITE INSPECTION (2000)
a. Quality on-site inspection, during all rehabilitation work, is an essential element for a successful track
rehabilitation. While such inspection is certainly no substitute for professionally done track work, it is an
effective means of assuring that all work is, in fact, performed according to the plans and specifications.
b. On-site inspection during rehabilitation work can discover deficiencies or errors which would be difficult to
detect after the work has been done, or expensive to correct if discovered only after work was completed.
Such items include:
(1) Was all excess vegetation removed before ballast was unloaded?
(2) Where track in crossings was to be completely rebuilt, was the old ballast completely stripped?; was
the subgrade properly graded?; was geotextile fabric installed?; were all new ties installed?
(3) If earthwork was performed, was it properly placed and compacted?
(4) If sub-ballast was specified, was it placed to the specified depth and properly compacted?
(5) Did the track actually receive its full intended raise (or were the rough spots just smoothed out)?
(6) Was every tie tamped; did each tie get the designated number of insertions by the tamper; if specified,
did joint ties (on the joint side only) get an additional insertion? 1
(7) Did all tie and ballast material meet the required specifications?
(8) Was old, fouled ballast in shoulders fully plowed out before new ballast was unloaded?
(9) Were culverts properly positioned and the site properly graded properly before culverts were installed?
3
c. It is recommended that the work be inspected by knowledgeable and experienced people who are familiar
with the plans and specifications.


18
Part 3
Bridges
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Bridge Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2

3.1.1 Definition (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2
3.1.2 Elements (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-3
3.1.3 Management Actions (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-4
1
3.2 Construction Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.1 Introduction (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.2 Major Bridge Components (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.3 Types Of Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-7
3.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9 3

3.3.1 Purpose Of Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.3.2 Inspection Reporting (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.3 Results Of Inspections (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.4 The Inspection Plan (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.5 Common Inspection Items (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.6 Inspecting Masonry Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-11
3.3.7 Inspecting Timber Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-11
3.3.8 Inspecting Iron and Steel Bridges (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-12
3.4 Bridge Inspection Checklist (To Be Developed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-14
LIST OF FIGURES
18-3-1 Typical Concrete and Masonry Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-15

18-3-2 Typical Timber Trestle Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-16
18-3-3 Typical Deck Plate Girder (DPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-17
18-3-4 Typical Through Plate Girder (TPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-18
18-3-5 Typical Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-19
18-3-6 Typical Truss Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-20
18-3-7 Typical Types of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-21

18-3-8 Typical Concrete Trestle Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-22
FOREWORD
The American Railway Engineering Association recommends a minimum bridge inspection frequency of once per
year. In the case of short lines and light density lines, an annual inspection by a qualified bridge inspector may not
be feasible. However, interim inspections by railroad personnel who are knowledgeable of the basics of bridge
inspection may be used to supplement the inspections by qualified inspectors.
These interim inspections are essential for monitoring general bridge conditions, identifying suspected problems or
deficiencies, and for providing useful information to assist a qualified bridge engineer/inspector. The value of
regular, thorough bridge inspections cannot be overemphasized.
This part is intended for railroad personnel who may not be specifically qualified to perform detailed bridge
inspections, but with the guidance provided here, may permit them to make necessary interim inspections.
Suspected problems or deficiencies detected through these inspections should be reported to an experienced
railroad bridge engineer for final diagnosis. Additional information on recommended inspection points, procedures
and reports is contained in Chapter 7 Timber Structures, Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations, and
Chapter 15 Steel Structures.
Plans, specifications, and guidance for the design, rehabilitation, or major repair of any bridge should be obtained
from an experienced railroad bridge engineer using the criteria in Volume 2. Likewise, an experienced railroad
bridge engineer should supervise all construction, rehabiltation, and major repairs at the field site.
Information on live loads for bridges on light density railroad lines may be found in Chapter 15, Article 9.
1.3.13 Fatigue (2007), paragraph (q).
SECTION 3.1 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
a. A bridge management program is a process for making cost-effective decisions regarding the inspection,
maintenance, repair, rehabilitation, and replacement of bridges, as well as appropriate operating policies for
trains crossing the bridges. The primary objective of a bridge management program is to provide for the
continued safe operation over the bridges.
b. A bridge management program may employ a computer and software to store information, perform
calculations, and produce a variety of reports. Or, it may rely on information recorded on paper and written
policies to guide decisions. In either case, a bridge management program is intended to be a rational,
sytematic process for making decisions.

Bridges
3.1.2 ELEMENTS (2000)
The following articles describe the elements (the process and information) required to establish and maintain a
bridge management program. If bridge work is done by contract, the owner should check to see that this (or a
similar) process has been followed and to ensure that appropriate conclusions have been reached, as ultimately, it is
the owner who is responsible for the bridges and for assuring their safe condition.
3.1.2.2 Inventory
Generally, the inventory is a listing and description of all bridges on the railroad. It includes drawings, plans, and
all other information which describes a bridge, its location, current load rating, and any clearance or load
restrictions. Before any assessment of a bridge is made, the files should be checked to see that they contain a set of
drawings which show the bridge as it currently exists - that any changes that may have been made during
construction or later modifications have accounted for.
3.1.2.3 Repair History
This is a record of repairs and modifications which have been done to a bridge since it was constructed. This record
will help in assessing a bridge and in checking or updating the drawings.
3.1.2.4 Inspection
This is the process of examining a bridge to determine the type and severity of any defects or deterioration which 1
may be present. The observations made during an inspection should be thoroughly documented, and records of
past inspections should be kept and reviewed prior to future inspections.
3.1.2.5 Condition Evaluation
Generally, this is a determination of whether the bridge is suitable for carrying its intended loading. It includes an
assessment of all bridge elements, major and minor, and is based on bridge design, repair history, current
3
inspection, and on current and future traffic and load requirements.
3.1.2.6 Cost Estimating
Based on the condition evaluation, cost estimates are made for correcting any defects or deficiencies.
4
3.1.2.7 Budgeting and Project Prioritization
Based on the condition evaluations, cost estimates, and required traffic and load-carrying requirements, corrective
work on the bridges is prioritized within allowable budget levels.
3.1.2.8 Work or Action Plan
Generally, this is a final determination of what action will be taken on each bridge. It includes plans and schedules
for the required corrective work. In cases where work needs exceed the budget, and after potential adverse affects
on operations have been assessed, it may also include placing certain restrictions (slow orders, load limits) on a
bridge until corrective work can be performed. It may also include the decision to inspect certain bridges or
reported defective components more frequently.

3.1.3 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS (2000)
Management actions resulting from the bridge management process may be generally grouped into the categories
described in the following paragraphs. The intent of a bridge management program is to produce the most cost-
effective combination of these actions within the allowable budget level and with proper consideration of operating
requirements to carry traffic over the line. In practice, there is often no clear dividing line between some of the
action categories, particularly between maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation. Typically the action category is
based on the amount and type of work to be done, and sometimes a bridge project may include action in more than
one category on a single bridge. Once action is taken, bridge inventory (plans, drawings) and repair history should
be updated accordingly.
3.1.3.2 Observation
The action plan may include making a list of bridges or components which, while still in acceptable condition,
warrant more frequent inspection to prevent unacceptable conditions from occurring before the next regular
inspection is performed. It may also be advisable to increase the inspection frequency for any bridges on which
operating restrictions have been placed.
3.1.3.3 Maintenance
Generally, this is work to keep a bridge in its current, safe condition so it can continue to carry loads at the
required capacity. This work includes necessary housekeeping such as cleaning structures to retard deterioration
of members subject to rusting or decay, patch painting, applying preservatives to the bridge, approach
maintenance, and cleaning debris from bearings. It also includes removal of nearby drift, debris, and unwanted
vegetation to reduce the likelihood of fire starting or spreading to the bridge and to prevent scour from occurring
around supports of bridges over waterways or drainage pathways.
3.1.3.4 Repair
Generally, this is work on a bridge which is overall in sound condition, but has a few defects or deficiencies which
may actually or potentially threaten its desired load-carrying capacity. Repair work typically involves replacing or
strengthening defective or deteriorating members, replacing broken or nonfunctional fasteners, posting critical
piles or posts, pointing and grouting of masonry structures, and repair welding of steel components.
3.1.3.5 Rehabilitation
More extensive than repair work, it involves restoration of a bridge which has serious defects, or in overall
condition, only barely allows handling its desired load and traffic requirements. It may also involve restoring a
bridge so that operating restrictions may be removed. Generally, the intent of rehabilitation is to extend the
service life of a bridge by many years.
3.1.3.6 Upgrading
This work involves increasing a bridge’s load-carrying capability by the addition of members (such as stringers) or
by strengthening currently sound members with cover plates or by other modifications so that additional load can
be safely handled.
3.1.3.7 Replacement
When a structure cannot be economically repaired or strengthened to permit continued safe operation or desired
upgrading, replacement is the next option. In many cases, some or all of the supporting components (the piers)

Bridges
may be saved and a new deck and superstructure can be built on top of them. Otherwise, an entirely new structure
may be needed.
3.1.3.8 Operating Restrictions
a. When needed bridge work exceeds allowable budget levels, one option is to place operating restrictions on a
bridge which is still in overall sound condition, but does require repair, or possibly, rehabilitation. These
restrictions may be: required slower speeds for trains while traveling over the bridge, limits on loads allowed
over the bridge, or limits on the type of engines or (loaded) cars permitted on the bridge.
b. The ability to continue safe operation over a bridge if operating restrictions are applied should be
determined only by an experienced railroad bridge engineer. Recommendations for the appropriate
restrictions should come from the bridge engineer who will consider bridge condition and railroad operating
requirements in producing an appropriate recommendation.
SECTION 3.2 CONSTRUCTION FUNDAMENTALS
To understand the basics of bridge inspection it is important to first understand the different types of bridges,
their general design, and to know the names of their components and what their purpose is. The following articles 1
in this section are intended to provide this basic information.
3.2.2 MAJOR BRIDGE COMPONENTS (2000)
Railroad bridges, regardless of type, have some common elements. These common major components are described in 3
the following articles. With some bridges, it may be difficult to clearly distinguish these major components because of
the way the bridge was designed, as two or more major components may be combined together within the construction.
3.2.2.2 Substructure
a. The substructure transfers the entire weight of the bridge to the earth or rock which supports the bridge
and its loading. It’s two main components are abutments and piers, which vary with bridge design, and in 4
turn, contain other components.
b. It is preferable to have a bridge supported on rock due to its strength. To accomplish this in situations
where a layer of rock is available with minimal earth covering, excavation is done to expose the rock,
allowing the substructure to be built directly on it.
c. Piers generally consist of footings, columns (or pile bents), and caps. The footing supports the rest of the
pier, and in simplest form, rests directly on the rock. When a suitable layer of rock is not readily available, a
spread footing which bears on earth can be used. The spread footing spreads the load over a greater area,
allowing the weaker earth to support the bridge without settlement.
d. When it is not possible to obtain sufficient bearing directly on the earth, piles can driven until their bottom
ends reach a layer of rock, or down to a depth which allows the friction between the sides of the pile and the
surrounding earth to provide proper support. In these cases, no footing is used.

e. Pile substructures can consist of piers or bents. A bent generally consists of piles that extend up to a cap on
which the superstructure bears. A pier is typically made from stone or concrete which is supported on a
timber or concrete mat on top of the piles and which, in turn, has a bridge seat at the top on which the
superstructure is supported. While bridge piers are generally of a solid type of construction, bents are of an
open type of construction and must be adequately braced to make the individual piles work in concert with
the rest of the piles in the bent.
f. The bridge seat or bearing is the interface between the superstructure and the substructure. The loads
from the superstructure are transmitted to the substructure either by direct bearing or through some type
of bearing structure.
g. Every bridge will have an abutment each each end. This is the interface area where the relatively flexible
track structure connects with the relatively stiff bridge structure. This area is susceptible to greater impact
and compaction and will often require additional attention to ensure that a dip does not form at the end of
the bridge.
h. Abutments typically consist of a backwall and wingwalls. The backwall is built directly against the end of
the embankment on which the adjacent track is built. The wingwalls are built on either side of the backwall
help keep the end of the embankment in place. Stone or concrete abutments are most common for larger
structures. Steel or timber end bents typically serve as abutments for shorter trestle-type structures.
i. The abutment must not only support the vertical loads of the bridge but also accommodate any transverse
or longitudinal horizontal loads imposed by the bridge or by the pressure of the earth behind the backwall
and wingwalls.
3.2.2.3 Superstructure
a. The superstructure contains the components of the bridge supported by the substructure. Its purpose is to
support the deck and transmit all vertical, longitudinal, and transverse loads through the bearings to the
substructure and then to the supporting earth. Depending on bridge design, the superstructure may
incorporate the deck as well.
b. The superstructure of an arch type bridge can be of stone, reinforced concrete or steel. Timber arches are
somewhat rare. The superstructure of a beam type bridge can range from a simple beam to a complex truss.
3.2.2.4 Deck
a. The bridge deck is the support for the track structure on the bridge. Bridge decks generally fall into two
basic types: open decks and ballast decks. An open deck has the track structure supported on ties that are
directly supported by the bridge superstructure. A ballast deck has a floor and curbs which retain a ballast
section which provides lateral and longitudinal restraint to the track structure.
b. An open deck generally makes it easier to inspect the top of the superstructure members whether masonry,
timber or steel. A ballast deck, with its floor that supports the ballast, usually makes it impossible to view
the top of the superstructure member that supports the deck. Open decks have the advantage of providing
good drainage, but as the ties are structural members, close attention must be given to the fastenings which
hold the ties to the superstructure so that adequate transverse and longitudinal restraint is provided.
c. Ballast decks use ordinary track ties which get transverse and longitudinal restraint from the ballast. This
makes it easier to maintain line and surface on the bridge since the same machinery that is used to line and
surface the track on each end of the bridge can be used on the bridge itself. Over time, as track across the
bridge is repeatedly raised, additional curbs must be added to retain the extra ballast depth, which puts
more weight on the structure.

Bridges
3.2.2.5 Auxiliary Members
Auxiliary bridge members, while part of the structure, usually do not assist in carrying the primary loading on the
bridge. These can include footwalks, railings, wireline supports, pipeline supports and, in some cases, roadways.
These auxiliary members are fastened to and supported by the bridge structure in a wide variety of ways and must
be considered in the bridge inspection since they not only impose additional loads on the structure but may also
affect bridge safety or the safety of those who must cross of inspect the bridge.
3.2.3 TYPES OF BRIDGES (2000)
a. Bridges may be categorized in different ways: by the type of deck on them, by the primary type of material
used in their construction, or by their general design.
b. With respect to their design, railroad bridges may be generally categorized as beam or arch type bridges.
Beam bridges transmit their loads vertically to the supports. This type includes trestles, beam spans, girder
spans, and trusses. Arch type bridges transmit their loads diagonally to the supports. Arch bridges are
commonly of masonry construction.
c. By type of material, bridges may be categorized as masonry, timber, and steel However, it is common for a
single bridge structure to incorporate each of the basic materials within its construction. The following
articles describe bridges according to their primary construction material, along with the advantages and 1
disadvantages of each type.
3.2.3.2 Masonry Structures: Stone, Brick, Concrete1
a. Masonry construction is generally very resistant to damage from fire and is not susceptible to attack by
insects or animals. It is usually resistant to deterioration due to chemical attacks and water, although
certain chemicals can have an adverse effect on specific types of stone and concrete. Similarly, all masonry
3
is susceptible to damage from repeated freeze-thaw cycles if water is able to get inside the structure through
cracks or joints. With good maintenance masonry structures can have a very long life; many masonry
structures of the earliest construction are still in service today. Aside from steel reinforced concrete,
masonry materials are limited to compressive loadings.
b. The strength of masonry construction is dependent on the material used; even different types of stone have
different strengths. Stones can be cut in much larger sizes and more complex shapes than bricks. However,
4
stone is very rigid and cannot deform to accommodate uneven bearing surfaces. Therefore, it requires good,
even bearing to ensure that cracking does not occur due to uneven pressures. Brick can be stronger than
some types of stone and, in specific instances, might be more readily available and easier to work with than
stone. The strength of concrete can be readily adjusted by the mix used and concrete is generally more
workable than brick since it can be formed into more complex shapes and can be reinforced to permit longer
spans.
3.2.3.3 Timber Structures2
a. The strength of timber varies widely with the species of wood which is being considered. Wood is also
susceptible to fire, decay and attack by termites, marine borers and other insects. The main benefit of
utilizing timber, at least in the early years of railroad construction, was the availability and workability of
1
See Figure 18-3-1
2
See Figure 18-3-2

timber. Over time, however, the availability and quality of timber, particularly in larger sizes, has declined.
However, timber is still easily cut, drilled and handled. In earlier times, timber was not treated to reduce
susceptibility to decay. Later, treatment with creosote was predominant and worked quite well. More
recently, use of creosote has been discouraged for health and environmental reasons and use of other
chemical treatments has been encouraged. However, creosote remains the better treatment.
b. Timber deforms easily under load and, as a result, when there is uneven bearing pressure, it will crush until
the bearing pressure evens out. This makes it a very useful and workable material. Timber products
possess tensile strengths between masonry and steel with most loadings designed to take advantage of
wood's compressive strength. Timber does have a service life that will vary with species, climate, treatment,
and other factors.
c. Timber structures generally have timber or concrete backwalls with timber or, more recently, concrete caps
and timber stringers. The decks can be either open or ballasted.
3.2.3.4 Iron and Steel Structures1
a. In the early years of railroad construction, metal structures were primarily of wrought or cast iron and, as
the technology improved, steel. Over time, the use of steel alloys and the improved control over the
chemistry of steel has permitted rolling of a multitude of shapes and sizes of steel members. The improved
workability of steel over masonry and the greater strength of steel over timber made it a desirable material
for construction of railroad bridges at the height of railroad construction. With the progression of means of
fastening from rivets to high strength bolts and welding and the availability of weather resistant and higher
strength steels, use of steel as a material for bridge construction has remained predominant.
b. Iron and steel are more susceptible to damage by fire than masonry and concrete but less so than timber.
Iron and steel are susceptible to chemical attack by acids and will deteriorate due to rusting over time. Iron
and steel are generally less brittle than masonry but more brittle than timber; this makes them susceptible
to fatigue failures due to repeated flexural (bending) loadings. The superior tensile strength of steel, when
compared to masonry and timber, allows the design of structures which load members with both tensile and
compressive loadings. More than masonry or timber, metal is subject to thermal expansion and contraction.
The extent of this phenomenon is directly proportional to the length of the member and the change in the
temperature. The bearings of metal structures must take these thermal changes into account.
c. Iron and steel structures generally do not have steel abutments or backwalls. This is probably due to the
general tendency to rust or corrode when exposed to air and moisture, both of which would be present in an
abutment or backwall. Steel substructures are quite common although towers and bents founded on stone
or concrete footings are more common in older structures than in newer structures. Steel H-piles, pipe piles
and other such driven structures are generally of more recent construction.
d. More than concrete and timber, iron or steel members can be made up of multiple parts fastened and laced
together to form a structural shape. Members can be made stronger by addition of cover plates at strategic
points.
e. Depending on the type of structure being observed, bearings of the superstructure on end bents, abutments,
piers and other substructure members may be of various types. In the simplest trestle type structure, the
stringer may bear directly on the top of the cap and be fastened to it. In more complex structures where the
span length becomes greater, some type of bearing that can accommodate the thermal expansion and
contraction of the steel superstructure is usually employed. In addition to thermal considerations, as the
length of a span increases, the allowable deflection increases and the bearings must be able to transmit the
vertical loads to the substructure evenly while accommodating the permissible deflection of the structure.
1
See Figure 18-3-3 thru Figure 18-3-7

Bridges
3.2.3.5 Deck Plate Girder Bridges1
In this type, the deck bears directly on the main girder members. These girders are similar to beam type structures
with the exception that they are usually built-up members. More conventional structures would have bolted or
riveted connections and might incorporate flange and web splices to achieve the design length. General modes of
failure of the these type structures are very much the same as those of the simpler beam type spans. However, the
relative increase in the number of fasteners will increase the areas to be observed. Secondary members such as
cross frames and lateral bracing systems become more complex as the length of the structure increases.
3.2.3.6 Through Plate Girder Bridges2
In through plate girder spans, the deck is located between the main girders and is supported on some type of floor
system which transmits the loads to the main girders. In this design, longitudinal stringers support the deck
structure. The vertical loads of the stringers are transmitted to the transverse floorbeams which, in turn, transmit
the loads to the main girders. There are variations in through plate girder spans in which no stringers are present
and a series of floorbeams is utilized to support the deck structure and transmit the loads to the main beams. In
through plate girder spans, the secondary members and bracing systems perform essentially the same function as
in simpler beam type structures.
3.2.3.7 Trusses3
Truss spans have traditionally been used by railroads for longer spans. In a truss span, the deck structure is
supported on a floor system, usually stringers, which transmits the load to transverse floorbeams and the
floorbeams transmit the loads to the truss. The top chord of the truss is the compression member and the bottom
chord of the truss is the tension member. Rather than a web plate, the diagonal and vertical truss members 1
transmit the floorbeam loads to the chord members and, ultimately to the bearings. In most older spans, tension
members are readily identified since they are eyebars. In more recent trusses, rolled sections or built-up members
have been utilized for both tension and compression members. Trusses can be either through truss spans, pony
truss spans or deck truss spans. In a through truss span, the deck structure is located between the trusses and the
trusses extend above deck level with transverse sway bracing and lateral bracing located over the track. The pony
truss is similar to the through truss span except that there is no overhead transverse bracing. In a deck truss span,
the deck structure sits above the truss structure and there is no impairment to overhead or side clearances. 3
SECTION 3.3 INSPECTION

4
3.3.1 PURPOSE OF INSPECTION (2000)
a. The purpose of bridge inspection is to find and document flaws or defects in a bridge structure. Once these
are documented, their affect on bridge operating safety and load-carrying capability can be determined.
Then, the required repairs or component replacements can be scheduled and budgeted.
b. In addition to describing bridge condition, records from past inspections can help to determine the rate of
degradation of the structures. This deterioration or degradation rate will be most helpful in finalizing the
work or action plan, as it will indicate how soon action is needed and what type of action to take. For
example, defects or deterioration which are not yet serious and appear stable from recent past inspections
may be allowed to remain if watched more frequently, allowing other work to be included in the current
1
See Figure 18-3-3
2
See Figure 18-3-4
3 See Figure 18-3-5, Figure 18-3-6 and Figure 18-3-7

budget. In another example, rapid deterioration of timber bridge members may indicate that applying a
preservative at this point may be an insufficient action to maintain an acceptably safe condition and
replacement may then be the most appropriate action.
3.3.2 INSPECTION REPORTING (2000)
The results of the inspection should be recorded while still at the site on a form intended for that purpose.
Available information gathered on previous inspections and information on repairs or maintenance performed
since the last inspection should be taken to the field for reference and to ensure that any repairs or changes since
the last inspection can be recorded.
3.3.3 RESULTS OF INSPECTIONS (2000)
The results of a bridge inspection should be reported to the responsible party so that bridge condition can be properly
evaluated and the remaining steps in the bridge management program followed, ending in a work or action plan.
3.3.4 THE INSPECTION PLAN (2000)
To ensure that all necessary items are observed, a plan should be made to inspect the bridge in an orderly
sequence. Usually, an inspection from top to bottom, near end to far end with the deck being inspected on the
return will serve well. The importance of inspection items varies with different types of structures, and each type
of structure will require different observations to be made. These will be discussed in the following articles. More
detailed discussion of inspection items can be found in Chapter 7 Timber Structures, Chapter 8 Concrete
Structures and Foundations, and Chapter 15 Steel Structures.
3.3.5 COMMON INSPECTION ITEMS (2000)
a. On arrival at a bridge, it is generally quite easy to observe the condition of the line and surface of the track
approaching and across the bridge. High spots, low spots and areas where the track is out of alignment
should be noted and closely observed to determine the cause of the defect.
b. The condition of the ballast section at the near backwall should be observed to determine if it is adequate to
provide the required lateral support to the track structure. In many instances, numerous track raises as
part of the surfacing process have raised the track well above its design elevation. The bridge backwall may
not have been raised to permit it to retain the full ballast section. This may permit ballast to spill over on to
the bridge seat and reduce the lateral support the ballast section gives to the track structure.1
c. Similarly, the wingwalls at the near end should be observed to ensure that they extend far enough to provide
adequate restraint to the embankment at the abutment. The condition of the wingwalls should be observed the
ensure that they are structurally sound. Any settlement, cracks, deterioration or other defects should be noted.
d. From track level, the streambed or waterway should be observed to determine if any scouring, change of
alignment or need for riprap has occurred since the last inspection or if any corrective work has been done
since to last inspection.
e. The structure should be observed for the presence of excessive vegetation under as well as on the bridge.
Live vegetation can lead to accelerated deterioration of the structure by opening cracks and permitting the
entry of water to the interior of the structure. Accumulations of drift and debris around the substructure or
1
See Figure 18-3-1

Bridges
in the waterway should be noted for removal as they can divert water flow and cause scour. In the dry state,
all vegetation can pose a significant fire hazard to the structure.
3.3.6 INSPECTING MASONRY BRIDGES (2000)1
a. In a masonry structure, the condition of the individual stones should be observed for cracks or surface
deterioration. The condition of the joints between the stones should be observed to ensure that even and
adequate bearing of stone on stone is provided to prevent development of uneven bearing pressures that
may result in cracking of the stones. Since concrete and masonry cannot deform to accommodate
settlement or movement, open joints may be indicative of some more serious problem. Stone arch
structures depend largely on their shape for their strength and, if a stone in the arch is displaced or
seriously deteriorated, loads may not be properly transferred to the abutments and the earth.
b. In a concrete structure, the general condition of the concrete should be observed for cracks or surface
deterioration. Areas of honeycombing of the concrete or places where the reinforcing steel is too near the
surface should be noted and the condition at the time of the inspection should be noted for future reference.
c. Cracks should be marked and measured, with the results being noted for future reference. Photographs are
also useful in documenting crack conditions. In later inspections, it can then be readily determined if the
crack has progressed and to what extent. Progression of cracking can be an indication that additional
settlement or movement has taken place. If possible, the structure should be observed during the passage of
a train to determine if the cracks are opening and closing under the moving loads.
d. Concrete and stone piers should be observed to determine if they are plumb and concrete slabs should be
observed to ensure that they have adequate bearing on the pier tops. Again, the rigid nature of concrete and 1
stone does not permit for deformation to accommodate uneven surfaces. Therefore, some type of
compressible bearing material is usually applied to provide full and even bearing over the bearing surface.
e. Bottoms of concrete slabs should be observed for transverse cracks which may be indicative of overloading.
Observing the slab under load may show that cracks are opening and closing which could be evidence of a
serious condition.
3
f. The full substructure of the bridge would be inspected in the same manner. The far abutment would be
inspected in the same manner as the near abutment was. Following the plan, the deck would be the next
part to be inspected.
g. Concrete and masonry structures most generally have ballasted decks. The decks should be inspected for
ballast leaks. Drainage scuppers and other systems should be observed to ensure that they are functioning
as designed. Removal of water from the surface of the deck structure is important to prevent freeze/thaw 4
damage which can result in accelerated deterioration of the structure. Water in the ballast section can also
result in fouling of the ballast which can lead to accelerated deterioration of the track ties and uneven
surface of the track.
h. Ballast curbs should be observed to ensure that they retain the ballast in the deck structure. Ballast curbs
can also support auxiliary structures such as wireline poles, railings and walkways. These should be
observed to ensure that they are safe and functioning as designed.
3.3.7 INSPECTING TIMBER BRIDGES (2000)2
a. Because of timber's compressibility, observing a bridge under load (while a train passes over) can often
provide valuable observations which would not be evident under static (unloaded) conditions.
1
See Figure 18-3-1 and Figure 18-3-8
2
See Figure 18-3-2

b. The adequacy and condition of the timber backwalls and wingwalls should be observed to determine if they
are performing the function of retaining the embankment behind the walls and providing for an adequate
ballast structure at the bridge ends. Rotten or deteriorated timbers should be noted. Scour at the end bent
should be noted since this is usually a precursor to a requirement to lower the bottom of the backwall to
provide adequate retention of the earth behind the backwall.
c. The condition of the timber or concrete cap should be observed. Mechanical wear of a timber cap where the
cap sits on the piles is usually indicative of a poor bearing condition which allows the cap to move relative to
the piles. Mechanical wear of the timber stringers or the top of the timber cap where the stringers rest on
the cap may be indicative of excessive deformation of either the cap or the stringers.
d. The condition of piles should be observed for bulging, cracking or presence of ground line decay. Sounding
with a hammer will give an indication of interior decay and hollow spots. Adequacy of the bracing which
makes the individual piles work in concert and of the fasteners that hold the bracing to the piles should also
be observed. Broken bolts or bracing may indicate excessive movement of the piles. In bents where the
distance from base of rail the ground is relatively small, bracing may not be required. In bents where scour
has occurred, the bottom of the lowest bracing may be too far above the groundline and rearrangement of
the bracing may be required to make the bent conform to original design standards.
e. Posts (short sections spliced into a pile to repair a decayed area) which have been installed should be
observed for adequacy of bearing on both ends. Sills under one or more posts should also be observed for
condition and adequacy of fastenings. Bracing of posted bents is a major factor and particular attention
should be given to the bracing when one or more posts are present in a bent.
f. The timber stringers should be observed for full bearing on the caps. Longitudinal movement of the
stringers will result in inadequate bearing. The bottoms of the stringers and the sides, where visible, should
be observed for cracking or bulging or other evidence of distress. Fasteners which connect the stringers to
the caps and the deck structure to the stringers should be observed for tightness and adequacy. In more
recent times, installation of welded rail across open deck timber bridges has created a necessity to
strengthen the fastenings and add more fasteners to provide the longitudinal and transverse restraint
required by welded rail.
g. As the inspection continues along the length of the bridge, timber bents should be observed to ensure, in
addition to the condition of the individual members, that they are plumb and in good lateral alignment. Any
unusual movement may indicate lack of penetration, broken piles, or some other failure of the substructure.
In addition to lateral bracing, longitudinal bracing between the bents should be observed to ensure that it is
in acceptable condition and functioning as designed.
h. Timber mats or cribs as part of the substructure should be observed for their general condition. In times of
extremely low stream stages, portions of the bridge that may usually be submerged can become visible.
When these conditions do arise, a special inspection may be advisable because the members may not
otherwise be accessible.
i. Completing the inspection along the length of the bridge structure, the far end bent, backwall and
wingwalls should be observed in the same manner as described for the near end.
j. Auxiliary members such as wirelines, footwalks and handrails should be observed for their condition and
adequacy to perform their intended function.
3.3.8 INSPECTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES (2000)1
a. Members such as piles should be observed at the ground line for evidence of rusting or corrosion. Metal caps
should be observed for adequacy of bearing on the piles and the condition of fastening of the pile to the cap.
1
See Figure 18-3-3 thru Figure 18-3-7

Bridges
In addition, the general condition of the member should be observed for signs of corrosion, cracking and
permanent deformation or bending.
b. Iron and steel members probably rely more heavily on the fasteners which make the various parts of a
structural member work together than other types of construction. Fasteners may be ordinary bolts, rivets,
high strength bolts or welds. These fasteners may occur in any combination in any given structure.
Inspection of fasteners should include loose bolts or rivets which usually are evidenced by bleeding or bright
red rust coming from under and around the individual fastener. Broken welds, in the earliest stages, are
sometimes difficult to see. Dye penetrant tests as well as electronic and magnetic test procedures are
available but often can not be incorporated in an interim inspection such as is being addressed at this time.
As the failure of a weld progresses, cracks and bleeding may become visible to the naked eye.
c. Bearings which are rusted into an almost fixed condition and can not move to adjust to expansion and
contraction or deflection should be noted so that they can be cleaned, lubricated or otherwise adjusted to
permit them to function as originally intended.1
d. The bearing of the superstructure on the substructure should be observed to ensure that the bearing is full
and even. The substructure should be observed to determine if the bearing is wearing down into the
substructure. Anchorage of the bearing to the substructure should be observed to ensure that adequate
lateral and longitudinal restraint is present. Fastening of the superstructure to the bearing should be
observed to ensure that it is intact.
e. The superstructure of iron and steel bridges can range from simple beams which usually have relatively
short spans to complex truss spans which have very large spans. For short span beam type bridges, the
primary stress in the span is bending which is resisted by the shape and size of the structural member. 1
Overstress of the member in bending will be characterized by either deflection of the top (compression)
flange due to a tendency to collapse the flange or cracking of the bottom (tension) flange due to a tendency
to tear the flange. Web stiffeners, lateral bracing and other secondary members play a great part in
maintaining the structural integrity of short span beam type bridges.
f. Older structures, before the advent of large size rolled beams, were generally made up of built-up members
composed of angles fastened to a web plate to form top and bottom flanges. For additional strength, cover 3
plates could be added to the top and bottom flanges. These older structures usually had multiple fasteners,
either bolts or rivets, and the condition of these fasteners is critical to the overall functioning of the member
in the intended fashion. In more recent construction, availability of larger and stronger rolled sections (in
which the web and flanges are one homogeneous shape) has eliminated the need for the multitude of
fasteners; but there is a possibility of failure in the fillet area where the flanges adjoin the web of the
member. This type of failure would be characterized by a crack in the fillet and, as the crack grows, bleeding
of red rust from the crack. 4
g. Welds must be observed to ensure that they maintain their integrity. Weld failure would be characterized by
visible cracking or bleeding.
h. A through plate girder span has connections which transfer the loads from the stringers to the floorbeams
and from the floorbeams to the main girders. These connections are subject to failure from excessive flexure
which would be characterized by cracking of the connection angles, usually through the fillet. They are also
subject to failure of the fasteners due to prying action and rivets can be stretched and become loose or even
have the heads popped off.
i. In trusses the floor system should be inspected for the same items that were mentioned in the discussion of
the floor system of through plate girders. The diagonal and vertical truss members and the main truss
members should be observed for straightness. In a tension member, sagging or bending may be indicative of
stretching of the member or excessive wear in pin connections. In a compression member, kinking of the
1
See Figure 18-3-7

member may be indicative of excessive compressive stress which may be a result of improper distribution of
loads through the truss. Members should also be observed for cracks, nicks, or other signs of distress.
Condition of all lacing members and fasteners should be observed to ensure that they are present and
functioning as designed.
j. Stringer connections, floorbeam connections and main truss member connections should be closely observed
to ensure that they are intact. Pin connections should be observed for excessive wear or movement and the
nuts on the pins should be inspected to ensure that they are tight. Horizontal surfaces of all members should
be observed for cleanliness and corrosion due to retention of moisture on the surface. As the corrosion
progresses, plates can develop holes or can become so thin that cracks develop due to tensile stresses. The end
or hip hangers on pin connected trusses are particularly susceptible to fatigue failure at the hip connection.
k. In vertical members and at the ends of riveted or bolted cover plates, as moisture causes rusting between
the bearing surfaces of steel plies, a phenomenon known as rust jacking can occur. As the rusting takes
place, the two surfaces are jacked apart and the opening in which moisture can collect is increased. It is
possible for rust jacking to result in popping the heads off rivets or bolts.
l. Steel flexural members which are subjected to repeated cyclic loadings can show the effects of fatigue.
Fatigue cracks are caused by primary stress cycles and by secondary out-of-plane distortion. Primary stress
cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the force and can propagate quickly. If not found and repaired,
they can result in a sudden failure of the member. Critical cracks will generally occur only in tension areas.
Attention should be given to details which could increase the likelihood of fatigue cracking. These would
include nicks, notches, corrosion, tack welds, reentrant cuts and weld details such as welds located at the
ends of cover plates, gusset plate welds to transverse stiffeners, groove welds in flange transitions and
flanges or plates that frame into or pass through webs.
m. Fastening auxiliary structures such as wirelines, walkways and railings to steel bridges will require the use
of bolts or welds. Also, cable railings may pass through bridge members. Any additional holes that are
drilled in to steel members are areas of potential deterioration. The fasteners should be observed for
tightness and for any sign of distress in the area of holes through structural members.
SECTION 3.4 BRIDGE INSPECTION CHECKLIST (TO BE DEVELOPED)

Bridges
Figure 18-3-1. Typical Concrete and Masonry Construction
See Section 3.2.3.2 and Section 3.3.6.

Figure 18-3-2. Typical Timber Trestle Construction

Bridges
See Section 3.2.3.4, Section 3.2.3.5 and Section 3.3.8.
Figure 18-3-3. Typical Deck Plate Girder (DPG)
Figure 18-3-4. Typical Through Plate Girder (TPG)

Bridges
Figure 18-3-5. Typical Types of Trusses

Figure 18-3-6. Typical Truss Construction

Bridges
See Section 3.2.3.4 thru Section 3.2.3.7 and Section 3.3.8.
Figure 18-3-7. Typical Types of Bearings
Figure 18-3-8. Typical Concrete Trestle Construction
Section 3.2.3.2 and Section 3.3.6.

18
Part 4
Communication and Signals
(To Be Developed)
— 2000 —


0
CHAPTER 27
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY WORK
EQUIPMENT1
FOREWORD
Part 3 Reports and Records was deleted in its entirety in 1996.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-1
1.1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and Rail
Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
3
1.2 General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way Equipment (Including Rail Gear
Equipment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-4
1.3 General Information Associated with Wire Rope as used on Roadway Work Equipment. . . . 27-1-6
1.4 Bar Codes and Their Application for Roadway Work Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.5 Equipment Operators Training and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
2 Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-1

2.1 Specifications for Track Motor Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4
2.2 Specifications for Railway Push Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-23
2.3 Specifications for On-track Roadway Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27
2.4 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5 Hydraulic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
1

2.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46

2.7 Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.8 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.9 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Guildeline for New On-Track Machinery
27-2-60
2.10 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-R-1
INTRODUCTION
information.

27
Part 1
General
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment
and Rail Guide Wheel Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
1.1.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
1.2 General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way Equipment (Including Rail Gear Equipment) 27-1-4 1
1.2.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-4
1.3 General Information Associated with Wire Rope as used on Roadway Work Equipment 27-1-6
1.3.1 Introduction (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6
1.3.2 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6 3
1.3.3 Diameter (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6
1.3.4 Construction (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-7
1.3.5 T ypes of Strand Construction (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-8
1.3.6 Classification of Wire Rope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-9
1.3.7 Wire Rope Lays (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-11
1.3.8 Grades of Wire Rope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-12
1.3.9 Factor of Safety (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.10 Lubrication of Wire Rope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.11 Cause of Failures (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.12 Abrasion Versus Flexibility (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-14
1.3.13 Wire Rope Connections (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
1.3.14 References and Sources of Additional Information (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
1.4 Bar Codes and Their Application for Roadway Work Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.1 Introduction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.2 Benefits of Bar Codes (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.3 Equipment (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-19
1.4.4 Bar Code Format (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-19
1.4.5 Applications (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-20
1.4.6 Manufacturers Requirements for Parts Books (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-21

Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment
1.5 Equipment Operators Training and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22

1.5.1 Introduction (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
1.5.2 Operator Training Methods - Background (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
1.5.3 Candidate Selection and Class Size Criteria (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-23
1.5.4 Operator Training Program Requirements (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-23
1.5.5 Retraining and Recertification (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-24
LIST OF FIGURES
27-1-1 Determining the True Diameter of Wire Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6

27-1-2 Component Parts of Wire Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-7
27-1-3 Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-9
27-1-4 Common Lays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-11
27-1-5 Abrasion and Fatigue Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
27-1-6 Clip Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-16
27-1-7 Efficiency of Wire Rope Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-17
27-1-8 Sample Bar Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-20
LIST OF TABLES
27-1-1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
27-1-2 Recommended Colors for Painting of Parts/Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
27-1-3 Wire Rope Grades and Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-12
27-1-4 Minimum Tread Diameter of Sheaves and Drums for Various Construction of Steel Rope. . . 27-1-14
27-1-5 Clip Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-16
27-1-6 Example Part Number Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22

General
SECTION 1.1 RECOMMENDED COLORS FOR PAINTING MOTOR CARS, ROADWAY

MACHINES, WORK EQUIPMENT AND RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT1
— 1996 —
1.1.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The most suitable colors for painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide
Wheel Equipment are as shown in Table 27-1-1.
Table 27-1-1. Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines,
Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel Equipment
Standard
Equipment Color
Spec. No.
Motor Cars Yellow 13538
Roadway Equipment Yellow 13538
Roadway Work Equipment (cranes, etc.) Yellow 13538
Work Equipment (Jordan Spreaders, etc.) Mineral Red 10076
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment Black 17038
b. The predominant colors of equipment will be a specified color, but some parts or components may require 1
custom painting (reference Part 2, Roadway Machines, Section 2.3, Specifications for On-t rack Roadway
Machines, Article 2.3.17). Some of the more notable items are listed in Table 27-1-2.
Table 27-1-2. Recommended Colors for Painting of Parts/Components
Standard 3
Component Area Color
Spec. No.
Gasoline Tank Red 11086
Diesel Fuel Tank Green 14110
Hydraulic Reservoir Blue 15180
Coolant Reservoir Gray 16251
Lifting Lugs Black 17038
4
Safety Locks Red 11086
c. The colors listed under Standard Specification Numbers are consistent with those indicated in the “Federal
Standard 595-B, Colors Used in Government Procurement.”
NOTE: It should be understood that some Railroads may have special painting requirements which will
supersede the above recommended practices or guidelines.
1
References, Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 472, 754; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 213, 727; Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 251, 670; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 55, 1954,
p. 1069; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 454, 931; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 103; Vol. 94, 1993, p. 125, Vol. 97, p. 218.

SECTION 1.2 GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY

EQUIPMENT (INCLUDING RAIL GEAR EQUIPMENT)1
— 2009 —
1.2.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The varying conditions on different railroads do not permit the universal acceptance, in all details, of any
specific outline or an organization for the use, maintenance, and repair of the equipment. To determine the
proper organization best adapted to produce maximum service and productivity, at a minimum cost, from its
fleet of equipment each railroad must review and analyze various conditions which will greatly influence
these factors. Some of the more important areas are listed below.
(1) The quantity and age of the major and minor units of equipment.
(2) The level of mechanization and sophistication of the equipment.
(3) The type of managerial organization established for utilizing, supervising and maintaining the equipment.
(4) Geographic location and total trackage involved with the railroad.
(5) Organization of Equipment Repair Shops, i.e. centralized or decentralized, Engineering, Mechanical, or
Fleet jurisdiction, manpower, etc.
b. However, there are certain principles in the use and maintenance of machinery which will be found
desirable, if not essential, if the equipment is to be maintained and used economically. Special attention
should be directed to the following areas:
(1) The organization for supervising and maintaining the equipment should be headed by a practical
railroad employee, with sufficient executive ability and solid mechanical knowledge to supervise the
maintenance and operation of all equipment on the system. The appropriate department should have
authority, and sufficient personnel to institute and enforce regulations for the maintenance and
operation of the equipment. Duties should embrace direct or indirect control of mechanical details of the
equipment, in both field and shop, the supervision of maintainers, involvement with necessary reports
and managing data base information. He/she should work closely with the supervisory forces in the
assignment and use of the equipment. He/she must also work very closely with the Purchasing and
Material Department as it relates to acquisition of new equipment, component parts and the
distribution of supplies required for the maintenance and repair of equipment.
(2) It is desirable that adequate instructions for the care and operation of the equipment be issued. Such
instructions, developed by the AREA, were first published in the proceedings in 1947 and were later
reprinted in handbook form under the title “Manual of Instructions for Care and Operation of
Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment.”
(3) Cooperation on the part of supervisory officers in seeing the instructions are carried out are of the
utmost importance. This cannot be secured unless each such officer recognizes the importance of the
work he/she is supervising in an effort to keep the equipment in operation. In order to achieve
maximum results of equipment productivity and availability, through proper operation and preventive
maintenance procedures and practices, the local and upper management levels must give their full
support to the program.
1
References, Vol. 27, 1926, pp. 1028, 1449; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 148, 593; Vol. 53, 1952, pp. 366, 1088; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 58,
1957, pp. 580, 1218; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 455, 931; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 352, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 103, Vol. 97, p. 218.

General
(4) Prevention of disabling conditions in any machine is as truly maintenance as is the correction of such
conditions after they have developed; and prevention will save the loss of time and money required for
repairs.
(5) As a result of following a thorough preventive maintenance program, the need for emergency and/or
unscheduled repairs can be substantially reduced. A preventive maintenance program is basically a
repair prior to failure philosophy and can be characterized by the following:
(a) Keeping equipment clean.
(b) Operating the equipment safely and within its limit of capacity.
(c) Well controlled lubrication program.
(d) Performing required inspection, adjustment, and scheduled maintenance at the proper intervals.
(e) Utilizing a formal record keeping system, i.e. operators and maintenance personnel, daily log,
machine history file, failure reporting system, cost involved with equipment use, which will provide
a solid foundation for a computerized record keeping and cost capturing system.
(f) Ongoing training program for operator and service/maintenance personnel.
(6) Material Department operations should be properly located and adequately stocked so that repair parts,
when needed, can be supplied with the least delay. This area can be streamlined with the use of highway
type van trailers, properly sized, well organized, and adequately stocked to eliminate some of the 1
current problems associated with using rolling stock tool cars. Some of these problems are delay in
timely spotting of the car at the work site and damages to the parts inventory due to rough handling.
The use of relief equipment and power plants will reduce delays in the event of equipment failures.
(7) In scheduling the shopping of equipment for major repairs, consideration should be given to the
capacity of the shop as well as the conditions of the equipment. In so far as possible, the equipment used
in seasonal work should be overhauled during the slack season. 3
(8) Shops for the repair of equipment should be centrally located and under the control of the appropriate
department. These shops should be equipped with the necessary tools, shop machinery, and in general
provide repairs in the most timely and cost effective method.
(9) The expense of maintaining the equipment can be reduced through the adoption by each railroad, of the
fewest number of makes and type of the equipment required to meet its needs. Such a restriction to 4
adopt its standards will reduce investment in stock parts and lower maintenance costs.
(10) Adequate reports and records should be prepared as a means of maintaining close check on the use
being made of the equipment, the care of it, and to assist in passing judgment on purchase of new
equipment.

SECTION 1.3 GENERAL INFORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH WIRE ROPE AS USED ON

ROADWAY WORK EQUIPMENT1
— 1991 —
a. Wire rope is a much more complex mechanism than one generally realizes. But when its fundamentals and
capabilities are understood, wire rope can perform with economy, dependability and safety.
b. It consists of many wires capable of transmitting dynamic stresses or supporting static loads. Wire rope is
one of the strongest products manufactured for its size and weight. Wire rope is made to withstand the
demands of tensile and bending stresses and abrasive wear, present in practically all job applications. It is
available for a wide variety of applications and ever expanding number of operating conditions.
1.3.2 GENERAL (1991)
Wire rope is a piece of flexible, multi-wired, stranded machinery made of many precision parts. The usual type of
wire rope consists of a core member, around which any number of multi-wired strands are “laid” or helically bent.
In general, the greater the number of wires in the strand and the greater number of strands for a given size rope,
the more flexible it will be.
1.3.3 DIAMETER (1991)
The true diameter of a wire rope is the diameter of a circle which will enclose it. In using a caliper to determine the
diameter, be careful to measure across the crowns or the widest diameter at any given point, and avoid measuring
across adjacent strands (Figure 27-1-1).
Figure 27-1-1. Determining the True Diameter of Wire Rope
1
References, Vol. 44, 1943, p. 256; Vol. 45, 1944, pp. 110, 609; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 352, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 102.
Revised 1991.

General
Wire rope has three main component parts consisting of core, strands and wires, of which each is indicated in
Figure 27-1-2.
1.3.4.1 Core
Supports the outer strands and also maintains position of strands during movement involving bending and load
stresses.
1.3.4.1.1 Fiber Core – (FC)
Are generally sisal, manila, or man-made synthetic fiber rope as polypropylene, polyester or nylon. It is treated
with a special lubricant and recommended for high duty service. The limitations of fiber core ropes are reached
when pressure such as crushing results in core collapse and distortion of the rope strands.
1.3.4.1.2 Independent Wire Rope Core – (IWRC)
Generally used under severe conditions. The wire core can be independent wire rope, steel strand or armored core.
The independent wire rope core is composed of a separate 7 × 7 wire rope. It is recommended for heavy-duty service
because of its ability to minimize crushing and distortion.
Figure 27-1-2. Component Parts of Wire Rope

1.3.4.1.3 Wire Strand Core – (WSC)
Are normally used on small diameter ropes and aircraft cords. A WSC consists of a single strand, either of the same
construction or sometimes more flexible than the main rope strands.
1.3.4.2 Strands
These are supported by a core. Size, strength and number of strands depends upon the job the wire rope has to
perform. Also, strands are laid around the core with a length of lay (or pitch) suitable to form the finished wire rope
best suited for the job. Strands are composed of wires, varying in number from 3-91 with the majority being 7, 19,
25, or 37. These are laid helically around the core.
1.3.4.3 Wires
THESE MAKE UP THE STRANDS. They are produced in various grades such as “plow steel,” “improved plow
steel” and “extra improved plow steel.”
1.3.5 TYPES OF STRAND CONSTRUCTION (1991)
There are two general types: round strands and strands that have been shaped or formed.
1.3.5.1 Round Strand Ropes
1.3.5.1.1 Ordinary
Wires are all of the same size.
1.3.5.1.2 Seale
Strands have larger diameter wires on the outside of the strand to resist abrasion and smaller wires inside to
improve flexibility.
1.3.5.1.3 Warrington
Alternate wires are larger and smaller to combine flexibility with resistance to abrasion.
1.3.5.1.4 Filler
Has many small wires in the valleys between the outer and inner rows of wires to provide good abrasion and
fatigue resistance.
1.3.5.2 Flat or Formed Strand Ropes
a. This is a special rope construction made up of triangular-shaped strands providing outstanding service for
special heavy-duty jobs. This design forms an outer rope surface more nearly approaching a smooth
continuous cylinder of steel, as compared with round strand rope.
b. These formed strand ropes have a “flat” strand surface for greater load support and more contact area on
sheaves and drums, and is provided in three “styles.” First, seven large strand wires formed over a single
triangle center wire is a 6 × 8 Style D (Figure 27-1-3); second, multiple strand wires formed over a single
triangular center wire is a 6 × 25 Style B and third, 6 × 30 Style G has six smaller wires forming the
triangular center. The visual comparison shown on Figure 27-1-3 indicates that flattened strand provides a
sheave point bearing much greater than round strands, and this principal of greater wear distribution
applies equally to strand wear.

General
3
Figure 27-1-3. Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections
(Sheet 1 of 2)
1.3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF WIRE ROPE (1991)

4
a. This design or arrangement of wire rope, consisting of wire, strands and core is called the construction, The
classification of wire rope is the numerical designation of construction. It defines the number of strands
placed around the core as well as the number of wires in each individual strand.
b. For example, 6 × 7 means that there are 6 strands, each strand composed of 7 wires; 6 × 19 means 6 strands
composed of 19 wires; 6 × 37 denotes 6 strands composed of 37 wires. Note the cross section of a 7-wire
strand that forms a part of 6 × 7 rope. (See Figure 27-1-2.) Each of the wires are the same diameter, and 6
wires fit snugly around the wire in the center. For this reason, a 6-strand rope with center core is most
common today. With bigger and heavier-duty equipment and the demand for maximum efficiency on many
more applications, extra qualities of resistance to abrasion, increased flexibility and resistance to bending
fatigue are now being required of wire rope. The 19-wire classification fulfills these requirements with
twelve or less outer wires and combinations of inner wire arrangement.

Figure 27-1-3. Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections

(Sheet 2 of 2)
c. The 37-wire classification was created because of the requirements of extreme flexibility in ropes. Generally
speaking, the more wires per strand, the greater the flexibility of the rope. Many varieties of classifications
of strand construction are designed for all types of applications. To avoid confusion, a simplified method to
identify wire rope constructions has been adopted. Although the “6 × 19 classification” and “6 × 37
classification” are not factually descriptive of one classification, they do cover the largest variation of wire
ropes of similar weight and strength. Note the many end views on Figure 27-1-3, showing wire rope
classifications to suit most every wire rope application.
• 6 × 19 CLASSIFICATION–Six strands having 16 through 26 wires but not more than 12 outer wires in
each strand.
• 6 × 37 CLASSIFICATION–Six strands having 27 through 49 wires, but not more than 18 outer wires in
each strand.

General
1.3.7 WIRE ROPE LAYS (1991)
a. The term “lay” means direction in which wires are laid into strands or strands into rope. The most common
are indicated on Figure 27-1-4.
b. Each one offers variations and flexibility in resistance to wear and crushing. The direction strands “lay” in
the rope are either RIGHT or LEFT. When you look along a rope, strands of the right lay rope follow the
right-turning pattern. Left lay rope follows the left-turning pattern. It makes no difference which direction
you lock to determine the lay rotation.
(1) Right Lay Rope. When the strands of a rope are laid in a right-turning or helical twist pattern.
(2) Left Lay Rope. When the strands of a rope are laid in a left-turning or helical twist pattern.
(3) Regular Lay Rope. The wires which make up the strands are spirally laid in the opposite direction to the
rope lay.
(4) Lang Lay Rope. When the wires which make up the strands are spirally laid in the same direction as the
rope lay or strands themselves.
c. The difference between “Regular” and “Lang” lay is easily recognized. The outer wires in Lang lay appear
to run at an angle to the axis of the rope. The outer wires in Regular lay appear to run in the same direction
as the rope axis.
d. Regular Lay Ropes have better resistance to crushing, rotation and distortion than Lang lay ropes under 1
load. The difference in direction of the wire and strand lays offer these advantages and also applications
where only one end of the rope may be secured.
e. Regular Lay Applications include winch lines, overhead crane ropes, holding and closing lines on clam shells,
rotary drilling and cable tool lines in the oil and gas market, logging ropes, elevator ropes, mining machine
ropes, hoist lines on railroad wreckers and cranes, hoists on small shovels, boom lines, tendons and slings.
3
f. Lang Lay Ropes are generally more flexible and have more resistance to abrasion and bending fatigue than
regular ropes.
Figure 27-1-4. Common Lays

g. Lang Lay Applications include scraper and dozer ropes, drag line crowd, retract and hoist lines on shovels,
and many other applications subject to heavy abrasion conditions when both ends of the rope are tied down
or anchored.
1.3.8 GRADES OF WIRE ROPE (1991)
a. One of the primary points to consider in selecting wire rope is the material from which the rope is
constructed. This is known as the grade of the wire rope.
b. Quite obviously, the grade of wire will affect such things as strength, resistance to wear, fatigue resistance,
corrosion resistance, etc. Today, the greatest portion of all wire rope is made from two grades of wire –
improved plow steel (IPS) and extra improved plow steel (XIP). Both are tough, strong, wear-resisting
carbon steel, with XIP providing about 15% greater tensile strength.
c. Some of the other grades of rope wire, along with the distinctive characteristics of each, are shown in
Table 27-1-3.
Table 27-1-3. Wire Rope Grades and Characteristics
Grade of Wire Characteristics

“POWERSTEEL” Special grade of high-carbon steel wire unexcelled in strength, toughness and
Extra Improved Plow Steel uniformity. Used in “POWERSTEEL” rope for severe conditions.
YELLOW STRAND The quality used in Yellow Strand is surpassed in strength and toughness only by
Improved Plow Steel “POWERSTEEL.” Recommended for a wide variety of applications.
PLOW STEEL Lower in carbon content and tensile strength, this grade of rope will not resist
abrasion as well as “Yellow Strand.” Should be limited to applications where
service is less severe.
GALVANIZED “BROGAL” All ropes may be made up either bright (not galvanized) or “BROGAL”
galvanized. Used for many marine and industrial applications as protection
against the corrosive effects such as usually-present moist or wet weather, salt
water and many industrial atmospheres.
STAINLESS STEEL Stainless Steel ropes have breaking strengths approximately equal to ropes of
similar size in the “Yellow Strand” grade. The 18% chromium, 8% nickel alloy
stainless has found wide acceptance in both marine and industrial applications
for corrosion-resisting ropes with high tensile strength.
TRACTION STEEL This is a special grade of steel. Traction steel ropes are used on elevators, both
passenger and freight.
IRON This is a special type of low-carbon wire. Its major uses are for sash cord, serving
strand, iron tiller rope and on some older type, slow speed elevators.
NON-FERROUS Corrosion resistance to marine and industrial atmospheres are the main
functions of bronze and monel ropes. Not recommended where heavy loads or
abrasion is present.

General
1.3.9 FACTOR OF SAFETY (1991)

a. The factor of safety, applying to a wire rope installation, may be defined as the ratio of the ultimate strength
of the rope to the actual load that has been imposed upon it by service conditions.
b. For all practical purposes, the rated catalog strength for a size and grade of rope in question may be used for
this calculation if the rope is a new one. However, if the end fittings on the rope are less than 100% efficient,
this value should be reduced by the efficiency of a particular fitting used. The actual load on the rope should
include the static load, as well as any dynamic or live loads.
c. The factor of safety should be determined after consideration of such data as types of loads; acceleration and
deceleration; rope speed; rope attachments; number, size, and arrangements of drums and sheaves;
conditions causing corrosion and abrasion; and the time the rope has been in service.
d. The working load on a wire rope will vary depending on the application, from approximately a safety factor
of 3 to perhaps 12 or more. However, for general hoisting service, a safety factor of 5 usually is adequate for
a preliminary determination of the rope size.
1.3.10 LUBRICATION OF WIRE ROPE (1991)

a. Lubrication is necessary for wire rope to increase its service life, similar to any other machine. When one
realizes that in a 6 × 19 rope there are 114 wires and a fiber core totaling 115 working parts, the necessity
for lubrication is evident. A second important reason for lubricating iron and steel ropes is to prevent
corrosion of the wires. A rusty rope is a liability, since there is no known means of inspection which will even
approximate the strength of a corroded rope. 1
b. Crude oil should not be used for rope lubrication as it is very apt to contain impurities that are harmful to
both the core and the steel wire. Whenever possible, hot lubricants should be used and applied when the
rope is under a very light load so as to get the most penetrating effect possible. The frequency of lubrication
must be determined by judgment based on the service being performed, and often enough to keep the rope
pliable with evidence of lubrication in the valleys between the strands. The types of lubricant used, the
amount, and the method of application depend upon the size and construction of the rope and the service it 3
is performing. Special lubricants are available for most all unusual applications.
1.3.11 CAUSE OF FAILURES (1991)
The following are some of the more common causes of wire rope failures.
a. Use of ropes of incorrect size, construction or grade. 4

b. Allowing ropes to drag over obstacles. In this manner, rope is exposed to unnecessary wear, kinking, etc.
c. Lack of proper lubrication, which causes heating and excessive friction wear.
d. Sheaves and drums of inadequate size that cause short radius bends. The largest practical size of drums,
sheaves and pulleys should be utilized, and high speed should be avoided. The tread diameter of a drum or
sheave should be in accordance with Table 27-1-4.

Table 27-1-4. Minimum Tread Diameter of Sheaves and Drums for Various Construction of Steel Rope
Average Recommended Minimum Recommended

Rope Construction
Tread Diameter Tread Diameter
6×7 72 d 42 d
6 × 19 45 d 30 d
6 × 31 33 d 22 d
6 × 37 27 d 18 d
8 × 19 31 d 21 d
d = Diameter of rope in inches
e. Over winding or cross winding drums.
f. Sheaves and drums defective or out of alignment. Badly worn sheaves cause winding and cutting of strands.
Poor alignment of sheaves causes excessive wear and often over stresses the rope.
g. Ropes jumping sheave flanges. Rope should be let out slowly in order to be taut at all times.
h. Effects of heat moisture or acid fumes.
i. Improper fittings. Clamps, thimble and other rope fittings should be of proper size.
j. Permitting rope to untwist. This can be avoided if the ends are properly seized.
k. Kinking. Rope should be allowed to twist when slack; if a kink is formed, it should be straightened out
before it enters a sheave or a strain is placed on the rope.
l. Severe overloads, reverse bends, and other excessive strains.
m. Internal wear because of grit penetrating between strands and wires. Unless absolutely necessary, ropes should
not be allowed to drag along the ground or through piles of material where they are likely to pick up grit.
n. The angle between center line of the sheaves and the rope as it winds on and off the drum is called the fleet
angle. Keep the fleet angle as low as possible (1-1/2 degrees). A large fleet angle may cause the rope to spool
loosely on the drum or crowd itself until it jumps back to the previous layer, and also cause the rope to rub
against the flanges of the sheave and thus produce undue wear.
1.3.12 ABRASION VERSUS FLEXIBILITY (1991)
a. The best illustration of the design compromise mentioned above is the inter-relationship between resistance
to abrasion and fatigue resistance.
b. Fatigue resistance – which is the measure of the capability of bending repeatedly under stress – is
accomplished by using many flexible wires in the rope strands. Resistance to abrasion or metal loss is
achieved primarily with a rope design which uses fewer, larger wires so that the outer layer of wire can
better withstand scrapes.
c. So when anything is done from an engineering standpoint to alter either abrasion resistance (resistance to
metal loss) or fatigue resistance, both of these characteristics are affected – and possibly rope strength also.
(See Figure 27-1-5.)

General
Figure 27-1-5. Abrasion and Fatigue Resistance
1.3.13 WIRE ROPE CONNECTIONS (1991)
1.3.13.1 Typical Cable Connections Using Wire Rope Clips 3

a. Clips are made of drop-forged steel to resist distortion in heavy duty service. All parts are hot dip galvanized
to prevent corrosion. When properly applied in sufficient number as indicated in Table 27-1-5, clips will
develop approximately 80% of the full breaking strength of the rope and may be revised if undamaged.
Figure 27-1-7 indicates the different estimated efficiencies of various types of wire rope connections.
b. Wire rope clips should be attached properly to insure maximum holding power (Figure 27-1-6). The base of 4
the clip should be applied to the live or long end, and the U-bolt against the dead or short end of the wire
rope. Wire rope thimbles are required to insure the best loop protection.
c. The clip nuts should be retightened to the specified torque after applying an initial load, as rope will stretch
and shrink in diameter when loads are applied. The tightening torque values shown are based upon the
threads being clean, dry and free of lubrication.
1.3.14 REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (1991)
Refer to the References located at the end of this chapter.

Figure 27-1-6. Clip Installation
Table 27-1-5. Clip Installation
A B C
Rope Number of Center to Length of Torque Weight

Diameter In Clips Center Rope Turned in Per Clip
Inches (Minimum Spacing of Back Excl. of Ft - Lb Pounds
(Note 1)) Clips – Inches Eye – Inches
1/ 8 2 1-1/8 6 4.5 0.05
3 / 16 2 1-1/8 8 7.5 0.10
1/ 4 2 1-1/2 8 15 0.20
5 / 16 2 1-7/8 10 30 0.30
3/ 8 2 2-1/4 10 45 0.50
7 / 16 3 2-5/8 12 65 0.70
1/ 2 3 3 12 65 0.80
9 / 16 3 3-1/2 14 95 1.0
5 /8 3 3-3/4 16 95 1.1
3 /4 4 4-1/2 20 130 1.7
7/ 8 4 5-1/4 24 225 2.5
1 4 6 30 225 3.0
1-1/8 5 6-3/4 36 225 3.4
1-1/4 5 7-1/2 40 360 4.6
Note 1: The number of clips shown is the minimum recommended for ordinary usage.
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay wire rope, 6 × 37
class, fibre core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If greater number of clips are used than shown in
the table, the amount of rope turn-back should be increased proportionately.
IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with instructions will cause
a reduction in the efficiency rating.

General
Figure 27-1-7. Efficiency of Wire Rope Connections

SECTION 1.4 BAR CODES AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR ROADWAY WORK
EQUIPMENT1
— 1992 —
a. Equipment maintenance and management in today’s world is rapidly gaining a level of sophistication never
before experienced in the industry. Sophisticated management is necessary to cope with the increasing
complexity of day-to-day operations; as a result, good managers of equipment cannot afford to operate
without various forms of computerization.
b. One of the most important waves of technology sweeping American industry is the use of bar codes for
Systematic Data Collection. It is driven by the need for accurate and timely data gathering from the
manufacturing, inspection, maintenance, transportation, material acquisition and inventory cycles of a
business operation. There is a natural fit in equipment management where machine identification, part
numbers and related information are basic and well suited to this technology.
c. BN Codes have gained acceptance as one of the most accurate and practical media to implement automatic
collection of printed data. Bar codes are achieving this wide-spread popularity because they can be
incorporated in the primary source marking of products from production to consumption.
1.4.2 BENEFITS OF BAR CODES (1992)
a. Bar codes streamline identification. The black and white bars seen on most all grocery items in a
supermarket represent a unique identification for that specific product. Bar codes have received
overwhelming acceptance because they offer the simplest and most accurate, cost-effective approach for
identifying objects by using reading machines (Scanners).
b. Some of the more frequent errors involved with a manual data entry system are as follows:
• Incorrect parts numbers.
• Transposing of alpha or numeric characters.
• Incorrect order units, i.e. each, feet, gallons, etc.
• Insufficient or incorrect ordering description.
• Missing or incorrect shipping instructions or addresses.
• Illegible handwriting.
c. Some of the main advantages of bar codes are as follows:
(1) Accuracy of data input.
(a) One of the primary advantages of bar codes over other technologies is its low susceptibility to errors
involved with data input.
(b) The estimated error rate for generating errors due to interpreting handwritten alpha or numeric
data is one error per 1,000 characters generated. This error rate is greatly influenced by the
penmanship of the individual generating the document. The estimated error rate for keyed data
1 References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 303 and Vol. 93, 1992, p. 143.

General
entry is one error per 10,000 key strokes; whereas, the rate for Bar Code scanning is one error per
3,000,000 characters scanned.
(2) Speed of entering data into the computer system. Scanning a bar code is much faster than manually
recording information or keying data into a terminal.
(3) Timeliness of information for more effective management of resources and repair parts inventories. Bar
codes information can be immediately transferred to a host computer, and real-time data collection
enables timely information to be accessed almost instantly.
(4) Labor savings realized through elimination of manual systems. Improved efficiency can be realized by
substituting bar code systems in place of manual systems, resulting in increased productivity and
reduced labor costs.
1.4.3 EQUIPMENT (1992)
One of the compact type portable units currently used for material acquisition is portable data terminal with 32K
RAM including an integral printer. The scanner is a contact type, high density, laser wand with 6 Mil. aperture.
1.4.3.1 Scanners
Reading devices (or scanners) fall into two categories, contact and non-contact readers. Contact readers are
normally handheld units, while non-contact readers can either be handheld or stationary units.
1.4.3.1.1 Contact Readers 1

a. Contact readers must either touch or come in close proximity to the bar code symbol. The most common
type of contact reader is a pen wand or light pen. They serve as an excellent substitute for the traditional
clipboard, paper and pencil, or keyboard data-entry and collection methods. Primary benefits from using
contact readers include a reduction in the number of clerical errors in recorded data, a reduction in labor
and paperwork to process the data, faster and more accurate inventory taking, material acquisition or
payroll document completion. Careful attention must be given to match the wand resolution to the bar code
3
density. A high-density resolution wand used to read a low-density symbol might see an ink spot as a bar, or
an ink void as a space. Conversely, a low-resolution wand may not be able to recognize the narrow bar of a
high-density bar code.
b. The angle at which the wand is positioned to the surface of the symbol (45–90 degrees), as well as the speed
at which the wand is moved across the symbol (3–6 inches per second), are both key parameters affecting
high first-pass read rate.
4
1.4.3.1.2 Non-contact Readers
Non-contact readers include handheld and stationary scanners. The main characteristic of these scanners is that
they don’t have to come in contact with the bar code symbol and can read bar codes up to several feet depending on
the symbol size and scanner type. One of the disadvantages of using non-contact scanners is the possibility of
reading the wrong bar code when several bar codes are located in close proximity, as would be the case with work
equipment repair parts books.
1.4.4 BAR CODE FORMAT (1992)

a. The bar code format that has been standardized by many railroads and the current material acquisition
process is Code 39 (3 of 9). Code 39’s flexibility to encode alpha and numeric characters has contributed to
its widespread use, with some of the prominent advantages being:

• Incorporates alpha and/or numeric characters.
• Codes can be variable in length.
• Allows bi-directional scanning.
• Density is approximately 3-9.5 characters per inch.
• Applications include LOGMARS (Department of Defense), GSA, AIAG (automotive) and wide acceptance
throughout general industry.
• The quiet zone is 10 times the width of the narrow bar.
b. The 3 of 9 bar code is a variable length, bi-directional, discrete, self-checking alpha-numeric bar code. Its
data character set contains 43 characters:
0-9, A-Z, -, ., $, /, +, % and space.
c. Three of the nine elements are wide and six are narrow. A common character (*) is used exclusively for both
a start and stop character and must be included in every bar code symbol to provide the bar code to be bi-
directionally scanned.
d. Typical samples of a low medium and hi-density code of 3 of 9 bar code is shown in Figure 27-1-8.
Figure 27-1-8. Sample Bar Codes
1.4.5 APPLICATIONS (1992)
a. There are currently three primary applications which are being pursued for bar code use with Roadway
Work Equipment:

General
(1) Repair parts, material acquisition,
(2) Repair parts, material inventory control system,
(3) Collection of payroll data information for shop and field maintenance personnel.
b. Great efforts are currently being made to incorporate bar codes into the material acquisition process for
work equipment field and shop maintenance personnel to ease the data entry process. It is obvious this type
of process greatly reduces the potential for data entry errors.
1.4.6 MANUFACTURERS REQUIREMENTS FOR PARTS BOOKS (1992)
In order to achieve a level of uniformity throughout the railroad industry in the work equipment departments, it is
required the following guidelines be adhered to:
a. The bar code comply with the Code 39 (3 of 9) format guidelines.
b. The parts books will contain bar codes, and human readable information for the manufacturers part
number as well as the noun description for that particular part number.
c. The maximum readable characters for part numbers and noun description will be 16 characters. This does
not include the start/stop (*) characters.
d. The “quite zone” preceding and following the start/stop character must be a minimum of 1/4 inch.
1
e. The bar codes should be 1/4 inch in height to again minimize space requirements, and in no instances
should the bar codes be less than 1/4 inch high.
f. The bar code symbols shall use the hi-density format, 7-9 characters per inch, to make the best utilization of
available space. This will also be required to minimize the expansion in overall size of existing non-bar coded
parts books.
3
g. Common readily available standard hardware type items such as wrought iron washers, hex bolts and nuts,
machine screws, cotter keys, hydraulic hoses, fittings, non-special adapters, etc., should not be coded. This
will assist in conserving valuable space in the parts books. The parts books will contain human readable
part numbers, as well as the corresponding detailed non-truncated noun description for all items of the
parts books. This can be accomplished through use of a bill of material layout or similar format. It should be
noted that non-bar coded items could still be ordered by manually entering the part number and non
description via the handheld computer. 4
h. The human readable and bar coded part number and noun description for each item in the parts book
should be laid out to be operator friendly; with each item being easily recognizable and set apart or divided
from each other to minimize confusion and the possibility of the operator inadvertently ordering incorrect
repair parts.
i. The high density bar codes must have a high “first read rate,” meaning the percentage of correct readings
that will be obtained in one pass of the scanner over the bar code symbol.
j. It is recommended the laser printer used to generate bar codes have the capability of producing print with a
minimum of 300 dots per inch, and periodic monitoring of the toner adjustment has found to provide
consistency in “First Read Rate” ability.
k. The manufacturers part number should be compressed so there are no spaces or dashes and numeric
character strings. See Table 27-1-6 for examples.

Table 27-1-6. Example Part Number Formats
Traditional Part # Revised Part Number Format

A-7288-Y-01 A728Y01
0-1406079-0-02 01406079002
l. Providing these guidelines are followed, the sophisticated and time saving bar code parts ordering data
collection system can be used to a great advantage.
SECTION 1.5 EQUIPMENT OPERATORS TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION

— 2009 —
The training of operators for railway maintenance and construction equipment is carried out for the purpose of
improving the safety profile, the efficiency, and the productivity of track maintenance equipment. The capital
investment required to own and operate this equipment, coupled with the requirement to achieve production and
maintenance goals within decreasing availability of track time windows demands competent operators with the
training and skills to maximize the efficiency of these assets.
1.5.2 OPERATOR TRAINING METHODS - BACKGROUND (2009)
a. OJT or "on-job training" has traditionally been the fundamental method used by railways as labor skills were
supplemented by equipment. This method typically consists of either no, or only rudimentary, instruction to
the new operator. In the short term, this method can be effective for less complex pieces of equipment.
b. Informal training has become a minimum necessity as track maintenance equipment has increased in
complexity and the time available for program rework and equipment maintenance has minimized.
Differing levels of expertise can be gained by the operator using Operator-Instructors and/or manufacturer
representatives as trainers. While more complete than "on-job training", this method suffers from not
providing comprehensive instruction in a variety of operating conditions.
c. Advanced training is a hybrid and generally couples informal field training with equipment videos and
classroom training. However, the training is not concurrent and it is generally not application-specific. It is
a combination of "hands on" practice to develop correct technique, followed at a later time by lectures and
provided related reference materials for the operator.
d. Certified training programs begin with established goals, have comprehensive and concurrent practical
and theoretical sessions, and test the newly-trained operator to dually determine learned skills and
effectiveness of the program. These programs are typically multi-day, and can be taught by railroad
trainers, representatives of a manufacturer, or a third party training specialist. These can be held either on
railroad property or at dedicated training facilities. Formal documentation shall be provided.
e. Recurrent training takes the training program and expands it to occur periodically, in order to reinforce
correct operating and maintenance techniques. Various forms of this exist on different properties, utilizing

General
a variety of training formats, information sources, and training aids. (Promising technologies and
computer-based training are on the leading edge of these efforts.) This is the only method which addresses
the problem area of an increasing pace of change to operating and maintenance procedures that utilize the
latest training methods.
1.5.3 CANDIDATE SELECTION AND CLASS SIZE CRITERIA (2009)
a. The selection of potential equipment operators should consider the work history and past experience of the
individual. Items such as past injury exposure, safe working habits, and personal attitude are indicative of
potential success of the employee in the training program.
b. Past equipment experience is an obvious desirable objective attribute. Should the individual be able to
demonstrate maintenance responsibilities and operating capabilities with similar equipment, the
probability of acquiring additional skills from training programs is high. In cases of specialized equipment
where there may not be any similar experience for the new operator, aptitude testing can provide significant
guidance as long as relevant criteria are utilized.
c. A subjective attribute which is typically a determinant of success is a desire to improve on behalf of the
employee. A positive attitude and "wanting to learn" are perhaps the most important indicators of a
potential training success. While modern roadway maintenance equipment is more user-friendly, it also has
more features and requires more knowledge to operate safely and effectively.
d. For the group to be trained, the trainee-to-trainer ratio should not exceed twelve to one for a classroom
session. For practical training with equipment at a work site, half of that ratio should be the maximum.
While that ratio may seem high for certain types of equipment, the trainer should interface individually with 1
each student for specific instruction, allowing the others to observe and learn through the repetitive process.
1.5.4 OPERATOR TRAINING PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS (2009)
a. Training programs have cost and benefit elements associated with them, and must be budgeted accordingly.
3
b. Each training program must have established goals. Safety and minimization of injury occurrences are
always paramount in these goals, as are reduction of damages to railway assets and property. The
instructional goals must be application-specific, critical skill-based, and relevant to both the work conditions
encounteredand the level of operating and maintenance capability of the trainee.
c. Following these goals, the development of a custom training manual should be undertaken. As opposed to a
copy of an available operating manual, it should be designed for specific tasks in line with the established 4
goals, and be brief and easily understandable to the student. The training manual must cover both the
theoretical aspect of the program during the training, and act as a resource for the trained operator
following completion of the program.
d. Practical, or "hands on", training within a variety of operating situations is imperative. This eliminates the
"trial and error" technique which can generate poor operating and maintenance learned skills. Further,
instructor corrections during practical training reduce the operator learning curve, and discourage the
development of poor equipment maintenance practices. "Hand ons" training should also include automation
training, specifically the proper set-up of computer-assisted track maintenance machines. In practical
training it is important that as few distractions as possible are allowed, and that similar equipment, or an
appropriate simulator, be used during the training.
e. Determination of what was learned in the training is important for both the employee and the trainer. The
only way to measure this objectively is to pre-test the employee for skills or knowledge, and to follow the
training program with a comprehensive examination to determine knowledge gained. In most cases a
practical demonstration of learned skills in accord with the program goals should suffice. However, with

more complicated machinery it may also be appropriate to test learned knowledge with a combination of
written testing and a practical demonstration of proficiency.
f. On the trainer's behalf, the result of the testing should give clues as to which parts of the program or
curriculum is weak or strong, such that appropriate adjustments can be made prior to the next group of
trainees. Another very important part of the feedback loop for the trainer is a formal course evaluation by
the students with regard to content. Finally, equipment supervisory employees should be utilized to provide
feedback to determine if learned skills are being practiced by the operator in the work environment. The
latter can be done informally, but is an important source of feedback information for the design of future
programs.
g. Certification of the trained operator includes all of those requirements involved with documentation of the
training program. Initial certification is an important step in the training process, and subsequent levels of
certification should be established such that an operator can progress through a series of training programs.
A training time limit should be established to determine when specific retraining is necessary, and that
schedule distributed among affected operators.
h. It is desirable that labor agreements reflect program needs of selecting capable employees and placing
trained personnel according to the individual's ability.
i. These guidelines should be set to adhere to existing policies and standards as applicable to the individual
railroad.
1.5.5 RETRAINING AND RECERTIFICATION (2009)
With track maintenance equipment changing at an ever-increasing rate and with continuing reductions in
maintenance fleet size, a recurrent training and recertification process for experienced operators can be as
important as original training and certification for new operators. Reinforcement of correct operating and
maintenance techniques is critical in order to be effective and productive in maintaining the roadway. Periodic
practical reviews of competency designed to maximize production time and minimize repair expenses, and to
eliminate injuries and lost time due to accidents, should be encouraged by the establishment of criteria associated
with successive levels of recertification.
The documentation of recertification and recurrent training is a valuable tool for gauging the value of each
training session on the capabilities of operators. Mandatory certification and recertification is a tool that is making
the industry safer, more reliable and accountable.

27
Part 2
Roadway Machines1
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Specifications for T rack Motor Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4

2.1.2 Operational Requirements (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4
2.1.3 Engine (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-5
2.1.4 Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-6
2.1.5 Suspension (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
1
2.1.6 Fuel Tank (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
2.1.7 Hydraulic System (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-8
2.1.8 Pneumatic System (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-9
2.1.9 Brake Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-10
2.1.10 T ravel Speed and Performance (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-10
2.1.11 Cab (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-11 3
2.1.12 Standard Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-13
2.1.13 Miscellaneous (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-14
2.1.14 Paint (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-15
2.1.15 Stenciling (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-15
2.1.16 Optional Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-16
2.1.17 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-16
2.1.18 Reliability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-17
2.1.19 Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-20
2.2 Specifications for Railway Push Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-23

2.2.3 Frame, Wheels, Axles, and Bearings (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-24
2.2.4 Suspension (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.5 Standard Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.6 Miscellaneous (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.7 Paint (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.8 Stenciling (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26
1 References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1254, 1820; Vol. 2, 1931, pp. 541, 751; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 162, 713; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 356, 804; Vol. 39, 1938,
pp. 606, 878; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 266, 849; Vol. 47, 1946, pp. 180, 607; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 339, 868, Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 244, 825; Vol. 54, 1953,
pp. 638, 644, 1373; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 513, 1099; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 630, 1235; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 356, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 102, Vol. 97,
p. 220. Revised 1996.

2.2.9 Optional Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26

2.2.10 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26
2.3 Specifications for On-track Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27

2.3.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27
2.3.2 Material (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-28
2.3.3 Brakes (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-28
2.3.4 Wheels, Axles and Bearings: Frame and Suspension (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-29
2.3.5 Insulation (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-30
2.3.6 Engine and Power T rain (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-30
2.3.7 Fuel Tank (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.8 Exhaust System (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.9 Hydraulic System (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.10 Electrical System (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-35
2.3.11 Pneumatic System (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-36
2.3.12 Body or Cab Top (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-37
2.3.13 T ravel Speed (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-37
2.3.14 Controls (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.15 Clearance and Safety (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.16 Initial Preparation and Servicing (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.17 Paint (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-39
2.3.18 Shipping (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.19 Parts and Instruction Books (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.20 Repair Parts and Service (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.21 Additional Specifications (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-41
2.3.22 Noise Exposure (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.3.23 Delivery (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.3.24 Non-Compliance (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.4 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5 Hydraulic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43

2.5.1 Introduction (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5.2 General (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-44
2.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46

2.6.1 Introduction (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.2 General (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.3 Electrical Apparatus Cabinets (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.4 Motor Control Apparatus Overload Relays (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.7 Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47

2.7.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.7.2 Material (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-48
2.7.3 Brakes (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-48
2.7.4 Wheels, Axles and Bearings (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-49
2.7.5 Insulation (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-49
2.7.6 Hydraulic System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-50
2.7.7 Electrical System (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-52

Roadway Machines
2.7.8 Pneumatic System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-53

2.7.9 Controls (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.10 Clearance and Safety (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.11 Initial Preparation and Servicing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.12 Paint (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.13 Shipping (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
2.7.14 Parts and Instruction Books (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
2.7.15 Repair Parts and Service (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.16 Additional Options (To be completed by vendor or manufacturer.) (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.17 Delivery (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.18 Mounting of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to Vehicle (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.19 Setup and Alignment (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-57
2.7.20 Non-Compliance (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-57
2.8 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58

2.8.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.8.2 Definitions (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.8.3 Requirements (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-59
2.8.4 Procedures (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-59
2.9 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Guildeline for New On Track Machinery 27-2-60
1
2.9.1 Definitions (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-60
2.9.2 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility for “Travel” Mode (2009) 27-2-61
2.10 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62

2.10.1 Purpose (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62
2.10.2 Scope (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62 3
2.10.3 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62
LIST OF FIGURES
27-2-1 AREMA Wheel and Flange for 14 Inches, 16 Inches and 20 Inches Wheels on Motor Cars, 4
Trailers and Push Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
27-2-2 Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-20
27-2-3 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications for Work Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
27-2-4 Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility, Top View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-61
27-2-5 Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62
27-2-6 Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
27-2-7 Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
27-2-8 Handrails and Handholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-64
27-2-9 Platforms, Walkways and Guardrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-64
27-2-10 Stairways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-65

LIST OF TABLES
27-2-1 Recommended Cleanliness Level of System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-33

27-2-2 Paint Specifications for Specific Equipment and Component Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-39
27-2-3 Paint Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment and Component Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
27-2-4 Recommended Dimensions for Steps, Stairs, Platforms, Guardrails, Handholds and Ladders 27-2-65
SECTION 2.1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRACK MOTOR CARS

a. This specification covers a TRACK MOTOR CAR for railway use on 4′-8-1/2″ standard gage track,
constructed with bolted and/or continuous welded rail up to 140 lb, head contact and/or head free, on wood
and/or concrete track ties, in slag and/or crushed rock ballast, on ballast deck and/or timber deck bridges.
b. All equipment and components furnished under this specification shall be new, unused and of current
manufacture, and shall equal or exceed the following unless otherwise specified.
c. Design, construction and materials used in the unit shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently
in sustained operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment.
d. Each unit shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or
improper fastenings, leaks or contamination and any other defects that could impair its operation or
serviceability.
e. The design of the unit shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components,
including filters and fluids, with a minimum disturbance of other components.
f. All units shall comply with all Federal and State/Provincial environmental; safety and health regulations
and the current AREMA specifications in force at the time of delivery. In the event of conflict or variation
between the regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will apply.
2.1.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS (1993)

a. Units must be capable of seating the following: Inspection – two men; Section – four men; and Gang – six
men; safely and comfortably, and have room for two additional men in emergency situations. The unit must
have sufficient power and speed to enable railway employees to conduct normal operation and maintenance
procedures (inspections, pulling loads of rail, ties, etc.).
b. The unit is to be equipped with a drive system that is suitable for the intended use. Manufacturer is to
provide details of this drive system in the quotation.
c. Gross Weights:
(1) Gross weight of the inspection car is not to exceed 950 lb (empty).
(2) Gross weight of the section car is not to exceed 1,150 lb (empty).
(3) The gross weight of the gang motor car, complete with cab and all accessories, is not to exceed 2,150 lb
(empty).

Roadway Machines
d. Lifting Weights:
(1) For inspection car, lifting weight is not to exceed 200 lb.
(2) For section car, lifting weight is not to exceed 200 lb.
(3) The lifting weight of the gang motor car, with lift handles fully extended to the normal position, is not to
exceed 400 lb.
e. Manufacturer is to supply and apply “Safe Lifting Procedure” decals to both ends of the car, between the
lifting handles.
f. Units are to be uninsulated or insulated against activation of track signals, at the purchaser’s option.
g. The unit must also be equipped with the following:
(1) Demountable pressed steel wheels (16″ × 5/16″ × 4-1/2″).
(2) Safety rails and front pipe skids.
(3) Extension lift handles with a device that will not allow the handle to vibrate out during travel.
(4) Blade type adjustable rail sweeps on the front and rear.
(5) Bumper bars – front and rear.
(6) Safety coupler.

1
h. Inspection motor cars must also be equipped with two cushioned seals with backrests (one each side).
2.1.3 ENGINE (1991)

a. The engine supplied for this unit is to meet all horsepower and rpm requirements of the work mode and
travel mode of the unit within the continuous rating of the engine.
3
b. The engine’s intermittent rating power availability is to be reserved and available for extreme power
requirements (i.e. extra high track curvature and excessive adverse grades). The latest S.A.E. Diesel Engine
Rating Code is to apply.
c. The make, model and horsepower rating of the engine supplied, and the unit’s horsepower requirements,
under maximum load in the work mode and in the travel mode, shall be stated.
d. The engine’s fuel consumption figures, in Imperial and U.S. gallons per hour, at the engine’s maximum 4
intermittent output rating, and maximum continuous output rating, are to be provided.
e. A detailed list of the engine manufacturer’s service and parts supply outlets that are available are to be
provided.
f. Diesel engines are to be fitted with a one-piece combination silencer/spark arrestor with rain cap,
adequately sized for the engine supplied, and must conform with the eight-hour exposure of applicable
Noise Control Regulations of the Federal, State, Local or Labor Code.
g. The engine is to be equipped with a spin-on type oil filter and fuel filters.
h. Engine starting shall be by a positive type of gear engaging starter. A minimum 75 amp hour battery is to be
provided.
i. Engine shall start within 2/3 of the cranking system’s time rating.

j. Engine offered shall provide ample power with clean exhaust for all equipment functions under the
following conditions:
(1) Altitude – 0 to 3000 feet (900 m).
(2) Temperature – Minus 40 degrees F (–40 degrees C) – Plus 140 degrees F (40 degrees C).
(3) Atmosphere – Extreme dust to 1 inch of rain per hour.
k. Engine compartment to be fully enclosed, sound dampened and lockable with hook and hasp type fixtures
for use with padlocks. All covers are to be hinged to facilitate ease of servicing.
l. Unit must have sufficient power to propel itself up an equipment loading ramp onto a railway flat car
(approximately 6% grade).
2.1.4 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS (1991)
a. The frame, axles, wheels and bearings must be designed to withstand maximum stresses induced under
normal operating and traveling conditions. The machine shall withstand a free drop of six inches without
damage.
b. All welding and joint preparation is to follow the latest welding code.
c. Lifting points (suitable for lifting the machine level with equal length cables) and jacking pads must be
provided and clearly indicated.
d. Unit is to be protected from undercarriage damage by derail skids front and rear. Stop blocks are to be
welded inboard and outboard of rail head area to prevent unit from leaving track area in case of derailment.
Skids are to be manufactured in such a way as to not deform should machine derail.
e. Wheels and axles are to be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances:
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56.375 inches–56.5 inches).
(2) Tram: ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance.
(3) Diagonal measurement:
• ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet.
• ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet.
f. No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action is to occur at any speed for which the machine is intended.
g. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with the standards set by AREMA or AAR (Mechanical Division) as
required for size and type of wheels furnished. (See Figure 27-2-1.)
h. Wheels shall be firmly fixed to axles that are supported in anti-friction bearings.
i. Axle material is to have a minimum Charpy value of 20 ft-lb at minus 30 degrees F.
j. The axle sprocket (if applicable) shall be of the split sprocket type and to be connected to the axle by means
of a taper-lock bushing and hub (similar to the Browning Taper-Loc).
k. Chain drive (if applicable) is to be double roller chain with chain lubricator.

Roadway Machines
Figure 27-2-1. AREMA Wheel and Flange for 14 Inches, 16 Inches and 20 Inches Wheels
on Motor Cars, Trailers and Push Cars
3
2.1.5 SUSPENSION (1991)
a. A suspension system is to be provided to ensure a safe and comfortable ride (coil spring, leaf spring, air bag,
etc.).
b. The suspension must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be spring mounted, to allow any wheel 4
to drop below the plane established by the other three wheels. This amount of drop in inches shall be equal
to or more than the wheelbase in feet divided by eight.
2.1.6 FUEL TANK (1991)
a. It must be adequate to provide fuel for 12 hours operation of the engine producing at its maximum
continuous horsepower rating. If two or more tanks are provided, fillers are required on all tanks to
facilitate faster fueling.
b. Fuel tanks shall be in a location to eliminate any fire hazard from spilling, overflow or draining of fuel and
shall be protected from impact damage due to collision.
c. Diesel fuel and gasoline tanks are to be equipped with hook and hasp type fixtures for use with padlocks.
d. The filler opening is not to be located such that a filler can or nozzle could possibly contact an electrically-
energized component or connection.

e. Gas lines must be equipped with an in-line fuel filter.
f. Diesel fuel systems are to be equipped with a water separator/filter assembly.
2.1.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM (1991)
a. The system shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free of
contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. All fluid must be pre-filtered through a 10-micron nominal or finer filtering system before being added to
the system.
d. The hydraulic components and the design of the system shall be suitable for the intended service. The
system must be capable of maintaining an operating temperature not exceeding 70 degrees C (158 degrees
F) at ambient temperatures of 40 degrees C (104 degrees F).
e. All return oil (pilot and case drains excepted) must be manifolded and filtered through 10-micron nominal
filters.
f. Hydraulic hoses are to have a minimum of two wire braid reinforcement (return lines excepted) with a
bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1, and are to be in accordance with S.A.E. Specification J-517 (latest
revision).
g. Reusable hose fittings are required throughout the unit (Hydrostatic systems excepted).
h. Hoses are not to be:
(1) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.
(2) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating temperature
ranges.
(3) Subjected to any twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing or abrasion.
NOTE: If necessary, hoses subject to excessive abrasion are to be wrapped with an abrasion resistant
wrapping or sleeve.
i. If tubing is used, it must be steel and SAE 37 degrees flared ends are required.
j. Tubing and piping is to be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing bends shall have a radius of not less than
three times the ID.
k. Vacuum at the pump inlets is not to exceed 60% of the pump manufacturer’s recommendation or four inches
of mercury, whichever is less, under normal operating conditions. A test port is to be provided.
l. Heavy duty chrome is required on all hydraulic cylinder rods. Please specify the chrome type and thickness.
m. Reservoir must be equipped with the following:
(1) a lockable drain tap (minimum 3/4 inch pipe).
(2) lockable suction oil shut-off valves (if reservoir oil level is above pumps).
(3) a raised inspection/cleaning cover.

Roadway Machines
(4) a combined thermometer and static fluid level gage, in plain view, protected from damage and located as
near to the intake lines as possible.
(5) a 10-micron absolute filtered breather (sealed and pressurized systems excepted).
n. Pressure testing tees shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures on
all circuits. Tees are to incorporate a male quick-disconnect coupling, c/w protective cap. An adequately sized
gage connected to an equally sized female quick-disconnect coupling is to be provided and stored in the tool box.
o. Hydraulic reservoirs are to be filled with a hydraulic oil as specified by the ‘Railroad.’
2.1.8 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM (1991)
a. Air reservoirs must be constructed in accordance with the following:
(1) The capacity of the reservoir must be less than five cubic feet.
(2) The diameter of the reservoir must be less than six inches.
b. Extra reservoirs must be added in parallel if larger capacity is required.
c. If the reservoir is greater than five cubic feet capacity and/or greater than six inches in diameter, the
reservoir is to be manufactured per the following:
(1) A metal tag or badge plate is to be firmly attached to the reservoir indicating the serial number and the 1
authorized working pressure.
(2) The reservoir(s) are to be telltale drilled over the entire surface, both shell and head, with standard 3/16
inch drill, spaced not more than 12 inches apart, measured longitudinally and circumferentially, to a
minimum depth determined by the following formula:
D = 0.6PR/S-0.6P 3
where:
D = minimum depth of telltale holes in inches, but in no case less than 1/16 inch
P = design pressure in pounds per square inch
S = 1/5 of the minimum specified tensile strength of the material in pounds per square inch 4
R = inside radius of the reservoir in inches
(3) On horizontal reservoirs, one row of holes shall be drilled lengthwise in a line at the bottom of the
reservoir.
(4) On vertical reservoirs, one row of holes shall be drilled on a line passing through the lowest point of the
reservoir.
(5) The holes drilled in each head shall be radially in line with the longitudinal rows of holes in the shell.
(6) Flange connections, longitudinal seams or other permanent connections to the air reservoir that
interfere with the telltale hole lines or circles must be cleared by at least 1 inch.
(7) Each reservoir, after drilling, shall be hydrostatically tested to a pressure at least 25% greater than the
design pressure, before being installed on the unit.

(8) The following information must be forwarded to the System Manager Work Equipment prior to the unit
being accepted.
Manufactured by:
Manufacturer No. Constructed at: Date:
Design Pressure: lb/sq in. Factor of Safety
Authorized working pressure lb/sq in.
Diameter of Reservoir Radius of Heads Top and Bottom
Material of Shell Plates Minimum of Tensile lb/sq in.
Material of Heads Minimum of Tensile lb/sq in.
Thickness of Shell Plates
Thickness of Heads
Welded or Riveted Construction
Diameter of Rivets in Shell
Diameter of Rivets in Circumferential Seams
Diameter of Rivets in Heads
Number and Size of Manholes
Position of Reservoir – Vertical or Horizontal
Number, Size, Make and Model of Safety Valves
Location of Safety Valves (on Reservoir, in Supply Line, etc.)
Safety Valve or Valves Set at
Telltale Drill Depth
Attach copy of drawing used for manufacturing reservoir to the affidavit.
d. All air reservoirs must be provided with an automatic condensation drain valve AND a manual drain valve,
located at the lowest part of the reservoir.
e. System must be provided with an air dryer and a lubricator.
2.1.9 BRAKE SYSTEMS (1991)

a. The brakes are to be individually adjustable and hand operated.
b. The brake system is to consist of four (4) self-centering shoes with renewable metal liners.
2.1.10 TRAVEL SPEED AND PERFORMANCE (1991)
a. Unit must be self-propelled and must achieve and maintain the following speed parameters in both the
forward and reverse directions, on any straight or curved, bolted or CWR track rated at 50 mph or more for
freight trains:
• 0% grade – 35 mph.
• 1% adverse grade – 25 mph.
• 2% adverse grade – 20 mph.

Roadway Machines
b. Tractive effort/drawbar pull:
(1) Inspection and section motor cars must be capable of pulling a load up to 4,000 lb at a speed of 20 mph.
(2) Gang Motor Cars must be capable of pulling a load of up to 6,000 lb, at a speed of 35 mph.
2.1.11 CAB (1991)
2.1.11.1 Materials
a. Cabs are to be constructed with fiberglass, to a thickness of not less than 20 mils. The body and doors are to
be constructed of fire retardant material, to meet A.S.T.M. Self Extinguishing Specifications
D-636 (latest revision).
b. Reinforcement is to consist of a layer of 1.5 oz per square foot chopped strand mat, followed by a layer of 24
oz woven roving, followed by another layer of 1.5 oz per square foot chopped strand mat, to make up and
approximate laminated thickness of 3/16 inch.
c. All materials used in the construction are to be of top quality and must be rot, rust and mildew proof.
NOTE: Alternate materials will be considered.
2.1.11.2 Construction
a. All leading edge supports, window frames, door frames and roof, front and rear of cab, are to be reinforced 1
with plywood or other suitable material.
b. All openings, such as doors, windows, engine shroud areas, etc., are to be reinforced with extra layers of
chopped strand mat in such a manner as to eliminate cracking in these areas and to add enough rigidity to
allow proper closing of doors and installation of window glass.
c. Doors are to have extra reinforcement to reduce flexing and provide a uniform fit, and are to be provided 3
with a good quality weather stripping.
d. Plastic conduit (1/2 inch ID) is to be molded into the cab interior walls for concealing electrical wiring
harnesses.
e. Cabs are to be case in molds of good construction and finish in order to furnish a good quality product.
4
2.1.11.3 Finish
a. The interior finish of the cab is to be smooth textured and free from all unsightly and/or sharp protrusions.
b. Interior of cab is to be painted a color as specified by the purchaser.
c. Finished fiberglass shall have a hardness of Barcol 45-55, shall be smooth, glossy, weather resistant, and
shall be free of pin holes, bubbles, ripples, cracks or chipping of any kind and shall not appreciably fade or
dull in normal service.
d. Color of the cab will be advised and is to be free from any streaking or blotching.
e. All exposed, trimmed or cut edges are to be true to line and smooth.
f. All exposed rivets or bolts are to be free of sharp edges and coated for appearance and protection.

2.1.11.4 Windows
a. Front windows (25.5″W × 21″H) and rear window (36″W × 12″H) are to be laminated safety glass in
accordance with Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
b. All side windows are to be 3/16 inch high mar-resistant Lexan or equivalent.
c. Windows in doors are to be approximately 26″W × 14.5″H in the gang cars.
d. All windows are to be mounted to the cab with rubber window channel.
2.1.11.5 Doors
a. Doors are to be hinged at the rear to allow for “head-wind” assist in emergency opening.
b. Doors are to be equipped with “T” type door handles c/w latch and striker plate, and located at the midpoint
between the top and bottom of the door, at the leading edge, also a hook and hasp fixture for use with
padlock.
c. Doors for section car are to be 34.5 inches wide by 46 inches high.
d. Doors for inspection car are to be 28.5 inches wide by 46 inches high.
2.1.11.6 Others
a. Cars must also include the following:
(1) Front and rear defroster fans.
(2) Heavy duty windshield wipers (motors, arms and blades), front and rear.
(3) Fire extinguisher (5 lb dry chemical, ABC type).
(4) Interior cab lights.
(5) Fully lighted instrumentation (where applicable):
• Engine hourmeter.
• Oil pressure gage.
• Air pressure gage.
• Water temperature gage (engine temp).
• Ammeter.
• Fuel gage.
(6) Pre-operation check list and lubrication chart to be displayed in cab (in specified languages).
(7) Separate fused, 12/24 volt, 25 watt circuit for a two-way radio.
(8) Interior adjustable rear view mirrors.
(9) Two containers for manuals and timetables, etc., to be provided.

Roadway Machines
(10)Adjustable sun visors.
b. Cab and machine to conform to applicable Labor Code, Material Handling Regulations and Noise Control
Regulations for 8-hour exposure level (latest revisions).
2.1.12 STANDARD EQUIPMENT (1991)
2.1.12.1 Safety
a. All equipment produced should be free from nicks, gages tool cuts, weld spotter, feather edges caused by
cutting or shearing. Sharp corners should be avoided or protected.
b. Hose lines, electrical wires, conduits and such should be adequately clamped. They should be located so that
they are not used as hand holds.
c. Mechanical safety locks on all attachments.
d. No component is to be less than 3 inches (76 mm) from top of rail, either between the rails or for 30 inches
(762 mm) outside each rail, when in the travel mode.
e. All components that could be a hazard to the operator, mechanic or bystanders are to be protected with a
guard.
f. Handrails and/or grab irons are to be provided where it is intended that personnel mount the unit. The
lowest step used for mounting the unit is not to be more than 12 inches (305 mm) above the top of rail. Any 1
area that is more than 3 feet (915 mm) above the top of rail, where persons are expected to walk or pass, is
to be protected by rigidly fastened handrails, 42 inches (1067 mm) high, with a secondary rail at 24 inches
(610 mm) high. This area is also to have a non-skid walking surface.
2.1.12.2 Materials
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance 3
and high notch toughness at low temperatures (–20 degrees C/–4 degrees F to –40 degrees C/–40 degrees F).
Steel items shall be of alloy and grades normally used for Maintenance-of-Way equipment. Design of
structural members subject to normal working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1. If
structural members are subjected to impact stresses, a minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It is
generally recognized this is only a minimum recommended guideline and increased design factors may be
required as necessary.
4
b. All bolted applications must have at least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has
been properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the intended
use.
2.1.12.3 Electrical
a. Electrical systems shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
and the International Standards Organization (ISO), where applicable.
b. Upon completion of manufacture and prior to operation, all parts shall be clean and free from scale, rust,
water or any contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the use intended.
c. Components shall be interchangeable, wherever possible.

d. Except in protected areas, thin wall conduit shall not be used. All cable is to be routed in such a manner as
to prevent damage.
e. DC systems, when grounded, are to be negative ground. Battery boxes are to be vented, lockable and are to
have a drain hole incorporated.
f. Electrical cabinets are to be weatherproof and are to be adequately lighted.
g. Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other approved
electrical insulating material, and nominal voltages used must be clearly indicated on the outside of the
cabinet.
h. Wires are to be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers and
must be color coded where practical. Terminal strips are also to be plainly marked. All wires must be neatly
dressed and clamped.
i. Charging circuit alternator is to be of sufficient capacity to handle full load requirements (i.e. the use of all
electrical accessories simultaneously) at idle and full R.P.M.
2.1.13 MISCELLANEOUS (1991)
Unit delivered must include the following equipment:
a. Concealed master cutoff switch for electrical system.
b. Battery cable is to be encased at the battery box to prevent wear and shorting.
c. Engine ignition switch is to be 4-terminal, spring return, and connected to control all accessories.
d. Unit must be equipped with a device to prevent starting of the engine if the travel mechanism is engaged.
e. Roof-mounted amber revolving light with wire mesh vandalism protection.
f. Traveling lights, 2 front and 2 rear, independently operated.1
g. Red marker lights, 2 front and 2 rear, independently operated.1
h. Dual electric or air horns to the front.
i. Tool box attached to machine, and any specialized tools. (List tools supplied.)
j. Axle mounted hubodometer to record actual distances traveled, regardless of direction of movement of
machine (miles or kilometers).
k. Tow bar connections front and rear (14 inches ±1/2 inch above top of rail).
l. All threads to be U.S. standard.
m. All filler and vent caps must be lockable with hook and hasp type fixtures for use with padlocks.
n. All controls and machine functions are to be labeled, using universal symbols as outlined by S.A.E.
J-298 (latest revision). Specified language labeling will be required on all charts and also locations where
universal symbols cannot be used. These are to be on etched plates, firmly affixed to machine.
1 One pair white, opposite pair red lights to operate simultaneously.

Roadway Machines
o. Complete sets of all operation, maintenance, parts and service manuals, lubrication data and spare parts
list.
• Parts and operation manuals are to contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the unit,
including schematics for hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical systems and shall employ American
Standard symbols and notations.
• The maintenance portion of these manuals must include a “troubleshooting guide”, listing in order of
likelihood those systems or subsystems which should be checked upon failure of any portion of the
machine operation. Special tools required for regular maintenance must be listed.
2.1.14 PAINT (1991)
a. Units are to be cleaned and prime painted.
b. The complete unit must be painted to railway specification with the exception of the following:
• Diesel fuel tanks to be painted GREEN.
• Gasoline tank to be painted RED.
• Hydraulic reservoir to be painted BLUE.
• Wheels, handrails, and steps to be painted BLACK.

1
• Lifting and tie down lugs to be painted BLACK.
• Jacking pads to be painted BLACK.
• Safety locks to be painted RED.
• Stenciling to be BLACK. 3
c. Units are to be safety striped, as specified by the purchaser.
2.1.15 STENCILING (1991)
a. Stenciling must be 1 inch standard lettering. 4

b. Unit is to be stenciled with the following information on both sides, in English and metric measures:
(1) Total weight of unit.
(2) Overall length.
(3) Overall width.
(4) Overall height.
c. Manufacturer is to affix the railway logo and the machine running number at four locations: front, back and
both sides. The logo and running number sizes are to be as specified by the purchaser. Manufacturer to be
advised on purchase order of the running numbers.

2.1.16 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT (1991)
Quote separately on the following:
a. Cab only, manufactured per paragraph j of this specification, not including installation. (Replacement cabs.)
b. Unit per this specification but with 8-man seating capacity. (For Gang Motor Car requirement only.)
c. Aluminum cab without doors and windows. (For Gang Motor car requirement only.)
d. Cab heater using coolant/forced air. (For Gang Motor Car requirement only.)
e. Cab heater using heat from the engine cylinder head. (Provide details with quotation.)
f. Carburetor de-icing kit and engine oil pan heater.
g. Complete set of parts, operation and maintenance manuals in alternate language.
h. Itemized price for a complete manufacturer’s recommended spare parts package.
i. Vandalism covers for windows and instruments when machine is in storage.
j. Any other available options.
2.1.17 GENERAL (1991)
2.1.17.1 Noise Exposure
a. Shall not exceed permissible exposure for operators, assistants and workmen for a continuous eight-hour
work day. Noise sources and machine cab shall be treated to bring about total compliance.
b. Provide in writing with your quotation the sound decibel readings (in DBA) at the operator’s station, and
also in a three-foot grid pattern on all sides of the unit, to a distance of twelve feet, when the unit is under
maximum working conditions.
2.1.17.2 Delivery
Bid shall specify delivery date of all equipment offered. At the time of order, date will be reaffirmed or a new date
established. A manufacturer’s representative shall place equipment in service and instruct purchaser’s operators,
mechanics and supervisors at a location to be specified by purchaser (not necessarily the machine delivery point).
2.1.17.3 Operation and Maintenance
The manufacturer must instruct those Railway employees, operators and mechanics designated by the Railway, in
the operation and maintenance of the machines, so as to permit these Railway employees to maintain the machine
at a top level of performance.
2.1.17.4 Parts
Suppliers of roadway machines are required to maintain a stock of parts as per the supplier’s list of “recommended
spare parts” in sufficient quantity to protect those machines in service (minimum 10 years).

Roadway Machines
2.1.17.5 Non-Compliance
These specifications are not intended to eliminate any product from the bidding. Where equipment does not
comply, bidders shall clearly describe each deviation. These specifications are in full effect unless amended in
writing by the purchaser. Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bid and the right to accept bids deviating from
the specifications.
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
Specifications reviewed and completed by:
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________
TO COVER: MACHINE _________________ MODEL _________________
2.1.18 RELIABILITY (2004)
The intent of this section is to provide guidelines for the application of reliability engineering as applicable to the
railway industry, in particular as applied to Maintenance of Way Roadway Track Maintenance Equipment. 1
2.1.18.2 Reliability Engineering
Reliability is an engineering discipline, therefore reliability is to be approached in a systematic mathematical

manner. Reliability as well as maintainability should always be designed into the initial design. Reliability is very
difficult to retrofit into an existing component or machine.
3
Reliability and maintainability are analyses prediction of components and/or systems to perform under given
circumstances and maintenance. These analyses are usually based on available prediction models. Some of the
most used models are as follows:
Electrical components- MIL-NDBK-217, or Telcordia or RDF 93, or HDR5
Mechanical- Handbook of Reliability Prediction Procedures for Mechanical Equipment

4
NSWC-94L06, RDF 93(France Telecom,copyright), FMEA/FMECA, SAE International RMS Committee (G-11)
Reliability, Maintainability, and SupportabilityGuidebook. These and many other publications are available both in
private industry and the military.
2.1.18.3 Reliability Terminology
Reliability Engineering is a method of analyzation and predictability of a component or multiple components

performing failure free, its intended function, under stated conditions for a specified period of time.
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) is an average period of time in hours between failures, over long periods
with a large number of repairable parts.
Expressed as: MTBF = 1,000,000 cycles / failure rate in hours of components with exponential distribution.

Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is a measure in hours of the total time to correct all problems.
Reliability measures values used to define reliability, i.e. failure rate, mean time between failures, percent of
availability, etc.
Operating Environment depicts operating situations, the measured component or components are to perform to
required reliability levels.
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is cost of component or components over their life cycle.
Percentage of availability measured from 0 to 1 to project component or components availability to perform

taking into account failures and time to repair. Expressed as:
Percentage of availability = MTBF / MTBF + MTTR
2.1.18.4 Reliability Evaluation Technique
A Major goal of any effective reliability program is the ability to maintain a system in a manner which permits and
/or allows a system to operate at a prescribed reliability or availability level. Factors which must be taken into
account for increased system availability would be safety, testing ability, accessibility, visibility, repair ability,
simplicity and interchange ability requirements.
2.1.18.5 Reliability Guidelines
Guidelines must be set to avoid misunderstanding of the stated reliability and/or availability requirements.
a. Start and end of reliability and /or availability periods.
b. Duty cycle
c. Operating environment
d. Policy of maintenance and support ability
e. Stated acceptance level of reliability and/or availability
f. Life cycle
EXAMPLE:
Travel
From siding to work site on track and return to siding
2.0 hours - 1 hour each direction
Maximum speed 30 mph on 2 percent grade on track
Temperature range - -29 degrees centigrade to 50 degrees centigrade
Environment - rain/hail, sand/dust, pressure washing with cleaning compounds
Vibration - rail shock (humping), handling shock, acoustic noise, engine, hydraulic
Maintainability required to achieve 95% availability or mean time between failures in hours.

Roadway Machines
Availability required under stated conditions 95% or mean time between failures in hours.
Life cycle cost for 15 years
Working
Start 20 minutes following travel to 20 minutes prior to traveling
Hours in service - 4.0 hours
Maximum speed 30 mph on 2 percent grade on track
Temperature range - -29 degrees centigrade to 50 degrees centigrade
Environment - rain/hail, sand/dust, pressure washing with cleaning compound
Vibration - rail shock, operational shock, acoustic shock, engine, hydraulic
Maintainability required to achieve 95% availability or mean time between failures in hours
Availability required under stated conditions 95% or mean time between failures in hours
Life cycle cost for 15 years

2.1.19 MAINTENANCE OF WAY - WORK EQUIPMENT BULLETIN (2004)
Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin

Roadway Machines
Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (Continued)

Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (Continued)

Roadway Machines
SECTION 2.2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY PUSH CARS
a. This specification covers a RAILWAY PUSH CAR, for use on 4′-8-1/2″ standard gage track, constructed with
bolted and/or continuous welded rail up to 140 lb, head contact and/or head free, on wood and/or concrete
track ties, in slag and/or crushed rock ballast.
b. All equipment and components furnished under this specification shall be new, unused and of current
manufacture, and shall equal or exceed the following unless otherwise specified.
c. Design, construction, and materials used in the unit shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently
in sustained operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment.
d. Each unit shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or
improper fastenings, leaks or contamination, and any other defects that could impair its operation or
serviceability.
e. The design of the unit shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components,
including filters and fluids, with a minimum disturbance of other components.
f. All units shall comply with all Federal and State/Provincial environmental safety and health regulations,
and the current AREMA specifications in force at the time of delivery. In the event of conflict or variation
between the regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will apply.
1
a. The unit must be capable of carrying and hauling any and all loads up to its capacity and must be sturdy
enough to be pulled from either end by a track machine, when fully loaded.
b. The unit is to be non-insulated or insulated against the activation of track signals, at the purchaser’s option.
3
c. The unit is to be constructed of aluminum alloy frame members, with a wooden deck.
d. The unit must be equipped with the following:
(1) Differential axles on one end only.
(2) Tow bar connections at each end. 4

(3) Safety coupler.
e. Dimensions (Approx. Please state actual)
Deck size: 48″ × 45″ with steel edges for 1,000# cap push car
48″ × 65″ with steel edges for 2,000# cap push car
48″ × 45″ for 2,000# cap – 2 section push car

Height above rail: 16 inches for 1,000# cap push car

16 inches for 2,000# cap push car
8 inches for 2,000# cap – 2 section push car
Length: 5″-4″ for 1,000# cap push car
7 ft for 2,000# cap push car
8′-6″ for 6,000# cap push car
8′-6″ for 10,000# cap push car
Wheel base: 36 inches for 1,000# cap push car
Weight: 280 lbs for 1,000# cap push car
390 lbs for 2,000# cap push car
190 lbs for (95 lb/sec) for 2,000# – 2 section push car
2.2.3 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES, AND BEARINGS (1991)
a. The frame, axles, wheels, and bearings must be designed to withstand maximum stresses induced under
normal operating and traveling conditions. The machine shall withstand a free drop of six inches without
damage.
b. All welding and joint preparation is to follow the latest structural welding code.
c. Lifting points (suitable for lifting the machine level with equal length cables) and jacking pads must be
provided and clearly indicated.
d. Wheels are to be pressed steel, 16″ × 5/16″ × 4-1/2″ except on 2 piece, 2,000 lb capacity unit.
e. Wheels and axles are to be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances:
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56.375 inches – 56.5 inches).
(a) ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet.
(b) ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet.

Roadway Machines
f. No excessive vibration, wobble, or eccentric action is to occur at any speed for which the machine is
intended.
g. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with the standards set by AREMA or AAR (Mechanical Division) as
required for size and type of wheels furnished.
h. Wheels shall be firmly fixed to axles that are supported in antifriction bearings.
i. Axle material is to have a minimum Charpy value of 20 feet-lb at –30 degrees F.
2.2.4 SUSPENSION (1991)
The suspension must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be spring mounted, to allow any wheel to
drop below the plane established by the other three wheels. This amount of drop in inches shall be equal to, or
more than the wheelbase in feet divided by eight.
2.2.5 STANDARD EQUIPMENT (1991)
2.2.5.1 Safety
All components and/or sharp corners or edges that could be a hazard to the operator, mechanic, or bystanders are
to be protected with a guard.
2.2.5.2 Material
1
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars, and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact
resistance, and high notch toughness at low temperatures (–20 degrees C/–4 degrees F to –40 degrees C/–40
degrees F). Steel items shall be of alloy and grades normally used for Maintenance-of-Way Equipment.
Design of structural members subject to normal working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1.
If structural members are subjected to impact stresses, a minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It
is generally recognized this is only a minimum recommended guideline and increased design factors may be 3
required as necessary.
b. All bolted applications must have a least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has
been properly torqued.
c. All nonferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the intended
use. 4
2.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS (1991)
Unit delivered must include the following equipment:
a. All threads to be U.S. standard.
b. Complete sets of all operation, maintenance, parts and service manuals, lubrication data, and spare parts lists.
2.2.7 PAINT (1991)
a. Units are to be cleaned and prime painted.
b. The complete unit must be painted to Railway specification with the exception of the following:
• Wheels, hand rails, and steps to be painted BLACK.

• Lifting and tie down lugs to be painted BLACK.
• Jacking pads to be painted BLACK.
• Safety locks to be painted RED.
• Stenciling to be BLACK.
c. Units are to be safety striped as specified by the purchaser.
2.2.8 STENCILING (1991)
a. All stenciling must be in language choice(s) specified on purchase order.
b. Stenciling must be 1 inch standard lettering.
c. Unit is to be stenciled with the following information on both sides, in standard and metric measures:
(1) Total weight of unit.
(2) Overall length.
(3) Overall width.
(4) Overall height.
d. Manufacturer is to affix the railway logo and/or the machine running number at two locations: front, back,
or both sides. The logo and running number sizes are to be as specified by the purchaser. Manufacturer to be
advised on purchase order of the running number.
2.2.9 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT (1991)
Quote separately on the following:
a. Four wheel brakes with metal liners.
b. Any other available options.
2.2.10 GENERAL (1991)
2.2.10.1 Delivery
mechanics, and supervisors at a location to be specified by purchaser (not necessarily the machine delivery point).
2.2.10.2 Operation and Maintenance
The manufacturer must instruct those Railway employees, operators, and mechanics designated by the Railway, in
the operation and maintenance of the machines, so as to permit these Railway employees to maintain the machine
at a top level of performance.

Roadway Machines
2.2.10.3 Parts
Suppliers of roadway machines are required to maintain a stock of parts as per the suppliers list of “recommended
spare parts” in sufficient quantity to protect those machines in service. (Minimum 10 years.)
2.2.10.4 Non-Compliance
These specifications are not intended to eliminate any product from the bidding. Where equipment does not comply,
bidders shall clearly describe each deviation. These specifications are in full effect unless amended in writing by the
purchaser. Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bid and the right to accept bids deviating from the specifications.
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________
1
SECTION 2.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ON-TRACK ROADWAY MACHINES1
— 2000 —
Specifications must be reviewed by the Manufacturer and returned to purchaser with bid. Compliance with each
section must be acknowledged by checking “yes” or “no” at the close of each Section; remarks may be made there 3
or on a separate attachment.
2.3.1 GENERAL (2000)

2.3.1.1 Scope
These specifications cover on-track roadway machines except for motor cars, push cars, trailers and road-rail
equipment.
4
2.3.1.2 Model
Machines shall be of the latest type in production at the time of delivery. Components which are obsolete, nearing
the end of production or out of production shall not be used. All machines delivered under the same Purchase
Order shall be identical in construction. Manufacturer should quote base machine and show options separately (to
facilitate comparison of bids).
2.3.1.3 Reliability
Design, construction and materials used in the equipment shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently
in sustained operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment, including but not limited to severe
grades and superelevation.
1 References, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 267, 643; Vol. 82, 1981, p. 260; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 93; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 111.

2.3.1.4 Workmanship
Each machine shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or
improper fastenings, leaks or contamination and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
2.3.1.5 Maintenance
Design shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components, including filters and fluids,
with minimum disturbance of other elements.
2.3.1.6 Legal
Machines shall comply with Federal and State/Provincial environmental, safety and health regulations in force at
the time of delivery. In the event of conflict or variation between regulations and these specifications, the most
restrictive requirement will apply.
Comply: Yes __________ No __________ Remarks: _________________________________________________________
2.3.2 MATERIAL (2000)
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance
and high notch toughness at low temperatures (0 degrees F to –40 degrees F). Steel items shall be of alloy and
grades normally used for maintenance-of-way equipment and railway rolling stock. Design of structural
members subject to normal working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1. If structural members
are subjected to impact stresses, a minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It is generally recognized
this is only a minimum recommended guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary.
b. All fasteners shall meet strength requirements of ASTM-A-449 or stronger. All bolted applications shall
have at least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the service
intended.
2.3.3 BRAKES (2000)
a. Self-propelled machines capable of speed in excess of 10 mph, on straight and level track shall be equipped
with fail-safe spring applied, power released brakes on all wheels. Service brakes shall be progressive in force
application and capable of sliding all wheels on dry, sanded rail when fully applied at maximum travel speed.
b. All other self-propelled machines and all non-self-propelled machines equipped for towing, shall have a
combination emergency and parking brake.
c. Hydraulic-dynamic type braking will not be accepted for service brakes but may be used to index the
machine.
d. Brake shoes shall not be applied so as to cause a bending force in an axle. A single shoe at the top of a wheel
may apply downward pressure along a line passing through the wheel center within 15 degrees of vertical.
Double shoes applying equal opposing forces may be used in any position.

Roadway Machines
e. In emergency situations a system must be provided for releasing each brake in not more than 2-1/2 minutes
per wheel.
f. Air brake systems must utilize SAE J1402 Table A (formerly Type E), DOT #FMV-SS 106-74 Type A1 air
brake hose with reusable fittings. Brake system must have pressure regulator, pressure gage and standard
truck type reservoir.
g. Reservoir must conform with SAE J10-B specifications. Manufacturers shall also be able to provide these
types of reservoirs which meet ASME specifications for certification when requested as an option. System
must be activated by standard truck type, foot or hand operated, control valve and one truck type, quick
release valve for each two wheels.
h. Air brake system must maintain operating pressure, above 70 psi but not more than 105 psi. An audible low
pressure alarm shall be furnished which will activate whenever the pressure is 70 psi or less.
EXCEPTION: Machines designed to handle railway cars must utilize train type brakes.
Comply: Yes __________ No __________ Remarks: ________________________________________________________
2.3.4 WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS: FRAME AND SUSPENSION (2000)
a. Wheels and axles shall be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances.
1
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56-3/8 inches – 56-1/2 inches).
(a) ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet. 3

(b) ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet.
No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action shall occur at any speed for which the machine is
intended. Suspension shall provide for damage-free operation under maximum foreseeable operating
stresses. Entire machine shall withstand a free drop of six inches to a non-resilient surface without
impairing normal travel or operating functions. Derail guards shall be incorporated near each wheel to 4
cover inboard and outboard rail area, so that in the event of derailment the machine will not leave the rail.
Machine shall push or tow easily when not working.
b. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with standards set by AREMA (Engineering Division, AAR) or
Mechanical Division, AAR as required for size and type of wheels furnished.
c. Machines with an operating weight of 6,000 pounds or more shall incorporate the following axle/bearing design.
(1) Solid axles shall utilize double row, tapered roller type axle bearings. Where pillow block bearings are
used, they shall be self-aligning, double row, roller type axle bearings, and shall have cast steel or ductile
iron housings and their location is to be fixed to avoid movement.
(2) Automotive/truck type drive axles shall utilize double tapered roller bearings.
(3) Bearings selected for use shall have a radial load capacity of 20,000 hours B-10 life at 50 RPM to exceed
static wheel load of the machine.

d. Frame must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be free to float, so that any wheel can drop
below the plane established by the other three wheels. The amount of drop in inches shall be equal to, or
more than the wheelbase of the machine in feet divided by eight.
e. Vertical reference wheels and small carrier wheels shall be a minimum of 10 inches in diameter to reduce
the possibility of their derailing and giving false readings. Bias indicating wheels, used only during work
mode, shall be a minimum of 4 inches in diameter.
f. Machine shall be provided with a means of lifting it with a crane hook without damage to any equipment.
Spreader bars and slings, when required, may be bid as an option. Lifting with rail tongs shall be limited to
machines weighing less than 2,000 pounds. Lifting points and balance points must be clearly marked and
labeled.
g. Machines which cannot be promptly removed from track by hand methods shall have a towing connection at
each end of frame, 14 inches ±1/2 inch above top of rail.
2.3.5 INSULATION (2000)
a. Equipment specified as “insulated” shall be so constructed that no track circuit shunt can occur during
work or travel.
b. Equipment specified as “non-insulated” shall not be converted from insulated design by bonding around
insulating parts.
2.3.6 ENGINE AND POWER TRAIN (2000)
All engines offered to this purchaser, whether standard or optional equipment, shall start within 2/3 of the
cranking system’s time rating. Engine shall be equipped with a high temperature coolant and low oil pressure
automatic shut-down system. It shall provide ample power, with clean exhaust, for all equipment functions under
the following conditions:
Altitude: ________ ft to ________ ft above sea level.

Ambient temperature: ________ degrees F to ________ degrees F.
Atmosphere: dusty to ________ inches of rain per hour.
Grade of track: ________%.
Curvature: ________ degrees, ________ in. super-relevation.

Roadway Machines
2.3.7 FUEL TANK (2000)

(Except small engines with tank and carburetor mounted as one unit.)
a. Capacity of tank shall provide for continuous operation of the machine for a period of no less than ______
hours.
b. Filler shall be equipped with a 3 inch diameter pipe removable strainer (removable only with the use of
common hand tools) and a hinged or chained filler cap. Filler cap must be lockable for use with a standard
padlock.
c. The filler opening shall be located so as to make it impossible for fuel can or nozzle to contact electrically
energized parts. Tanks shall be located to eliminate fire hazard from spilling, overflow or draining of fuel
and shall be protected from impact damage due to collision.
d. Tank shall have a sump and petcock with pipe plug at lowest point.
2.3.8 EXHAUST SYSTEM (2000)
a. System shall be so located that it will cause no adverse temperature rise in any other part of the equipment
and so that a minimum of heat and exhaust gas can reach the operator.
b. Machines equipped with enclosed cab or cab top shall have exhaust discharge at least 12 inches above cab 1
top.
c. An exhaust muffler, located as close as possible to the engine, shall be provided.
d. Thin wall mechanical tubing is preferred for exhaust piping. Not more than 36 inches of flexible metal
exhaust pipe may be used, where necessary to reduce transmission of vibration. Black iron pipe may be
used, if properly braced to eliminate all shocks to junctions with manifold and muffler. System shall provide
for expansion, contraction, vibration and stress produced by operation of the machine.
3
e. When utilizing exhaust tubing in the vertical position, the end shall be bent or a rain cap incorporated to
eliminate moisture entry into the exhaust system.
4
a. Systems shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), and International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free
from contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. Manufacturers must pre-filter all oil through a 10 micron absolute or finer filtering system on initial filling
of hydraulic system.
d. Design:
(1) All reservoirs shall be designed and constructed to prevent entry of foreign matter, including water.
(2) Reservoirs of 10 gallon or larger shall include:

(a) Baffles to separate intake and return lines to facilitate the separation of air and foreign matter from
the hydraulic fluid, separate pump inlet from the settling portion of the tank and shall direct flow
toward tank walls for maximum heat dissipation.
(b) Access panels large enough for complete cleaning, inspection, maintenance and servicing of sump
filters with an accessible means to empty the reservoir in the event the fluid is to be retained.
(c) An air inlet breather which is of sufficient capacity to maintain approximate atmospheric pressure
at maximum demands on the hydraulic system and to assure vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not
exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendations. Air breather system shall be equipped with
a 10 micron (B10 = 10) or finer filter, either cartridge or spin-on type.
EXCEPTION: Sealed and pressurized system.
(d) A filler with at least a 100 mesh screen, protected from external damage. Filler shall have a
minimum capacity of 5 gallons per minute with 5,000 ssu viscosity fluid. Filler cap must be lockable
for use with a standard padlock.
Manufacturers shall provide, as an option, a system to fill reservoirs by use of external hand pump
and separate 10 micron filters.
Manufacturer shall provide, as an option, a system to fill reservoirs by use of an external hand or
power hydraulic pump through a separate 10-micron (B10 = 10), screw on, non-bypass filter. The
filtration capacity of the filter assembly shall be rated and designed to accommodate 30 GPM at 32
degrees F, based on manufacturer’s recommended hydraulic oil. This system should also contain a
sealed hydraulic system with a 10-micron (B10 = 10) breather and elimination of the normally
supplied fill cap with strainer. A 1 inch NPT ‘T’ shall be provided between the separate hydraulic
filter and replenishing pump so the system can easily be set up for filling from a service vehicle.
(e) A thermometer, in plain view, protected from damage, as near the intake line as possible, at the add
point fluid level.
(f) A static fluid level gage to show full and add points protected from damage.
(g) When immersion heaters are provided, it is preferable to utilize a type incorporating NPT threads
so removal is possible without draining the reservoir.
(h) A non-integral reservoir (not part of the frame) is preferred.
(i) Both the intake and return tubes shall be located below the minimum working fluid level so as not
to cause cavitation or aeration.
e. Fluid temperature in the reservoirs shall not exceed 180 degrees F at the reservoir outlet(s) while operating
in a 110 degrees F ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after 15 minutes warmup or operation shall be
at least 60 degrees F with a 20 degrees F ambient.
f. Accessible full-flow testing tee(s) shall be provided adjacent to the pressure side of pump(s). A return line
full-flow tee shall be placed ahead of any return line filter. Tees shall be plugged with bushings to
accommodate 1/2 inch and 1 inch fittings.
g. Pressure testing tee(s) shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures
on all circuits. The tee(s) shall include a 1/4 inch NPT fitting with a male quick-disconnect fluid coupling.
h. Where failure of power plant or pump can immobilize components in a position which would prevent moving
the machine, an emergency hand pump shall be provided in the circuit. Where more than five minutes are

Roadway Machines
required to move all components to proper clearance with a hand pump, a battery-operated emergency
pump shall be provided.
i. Fluid Filtration:
(1) The total pressure line and/or return line flow shall be filtered, including case drain. The filtration
system shall be designed to provide, as a minimum, fluid cleanliness levels in accordance with the
following guidelines:
Table 27-2-1. Recommended Cleanliness Level of System Components
RECOMMENDED ISO RECOMMENDED ISO

SYSTEM COMPONENT CLEANLINESS LEVEL CLEANLINESS LEVEL
(0-3,000 PSI) (3,000 PSI & UP)
Servo Valves 15/12 14/11
Proportional Valves 16/13 15/12
Hydrostatic Transmissions 17/14 16/13
Swash Plate Design Motors 17/14 16/13
Axial Piston Motors 17/14 16/13
Radial Piston Motors 17/14 16/13
Non-manual Directional Control Valves 17/14 16/13
(Air, electric, hydraulic or load-sensing)
Vane Pumps & Motors (Fixed & Variable) 17/14 --- 1
Gear Pumps & Motors 17/14 ---
Piston Pumps (Fixed & Variable) 17/14 16/13
Manual Type Valves 18/15 17/14
Cylinders 18/15 17/14
3
To determine system cleanliness level:
(a) Start at the top of the system component list. Find the first item used in your hydraulic system. All
components that draw fluid from a common reservoir should be considered to be a part of the same
system even if their operations are independent or sequential (i.e., a central power unit running
several different machines).
4
(b) Locate the operating pressure for your equipment. The pressure rating for the system is the
maximum pressure achieved by the machine during a complete cycle of operation.
(c) Locate the cleanliness level for that component. This becomes the recommended cleanliness level
for the hydraulic system.
NOTE: (1) These system cleanliness guidelines have been established based upon typical railway
maintenance of way equipment applications which include equipment exposed to high
vibration/high shock, periods of high cycle/severe duty cycle, environmental factors and also giving
consideration for component longevity and equipment uptime.
NOTE: (2) These recommendations apply to the following fluids:
•Mineral-based fluids
•Phosphate ester fluids

•Water glycol fluids
•Water-in-oil emulsion
(2) Magnetic particle attraction shall be provided in the pump intake line suction strainer/filter and/or
filters and/or in the reservoir.
(3) Filtration of the return flow from the pilot section of pilot-operated valves is not required.
j. Fluid Conductors:
(1) Fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating under 3,000 psi must use high pressure hose; SAE 100 R2
Type A, Hi-Impulse type with the following qualification requirements:
(a) Constructed with 2-wire braid reinforcement.
(b) Have a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1.
(c) Tested to 300,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(d) Have an operating temperature range of –50 degrees F to +250 degrees F.
(2) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems should
use extra high pressure hose; SAE 100 R12 type when utilizing hose sizes through 1 inch, which have
the following qualification requirements.
(a) Constructed with 4-spiral piles of steel reinforcement.
(c) Tested to 1,000,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(e) Use with permanent crimp type fitting for added reliability.
(f) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems
should use ultra-high pressure, heavy duty, hi-impulse hose; SAE 100 R13 type when utilizing sizes
above 1 inch, which have the following qualification requirements.
(g) Constructed with 6 spiral plies of steel reinforcement.
(h) Have a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1.
(i) Tested to 500,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(j) Have an operating temperature range of –40 degrees F to +250 degrees F.
(k) Use with permanent, crimp type fittings for added reliability.
(3) Pump supply hoses must meet the requirement of SAE 100R4.
(4) Hoses shall not be:
(a) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.

Roadway Machines
(b) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating
temperature ranges.
(c) Subjected to any twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing or abrasion.
(5) Hoses shall be installed, routed and isolated where possible for proper support through clamping and/or
brackets to avoid all of the above conditions, especially abrasion. If necessary, hoses subjected to
excessive abrasion should be wrapped with an abrasion resistant wrapping or sleeve.
(6) Hose is preferred. Where tubing is used, SAE 37 degrees flared ends are required.
(7) Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing shall have only gentle bends to
change direction or compensate for thermal expansion. Bend radii shall not be less than three times ID.
(8) Pipe threads are not recommended. Where they are used, they must be NPTF dry seal type.
(9) Whenever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
(10) Galvanized or brass tube, pipe or fittings shall not be used.
(11) Complete circuit diagram(s) showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the machine and large enough to be
easily followed for troubleshooting must be furnished. Additional pictorial or cutaway diagrams may be
shown.
(12) Vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendation or four inches
of mercury, whichever is less, under standard conditions. Test opening shall be provided, utilizing 1/4 1
inch NPT port, sealed with a pipe plug.
2.3.10 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (2000) 3

a. Electrical systems shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts shall be clean and free from
scale, rust, water or any contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the
intended use. 4
c. Sequence of operation and electrical, physical and schematic drawings showing the exact circuit(s) in use on
the machine and large enough to be easily followed during troubleshooting shall be furnished. Subsequent
changes shall be covered by new drawings furnished to the customer.
d. Whenever practical, components shall be interchangeable.
e. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to damage. Thin wall conduit shall not be used except in a
protected area.
f. DC Systems, when grounded, must have negative ground.
g. Battery charging generators/alternators must have a rated capacity to handle simultaneous operation of all
electrical equipment with a minimum 10% reserve at normal engine operating RPM.
h. If the battery system is 24 volts, using two 12-volt batteries, manufacturer shall not connect a 12-volt load
to one battery.

i. Battery box shall have a drain hole in diagonal corners and be lockable with a standard padlock. Battery box
must be vented when lead/acid battery is used.
j. Standard, industrial grade, readily available components shall be used.
k. Electrical apparatus cabinets:
(1) Cabinets shall be of steel construction. Clearance between walls and bare, “live” parts shall not be less
than 1-1/2 inches, unless affected interior surfaces utilize insulative plastic or fiber sheeting, where a
potential in excess of 50 volts exists. Cabinets must be weatherproof.
(2) Panels must be readily removable and parts easily accessible.
(3) Adequate lighting shall be provided in cabinets.
(4) Only pipes as electrical conduit or pneumatic tubing as used exclusively for control circuitry shall enter
cabinet.
(5) Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other
approved electrical insulating material.
(6) Nominal voltages used must be plainly shown on outside of cabinet.
(7) All parts and groups of parts shall be identified by function and clear, simple, exact reference to service
diagram and parts list. Integral units such as circuit boards, should be considered as one part, if
intended to be replaced as a unit. Complete parts identification shall be shown when practical, in order
to minimize errors and time consuming reference to drawings or lists.
(8) Wires must be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers,
color coded when practical. Terminal posts must be plainly marked. Once used, a number or color code
must not be reused for a different circuit. All wires must be neatly dressed and clamped.
(9) Housings containing heat producing elements must be properly ventilated.
l. Motor control apparatus overload relays:
(1) All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection.
(2) All 1/4 to 1 horsepower motors shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the motor itself,
rather than in the starter, and fuse protection in the line.
(3) Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
(4) Overload relays shall be in each line of a 3-phase starter in ungrounded systems.
m. Electrical system shall be equipped with battery disconnect switch located as close to the battery as
practical. The battery disconnect switch will be contained in lockable enclosure.

(Except for air brake and horn systems)

Roadway Machines
a. Quotation will give: make, type and output rating of compressor, size of reservoir; type and purpose of
pressure regulation; normal operating pressure.
b. System must contain an air pressure gage in easy view of operator.
c. Standard air brake hose SAE-J1402 Table A1 or hydraulic hose and fittings with a bursting pressure safety
factor of 4:1 not to exceed bending radius of hydraulic hose will be the only hose used anywhere in the
system. Use of push-on barb type fittings are banned except for control circuits where space is critical and
working pressures and abrasion is not severe and braking is not involved.
d. Systems shall have:
(1) Air compressor discharge line constructed of heat resistant, Teflon, flexible tubing utilizing an outer
layer of stainless steel wire braid.
(2) Air compressor air intake supply commonly connected to the engine air inlet system.
(3) Manual drain type valve which can be easily accessed and actuated by a cable from outside the machine
to provide positive draining of the reservoir(s).
(4) Electric air dryers.
(5) Inlet filtration to 25 microns.

1
2.3.12 BODY OR CAB TOP (2000)
a. Where cab is furnished, it shall be weathertight and impose a minimum of obstruction to operator’s vision.
Transparent material shall be mar resistant Lexan or acrylic, or double plate safety glass.
b. When rechargeable wet type batteries are located inside the body or cab, the top of battery shall be vented to 3
outside air.
c. Cab doors must be equipped with lock hasps with locking ring, and to be in addition to any other type door
locks.
Comply: Yes __________ No __________ Remarks: ________________________________________________________ 4
2.3.13 TRAVEL SPEED (2000)
Equipment intended to travel to work sites under its own power, shall be able to attain a speed of ______ miles per
hour on straight and level track. It must also be capable of starting from a dead stop on a 2% adverse grade and
attaining a terminal speed of ______ miles per hour. Maximum altitude ______ feet.

2.3.14 CONTROLS (2000)
All switches, valves, levers, controls and adjustments used to start, stop or operate the machine shall be clearly
labeled with weather and wear resistant plates permanently affixed to the machine or component. Controls used in
continuous operation of the machine shall be within easy reach of the operator and shall not interfere with his view
of the work. Instruments and gages not inside a closed, lockable cab shall be protected from vandalism.
a. Engine must not start with controls in travel position.
b. A red emergency shutdown control shall be quickly accessible to operator.
2.3.15 CLEARANCE AND SAFETY (2000)
a. Components which may foul track, signal, crossing or other structures on or along a railway must have a
positive mechanical lock in safe position for travel.
b. No component shall be less than three inches above top of rail between the rails or for 30 inches outside
each rail, when in travel position.
c. All components which can be a hazard to operator, assistant or bystanders shall be protected with a shield or
safety device.
d. Machines shall be equipped with a travel warning alarm which will energize for a period of 3 seconds when
motion is initiated in either direction.
e. Handrails or grab irons will always be provided wherever it is intended that personnel mount equipment.
Lowest step used for mounting the machine shall not be more than 12 inches above bottom of wheel
elevation. Any area more than three feet above bottom of wheel elevation, where persons are expected to
walk or pass, shall be protected by rigidly fastened handrails 42 inches high, with secondary rail at 24 inches
height, and non-skid walking surface. A 3 inch kick board shall also be provided to avoid accidental entry
into potentially hazardous areas.
2.3.16 INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING (2000)
Machine shall be delivered completely lubricated and serviced with all equipment needed for immediate operation,
except for fuel. Water cooled engines are to be protected from freeze-up by a 50/50 solution of ethylene glycol base
anti-freeze (rust inhibitive type) unless otherwise specified, and radiator marked or tagged to show make of coolant
used and actual protection afforded.

Roadway Machines
2.3.17 PAINT (2000)
a. Manufacturer shall use paints which do not require periodic medical examinations or special equipment,
other than passive respirators. It is assumed that no-lead paint with a lower percentage of solvent may be
required and that exact colors formerly furnished may not be available. Manufacturer shall provide the
colors listed under the “Standard Specification Number” which are consistent with those indicated in the
“Federal Standard 595-B, Colors Used in Government Procurement.”
b. Manufacturer shall also utilize proper surface preparation, including primer, to provide a high quality,
durable finish coat. General exposed parts of the machine shall be painted AREMA Yellow, Spec. No., 13538,
unless otherwise specified by a Railroad, EXCEPT AS SHOWN IN TABLE 27-2-2.
Table 27-2-2. Paint Specifications for Specific Equipment and Component Areas
Equipment and Component Standard

Color
Area Spec. No.
Gasoline tank (Note 1) Red 11086
Diesel fuel tank (Note 1) Green 14110
Hydraulic reservoir (Note 1) Blue 15180
Coolant tank (Note 1) Gray 16251

1
Wheels and handrails Black 17038
Lifting lugs Black 17038
Jacking points or pads Black 17038
Safety locks Red 11086

3
Engine and other Misc. parts Manufacturer’s option
Note 1: Where side or top of tank containing filler opening has an area greater
than 144 square inches, manufacturer may elect to paint only 144 or
more square inches at the filler opening with the required tank color.
Name of fluid and the words “CHECK DAILY” shall be stenciled on each
tank in 1 inch letters. Total machine weight with all tanks filled shall be 4
plainly marked on both sides of the machine in 1-1/2 inch letters: Weight
________ lb.

2.3.18 SHIPPING (2000)
Equipment shall be constructed, prepared and loaded so that it will withstand without damage, handling likely to
be encountered during delivery. Valuable and easily pilfered parts such as batteries, tools and loose small items
shall be shipped in such a manner as to resist pilferage.
2.3.19 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS (2000)
a. Complete parts and instruction books shall accompany the machine in a waterproof container permanently
affixed to the body of the machine. Additional sets of books shall be forwarded as follows:
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Books shall contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the machine and shall employ
American Standard symbols and notations. Listings of commonly available parts shall include general
descriptions as well as part numbers.
c. Machine shall incorporate, in operators cab where possible, a metal, etched pictorial placard designating
lubrication points indicating, types of lubricant, location on machine, and frequency of checking or changing
lubricants. These placards must be designated by a part number for the appropriate machines. Parts book
must also contain the comprehensive lubrication chart for the appropriate type machines.
2.3.20 REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE (2000)
Continuous operation of this equipment is of utmost importance. Successful bidder must be able and willing to
furnish service and repair parts promptly.

Roadway Machines
2.3.21 ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS (2000)

(To be completed by vendor or manufacturer.)
Insulated: Yes No
Self Propelled: Yes No
Engine: Gasoline Diesel Make: Model:
Start: Electric Air Manual
Hourmeter: Yes No
Engine Alarm:
Engine Alarm Shutdown:
Turntable: Yes No
Turntable Warning Light: Yes No
Transverse Set-off Wheels: Yes No Powered
Enclosed Cab: Yes No
Heater: Yes No
Windshield Wipers: Yes No Front Rear
Defroster: Yes No
Horn: Yes No
Roof (if no cab): Yes No
Vacuum gauge for main track drive Yes No
pump
Clutch disconnect on pump drive Yes No
Air inlet restriction gauge for engine Yes No
1
air filter
Lights:
Revolving Roof: Yes No Color: _________ Brand: _________
Instrument Lights: Yes No
Sealed Beam Tractor Lights:
Front: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________ 3
Rear: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Sides: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Other: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Red Marker Lights: Front Rear
Mirrors:
Operator’s Instruments: 4
Ammeter Voltmeter Water Tachometer Other:
Temperature _______________
This purchase has the following special requirements for filters, strainers and cleaners:
Engine Lubrication:
Engine Fuel:
Engine Air:
Hydraulic System:
Air System:
Other:
NOTE: Options and accessories not covered on these specifications and which are available at extra cost shall be
quoted separately in the bid proposal.

2.3.22 NOISE EXPOSURE (2000)
Shall not exceed permissible exposure for operators, assistants and workmen for a continuous eight hour work day.
Noise sources and machine cab shall be treated to bring about total compliance.
2.3.23 DELIVERY (2000)
mechanics and supervisors at a location to be specified by purchaser (not necessarily the machine delivery point).
2.3.24 NON-COMPLIANCE (2000)
writing by the purchaser. Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bid and the right to accept bids deviating from
the specifications.
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________

Roadway Machines
SECTION 2.4 AXLE, WHEEL AND HUB SPECIFICATIONS1

— 1972 —
Refer to Figure 27-2-3 for the specifications for axles, wheels, and hubs.
Figure 27-2-3. Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications for Work Equipment
SECTION 2.5 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

— 1980 —
The following material is information for guidance of equipment manufacturers and railway maintenance
personnel in the design, construction and evaluation of hydraulic systems.
1 References, Vol. 73, 1972, p. 181. Adopted 1972.

2.5.2 GENERAL (1980)
Hydraulic systems shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Standards Organization (ISO) except where a
conflict occurs, then the following will apply:
a. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts of the hydraulic system
shall be clean and free from scale, rust, dirt and any other contaminant. Threads, flares, holes, cuts and
machining must be deburred and cleaned.
b. Hydraulic reservoirs of ten (10) gallon capacity or larger shall be designed with the following considerations:
(1) Place the baffle(s) in the reservoir so as to separate the pump inlet part from the settling part of the
reservoir. The baffle(s) should direct the flow toward the reservoir walls for maximum cooling capacity
and maximum lay-over time.
(2) Provide sufficiently large access panels for complete periodic cleaning maintenance and inspection.
(3) Provide an air inlet large enough to maintain conditions of paragraph l. The air inlet shall be equipped
with a 25 micron or less filter. A cartridge type is preferred.
(4) Provide a filler with at least a 100 mesh screen protected from external damage with a minimum
capacity of five gallons per minute with five thousand (5000) SSU fluid viscosity and with a filler cap
that can be locked with a large railroad padlock.
(5) Provide thermometer to indicate reservoir operating temperature protected from damage.
(6) Provide a status fluid level gage to show full-point and add-point protected from damage.
(7) When immersion heaters are provided to control fluid viscosity during cold weather start up. Place the
heater(s) so removal is possible without draining reservoir.
(8) A non-integral reservoir is preferred.
c. Fluid temperature shall not exceed 180 degrees F maximum in the reservoir outlets while operating in a 110
degrees F ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after 45 minutes operation shall be 85 degrees F with
ambient temperature of 20 degrees F.
d. A full flow testing tee(s) shall be provided adjacent to the pressure side of hydraulic pumps(s). A return line
full flow tee shall be placed ahead of return line filter.
e. Where failure of power plant or pump cam immobilize components in a position which could prevent moving
the machine, an emergency hand pump shall be provided in the circuit. Large machines shall be equipped
with battery operated emergency pump where more than five minutes are required to move all components
within the clearance diagram of the track occupied by means of a hand pump.
f. The total return and/or pressure line flow shall pass through filters rated at 25 microns or finer equipped
with a condition indicator. Filtration shall not be less than recommended by manufacturers of components.
(1) In closed loop system, filtration as recommended by pump manufacturer will apply.
(2) Magnetic particle attraction shall be provided in the filters or reservoir.
(3) Filtration of the return flow from the pilot section of pilot-operated valves is not required.
g. All hydraulic hose assemblies must have reusable screw-together hose fittings, if available, at the required
pressure specifications.

Roadway Machines
(1) “Rubber” cover hydraulic hose should NOT be type-T (thin cover) as specified in the SAE specifications,
because the heavier cover protection is required to resist abrasion on railroad maintenance equipment.
(2) Hydraulic hose must meet (or exceed) SAE specifications SAE J-517c 1978 standards and all future
changes to be made to these standards.
(3) Hydraulic pump supply hoses shall meet the requirements SAE 100R4.
(4) Field attachable reusable hose fittings must be capable of installation without the use of special
machinery.
(5) Hoses shall not be flexed to less than the specified minimum bend radius.
(6) Hoses shall not be exposed to twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing, or abrasion.
(7) Hoses shall not be exposed to operating and/or ambient temperatures above or below the
manufacturer’s specified temperature range.
(8) All hydraulic hoses shall be replaced at the first sign of environmental damage or rubber degradation.
(9) The SAE 37 degrees flare shall be standard for all flared tubes.
(10) For tube wall thicknesses that are too heavy for flaring, as per SAE J-1065, silver brazing or butt
welding the connector is recommended.
(11) The SAE J-518c 4-bolt split flange connection is recommended for all connections over one inch. 1
(12) Pipe threads are not recommended, but where they are used, they must be NPTF (dry seal type).
h. Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration and tubing shall have only gentle bends to
change direction or compensate for thermal expansion. Tube bend radii shall not be less than three times
inside diameter.
3
i. Wherever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
j. Complete circuit diagram shall be provided. Only NFPA, ANSI and ISO symbols shall be used in
geographical diagrams. Pictorial and cutaway diagrams are also permissible where they add to the case of
understanding the circuit. Diagrams shall be large enough to be easily followed for troubleshooting.
k. Galvanized pipe and fittings shall not be used. 4

l. The vacuum at the pump inlet(s) shall not be more than 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendations or
four inches mercury whichever is less at 500 feet altitude fluid at 100 degrees F or standard conditions. Test
opening shall be provided.

SECTION 2.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

— 1980 —
The following material is information for guidance of equipment manufacturers and railway maintenance
personnel in the design, construction and evaluation of electrical systems.
2.6.2 GENERAL (1980)
Electrical systems shall conform to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Standards
Organization (ISO) except where a conflict occurs, then the following will apply:
a. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts of the electrical system shall
be clean and free from scale, rust, dirt and any other contaminant. All material and workmanship must be
of satisfactory quality for the intended use.
b. A sequence of operation, along with a correct electrical physical and schematic drawing large enough to be
easily followed for troubleshooting shall be provided. Subsequent changes shall be described in new
drawings provided to all customers.
c. Whenever practical, various components shall be interchangeable.
d. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to physical damage. Thin wall conduit should not be used except
in a protected area.
e. All machines must have negative ground.
f. Battery charging generators and alternators must have rated capacity to handle all operating equipment
and accessories with a 50% reserve.
g. If the battery system is 24V, using two standard 12V batteries, the manufacturer shall not connect any 12V
load to one battery.
h. Battery box shall contain a battery disconnect switch and shall have a cover that can be locked with a large
railroad padlock.
i. Standard, readily available components shall be used in construction of electrical system.
2.6.3 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS CABINETS (1980)
a. Cabinets for electrical apparatus shall be of steel interior. Clearances between walls of cabinet and bare live
parts of all apparatus or apparatus or switchboard shall be not less than 1-1/2 inches, where a potential in
excess of 50 volts exists.
b. All cabinets must be arranged so that panels can be readily removed and all parts requiring adjustment are
easily accessible.
c. Adequate lighting shall be provided in electrical cabinets.
d. Metal surfaced interior walls of electrical cabinets must be painted with approved electrical insulating paint,
or coated with other approved insulating material. The floors of lockers must be covered with an approved
electrical insulating material.

Roadway Machines
e. Nominal voltages used must be plainly indicated outside the electrical apparatus locker.
f. All components and/or integral units, such as circuit boards, must be plainly identified showing capacity, use
and exact reference to electrical drawings and parts list. Complete parts information shall be shown, where
practical, to minimize errors and time referring to drawings and lists.
g. Wires shall be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with markers. Terminal posts must be
plainly marked. All wires in cabinets shall be neatly dressed and clamped.
h. Electrical and electronic equipment cabinets must be weatherproof and equipped to be locked by a large
railroad padlock.
i. Electrical apparatus lockers, boxes, and housing which contain heat producing elements, must be properly
ventilated to maintain a temperature of less than 140 degrees F.
2.6.4 MOTOR CONTROL APPARATUS OVERLOAD RELAYS (1980)
a. All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection.
b. All motors 1/4 horsepower to one horsepower shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the
motor itself rather than in the starter and fuse protection in the line.
c. Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
d. Overload relays shall be in each line of a three phase starter in ungrounded systems. 1
SECTION 2.7 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT1
— 1996 — 3
Specifications must be reviewed by the manufacturer and returned to purchaser with bid. Compliance with each
section must be acknowledged by checking “yes” or “no” at the close of each section; remarks may be made there
or on a separate attachment.
2.7.1 GENERAL (1996) 4

2.7.1.1 Scope
These specifications cover rail guide wheel equipment.
2.7.1.2 Model
Equipment shall be of the latest type in production at the time of delivery. Components which are obsolete, nearing
the end of production, or out of production shall not be used.
1 References, Vol. 97, p. 220.

2.7.1.3 Reliability
Design, construction, and materials used in the equipment shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently
in sustained operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment, including but not limited to severe
grades and superelevation.
2.7.1.4 Workmanship
Equipment shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or improper
fastenings, leaks or contamination, and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
2.7.1.5 Maintenance
Design shall provide for ease of service, replacement, and adjustment of components, including filters and fluids (if
applicable), with minimum disturbance of other elements.
2.7.1.6 Legal
Machines shall comply with Federal and State environmental, safety, and health regulations in force at the time of
delivery. In the event of conflict or variation between regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive
requirement will apply.
2.7.2 MATERIAL (1996)
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars, and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance
and high notch toughness at low temperatures (0 degrees F to –40 degrees F). Steel items shall be of alloy and
grades normally used for maintenance-of-way equipment and railway rolling stock. Design of structural
members subject to normal working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1. If structural members
are subjected to impact stresses, a minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It is generally recognized
this is only a minimum recommended guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary.
b. All fasteners shall meet strength requirements of ASTM A449 or stronger. All bolted applications shall have
at least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the service
intended.
2.7.3 BRAKES (1996)
a. Self-propelled machines capable of speed in excess of 10 mph on straight and level track shall be equipped
with spring applied, power released brakes on all wheels. Service brakes shall be progressive in force
application and capable of sliding all wheels on dry, sanded rail when fully applied at maximum travel speed.
b. Brake shoes shall not be applied so as to cause a bending force in an axle. A single shoe at the top of a wheel
may apply downward pressure along a line passing through the wheel center within 15 degrees of vertical.
Double shoes applying equal opposing forces may be used in any position.

Roadway Machines
c. In emergency situations a system must be provided for releasing each brake in not more than 2-1/2 minutes
per wheel.
d. Air brake systems must utilize SAE J1402 Table A (formerly Type E), DOT #FMV-SS 106-74 Type A1 air
brake hose with reusable fittings. Brake system must have pressure regulator, pressure gage and standard
truck type reservoir.
e. Reservoir must conform with SAE J10-B specifications. Manufacturers shall also be able to provide these
types of reservoirs which meet ASME specifications for certification when requested as an option. System
must be activated by standard truck type, foot or hand operated, control valve and one truck type, quick
release valve.
f. Air brake system must maintain operating pressure, above 70 psi but not more than 105 psi. An audible low
pressure alarm or warning light shall be furnished which will activate whenever the pressure is 70 psi or less.
EXCEPTION: Machines designed to handle railway cars must utilize train type brakes.
2.7.4 WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS (1996)
a. Wheels and axles shall be in alignment and gage. No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action shall
occur at any speed for which the machine is intended. Suspension shall provide for damage-free operation
under maximum foreseeable operating stresses. Derail guards shall be incorporated near each wheel so that 1
in the event of derailment the machine will not leave the rail.
b. Bearings:
(1) Axles shall utilize double row, tapered roller type axle bearings. Where pillow block bearings are used,
they shall be self-aligning, double row, non-expansion, roller type axle bearings, and shall have cast steel
or ductile iron housings and their location is to be fixed to avoid movement. 3
(2) Bearings selected for use shall have a radial load capacity of 20,000 hours B-10 life at 50 RPM and to
exceed static-wheel load of the machine.
c. Equipment suspension must be sufficiently flexible so that any wheel can drop below the plane established
by the other three wheels irrespective of any movement of the other three wheels. The amount of drop in
inches shall be equal to, or more than the wheelbase of the machine in feet divided by eight. 4
2.7.5 INSULATION (1996)
a. Equipment specified as “insulated” shall be so constructed that no track circuit shunt can occur during
work or travel.
b. Equipment specified as “non-insulated” shall not be converted from insulated design by bonding around
insulating parts.

a. Systems shall conform to the recommendation of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), and International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free
from contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares, and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. Manufacturers must pre-filter all oil through a 10 micron absolute or finer filtering system on initial filling
of hydraulic system.
d. Reservoirs:
(1) All reservoirs shall be designed and constructed to prevent entry of foreign matter, including water.
(2) Reservoirs of 10 gallons or larger shall include:
(a) Baffles to separate intake and return lines to facilitate the separation of air and foreign matter from
the hydraulic fluid, separate pump inlet from the settling portion of the tank and shall direct flow
toward tank walls for maximum heat dissipation.
(b) Access panels large enough for complete cleaning, inspection, maintenance and servicing of sump
filters with an accessible means to employ the reservoir in the event the fluid is to be retained.
(c) An air inlet breather which is of sufficient capacity to maintain approximate atmospheric pressure
at maximum demands on the hydraulic system and to assure vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not
exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendations. Air breather system shall be equipped with
a 10 micron (B10 = 10) or finer filter, either cartridge or spin-on type.
EXCEPTION: Sealed and pressurized system.
(d) A filler with at least a 100 mesh screen, protected from external damage. Filler shall have a
minimum capacity of 5 gallons per minute with 5,000 ssu viscosity fluid. Filler cap shall have a
retainer that can be locked with a large padlock, similar to the type stated in Article 2.3.7b.
(e) A thermometer, in plain view, protected from damage, as near the intake line as possible, at the add
point fluid level.
(f) A static fluid level gage to show full and add points protected from damage.
(g) When immersion heaters are provided, it is preferable to utilize a type incorporating NPT threads
so removal is possible without draining the reservoir.
(h) Both the intake and return tubes shall be located below the minimum working fluid level so as not
to cause cavitation or aeration.
e. Fluid temperature in the reservoirs shall not exceed 180 degrees F at the reservoir outlet(s) while operating
in a 110 degrees F ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after fifteen (15) minutes warm-up or
operation shall be at least 60 degrees with a 20 degrees F ambient.
f. Pressure testing tee(s) shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures
on all circuits. The tee(s) shall include a 1/4 inch NPT fitting with a male quick-disconnect fluid coupling.
g. Where failure of power plant or pump can immobilize components in a position which would prevent moving
the machine, an emergency hand pump shall be optional in the circuit.

Roadway Machines
h. Fluid Filtration:
(1) Filtration shall not be less than recommended by manufacturers of the hydraulic system components.
(2) In closed loop systems, filtration as recommended by the pump manufacturer will apply.
i. Fluid Conductors:
(1) Fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating under 3,000 psi must use high pressure hose; SAE 100 R2
Type A, Hi-Impulse type with the following qualification requirements:
(a) Constructed with 2-wire braid reinforcement.
(e) Used with skive type reusable fittings.
use extra high pressure hose: SAE R12 type when utilizing hose sizes through 1 inch, which have the
following qualification requirements.
(a) Constructed with 4-spiral plies of steel reinforcement.

1
(c) Tested to 1,000,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(d) Have an operating temperature range of –50 degrees F to +250 degrees F. 3

(e) Use with permanent, crimp type fitting for added reliability.
use ultra-high pressure, heavy duty, hi-impulse hose: SAE 100 R13 type when utilizing sizes above 1
inch, which have the following qualification requirements.
4
(a) Constructed with 6-spiral plies of steel reinforcement.
(e) Use with permanent, crimp type fittings for added reliability.
(4) Pump supply hoses must meet the requirement of SAE 100R4, with reusable fittings.
(5) Hoses shall not be:
(a) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.

(b) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating
temperature ranges.
(c) Subjected to any twisting, pulling kinking, crushing or abrasion.
(6) Hoses shall be installed, routed and isolated where possible for proper support through clamping and/or
brackets to avoid all of the above conditions, especially abrasion. If necessary, hoses subjected to
excessive abrasion should be wrapped with an abrasion resistant wrapping or sleeve.
(7) Hose is preferred. Where tubing is used, SAE 37 degree flared ends are required.
(8) Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing shall have only gentle bends to
change direction or compensate for thermal expansion. Bend radii shall not be less than three times ID.
(9) Pipe threads are not recommended. Where they are used, they must be NPTF dry seal type.
(10) Whenever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
(11) Galvanized or brass tube, pipe or fittings shall not be used.
(12) Fittings shall be machined type.
(13) Complete circuit diagram(s) showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the machine and large enough to be
easily followed for troubleshooting must be furnished. Additional pictorial or cutaway diagrams may be
shown.
(14) Vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendation or 4 inches of
mercury, whichever is less, under standard conditions. Test opening shall be provided, utilizing 1/4 inch
NPT port, sealed with a pipe plug.
2.7.7 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (1996)
a. Electrical system shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts shall be clean and free from
scale, rust, water or any contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the
intended use.
c. Sequence of operation and electrical, physical, and schematic drawings showing the exact circuit(s) in use on
the machine and large enough to be easily followed during troubleshooting shall be furnished. Subsequent
changes shall be covered by new drawings furnished to the customer.
d. Whenever practical, components shall be interchangeable.
e. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to damage. Thin wall conduit shall not be used except in a
protected area.
f. DC Systems, when grounded, must have negative ground.
g. Standard, industrial grade, readily available components shall be used.
h. Electrical apparatus cabinets:

Roadway Machines
(1) Cabinets shall be of steel construction. Clearance between walls and bare, “live” parts shall not be less
than 1-1/2 inches, unless affected interior surfaces utilize insulative plastic or fiber sheeting, where a
potential in excess of 50 volts exists. Cabinets must be weatherproof.
(2) Panels must be readily removable and parts easily accessible.
(3) Adequate lighting shall be provided in cabinets.
(4) Only pipes as electrical conduit or pneumatic tubing as used exclusively for control circuitry shall enter
cabinet.
(5) Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other
approved electrical insulating material.
(6) Nominal voltages used must be plainly shown on outside of cabinet.
(7) All parts and groups of parts shall be identified by functions and clear, simple, exact reference to service
diagram and parts list. Integral units such as circuit boards, should be considered as one part, if
intended to be replaced as a unit. Complete parts identification shall be shown when practical, in order
to minimize errors and time consuming reference to drawings or lists.
(8) Wires must be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers,
color coded when practical. Terminal posts must be plainly marked. Once used, a number or color code
must not be reused for a different circuit. All wires must be neatly dressed and clamped.
(9) Housings containing heat producing elements must be properly ventilated. 1

i. Motor control apparatus overload relays:
(1) All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection.
(2) All 1/4 to 1 horsepower motors shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the motor itself,
rather than in the starter, and fuse protection in the line.
3
(3) Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
(4) Overload relays shall be in each line of a 3-phase starter in ungrounded systems.
4
a. Quotation will give: make, type, and output rating of compressor, size of reservoir; type and purpose of
pressure regulation; and normal operating pressure.
b. System must contain air pressure gage in easy view of operator and/or low air pressure warning indicator.
c. Standard air brakes hose SAE-J1402 Table A1 will be the only hose used anywhere in the system. Use of
push-on barb type fittings are banned except for control circuits where space is critical and working
pressures and abrasion is not severe and braking is not involved.

2.7.9 CONTROLS (1996)
a. All switches, valves, levers, controls, and adjustments used to start, stop or operate the machine shall be clearly
labeled with weather and wear resistant plates permanently affixed to the machine or component. Controls used
in continuous operation of the machine shall be within easy reach of the operator and shall not interfere with
his view of the work. Instruments and gages not inside a closed, lockable cab shall be protected from vandalism.
b. Engine must not start with controls in travel position.
c. A red emergency shutdown control shall be quickly accessible to operator.
2.7.10 CLEARANCE AND SAFETY (1996)
a. Components which may foul track, signal, crossing or other structures on or along a railway must have a
positive mechanical lock in safe position for travel.
b. No component shall be less than 3 inches above top of rail.
c. All components which can be a hazard to operator, assistant or bystanders shall be protected with a shield or
safety device.
d. Machines shall be equipped with a travel warning alarm which is energized by operation of the travel control
for movement in reverse of the normal working direction. This shall be accomplished by use of a two-way
selector switch (manually operated) which will establish the direction of travel that the alarm will be activated.
e. Handrails or grab irons will always be provided wherever it is intended that personnel mount equipment.
Lowest step used for mounting the machine shall not be more than 12 inches above bottom of wheel
elevation. Any area more than 3 feet above bottom of wheel elevation, where persons are expected to walk or
pass, shall be protected by rigidly fastened handrails 42 inches high, with secondary rail at 24 inches height,
and non-skid walking surface. A 3 inch kickboard shall also be provided to avoid accidental entry into
potentially hazardous areas.
2.7.11 INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING (1996)
Machine shall be delivered completely lubricated and serviced with all equipment needed for immediate operation,
except for fuel. Water cooled engines are to be protected from freeze-up by a 50/50 solution of ethylene glycol base
antifreeze (rust inhibitive type) unless otherwise specified, and radiator marked or tagged to show make of coolant
used and actual protection afforded.
2.7.12 PAINT (1996)

a. Manufacturer shall use paints which do not require periodic medical examinations or special equipment,
other than passive respirators. It is assumed that no-lead paint with a lower percentage of solvent may be

Roadway Machines
required and that exact colors formerly furnished may not be available. Manufacturer shall provide the
colors listed under the “Standard Specification Number” which are consistent with those identified in the
“Federal Standard 595-B, Colors Used in Government Procurement.”
b. Manufacturer shall also utilize proper surface preparation, including primer, to provide a high quality,
durable finish coat. General exposed parts of the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be painted AREMA
Black, Spec. No. 17038, unless otherwise specified by a Railroad, EXCEPT AS IN TABLE 27-2-3:
Table 27-2-3. Paint Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment and Component Area
Standard
Equipment and Component Area Color
Spec. No.
Gasoline Tank (Note 1) Red 11086
Diesel Fuel Tank (Note 1) Green 14110
Hydraulic Reservoir (Note 1) Blue 15180
Coolant Tank (Note 1) Gray 16251
Wheels and Handrails Black 17038
Lifting Lugs Black 17038
Jacking Points or Pads Black 17038
Safety Locks Red 11086 1
Engine and Other Misc. Parts Manufacturer’s Option
Note 1: Where side or top of tank containing filler opening has an area greater than
144 square inches, manufacturer may elect to paint only 144 or more
square inches at the filler opening with the required tank color. Name of
fluid and words “CHECK DAILY” shall be stenciled on each tank in 1 inch
letters. Total machine weight with all tanks filled shall be plainly marked
on both sides of the machine in 1Z\x inch letters: 3
Weight ______ lb
2.7.13 SHIPPING (1996) 4

Equipment shall be constructed, prepared, and loaded so that it will withstand without damage, handling likely to
be encountered during delivery. Valuable and easily pilfered parts such as batteries, tools, and loose small items
shall be shipped in such manner as to resist pilferage.
2.7.14 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS (1996)
a. Complete parts and instructions books shall accompany the machine. Additional sets of books shall be
forwarded as follows:
______________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Books shall contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the machine and shall employ
American Standard symbols and notations. Listings of commonly available parts shall include general
descriptions as well as part numbers.
c. Parts book must also contain the comprehensive lubrication chart for the appropriate type machines.
2.7.15 REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE (1996)
Continuous operation of this equipment is of utmost importance. Successful bidder must be able and willing to
furnish service and repair parts promptly.
2.7.16 ADDITIONAL OPTIONS (TO BE COMPLETED BY VENDOR OR MANUFACTURER.)

(1996)
Insulated: Yes____ No____
Self Propelled: Yes____ No____
Shutdown: Yes____ No____
Turntable: Yes____ No____
Turntable Warning Light: Yes____ No____
NOTE: Options and accessories not covered on these specifications and which are available at extra
cost shall be quoted separately in the bid proposal.
2.7.17 DELIVERY (1996)
mechanics, and supervisors at a location to be specified by purchaser (not necessarily the machine delivery point).
2.7.18 MOUNTING OF RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT TO VEHICLE (1996)
a. Mounting brackets shall be of high quality and designed to support the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment. In
applications requiring the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to support the vehicle, the mounting brackets must
be of adequate strength.
b. Mounting brackets must bolt to frame of vehicle. Welding is not acceptable (per vehicle manufacturer
standards).
c. Front tire of vehicle must have a 1-1/2 inch minimum clearance above rail when front of vehicle is supported
by the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment.

Roadway Machines
d. The vehicle frame must be of adequate strength for the intended application. Frame reinforcements may be
required where the vehicle frame does not have the adequate strength. For these special applications, the
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment Supplier must provide reinforcement to meet or exceed the original vehicle
specification.
2.7.19 SETUP AND ALIGNMENT (1996)
a. During setup the vehicle shall be at curb weight with permanent attachments (spare tires, tool boxes less
tools, utility box cranes, etc.).
b. Maximum tire inflation must be maintained at the lowest maximum pressure rating of the vehicle tire or
wheel.
c. The frame of the vehicle must be square.
(1) Diagonal measurement of the frame must be equal within 1/8 inch.
(2) Wheelbase on both sides of vehicle must be equal within 1/16 inch.
(3) Axles will be square with the frame within 1/64 inch per foot.
d. Vehicle wheels which require front tire contact with the rail must be checked for caster, camber, and toe in
as recommended by the vehicle manufacturer after the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment has been installed.
e. Setup of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be in accordance to the manufacture of the equipment. 1
(1) Track gage on the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be set within 1/8 inch.
(2) Guide wheel loads shall be set within the tolerance limits of manufacturer’s recommended weight
setting.
f. Vehicle and Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be aligned in accordance to the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment 3
manufacturer’s specifications.
g. Vehicle shall be track tested on rail according to the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment manufacturer’s
specification as a final check to insure proper operation.
2.7.20 NON-COMPLIANCE (1996)

4
writing by the purchaser. Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bids and the right to accept bids deviating from
the specifications.
DATE: ______________________________, 20_______.
SIGNATURE: ___________________________________________________________________
TITLE: _________________________________________________________________________
COMPANY: _____________________________________________________________________
TO COVER: MACHINE: _______________________________ MODEL: __________________

SECTION 2.8 LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY

MACHINES
2.8.1 GENERAL (2002)
Lockout/Tagout (energy isolating) devices should be used to ensure that the machine or equipment is stopped,
isolated from all potential hazardous energy sources and locked out before employees perform any servicing or
maintenance where the “unexpected” energization or start-up of the machine or equipment or release of stored
energy could cause injury.
2.8.2 DEFINITIONS (2002)

a. Affected employee. An employee whose job requires him/her to operate or use a machine or equipment on
which servicing or maintenance is being performed under lockout or tagout, or whose job requires him/her
to work in an area in which such servicing is being performed.
b. Authorized employee. A person trained in performing LOTO on machines or equipment in order to perform
servicing or maintenance on that machine or equipment.
c. Capable of being locked out. An energy isolating device is capable of being locked out if it has a hasp or other
means of attachment to which, or through which, a lock can be affixed, or it has a locking mechanism built
into it.
d. Energized. Connected to an energy source or containing residual or stored energy.
e. Energy isolating device. A mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy.
These include disconnect switches, ignition switches, circuit breakers, valves, and blockouts. Push buttons,
selector switches and other control circuit type devices are not energy isolating devices.
f. Energy source. Any source of electrical, mechanical, chemical, hydraulic (pressurized liquid), pneumatic
(pressurized gas or air), gravity, thermal (heat or cold), and radiation energy; and others such as gas, steam,
and water.
g. Lockout. The placement of a lockout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established
procedure, ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated
until the lockout device is removed.
h. Lockout device. A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to
hold an energy isolating device in the safe position and prevent the energizing of a machine or equipment.
i. Normal procedure operations. The utilization of a machine or equipment to perform its intended production
function.
j. Servicing and/or maintenance. Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting,
inspection, modifying, and maintaining and/or servicing machines or equipment. These activities include
lubrication, cleaning or unjamming of machines or equipment and making adjustments or tool changes,
where the employee may be exposed to the unexpected energization of startup of the equipment or release of
hazardous energy.
NOTE: Minor tool changes and adjustments, and other minor servicing activities, which take place during
normal production operations, are not covered if they are routine, repetitive, and integral to the
use of the equipment for production.
k. Setting up. Any work performed to prepare a machine or equipment to perform its normal production
operation.
l. Tagout. The placement of a tagout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established
procedure, to indicate that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be
operated until the tagout device is removed by the Authorized Employee.

Roadway Machines
m. Tagout device. A prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which can be securely
fastened to an energy isolating device in accordance with established procedure, to indicate that the energy
isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.
2.8.3 REQUIREMENTS (2002)
a. Employer/Employee requirements:
(1) The employer should establish a program consisting of energy control procedures, employee training,
periodic inspections, and to determine if the Lockout/Tagout policy applies for the machine to be worked
on.
(2) All employees are required to comply with the restrictions and limitations imposed upon them during
the use of lockout. The authorized employees are required to perform the lockout in accordance with
established procedures. All employees, upon observing a machine or piece of equipment that is locked
out to perform servicing or maintenance should not attempt to start, energize, or use that machine or
equipment.
b. Manufacturer’s requirements:
(1) All machines will be equipped with the means to lockout energy isolating devices.
(2) Manufacturers will be responsible for pointing out energy sources, energy isolating devices, and any
other locking mechanisms on the equipment and provide a sequence for putting these in a non-energy
state. This will be used by the individual railroads in establishing their own lockout/tagout procedures. 1
2.8.4 PROCEDURES (2002)
The following simple lockout procedure is provided in the development of procedures.
a. Lockout Sequence
3
(1) Notify all affected employees that servicing or maintenance is required on a machine or equipment and
that the machine or equipment must be shutdown and locked out to perform the servicing or
maitenance.
(2) Identify the type and magnitude of the energy that the machine or equipment utilizes, should
understand the hazards of the energy, and should know the methods to control the energy.
4
(3) Properly secure all working componenets by either locking them in their stored/travel positions, or by
grounding, repositioning or blocking the component so it will not move during the maintenance or
repair work.
(4) If the machine or equipment is operating shut it down by the normal stopping procedure.
(5) De-activate the energy isolating device(s) so that the machine or equipment is isolated from the energy
source(s). In multiple unit consists, deactivate or remove connections to isolate the unit. Apply
appropriate working mechanism locks and blocks plus secure machine so that movement is NOT
possible (i.e., parking brake, wheel chocks, chain around wheels, etc.).
(6) Lockout the energy isolating device(s) with assigned individual lock(s).
(7) Stored or residual energy (such as that in capacitors, springs, elevated machine members, rotating
flywheels, hydraulic systems, and air, gas, steam or water pressure, etc.) must be dissipated or
restrained by methods such as grounding, repositioning, blocking, bleeding down, etc.

(8) Ensure that the equipment is disconnected from the energy source(s) by first checking that no
personnel are exposed, then verify the isolation of the equipment by operating the push button or other
normal operating control(s) or by testing to make certain the equipment will not operate. Verify that all
locks, hooks, pins, etc., are properly in place and energy sources (i.e., workheads, rail clamps, etc.) are
resting on locks, blocked or grounded. CAUTION! Return operating control(s) to neutral or “OFF”
position after verifying the isolation of the equipment.
(9) The machine or equipment is now locked out.
b. Restoring Equipment to Service
When the servicing or maintenance is completed and the machine or equipment is ready to return to
normal operating condition, the following steps should be taken by the Authorized Employee:
(1) Check the machine or equipment and the immediate area around the machine to ensure that
nonessential items have been removed and that the machine or equipment components are
operationally intact, including safety devices and machinery guards.
(2) Check the work area to ensure that all employees have been safely positioned or removed from the area.
(3) Verify that the controls are in neutral or in the “OFF” position.
(4) Remove the lockout device(s) and reenergize the machine or equipment. Note: The removal of some
forms of blocking may require reenergization of the machine before safe removal.
(5) Notify affected employees that the servicing or maintenance is completed and the machine or
equipment is ready for use.
SECTION 2.9 RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES AND VISIBILITY

GUILDELINE FOR NEW ON-TRACK MACHINERY
AREMA presents this design guideline on railway track equipment operator sightlines and visibility for
manufacturers to consider in their production of equipment. This guideline presents one direction for the design
of sightlines and visibility for new on-track machinery with the knowledge that there are many acceptable design
recommendations for sightlines and visibility. This guideline is a starting point for designing machinery and may
be altered as necessary.
The operator’s sightlines and visibility are the operator’s fields of view to the surrounding area from their position
of control for both forward and reverse travel. The operator’s position of control of railway track equipment may
be when controlling in “Travel” mode or “Work” mode. The operator’s sightlines and visibility in this design
guideline are only a function of the equipment under the operator’s control.
2.9.1 DEFINITIONS (2009)
Obstruction - A partial or complete obscuring of the operator’s sightlines and visibility of the surrounding area.
Only these obstructions caused by the railway track equipment that is under the operator’s control apply in this
design guideline.
Acceptable Obstruction - An obstruction that does not prevent clear sightlines and visibility in the prescence of
minor movements of the head, neck, and/or upper body of the operator or use of real-time video imaging.

Roadway Machines
Acceptable Sightlines and Visibility - The field of view presented to an operator when controlling equipment that
allows for viewing of the surrounding area with or without Acceptable Obstructions.
“Travel” Mode - Operation of railway track equipment for the purpose of moving the equipment along the track
and with the operator situated in the operator position designated for this type of control of the equipment.
“Work” Mode - Operation of railway track equipment for the purpose of using the equipment to work on the
maintenance of the railroad right of way and with the operator situated in the operator position designated for this
type of equipment. “Work” Mode sightlines and visibility guidelines include the guidelines of “Travel” Mode to
accommodate movement of equipment.
2.9.2 RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES AND VISIBILITY FOR

“TRAVEL” MODE (2009)
Figures 27-2-4 and 27-2-5 show graphic representations and dimensions related to Acceptable Sightline and
Visibility. An acceptable sightline and visibility area is drawn between 15 feet (4.6 Meters) forward of the leading
surface of track equipment in a line forward of the operator and 36 inches (0.9 Meters) above the top of the tie and
horizontal sightline parallel to the rail. At the same point forward of the machinery, an acceptable sightline and
visibility width is drawn across the track for a measurement of 10’8” (3.2 Meters) (AAR Plate C).
Sightline and visibility from the operator to the sides of the vehicle should have as few obstructions as possible for
visibility of the right-of-way.
4
Figure 27-2-4. Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility, Top View

Figure 27-2-5. Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility
SECTION 2.10 ACCESS SYSTEMS FOR MAINTENANCE OF WAY MACHINES
2.10.1 PURPOSE (2009)
This section provides recommended criteria for access systems to aid in minimizing injury to operating and
maintenance personnel.
2.10.2 SCOPE (2009)
Recommended criteria is provided for steps, stairways, ladders, walkways, platforms, handrails, handholds,
guardrails, and cab heights which permits ingress and egress from operator, inspection, maintenance or service
platforms for Maintenance-of-Way machines. See Figures 27-2-6 through 27-2-10 and Table 27-2-4.
2.10.3 GENERAL (2009)
a. Designs should use “Preferred” dimensions whenever possible.
b. Handrails, handholds, and guardrails shall have an applied rough coating for all hand grasp surfaces.
c. Rung, step, and walkway material to be perforated, non-slip material (without additional coatings or
adhesives) and continuing around the top radius.
d. Flexibly mounted series of steps should be avoided. If used, the steps shall not move more than 3”
elastically in the direction of approach when a horizontal force of 225 lb. is applied at the step center. The

Roadway Machines
flexible step(s) shall deflect when encountering obstructions in the machine direction of travel to reduce the
potential for damage. The preferred flexible step can be mounted with a 3/4” x 5” piece of conveyor belting,
4-ply and 3/8” minimum carcass.
1
Figure 27-2-6. Ladders Figure 27-2-7. Steps

Figure 27-2-8. Handrails and Handholds
Figure 27-2-9. Platforms, Walkways and Guardrails

Roadway Machines
1
Figure 27-2-10. Stairways
Table 27-2-4. Recommended Dimensions for Steps, Stairs, Platforms, Guardrails, Handholds and Ladders


27
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 27, Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment is placed here in
alphabetical order for your convenience.
1. ANSI – (American National Standards Institute)/ASME–(American Society of Mechanical Engineers);

Reference B30.5-1985, Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
2. ANSI – (American National Standards Institute)/ASME–(American Society of Mechanical Engineers);

Reference B30.2-1983, Overhead and Gantry Cranes.
3. INTERNATIONAL FILM BUREAU, INC.; Wire Rope General Application and Training, Chicago, IL–
Telephone: (312) 427-4545.
4. ISO – (International Organization for Standards); Reference No. ISO 4308/1-1986(E), Cranes and Lifting
Appliances–Selection of Wire Ropes, Second Edition 1986-05-15.
5. ISO – (International Organization for Standards); Reference No. ISO 4309-1981(E), Wire Rope for Lifting 1
Appliances–Code of Practices for Examination and Discard, First Edition 1981-12-01.
6. NACB – (North American Crane Bureau); Rigging Safety/Including Wire Rope, Chain and Synthetic
Slings). Longwood, Florida–Telephone: (407) 260-1255.
7. SAE – (Society of Automotive Engineers); Specification #J959. 3


0
CHAPTER 33
ELECTRICAL ENERGY UTILIZATION1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-1

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.2 Traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.3 Capital Equipment Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.4 Annual Operating Expenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.5 Maintenance-of-Way Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8 1
1.6 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
2 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-1
2.1 Third-rail Clearance Diagram (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
2.2 Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Overhead Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
3 Recommended Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1 3

3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1
3.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.3 Design Criteria (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
3.4 Recommended Voltages for New Construction (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
4 Railroad Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-1

4.1 Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3
4.2 Catenary System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7
4.3 Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.4 Contact Wire Ampacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
1
railroads and others concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signal and
a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance or railways. It is not intended to

5 Signal Compatibility with Alternating Current Railway Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-1

5.1 Scope (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.2 Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.3 Electrical Effects (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3
5.4 Discussion (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3
5.5 Recommendations (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.6 Use of Impedance Bonds with Alternating Current Railway Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
6 Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Electrification Systems . . . . . 33-6-1

6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2 Electrification System Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.3 AC Electrification System Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.4 Electrification System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14
6.5 System Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.6 System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20
6.7 Utility Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27
6.8 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
7 Rail Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-1

7.1 Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes – Electric Traction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3
7.2 Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6
7.3 Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-bonds and Extended Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.4 Specification for Rail-head Pin-type Bonds and Track Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.5 Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-head Bonds and Track Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.6 Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
8 Catenary and Locomotive Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-1

8.1 Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.2 Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with t he Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-9
9 Ancillary Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1

9.1 Wayside/Standby Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
10 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-1
10.1 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.2 Lighting of Fixed Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.3 Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9
10.4 Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
10.5 Evaluation Measurements and Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
12 Power Supply and Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-1

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2
12.2 Electric Traction Systems Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.3 Electrification System Design Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7
12.4 Traction Power Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
12.5 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-26
12.6 Testing and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
Chapter 33 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-G-1

INTRODUCTION
information.


33w
Part 1
Factors to Consider in Making
Electrification Economic Studies1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2 1

1.1.1 Objective (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.2 Basic Procedure (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.3 System Operation (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.4 Electrical Distribution Systems (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.1.5 Data (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2 Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3 3

1.2.1 Freight Traffic (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.2 Passenger Trains (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.3 Train Size and Speed (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.4 Traffic Projection (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.5 Train Schedules (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.3 Capital Equipment Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4

1.3.1 Motive Power Units (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.2 Motive Power Maintenance Facilities (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.3 Power Generating Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.4 Power Distribution Systems (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.5 Substations (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-5
1.3.6 Power Transfer (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-5
1.3.7 Clearance Modification (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.3.8 Signal Modification (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.3.9 Communications (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.3.10 Miscellaneous Power (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1

Electrical Energy Utilization
1.4 Annual Operating Expenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6

1.4.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.4.2 Fuel and Energy (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.4.3 Train Crew Wages (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.4 Vehicle Maintenance (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.5 OCS/Third Rail Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.6 Substation and Transmission Line Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.7 Signal and Communications Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
1.4.8 Taxes (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
1.5 Maintenance-of-Way Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8

1.5.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
1.6 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8

1.6.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 OBJECTIVE (2007)
The prime objective of an electrification economic study is to determine if electric operation of a particular railroad
or transit system is more advantageous than operation with another form of power, which may or may not be in
actual use.
1.1.2 BASIC PROCEDURE (2007)
Each identifiable cost associated with the different types of power must be quantified for economic comparison.
Since most electrification studies will cover a period of between 20 and 50 years into the future, costs should be
separated into two basic categories: initial one-time expenses, and repeating annual costs which will be subject to
continuing inflation and/or escalation. Separate inflation/escalation rates should be specified for each annual cost
to properly compare types of power over a long period of time. Extra care should be taken in determining
inflation/escalation rates since they will be compounded over the life of the study. Intangible costs and benefits or
liabilities should be listed for review at the end of the study, unless they are directly associated with a tangible cost.
1.1.3 SYSTEM OPERATION (2007)
Prior to any detailed analysis, the segment(s) of the railroad or transit system to be studied must be precisely
defined, as well as the basic parameters of operation. Train size, speed, frequency, etc., should be made constant for
all types of power studied to permit a valid initial comparison. The detailed study should include the economic
effects of changing the operating parameters to that most favorable to each type of power being compared.
1.1.4 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (2007)
A cursory review of the various types of electrical distribution systems: third rail or overhead contact system (OCS)
using either direct current or alternating current, should be made to determine which system or combination of
systems is most applicable for the specific case under study. Detailed analyses can start after this preliminary
determination is made.

Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Studies
1.1.5 DATA (2007)
A base year should be chosen from which all data can be projected. The data for this base year must be as reliable
as possible, thus considerable effort should be spent in reviewing all sources of information for their accuracy and
completeness.
SECTION 1.2 TRAFFIC
1.2.1 FREIGHT TRAFFIC (2007)
The most common unit for computing energy and maintenance costs for Freight Traffic is the gross-ton-mile. The
number of gross-ton-miles operated over the railroad under study should be thoroughly reviewed to ascertain what
percentage of the total could be hauled electrically. Locals or trains that would travel only a short distance over
electrified territory may be moved more economically using non-electric locomotives. Total annual gross-ton-miles
can then serve as a base for computing energy and maintenance cost for both electric and non-electric systems.
1.2.2 PASSENGER TRAINS (2007)
Due to the greater acceleration rates and higher operating speeds common for mainline passenger trains and
transit vehicles, they are usually treated separately from the freight services. If both types of service are present,
they should be dealt with independently, and the gross-ton-miles generated by the passenger trains or transit
vehicles calculated for both electric and non-electric systems. 1
1.2.3 TRAIN SIZE AND SPEED (2007)
For proper comparison of energy demands, the size and speed of typical trains should be specified for operation
electrically or with other forms of power. Initially, this parameter should be the same for any type of power;
however, as the study becomes more detailed, it may become obvious that one type of power is more economical 3
using a different train size and speed. For evaluation purposes, any changes in train size and speed should be a
separate portion of the study.
1.2.4 TRAFFIC PROJECTION (2007)
The facts reviewed in the study for traffic projection are very critical. A large growth rate when compounded over
many years can saturate the existing track and signal system creating a requirement for high capacity signal 4
system and/or additional mainline track. Similiarly, a large growth rate compounded over many years can impact
substation and utility feeder capacity. This fact should be considered in the initial planning and design of the
traction system. Negative growth rate can impact the study outcome by causing savings to diminish in the future.
1.2.5 TRAIN SCHEDULES (2007)
The average daily traffic must be specified by number of trains, type of trains, size of trains, and the timetable
schedule of trains. The maximum daily traffic must be specified in the same manner. The minimum acceptable
train performance (train speed, size and frequency) under emergency conditions (substation outage, excessive
train density, etc.) should be specified. Future train schedule enhancements should also be addressed in reviewing
initial traction power system capacities to establish the ultimate design capacity.

SECTION 1.3 CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COSTS
1.3.1 MOTIVE POWER UNITS (2007)
a. Based on the traffic, terrain, train size and schedules, the electric locomotives’ or electric multiple unit
(EMUs) cars’ weight, wheel configuration, power and speed capabilities can be selected. This selection
should be carefully coordinated with the builders of electric locomotives/EMUs to ensure their commercial
availability and the validity of the cost estimate. Non-electric locomotives with prime movers other than
standard diesel engines should likewise be selected with care.
b. If the electrified system is to be compared against diesel locomotive operations, it should be determined
whether the existing types of diesel-electrics are used for comparisons, or whether a new model not yet
manufactured is to form the basis. As with electrics, the various manufacturers should be consulted to
ensure reliable cost data are obtained.
c. Extreme care should be taken to ensure that enough locomotives/EMUs of each type have been assumed to
cover peak traffic periods, allow downtime for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, and provide for
possible future schedule changes which would require more locomotives with the same traffic. Past
experience has shown the electric locomotives/EMUs have a higher availability and utilization than other
types of motive power. Computer generated speed and time/distance calculations can be of great assistance.
Energy, power, time, and distance calculations made at the same time are invaluable in computing electric
power consumption and cost for comparison against diesel fuel consumption and cost.
1.3.2 MOTIVE POWER MAINTENANCE FACILITIES (2007)
a. The existing mechanical facilities should be thoroughly reviewed to determine what changes will be
necessary to maintain electric locomotives/EMUs. Some of the more modern diesel facilities can be used for
electric locomotive/EMU maintenance with virtually no changes, while old roundhouse operations may be
totally unfit for any maintenance work.
b. Main-line electrification may segment the remaining diesel service to such a great extent that new diesel
maintenance shops must be built to care for the diesels running branch lines and locals. Maintenance
facilities for both diesels and electrics should be an important factor in determining the end-points for an
initial electrification project.
1.3.3 POWER GENERATING FACILITIES (2007)
Railroads and, to a lesser extent, transit systems may face some locations where it may be more economical to build
an electric generating station than it would be to buy power from the local utility company. Locations may exist
where local power is unavailable. If railroad or transit agency owned power generation is to be considered, studies
by specialized electric utility engineers will be required to determine capital, operating and maintenance costs.
1.3.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (2007)
A study should be made to determine the electrical power demand of each portion of the railroad or transit system to be
electrified. The utility companies should be consulted to locate transmission lines in the area suitable for use by the
new system. In designing traction power systems, it is advisable to try and arrange for adjacent substations to be served
by different transmission lines or utility distribution busbars in order to minimize the possibility of power failure,
which could affect more than one substation. If a new transmission or distribution line is required, sizing should be
based on the ultimate design capacity with appropriate assessment of maximum present load. It is generally more
economical to put up heavier wire or larger insulators to provide a higher voltage line during initial construction than
it is to retrofit after the load demand has increased, subject to specific requirements of the utility rate structure. For
systems using single-phase, unbalance problems may be encountered and could require special substation connections.

1.3.5 SUBSTATIONS (2007)
a. Substations are used to step the high transmission line voltage down to the voltage used on the OCS or third
rail. The alternating current is also converted to direct current at a substation when required for third rail
or dc OCS.
b. Equipment used in a substation should be capable of handling high overloads for relatively short periods of
time without failure. Substation transformers can be sized to permit initial loads with no forced cooling;
later, forced cooling can be added to support the increased traffic at minimal cost. It is common practice to
assume that a substation will be called upon to supply half of an adjacent substation’s load during an
emergency. Rail system substation transformers should be equipped with extra bracing to prevent damage
during a short circuit. Local and/or remote control should be provided for each substation. For low voltage
dc systems, provisions should be made to have a spare, mobile substation which will serve in an active
capacity when not being used as a replacement. For substations located at the end of an electrified system,
consideration should be given to the installation of two transformers connected to two different
transmission lines to minimize the possibility of power failure.
c. For facilities that are to be remote controlled, the cost of the remote equipment, communications circuits,
central station control equipment and facility should be included.
1.3.6 POWER TRANSFER (2007)
a. Two primary methods are used to transfer electrical power to the railway vehicles, third rail and overhead
contact systems.
1
b. The cost of third rail includes the special contact rail, insulators, long ties or special brackets to mount on
the short ties, third-rail covers, right-of-way fencing, miscellaneous hardware and installation labor costs.
c. Overhead contact systems come in several different configurations with vehicle operating speed usually
being the determining factor. OCS construction and maintenance costs vary dependent upon the selection of
either constant-tension (auto-tensioned) or variable-tension (fixed termination) OCS designs. At certain
locations, where power demand is extremely heavy, auxiliary parallel feeders hung from the supports may be 3
more economical than increasing the size of the OCS wires or adding more substations. OCS construction
costs are generally more dependent on terrain than third-rail costs due to the variation in support distance.
Costs for overhead catenary should include wire, insulators, supports, support foundations, tensioning
devices, miscellaneous hardware, and all the labor to install the system.
d. Construction of both third-rail and overhead systems require special material trains and, on existing
properties, may disrupt railroad or transit traffic operations. Expenses for special train crews, extra train 4
crews and other items, such as flagman protection, should be added to the cost of the electrification
construction.
e. Along the catenary distribution system, phase breaks, section breaks or air gaps at or between substations
should be equipped with manual or remote controlled switchgear to permit isolating or energizing adjacent
catenary sections. Similar applications are commonly installed on third rail systems for the same purpose.
1.3.7 CLEARANCE MODIFICATION (2007)
Situations will arise with both third-rail and overhead systems where the electrical clearance requirements will
necessitate the modification of nearby structures such as platforms, bridges and tunnels. Extremely high
modification costs may dictate a lower voltage or, in some cases, a short segment of electrically dead OCS or third-
rail (or elimination of these conductors), but these options should be avoided wherever practicable, since they
break up the continuity of the current collection system and may create issues for vehicle design.

1.3.8 SIGNAL MODIFICATION (2007)
Because of electrical interference from the traction power systems, electrification is not compatible with many
types of signals used in the United States. A detailed analysis should be made by the signal department to
determine the best type of modification to make signals compatible with the particular form of electrification being
considered. Trackside signal lines must be shielded from alternating current power systems. The cost to upgrade a
signal system, such as installing cab signals, should not be charged to electrification.
Most open-wire communications circuits near an alternating-current power source are recommended to be either
shielded, converted to microwave, fiber optic cable, or other communication based systems. Electronically
controlled locomotives/EMUs and transit vehicles have been known to generate various forms of signals which
radiate beyond the railway property line. Special shielding of power circuits may be required in urban areas to
prevent interference with public communications systems.
1.3.10 MISCELLANEOUS POWER (2007)
Power requirements for signals, switch heaters, lighting, etc., may be provided by tapping into the electrification
conductor systems, and account should be taken of these benefits.
SECTION 1.4 ANNUAL OPERATING EXPENSES
1.4.1 GENERAL (2007)
The annual operating expenses are critical in any electrification study and should be very carefully derived. The
electrification of a railroad or transit system has the potential to affect virtually every cost encountered in daily
operations. The difference in operating expenses between two or more propulsion systems is what creates a return
on investment and determines which system is the most economical when compared to the initial capital costs.
1.4.2 FUEL AND ENERGY (2007)
The cost of energy or fuel delivered to the motive power vehicles must be ascertained for each system being
studied. Fuel costs should include all transportation, pumping, environmental systems and labor costs. Electric
energy bills usually include a demand charge, energy charge, fuel adjustment and possibly a rental on some fixed
equipment. If the cost of fuel and energy are changing at different rates, separate inflation/escalation factors
should be developed for each. Attempts to increase the electrical load factor frequently result in train rescheduling
and a separate option in the final analysis of electrification. Consideration should be given to evaluating the
sensitivity of economic viability due to ranges of inflation/escalation factors.
1.4.3 TRAIN CREW WAGES (2007)
Train crews may be paid on a basis that will change after electrification. Fewer locomotives with less weight on
drivers could reduce the wages earned by the engine crew. For long haul systems, higher acceleration and top speed
could reduce trip times and eliminate or reduce overtime payments or possibly the number of crews required to
operate a particular section of railroad.

1.4.4 VEHICLE MAINTENANCE (2007)
a. The cost of maintaining motive power units using different sources of power is usually one of the most
important aspects of any electrification study and frequently requires the most time and effort to determine
precisely.
b. All costs associated with maintaining each type of vehicle should be carefully derived to ensure that a true
comparison is given. If possible, each cost should be broken down into labor and material for application of
the appropriate inflation/escalation factor. It is essential that all subdivisions of vehicle maintenance cost be
included in the total. Some of the more frequent subdivisions include: locomotive repairs, supervisory staff,
shop machinery, power plant machinery, locomotive or transit vehicle servicing, maintaining power plants,
maintaining fueling facilities, maintaining maintenance shops, insurance, unemployment insurance,
hospital insurance, personal injuries, health and welfare benefits, old age retirement, and supplemental
annuities. Recently, it has become a relatively common practice to capitalize the very heavy repairs or
rebuilding of locomotives and EMUs; and these costs should be taken into account. The total maintenance
cost is most easily used when apportioned on a gross ton mile basis.
c. However, greater accuracy can be achieved if the total cost can be divided into portions which are
predominantly a function of unit miles operated, horsepower-hours generated, or chronological age.
d. The cost of maintaining diesel electric locomotives, electric locomotives and electric multiple unit (EMU)
cars can be easily obtained from existing records of many North American railroads that utilize such fleets.
Cost projections from the builders or suppliers of electrically powered vehicles can form the basis for the
total cost, but extensive research should be done to determine the cost being experienced by users of electric 1
locomotives and EMUs. Electrification studies frequently refer to electric locomotive maintenance cost as a
per cent of the diesel locomotive maintenance cost on a gross ton mile basis.
1.4.5 OCS/THIRD RAIL MAINTENANCE (2007)

a. While constant-tension simple catenary systems are more economical to maintain than variable-tension
systems, a certain amount of adjustment, wire replacement, and repair after derailments will be required.
3
OCS maintenance costs are influenced by terrain, trackwork complexity, climate and rail traffic. Existing
electrified systems should be reviewed to evaluate the OCS maintenance experience, requirements and costs
prior to making projections for a new system.
b. Third-rail maintenance should be treated in the same manner as OCS maintenance.

4
1.4.6 SUBSTATION AND TRANSMISSION LINE MAINTENANCE (2007)
The cost of periodically inspecting and testing transformer oil, switchgear operation, rectifiers, substation
facilities, control batteries, supervisory control systems, and clearing trees from the vicinity of transmission and
distribution lines should be estimated. This is frequently done by taking a percentage of the initial installation cost
as being the annual maintenance cost.
1.4.7 SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE (2007)
If cab signals or other signal improvements are separately justified, no effect will be felt on the electrification
economics. However, eliminating the open line wire on poles associated with some existing signal systems usually
means less maintenance of the system.

1.4.8 TAXES (2007)

a. The large expenses required for electrification should be thoroughly reviewed by tax specialists to determine
the effects on taxes paid by the company. The increased valuation frequently increases property taxes while
the savings when translated to increased income can cause greater income taxes.
b. The effect on taxes made by various investment tax credits, depreciation reserves, and possibly existing
unused tax credits should be thoroughly reviewed. This is especially true for government supported,
operated, and/or owned facilities, equipment and systems.
SECTION 1.5 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY CHANGES
1.5.1 GENERAL (2007)
a. Installation of an OCS or third rail will cause some changes in maintenance-of-way techniques. Third-rail
operation may require up to 20% of wood ties, where used, to be longer than standard, so any renewal
program costs should address this aspect. In addition to the increased material cost of the long tie, labor to
unfasten and re-attach the third-rail insulator and support assembly must be included. Additional care must
be exercised by tampers around impedance bonds, ground wires, and third rails, and the size of maintenance
equipment is frequently restricted by a third-rail system, both of which can affect productivity and add to
the cost of maintenance.
b. Cranes and wrecking derrick booms should be equipped with insulated shields when working under an OCS
to avoid a grounding contact with the wire. Snow plows or spreaders operating with wings may be restricted
by OCS supports. All equipment should be grounded to provide a positive electrical path for accidental
contact with energized circuits. Additional vegetation trimming may be required to maintain adequate
clearances to the OCS conductors. Again, these factors may add some measure of cost to maintenance and
should be considered.
SECTION 1.6 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS AND LIABILITIES
1.6.1 GENERAL (2007)
a. During an electrification study, many items will appear which have little monetary impact, but which offer
distinct benefits or liabilities for electric operation. Electrification has a positive impact on line-of-road
failures, pollution control, noise and exhaust emissions, performance with overload capability, performance
with superior wheel-slip systems, and the option to use different types of fuel. The OCS can be tapped at
remote locations to provide power for power switches, switch heaters, lights, and wayside buildings.
Negative aspects of electrification involve additional work when clearing wrecks, partial or total system
shutdown for large power failures, safety problems with the exposed electrical system, and possible under-
utilization of locomotives. Extra training will be required for those responsible for maintaining both electric
and diesel motive power units.
b. With increasing local, state and federal government oversight, regarding electrical safety procedures on
traction power systems, transit systems must provide the financial resources to support annual safety
training for all personnel and specifically for electric traction employees, and for maintaining suitable
follow-up documentation.

33
Part 2
Clearances1
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Third-rail Clearance Diagram (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
2.2 Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Overhead Electrification . . . 33-2-2

2.2.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
2.2.2 Construction Clearance (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-3 1
2.2.3 Electrical Clearances (Air Clearances) (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-3
2.2.4 Depth of Construction of the Catenary (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-10
2.2.5 Load Gage (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-10
2.2.6 Lateral Displacements and Superelevation (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-11
2.2.7 Altitude Compensation (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-11
2.2.8 Basic Formulae for Calculation of Vertical and Lateral Structure Openings (1995). . . . . 33-2-11 3
2.2.9 Vertical Clearance (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-12
2.2.10 Tolerances in the Catenary System and Position of T rack (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-13
2.2.11 Calculations (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-14
2.2.12 Technical Notes (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-15
LIST OF FIGURES
33-2-1 Vertical Clearance Allowance at Overbridges and Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-4

33-2-2 Vertical and Lateral Clearances with Superelevated Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-5
33-2-2A Third-rail Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-6
1 References, Vol. 78, 1977, p. 139; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 266; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 65; Vol. 96, p. 98; Vol. 97, p. 255. Approved with revisions 1996.

LIST OF TABLES
33-2-1 Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Locomotives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-7
33-2-2 Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Multiple Unit Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-7
33-2-3 Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Light Rail Transit Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-8
33-2-4 Air Clearances (P, C) – Electrical Clearances to Overbridges and Tunnels (To Grounded Structures)33-2-8
33-2-5 Total Vertical Clearances Above Load Height Using Typical Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-9
33-2-6 Superelevation Allowance (E) – Allowance at Pantograph/Contact Wire Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-9
33-2-7 Altitude Compensation (A) – Adjustment of Electrical Clearances in Table 33-2-4 . . . . . . . . . 33-2-10
33-2-8 Catenary Construction Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-10
33-2-9 Clearance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-13
33-2-10 Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-13
SECTION 2.1 THIRD-RAIL CLEARANCE DIAGRAM (1995)
See Chapter 12, Rail T ransit and Chapter 28, Clearances.
SECTION 2.2 RECOMMENDED CLEARANCE SPECIFICATION TO PROVIDE FOR

OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION
2.2.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. The figures and tables in this Part include the electrical clearances required for direct-current voltages of
0.75 kV, 1.5 kV and 3.0 kV and alternating-current voltages of 12.5 kV, 25.0 kV and 50.0 kV for pantograph
heights above top of rail between 12 feet and 25 feet.
b. The electrical clearances for high-voltage alternating-current catenaries are based primarily on those
railroads already electrified at 25 kV and 12.5 kV. The clearances for 50 kV are derived from about twice the
proven and accepted clearance requirements for 25 kV.
c. The standard power supply for high-voltage alternating current overhead electrification is single phase, 60
Hz.
d. The electrical clearances for direct-current voltages of 0.75, 1.5 and 3 kV are based upon existing good
practice and construction limits.
e. The two figures, four tables and two basic formulae are included to facilitate calculation of vertical and
lateral structure openings for the various dc and ac voltages.
f. For calculation purposes, it is generally agreed that electrical clearances should be based on 50 kV where a
lower voltage has not been specified, since this is the voltage being studied by virtually every major railroad
contemplating electrification. In new construction, these clearances should be based on “normal” rather
than “absolute minimum” values as shown in Table 33-2-4. For existing overhead structures where
physical constraints exist and considerable expense would be involved to achieve normal clearances, the
recommended absolute minimums may be considered.

Clearances
g. The application of such minimums may need to be accompanied by the use of protective shields,
insulated messenger wires, or other special measures in order to assure system reliability and
maintainability under potentially adverse conditions.
h. The original clearance drawing, along with the Report of the Engineering Division on Electrical
Facilities (AREMA Committee on Electrical Energy Utilization) for clearances under structures on lines
that are or may be electrified was declared adopted by the AAR Engineering Division on December 12,
1975, and the updated figures and tables were declared adopted in March 1995.
i. With the exception of altitude compensation, the proposed clearance diagram has also been written into
the Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual on May 10, 1976, using a simplified formula for 25 kV and 50
kV on lines contemplating electrification. (See 23 CFR, Chapter 1, Appendix to Subpart B)
2.2.2 CONSTRUCTION CLEARANCE (1995)
A construction clearance, as opposed to an electrical clearance, must include provision for a number of factors,
the most important of which are:
• The electrical clearances between the structure and live parts of the overhead catenary system.
• The loading gage.
• The electrical clearances between the contact wire and load gage.
• The dynamic movement or displacement of the rolling stock in the vertical and horizontal directions. 1
• The uplift of the catenary system when the contact wire is swept by the pantograph.
• Civil and mechanical engineering tolerances in construction and maintenance of the track and
overhead system.
• Depth of catenary including contact wire, messenger wires and hardware.

3
2.2.3 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES (AIR CLEARANCES) (2005)
a. The Clearance diagrams Figure 33-2-1 and Figure 33-2-2 recognize two types of electrical or air
clearances, “Passing” and “Static”, designated as P or C in Table 33-2-4. These two clearances are used
in the two basic formulae to calculate vertical and horizontal structure openings in conjunction with
Table 33-2-1, Table 33-2-2, Table 33-2-3, and Table 33-2-6. Typical electrical clearances are given in
Table 33-2-4 and typical vertical clearances are given in Table 33-2-5. Railroad lines operating above the 4
3,000-foot (914 M) elevation must use the altitude compensation factors shown in Table 33-2-7.
Refer to Figure 33-2-2A. for an illustration of the dimensional considerations which must be addressed in
third-rail territory.

Figure 33-2-1. Vertical Clearance Allowance at Overbridges and Tunnels

Clearances
NOTE: NOTE: This diagram shows recommended basis for minimum clearances, with twin contact 4
wires, between support positions. Allowances are based on class 6 track and dynamic
deflection. Operation on other track classes requires “S” to be increased in proportion to
dynamic movement of the vehicles to be operated. Detailed engineering investigations may
result in deviation: see Table 33-2-1, Table 33-2-2, or Table 33-2-3 item 5.
Figure 33-2-2. Vertical and Lateral Clearances with Superelevated Track

Figure 33-2-2A. Third-rail Territory

Clearances
Table 33-2-1. Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Locomotives
Class 6 Track Conditions Displacement in inches (mm)
(Adjust Item 5 for Lower Class) (One side only)

Pantograph Height above Rail in feet 15 feet 19 feet 22 feet 25 feet
Pantograph Height above Rail in (M) (4.57) (5.79) (6.71) (7.62)
1. Lateral 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2. Side Bearing Tilt 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.2
3. Springs 1 inch difference in height 2.9 3.8 4.5 5.2
4. Bolster Swing (neglected) 0 0 0 0
5. Rails - 1/2 inch difference in height at 59.5 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.5
inch centers
6. Pantograph Sway - assumed 14 foot lockdown 1.6 1.9 3.0 4.1
Total S in inches 8.2 10.2 12.6 15.0
Total S in (mm) (208) (259) (320) (381)
1
Table 33-2-2. Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Multiple Unit Cars

3
1. Lateral 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
2. Side Bearing Tilt (Neglected) 0 0 0 0
3. Car body Roll (3°) 9.4 11.9 13.8 15.7
4. Bolster Swing (neglected) 0 0 0 0 4
inch centers
6. Pantograph Sway - assumed 14 foot lockdown 1.6 1.9 3.0 4.1
Total S in inches 14.5 17.7 21.0 24.3
Total S in (mm) (368) (450) (533) (617)

Table 33-2-3. Basis for Lateral Displacements (S) – Values for Light Rail Transit Cars

1. Lateral 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2. Side Bearing Tilt (neglected) 0 0 0 0
3. Car body Roll (3°) 8.1 9.4 10.7 12.5
4. Bolster Swing (neglected) 0 0 0 0
inch centers
6. Pantograph Sway - assumed 11′-9″ lockdown 1.5 1.7 1.9 3.0
Total S in inches 11.8 13.5 15.2 18.4
Total S in (mm) (300) (343) (386) (467)
Table 33-2-4. Air Clearances (P, C) – Electrical Clearances to Overbridges and Tunnels
(To Grounded Structures)
Air Clearance: Inches (mm)

Nominal
System Normal Absolute Minimum
Voltage
P C P C
0.75 KV dc 3 (76) 4 (102) 3 (76) 3 (76)
1.5 KV dc 3.5 (89) 5 (127) 3 (76) 4 (102)
3.0 KV dc 4 (102) 6 (152) 3 (76) 5 (127)
12.5 KV ac 4 (102) 5 (127) 3 (76) 4 (102)
25.0 KV ac 6 (150) 8 (200) 5 (125) 6 (150)
(Note 1)
50.0 KV ac 14 (356) 18 (457) 11 (280) 13.5 (343)
P = Electrical Passing Clearance (Note 2)
C = Electrical Static Clearance
Note 1: = Conversion From Metric Standards
Note 2: Minimum Mechanical Passing Clearance = 3 (76)

Clearances
Table 33-2-5. Total Vertical Clearances Above Load Height Using Typical Dimensions
Total Vertical Clearance: Inches (mm)

(For Altitudes Below 3000 Feet) (914 M)
Nominal
System Between/Without
At Catenary Supports
Voltage Supports
Normal Minimum Normal Minimum

0.75 KV dc 17 (432) 14 (356) 14 (356) 12 (305)
1.5 KV dc 19 (483) 15 (381) 16 (406) 12.5 (318)
3.0 KV dc 20.5 (521) 17 (432) 18 (457) 14.5 (368)
12.5 KV ac 19 (483) 15 (381) 16 (406) 12.5 (318)
25 KV ac Running Lines 23 (584) 18 (457) 20 (508) 16 (406)
25 KV ac Terminals 24.5 (622) 19 (483) 22 (559) 16.5 (419)
50 KV ac Running Lines 39 (991) 30 (762) 36 (914) 28 (711)
50 KV ac Terminals 44.5 (1130) 34 (864) 42 (1067) 31.5 (800)
Note 1. Actual total vertical clearances measured above published load height clearance may
vary due to local site specific parameters.
Note 2. Minimum clearances should only be used in extreme cases. The engineering
responsibility should include a full understanding of local circumstances including
the possible consequences of using absolute minimum electrical clearances. 1
Note 3. Adjustment of component items is needed for situations over 3,000 feet (914 M)
altitude; see Table 33-2-7.
Table 33-2-6. Superelevation Allowance (E) – Allowance at Pantograph/Contact Wire Level

3
Pantograph Height Above Rail
Feet (M)
15 feet 19 feet 22 feet 25 feet
–
(4.57) (5.79) (6.71) (7.62)
Superelevation
Inches (mm) 4
1 3.0 3.8 4.4 5.0
(25) (76) (97) (112) (127)
2 6.0 7.7 8.9 10.1
(51) (152) (195) (226) (257)
3 9.1 11.5 13.3 15.1
(76) (231) (292) (338) (384)
4 12.1 15.3 17.7 20.2
(102) (307) (389) (450) (513)
5 15.1 19.2 22.2 25.2
(127) (384) (488) (564) (640)
6 18.1 23.0 26.6 30.2
(152) (460) (584) (676) (767)

Table 33-2-7. Altitude Compensation (A) – Adjustment of Electrical Clearances in Table 33-2-4
Altitude: Feet (M) Multiply By

0 – 3,000 (0-914) 1.00
3,000 – 4,000 (914-1219) 1.02
4,000 – 5,000 (1219-1524) 1.05
5,000 – 6,000 (1524-1829) 1.08
6,000 – 7,000 (1829-2134) 1.11
7,000 – 8,000 (2134-2438) 1.14
8,000 – 9,000 (2438-2743) 1.17
9,000 – 10,000 (2743-3048) 1.20
b. The electrical “passing” clearance, designated P, is the clearance between the catenary system or
pantograph and an overhead structure or load gage under actual operating conditions during the short
time it takes for a train to pass.
c. The “static” electrical clearance, designated C, may be defined as the clearance between the catenary
system, when not subjected to pantograph pressure, and the overhead structure or load gage.
d. The normal static electrical voltage clearance requirements are based on approximately 0.25 inch to 0.3
inch for each 1,000 volts ac in accordance with international practice on electrified railroads.
2.2.4 DEPTH OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CATENARY (1995)
a. The three minimum depths of catenary construction normally used at overpasses, through truss bridges
or in tunnels, designated as D, are shown in Table 33-2-8.
Table 33-2-8. Catenary Construction Depths
Construction Type Inches mm

Messenger-contact wire construction 6.0 152
Twin-contact wire construction (at supports) 4.5 114
Twin-contact wire construction (between supports) 1.5 38
b. Where supports may be required under a bridge or in a tunnel and suitable pockets to install the support
hardware cannot be made, the depth for twin-contact wire construction should be calculated on the basis
of the depth at supports unless completely insulated support material can be used. The catenary
construction depth shall include the contact and messenger wire diameters together with catenary
hardware items.
NOTE: Twin-contact wire construction may require the same material to be used for both messenger
and contact to achieve equal expansion. Support arms holding twin contact wires shall have
restriction in movement both up and down.
2.2.5 LOAD GAGE (1995)
a. The normal load gage for most major railroads will vary between 16 and 21 feet (4.88 and 6.40 M).
Abnormal load heights may exceed 23 to 25 feet (7.01 to 7.62 M) but these will be the exception rather

Clearances
than the rule. The load gage is shown as the “Y” dimension on the clearance diagram. Additional
information is included in Chapter 28, Clearances.
b. Abnormal load heights up to the minimum contact wire height above any track section may be
accommodated by de-energizing the catenary by means of section switches or the use of dead wire
catenary sections.
2.2.6 LATERAL DISPLACEMENTS AND SUPERELEVATION (1995)
a. The limits of dynamic movement of rolling stock will vary considerably according to type of equipment
and track conditions. The lateral displacement values shown in Table 33-2-1, Table 33-2-2, and Table 33-
2-3 for Locomotives, Multiple Unit (M-U) cars and Light Rail Transit (LRT) cars have been developed by
the manufacturers of these equipments, or verified by operating experience.
b. The maximum superelevation in Table 33-2-6 has been based on 6 inches (152 mm) which results in a
lateral displacement of 30.2 inches (767 mm) at a height of 25 feet (7.62 M) above top of rail.
c. The method by which superelevation is achieved may vary among railroads. In the diagram, it is
assumed that the inner rail is lowered and the outer rail is elevated. On this basis, the sway of the
pantograph becomes symmetrical about the track centerline. If only the outer rail is raised, which is the
normal practice for most railroads, the track centerline may have to be realigned to provide for clear
passage of the pantograph through the available opening in an arched tunnel, bridge or overpass.
d. The lateral displacements shown on the clearance diagram Figure 33-2-2 and Table 33-2-1, Table 33-2-2,
and Table 33-2-3 are based on FRA Class 6 track and static deflection. For other classes of track, the
1
dimension “S” must be increased and detailed engineering investigations may be required. (See 49 CFR,
Chapter 2, Para. 213.63)
2.2.7 ALTITUDE COMPENSATION (1995)
a. The air dielectric strength is reduced by increased elevation and railroads operating above the 3,000-foot 3
(914 M) level must apply the altitude compensation factors shown in Table 33-2-7 and in accordance with
the latest edition of the National Electrical Safety Code. Similar correction factors will apply to high-
voltage transmission lines and substation equipment.
b. In the two formulae below, the subscript “A” has been used to designate the altitude compensation factor
that should be applied to the passing (P) and static (C) dimensions above the 3,000-foot (914 M) level.
4
2.2.8 BASIC FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND LATERAL
STRUCTURE OPENINGS (1995)
Two basic formulae have been developed to determine the vertical and horizontal structure opening for various
voltages as shown on Figure 33-2-1 and Figure 33-2-2 and Table 33-2-5. These are vertical structure opening
and lateral structure opening.
2.2.8.1 Vertical Structure Opening (H)
H = Y + PA + PA + U + T + D + B
where:
Y = Maximum height of loaded or unloaded car

PA = Underside of contact wire to top of load under passing condition; and Top of catenary
messenger wire to underside of bridge deck or overpass under passing (operating)
condition – Table 33-2-4 and Table 33-2-7
U = Uplift of catenary due to pantograph pressure and operating conditions – Figure 33-
2-1
T = Tolerances for catenary construction and maintenance, and track irregularities –
Figure 33-2-1.
B = Excess dynamic vehicle bounce allowance – Figure 33-2-1.
D = Depth of catenary – Article 2.2.4.
A subscript = Altitude compensation factor for above 3,000-foot (914 M) elevation – Table 33-2-7
2.2.8.2 Lateral Structure Opening (W)
W = 2S + 2PA + X + E + 2L
where:
S = Locomotive, MU car or LRT car sway – Table 33-2-1, Table 33-2-2, or Table 33-2-3
PA = Lateral clearance of pantograph to side of tunnel, bridge arch or abutment under
passing conditions – Table 33-2-4 and Table 33-2-7
X = Pantograph, width of live portion of head
E = Lateral allowance for superelevation where applicable – Table 33-2-6
L = Lateral shift of track within civil engineer’s tolerance – 1.0 inch maximum, or in
accordance with FRA Track Standards
A subscript = Altitude compensation factor for above 3,000-foot (914 M) elevation – Table 33-2-7
2.2.9 VERTICAL CLEARANCE (1995)
The vertical clearances for overpasses, through truss bridges or tunnels can be broken down into three specific
components:
• electrical clearances and catenary system (V dimension on the figures).
• load gage (Y dimension on the figures).
• track construction requirements (future track rise allowance).
2.2.9.1 Typical Electrical Clearances
a. The electrical clearances for 50 kV are about twice the proven and accepted clearances for 25 kV.
Clearance requirements for universal application, using normal static clearance allowances for 50 kV,
can be summarized as shown in Table 33-2-9.
b. The 42-inch (1067 mm) clearance requirement is computed for systems designed to operate below the
3,000-foot (914 M) level. Clearances must be increased in accordance with Table 33-2-7 for elevations
above 3,000 feet (914 M).

Clearances
Table 33-2-9. Clearance Requirements
Clearance Inch mm
Contact wire to top of load 18 457
Catenary to underside of overpass bridge or tunnel deck 18 457
Minimum depth of catenary including wire thickness, civil tolerances 6 152
Total Catenary Requirement 42 1067
2.2.9.2 Load Gage
It is generally agreed that normal load gage, designated Y, will not exceed 21 feet (6.40M) for major railroads.
Further information is included in Chapter 28, Clearances.
2.2.9.3 Track Construction Requirements
A 12-inch (305 mm) allowance has traditionally been employed by main line railroads to allow for future raising
or ballasting of track, installing rail with a higher cross section and construction tolerances for the civil works,
except where use of a smaller allowance is required by local circumstances. A similar allowance should also be
considered for commuter rail, rapid transit and light rail systems, although the total amount would normally be
much smaller.
2.2.10 TOLERANCES IN THE CATENARY SYSTEM AND POSITION OF TRACK (1996) 1

a. Allowances should be made in addition to the passing (PA) and static (CA) clearances, for civil
engineering and wire installation irregularities in determining the vertical structure opening.
b. Under minimum clearance conditions, the catenary system should be maintained to ±0.5 inch (13 mm)
of the design level at the supports. It is recommended that an extra 0.5 inch (12 mm) allowance be added
to the tolerance for contact wire height above load gage at normal clearance conditions. 3
c. The position of the track is assumed to be maintained within the following tolerances of the design
position at overhead structures with limited clearances (Table 33-2-10), as shown by the T3 dimension on
Figure 33-2-1, and by the L dimension on Figure 33-2-2.
Table 33-2-10. Tolerances

4
Clearance Dimension
Main line height at minimum clearance ± 0.5 inch (13 mm)
Main line height at normal clearance + 1.0 inch/–0.5 inch
(+25 mm/–13 mm)
Main line lateral alignment ± 1.0 inch (25 mm)
Tunnels, bridges and overpasses height +0.5 inch/–0.0 inch
(+13 mm/–0.0 mm)
Track lateral alignment at Tunnels, bridges and overpasses ± 0.5 inch (13 mm)

2.2.11 CALCULATIONS (1995)
2.2.11.1 Vertical Structure Opening
a. For a 50 kV catenary system and a 21-foot (6.40 M) load gage, the vertical height requirement above top
of rail to a bridge structure over railroad trackage electrified or proposed for electrification may be
calculated as follows, for locations below 3,000-foot (914 M) elevation; individual component metric
equivalents omitted for clarity:
H = Y + PA + PA + U + T + D + B
= 21′-0″ + 14″ + 14″ + 2″ + 2.5″ + 4.5″ + 2″
= 24′-3″ (7.39 M)
adding 1′-0″ for track rise = 25′-3″ (7.70 M)
b. Under static conditions, P becomes C and other tolerances and allowances may be replaced by the
normal amounts for the static conditions.
c. Electrical clearance calculations are based on a highway structure or bridge crossing at right angles to
the track and centered at the mid-span point in the catenary. At other angles, catenary depths will vary
and at the points of support may amount to as much as 5′-0″ (1.52 M) where attachment to the overhead
structure has to be avoided. Adjustments for the catenary depth at the actual point of crossing must
therefore be made accordingly or twin contact wire construction considered.
2.2.11.2 Lateral Structure Opening
a. The lateral structure opening depends on the sway of the locomotive, MU car or LRT car, pantograph
width, electrical clearance to side of structure, superelevation and track tolerances. For a 50 kV catenary,
locomotives equipped with 6-feet 6-inch (1.98 M) pantographs operating over 6 inches (152 mm) of
superelevation and with a contact wire height at 25 feet (7.62 M) above top of rail, the lateral
displacement under normal operating conditions may be calculated as follows, for locations below 3,000
feet (914 M) elevation; individual component metric equivalents omitted for clarity:
W = 25 + 2PA + X + E + 2L
= 2 (15.0 inches) + 2 (14.0 inches) + 78.0 inches + 30.2 inches + 2 (1.0 inch)
= 168.2 inches or 14.02 feet; Say 14 feet (4.27 M)
b. Under static conditions the term S is omitted from the calculation and the dimension PA is replaced by
CA which may result in a smaller lateral opening in a terminal area.
c. Clearances shown in the calculations are for high-voltage alternating current electrification. The basic
formulae may also be used for low voltage electrification, i.e. 0.75, 1.5 and 3.0 kV dc.
d. Caution must also be exercised in relating electrical air clearances to insulator supports since apparent
creepage dimensions may vary due to the numerous designs available from individual manufacturers
and the wide variety of insulator configurations in use.
NOTE: All of the above equations and sample calculations have excluded the effects of side winds, ice
loading and catenary vibrations caused by high speed trains. These items should be taken into
account on a site specific basis during the detailed engineering analysis and design of a project.

Clearances
It is recognized that data at various voltages produces total vertical clearance allowances which
are different for dynamic passing situations and for stationary static situations. These
guidelines provide the means to arrive at both allowances, but do not direct the user to a
particular conclusion since design decisions can only be made with a full understanding of the
actual circumstances involved.
2.2.12 TECHNICAL NOTES (1995)
a. The assumption is made that the contact point of the pantograph is centered longitudinally over the
truck pivot point of the locomotive, MU car or LRT car. Where this is not the case, additional lateral
clearance on curved track sections must be determined from the exact geometry of the pantograph
passage through curves and turnouts. In these circumstances, the projected pantograph centerline is
separated from elevated track centerline and all catenary supports on curved sections should be aligned
to relate to pantograph centerline.
b. Voltages given are nominal system operating voltages; calculated clearances typically contain allowance
for + 10% variation of the nominal voltage. It is assumed that suitable lightning protection apparatus is
part of the installed system.
c. Passing Clearance refers to an air clearance between live parts of either the vehicle or catenary and the
grounded vehicle or adjacent fixed structure under dynamic conditions and exists only during the
passage of the train.
d. Static Clearance refers to an air clearance between live parts of a vehicle or catenary and the grounded
parts of a vehicle or adjacent fixed structure while the vehicle is stationary. Static clearances (not passing
1
clearances) apply to catenary and maximum car profile (including any load) in terminals and yards or
wherever vehicles may remain stationary for extended periods.
e. Where contact wire is off-center in relation to the pantograph, account must be taken of additional side-
tilting of the pantograph and clearances adjusted accordingly.
3
f. No recommendations are made as to standard or normal contact wire height or clearances since thee will
be governed by operating conditions and requirements. Where personnel are permitted or required to go
on top of rolling stock, appropriate safety clearances should be established and contact wire height
requirements will be greater than where such practice is prohibited.
g. Minimum vertical clearances generally assume the use of twin contact wire with closely spaced supports.
If messenger wire is used, the vertical opening must be increased by the messenger to contact wire 4
spacing, plus an additional catenary uplift allowance where extended length catenary spans of more than
40 feet are used.


33
Part 3
Recommended Voltages1
— 2008 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1

3.1.1 General (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1
3.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2

3.2.1 Nominal Operating Voltage (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2 1
3.2.2 Maximum No-Load Substation Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.3 Maximum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.4 Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.5 Contingency Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.3 Design Criteria (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3 3

3.4 Recommended Voltages for New Construction (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
LIST OF TABLES
33-3-1 Recommended Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
3.1.1 GENERAL (2008)
a. Existing electrified railway systems throughout the world employ a multiplicity of nominal operating
voltages depending on their age and design purpose. The recent introduction of a wide variety of
electronics in power supply systems and motor control, some incorporating regeneration, in both direct-
current (dc) and alternating-current (ac) traction motors in electrically powered railway locomotives and
1

multiple-unit and light-rail cars has virtually eliminated any need for special frequencies and voltages.
The high power requirements of modern electrified railway systems often leads to the use of higher
voltages in order to minimize the number of substations and size of distribution conductors.
b. Although it is fully recognized that each traction power installation will be subject to certain local design
criteria, it is highly desirable to use common voltage levels throughout North America to facilitate
standardized equipment manufacture and possible future run-through operations. More importantly,
voltage levels used should ensure the proper and safe application of the various elements of the fixed
plant, such as insulators, transformers, rectifiers, circuit breakers, cables, lightning and surge arresters.
By clearly defining the operating voltage levels and voltage level limits for various electric traction
systems, the entire industry- consisting of equipment manufacturers, design firms, contractors and
operating and maintenance personnel- will be placed under the same known engineering parameters as
far as the voltage is concerned. The primary benefit is that all electric traction equipment will be
manufactured and tested for the voltage level and voltage limits within which the equipment will be
operating. In the age of globalization, standardization is the only way to produce economical and reliable
equipment while ensuring availability.
SECTION 3.2 DEFINITIONS
3.2.1 NOMINAL OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the designated value of the system.
3.2.2 MAXIMUM NO-LOAD SUBSTATION VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the maximum substation bus voltage at zero traction load.
3.2.3 MAXIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the maximum voltage seen at the vehicle under any operating condition, including any
voltage increases due to regenerative braking.
3.2.4 MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the minimum voltage, seen at the vehicle, at which there is no significant degradation
in vehicle performance. This is the voltage measured at the current collection device of a train with the supply
system functioning for normal design conditions assuming no substation outages and rated continuous power
being developed by the train.
3.2.5 CONTINGENCY MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This represents the voltage that can be seen at the vehicle under contingency conditions, which permits
continuing vehicle operation with some significant degradation. Rated vehicle power and performance is not
available but reduced operation is possible assuming on-board logic will automatically degrade the performance
of auxiliaries. Typical contingency conditions could include: substation outage, loss of one or more transformers
at the substation, utility supply problems, etc.

Recommended Voltages
SECTION 3.3 DESIGN CRITERIA (2008)
The electric traction system should be designed to operate within the limits of the vehicle operating voltages
while supplying the required power, taking into consideration utility voltage fluctuation, available voltage
regulation and regeneration. It should be noted that traction substations may be supplied from high-voltage
lines which are considered “unregulated” and do not have any tariff-imposed voltage limits. Consequently, the
utility voltage could experience large fluctuations and these variations should be identified and taken into
consideration in the system design. The maximum calculated momentary voltage should be used to establish
the system insulation level and maximum operating voltage levels for electrical equipment. Contingency vehicle
operating voltage and required vehicle performance under this condition should be defined in terms of
systemwide design criteria and operating requirements. The various on-board vehicle devices must also be of a
class and type suitable for the voltages to which they may be subjected.
SECTION 3.4 RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION (2008)
The following table summarizes the recommended voltages for use in the design and operation of traction
power on electrified systems in North America. The range of voltages has been limited in number for
standardization purposes.
Table 33-3-1. Recommended Voltages

Nominal Maximum Maximum Minimum Contingency
1
Operating No-Load Vehicle Vehicle Minimum
Voltage Substation Operating Operating Vehicle
Voltage Voltage Voltage Operating
Voltage
Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc 3
750 900 975 525 450
1500 1800 1950 1050 900
3000 3600 3900 2100 1800
kV ac kV ac kV ac kV ac kV ac
12.5 15.0 15.0 10.0 8.75
4
25.0 30.0 30.0 20.0 17.5
50.0 60.0 60.0 40.0 35.0


33
Part 4
Railroad Electrification Systems1
— 2008 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3

4.1.1 Catenary Support Options (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3
4.1.2 Power Supply Equipment (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4
4.1.3 Distribution System (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4
4.1.4 Support Equipment (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-5 1
4.1.5 Sectionalization Equipment (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-6
4.2 Catenary System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7

4.2.1 General Introduction (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7
4.2.2 Climatic Conditions (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-8
4.2.3 Clearance Criteria (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9 3
4.2.4 Contact Wire Deflections (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
4.2.5 Construction Tolerances (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-11
4.2.6 Contact Wire Gradients (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
4.2.7 Catenary Pole Criteria (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
4.2.8 Catenary Pole Footings/Seatings (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
4.2.9 Sectionalizing Criteria (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-16
4.3 Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19

4.3.1 Scope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.3.2 Terms (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.3.3 Recommended Arrangements (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.4 Contact Wire Ampacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23

4.4.1 Introduction (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
4.4.2 Method of Calculating Ampacity (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-24
4.4.3 Uniform Rating Parameters (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-25
4.4.4 Sample Calculation (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
4.4.5 Table of Continuous Ampacity Ratings (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
4.4.6 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Conditions (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
4.4.7 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Ratings (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
1
References, Vol. 79, 1978, p. 70; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 61; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 116; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 205; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 123; Vol. 96, p. 110.
Revised 1995.

LIST OF FIGURES
33-4-1 Catenary Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4

33-4-2 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Single-Track Mainline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-21
33-4-3 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Two-Track Mainline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-22
33-4-4 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Three-Track Mainline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
33-4-5 Typical “Zone” Style Sectioning for Maintenance Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-24
LIST OF TABLES
33-4-1 Icing Condition Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-8

33-4-2 Wind Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9
33-4-3 Wind Speed Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9
33-4-4 Track Centerline Offsets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
33-4-5 Contact Wire Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
33-4-6 Construction Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-11
33-4-7 Contact Wire Gradients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
33-4-8 Overload Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-13
33-4-9 Wood Pole Overload Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
33-4-10 Design Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
33-4-11 Standard Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
33-4-12 Operating Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
33-4-13 Continuous Current (Steady State) Trolley Wire Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-28

Railroad Electrification Systems
SECTION 4.1 CATENARY DEFINITIONS, STANDARDS AND CONCEPTS
4.1.1 CATENARY SUPPORT OPTIONS (2001)

a. A catenary system as utilized for traction power distribution on electric railroads is defined as a messenger
wire with a contact wire suspended beneath it on hangers, mounted on fixed or hinged supports, sometimes
with one or more auxiliary wires. There are numerous styles of existing systems, many of which reflect the
historical requirements of originating organizations.
b. However, the widespread introduction of railroad electrification at 15, 25, or 50 kV with use of the local
commercial frequency has encouraged greater uniformity of catenary styles and conductor choice,
particularly since the early l960’s.
c. A considerable amount of standardization has occurred within national or regional railroad organizations
and within the larger catenary system designer or supplier groups.
d. There are now a number of well-developed catenary styles for particular applications, with supporting
concepts and standards as needed for design, installation and maintenance of catenary systems. Recent
experience has shown that use of catenary styles with mid-span sag of the contact wire, in conjunction with
use of a compatible optimized pantograph design, permits considerable increase of conventional operating
speeds. These styles are illustrated in Figure 33-4-1.
4.1.1.1 Single Contact Wire System
This system is applied where maximum train weight, power demand and speed are very low, usually not more than
40 mph (64 km/hr). It consists of a contact wire only, perhaps with a short bridle or stitch to the supports to permit
1
use of longer span lengths and higher speeds up to 70 mph (112 km/hr). Single contact wire systems are suitable
only for yards and terminals on main line railroads.
4.1.1.2 Simple Catenary System
This system is used for passenger and freight service where two wires are ample for the required current capacity. 3
It consists of a messenger wire with a contact wire suspended beneath it on hangers. Use of mid-span sagged
contact wire with a single compatible pantograph permits operation at speeds up to 225 mph (361 km/hr). Use of
level contact wire with a variety of pantograph styles and pressures normally limits operation to speeds not in
excess of 100 mph (160 km/hr).
4.1.1.3 Stitched Catenary System

4
This system is sometimes used as an alternate to simple catenary for speeds up to 186 mph (300 km/hr) with single
pantographs, and for speeds up to 125 mph (200 km/hr) with multiple pantographs, where two wires are ample for
the required current capacity but provision has to be made for a variety of pantograph styles and pressures. It is
similar to simple catenary, but with a stitch or bridle included between the two main wires in the area of the supports.
4.1.1.4 Compound Catenary System
This system is used for all speeds where the current capacity requires inclusion of a third wire and for medium and
high speeds where progressively larger numbers of pantographs are operated on a single train. Consists of a main
messenger with an auxiliary wire suspended beneath it on hangers, which in turn has a contact wire suspended on
clamps or hangers beneath it.
4.1.1.5 Double Compound Catenary System
This system is sometimes used for multiple pantograph operation on high speed lines. Consists of compound
catenary with a second intermediate auxiliary wire. The styles are illustrated on Figure 33-4-1 attached.

Figure 33-4-1. Catenary Styles
4.1.2 POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT (1995)
Equipment includes substations and switching stations which bring the correct voltage to the distribution system
from available power sources along the proposed route. The power system can be configured in either center or
end-fed arrangements depending on the specific requirements. Most common secondaries used for these systems
are 25 and 50 kV ac, 750, 1,500 and 3,000 Volts dc. These substations are spaced throughout the route depending
on the load demand and voltage drop requirements for each system. Refer to other part of this chapter for
additional details.
4.1.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (1988)
This system is made up of all conductors which bring power from the wayside substations to the electric vehicles on
the system. Depending on design requirements, each system can include.

4.1.3.1 Feed Cables
Cables bring power from the substations to the catenary conductors on the rail route.
4.1.3.2 Catenary Conductors
Conductors can include any arrangements of messenger, auxiliary and contact conductors necessary to provide the
current-carrying capacity to operate the vehicles at their required maximum speed and acceleration. In addition to
current-carrying capacity, the make-up of the catenary conductors (size, material type) is determined based on
maximum span lengths, tensions and climatic conditions for each specific application requirement.
4.1.3.3 Along Track Feeders
Feeders can be aerial at pole side or underground in dedicated cable-ways.
4.1.3.4 Equalizing Continuity Jumpers For Spans
Jumpers provide paths either between messenger and contact wire, between parallel catenary equipments or a
catenary and its along track feeder. All power can then be distributed evenly over the complex system of conductors
which make up the catenary system.
4.1.3.5 Earth/Ground Conductor
Conductor maintains support structures at ground potential and provides a supplementary return path for
traction current.
1
4.1.4 SUPPORT EQUIPMENT (2001)
This includes all equipment utilized in putting a catenary system in its optimum place for maximum current
collection and efficient mechanical operation.
4.1.4.1 Wayside Poles

3
Poles have been supplied in many shapes and materials depending on route criteria, such as soil composition,
climate, surroundings and load. The most universal has been a H section wayside pole with welded based plate
which is bolted to a cast-in-place concrete footing. Support structures for specialized applications have taken the
form of both tapered and fixed diameter tubular steel, wood and/or concrete poles, steel lattice type structures used
alongside tracks or as portal legs, and box-frame or octagonal steel forms. Support structures can be installed in a
myriad of ways, also depending upon on-site criteria. In addition to bolted base poles mounted on cast footing,
tubular poles can be directly embedded with native soil back fill or inserted into a concrete sleeve placed in a
4
previously augured hole, which can then be sealed, back filled and guyed as situations merit.
4.1.4.2 Portal Structures
Portal structures are used where marignal soil conditions do not permit the use of single wayside poles or head span
structures, where the wire alignment is critical due to heavy wind conditions or compound track curvature, and
where complex track layout areas do not provide sufficient space between tracks for placement of individual poles.
4.1.4.3 Registration Assemblies
a. These assemblies include cantilever brackets, cross-spans/head-spans, pull-off assemblies and bridge/tunnel
steady assemblies.
b. Registration equipment in single or two-track areas is generally composed of single cantilever brackets
attached to support poles positioned along side or between tracks depending upon the available clearance.
Cantilevers are best constructed using standard round galvanized tubing for diagonal and top-tube

members (in curve locations), assembled by means of U bolt-type clamps which allow quick, secure assembly
and easy-on site adjustment during registration and commissioning. Cantilevered tubing can be affixed to
the support structure through a series of H beam clamps of stainless steel strapping, which allows secure
attachments which can be readily adjusted if necessary.
c. Electrical insulation, within the cantilever frame itself, can be either porcelain or non-ceramic. Non-ceramic
insulators are a preferable choice if construction equipment has a space premium, track possession time is
at a minimum, visual impact is a priority, or vandal activity is high. Messenger wire can be supported either
at or from the diagonal or top tube, depending on specific load requirements of the project. Contact wire
registration is performed by use of steady arms designed to accept the clearance envelope of the vehicle
pantograph. Steady arms can be attached directly to diagonal cantilever tubing for tangent applications, and
to a horizontal registration tube in most curve applications. Cantilevers designed for auto tensioned
catenary are equipped with hinges at the pole face to allow the cantilever assembly to swing horizontally
with temperature change, and with integral swivel fittings at the messenger and contact wire attachments.
4.1.4.4 Cross-Span/Head-Span Construction

This construction is generally used where more than two tracks are present, usually in maintenance/marshalling
yards. Construction is accomplished through stringing one or more stranded steel cables from one support pole to a
companion pole on the opposite side. A single cable is referred to as a cross-span, while a multiple cable system,
generally with the bottom cable suspended in a horizontal position, is called a head-span. The cable assembly,
which is usually made up beforehand is insulated at each pole and at either side of each catenary with appropriate
porcelain or non-ceramic insulation. Messenger suspension clamps and contact wire registration assemblies are
attached to each head-span/cross-span with simple eye attachments to U-bolted clevis clamps, which can be placed
anywhere along the cross-span wire.
4.1.4.5 Pull-off Assemblies
These assemblies provide horizontal registration, but not vertical support, to the catenary where sharply curved
track is encountered. Pull-off assemblies are constructed from one or more stranded cable assemblies (also pre-
prepared), one end of which has a steady arm to register the contact wire and a messenger clamp to position the
messenger, with the other end attached to a pole or other structure. Connecting hardware is similar, if not
identical, to that hardware used in cross-span and cantilever construction.
4.1.4.6 Tunnel/Bridge Registration Assemblies
These assemblies can be as simple as flexible steady assemblies suspended from fabricated steel brackets at the
face of bridges and tunnel/bridge deck, or as complex as support of an entire cantilever-type assembly from a roof-
mounted steel bracket, depending on the clearances and track curvature existing at each tunnel/bridge location.
4.1.4.7 In-Span Catenary Supports
These supports include catenary hangers, used to support auxiliary and/or contact wire from messenger. Crossing
assemblies, used to allow cross over of intersecting catenaries, and spreader/knuckle assemblies, used to keep
catenaries which are at close proximity to one another at their proper spacing and level.
4.1.4.8 Terminating Assemblies
These assemblies which include guy anchors used to support poles, fixed dead end arrangements used where fixed
catenary is applied, counter weight/cylinder arrangements used where auto tensioned catenary is applied, and
midpoint arrangements used to finally locate the center point of a constant tension catenary.
4.1.5 SECTIONALIZATION EQUIPMENT (2001)

This equipment, used for sectionalizing and feeding of the overhead catenary, consists of three equipment types,
being:

• Section Breaks - electrical breaks included in the catenary system to separate individual circuits or
catenary sections which are energized at the same voltage, frequency and phase.
• Phase Breaks - electrical breaks included in the catenary system to separate feeding circuits or catenary
sections which are or may be energized at different voltages, frequencies or phases.
• Isolation Switches - sectionalizing switches or disconnects included in the catenary feeding system to
facilitate energization or de-energization of individual or multiple catenary sections for routine operation
or maintenance purposes or for quick response to faults or emergencies.
4.1.5.1 Section Breaks
The electrical separation at section breaks is provided either by use of a bridging section insulator assembly or by a
catenary air gap overlap arrangement.
The catenary hardware allows continuous current collection as pantographs cross from one section to the other to
provide uninterrupted supply of power to the train. These bridging hardware arrangements must never be used to
separate circuits fed with different supply voltages, frequencies or phases.
When required by local circumstances, a non-bridging section insulator may be specified to avoid any risk of an
overrunning pantograph shorting across the section break while one circuit is grounded; for example, at a rail
vehicle maintenance facility or other similar low speed, low power demand situation.
4.1.5.2 Phase Breaks

1
The electrical separation at phase breaks is provided either by use of two non-bridging insulating section
assemblies with a short intervening grounded or non-energized section of catenary system, or by use of a multiple
mechanical catenary overlap arrangement. They are required at substations using the same utility feed, but at
different phases to one another, or where multiple voltage levels or different utility feed sources are present. The
phase break assembly uses similar components as those used in section breaks, and is also equipped with an arc
trap arrangement to extinguish any electrical arcs created as the pantograph head traverses from the live catenary
to the non-energized portion. 3
4.1.5.3 Isolation Switches
These switches, sometimes referred to as disconnects, can be used in a variety of configurations, and are used with
section breaks and phase breaks to isolate a section (or sections) of catenary to allow maintenance or inspection.
Switches used for emergency rescue of a stranded train within the de-energized portion of a phase break need to 4
have physical or procedural safeguards to prevent inadvertent bridging of the phase break between sections of
different voltage, frequency, or phase relationship. Special procedures may be necessary for trains with two or
more raised pantographs.
SECTION 4.2 CATENARY SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
4.2.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION (1988)
The specific detailed design of a railway catenary system will be governed by the interaction of a number of
conditions imposed by the climate, vehicle design, desired train operation speeds, electrical loads and conditions,
local legal codes, structural material limitations, etc. While the designer must evaluate conditions unique to each
site, there are many parameters common to different installations for which general recommendations in this

section should be viewed as a starting point from which economic and technical analysis may justify deviations; i.e.
ice storm frequency of once a century might justify reducing or eliminating this criteria. Users of these
recommendations should also refer to the American National Standard NATIONAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY
CODE for further guidance.
4.2.2 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS (1988)
4.2.2.1 General
The following climatic conditions can combine in a number of different combinations to produce a worst case
design condition. In the interest of personal and equipment safety most railroad administrations will reduce or
suspend operations under extreme storm conditions such as blizzards, hurricanes or massive ice storms. Catenary
systems thus have two basic design categories; operating and non-operating or design limiting.
4.2.2.2 Operating Temperature Range
Although local ambient temperatures have relatively wide variations, solar and resistive heating result in a
relatively typical range of maximum operating conductor temperatures of 160-200 degrees F (71-94 degrees C).
Constant tension catenary will typically have low temperature mechanical stops placed in the tensioning system to
prevent excessive wire movement during abnormally low temperatures. These stops are normally placed at a point
where 5% of the daily low temperatures will cause engagement.
4.2.2.3 Icing Conditions
A coating of ice on the catenary system will significantly increase the total weight being supported and the area
subject to wind forces. These increases translate into larger supports and foundations. The additional catenary
system costs related to icing conditions should be balanced against the historical frequency of those conditions and
the factors of safety used in the designs. The National Electrical Safety Code contains additional details relative to
ice loadings. The criteria found in Table 33-4-1 is recommended except where frequent train operations would
justify reduced radial ice on the contact wire.
Table 33-4-1. Icing Condition Criteria
Description Criteria
Radial Ice 0.5 inch (1.3 cm)
Wind Speed 40 mph (65 km/hr)
Max Contact wire lateral deflection at a support 6 inches (15 cm)
Temperature 10°F (–12°C)
4.2.2.4 Wind Pressure
It is recommended that the equation P = 0.00256CV2 be used to calculate wind pressure on wires and structures.
The resulting pressure is in pounds per square foot for velocities in miles per hour. The shape factor C in Table 33-
4-2 is given for typical applications.

Table 33-4-2. Wind Pressure
Type Factor C
Wires 1.0
Cylindrical Sections 0.8
H Sections 1.2
Lattice Structures 1.8
Flat Surfaces 1.4
4.2.2.5 Wind Speed
The following wind speed criteria are recommended
4.2.2.5.1 Operating Wind Speed
48-60 mph (77-96 km/hr). This value should be used to compute catenary support and wire deflections for the
interface with the vehicle/pantograph system.
4.2.2.5.2 Design Wind Speed
60-80 mph (96-130 km/hr). This value is used to determine the strength requirements of the catenary system
without ice loading.
1
4.2.2.5.3 Exposed Areas
Railroads placed on very high embankments or very flat exposed areas can be subjected to abnormal wind
conditions. Wind speed criteria should be increased by the factors found in Table 33-4-3 for exposed areas and high
embankments.
Table 33-4-3. Wind Speed Criteria 3
Type Factor
Operating wind speed 1.25
Design wind speed 1.5
4
4.2.2.5.4 Sheltered Areas
Across track wind speeds in cuts, deep forests or urban areas are less than normal. Wind speeds in sheltered areas
can be reduced to 0.8 times that selected for normal operating and design conditions.
4.2.3 CLEARANCE CRITERIA (1984)
4.2.3.1 Pantograph Size
As with Part 2, Clearances, the pantograph is assumed to measure 6′-6″ (1.98 M) over the tips of the horns with a
working width of at least 4′-4″ (1.32 M) able to effectively contact the wire.
4.2.3.2 Tangent Support Locations
State and sometimes local codes usually specify minimum distances from track centerline to any lateral
obstructions; this is frequently 8′-6″ (2.6 M). Chapter 28, Clearances also provides design guidance with respect to

bridges and tunnels for electrified railroads. It should be noted that increasing the support offset from the track
centerline will increase pole and foundation sizes, cantilever arm size and total system cost. The offsets from track
centerlines to face of poles shown in Table 33-4-4 are recommended.
Table 33-4-4. Track Centerline Offsets
Offset Distance
Normal 9′-6″ (2.9 M)
Minimum 8′-6″ (2.6 M)
4.2.3.3 Curve Adjustments to Support Locations
Lateral clearances on curves are normally increased by 1 inch (2.5 cm) for each degree of curvature. Superelevation
should be compensated for as shown in Part 2, Clearances, Article 2.2.6. This adjustment is needed only when the
minimum offset is being used or when the adjusted clearance would fall below the
8′-6″ (2.6 M) minimum.
4.2.3.4 Contact Wire Height
a. Contact wire height will vary considerably over an entire route being electrified as overhead obstructions
are avoided. Minimum contact wire height will be determined by the required load clearances, type of
obstruction and insulation techniques employed. Recommended contact wire height (Table 33-4-5) in open
territory which allows for a future one foot (0.3 M) of track raising and surfacing is.
Table 33-4-5. Contact Wire Height
System Height
50 KV system 24 ft (7.3 M)
25 KV system 23 ft (7.0 M)
12.5 KV system 22 ft (6.7 M)
b. It should be noted that the National Electrical Safety Code requires a minimum 22 foot (6.7 M) clearance at
highway grade crossings under the worst conditions. At locations where people may be required to get on
top of vehicles (shops or selected yard conditions) the contact wire should be placed near the maximum
reach of the pantograph (frequently 25 feet or 7.6 M) with grounded isolation capabilities required.
4.2.4 CONTACT WIRE DEFLECTIONS (1984)
4.2.4.1 Contact Wire Stagger
In order to distribute wear across the pantograph wear strips the contact wire is usually pulled from one side of the
track centerline to the other alternately from support to support on tangent track. The recommended stagger in
both directions from the track centerline is 6 inches (15 cm) on tangent track.
4.2.4.2 Contact Wire Stagger on Curves
The recommended stagger on curves at the support should be placed towards the outside of the curve and should
not exceed 6 inches (15 cm). Care should be taken on sharp curves to insure that the midspan offset towards the
inside of the curve does not exceed 6 inches (15 cm).

4.2.4.3 Ambient Temperature Deflections
The typical cantilever catenary support arms used for constant tension catenary systems rotate through an arc as
the wire temperature changes until the low temperature stops are engaged. This along track rotation results in the
wire moving perpendicular to the track with the maximum deflection occurring at the tensioning devices. The
recommended maximum deflection perpendicular to the track caused by temperature changes is 2.5 inches (6.3 cm).
4.2.4.4 Wind Deflection
High wind conditions will cause both catenary and vehicles to be deflected in the same direction. It is
recommended that the maximum pole deflection under operating conditions without ice at the contact wire height
be limited to 4 inches (10 cm).
Wind deflection of the contact wire between supports is a function of wire tensions, catenary, styles, wind angle,
span length, etc. It is recommended that mid-span deflections be limited to 12 inches (30 cm) without ice and 10
inches (25 cm) with ice. These recommendations are based on the theoretical vehicle sway (Part 2, Clearances,
Article 2.2.6) against strong winds being effectively reduced by 50%.
NOTE: Total contact wire deflection should be adjusted downward if poor track cross-level is
present.
1
4.2.5 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES (2001)
The construction tolerance values (deviations from specified dimensions) found in Table 33-4-6 are recommended.
Table 33-4-6. Construction Tolerances 3
Type Dimension
Main Line Alignment 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Secondary Track Alignment 2 in. (5 cm)
Main Track Elevation 1 in. (2.5 cm) 4
Secondary Track Elevation 3 in. (7.5 cm)
Pole Location 3 in. (7.5 cm)
Foundation Elevation 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Contact Wire Alignment 2 in. (5 cm)
Contact Wire Elevation
Yard Conditions 6 in. (15 cm)
30 mph (48 km/hr) 4 in. (10 cm)
45 mph (73 km/hr) 3 in. (7.5 cm)
60 mph (96 km/hr) 2 in. (5 cm)
80 mph (130 km/hr) 1.5 in. (3.2 cm)
100 mph (160 km/hr) 1.25 in. (3.2 cm)
Over 100 mph (160 km/hr) 1.0 in. (2.5 cm)

4.2.6 CONTACT WIRE GRADIENTS (2001)
a. The rate at which the contact wire changes its elevation relative to the track elevation is very important if
pantograph bounce and the resulting arcing are to be avoided. The recommended maximum gradients found
in Table 33-4-7 will permit the use of multiple locomotives with operating pantographs.
b. Except for yard conditions, the change of grade from one span to the next should not exceed one half the
values shown.
Table 33-4-7. Contact Wire Gradients
Description Percent
Yard Conditions 2.3%
30 mph (48 km/hr) 1.3%
45 mph (73 km/hr) 0.8%
60 mph (96 km/hr 0.6%
80 mph (130 km/hr) 0.5%
100 mph (160 km/hr) 0.4%
125 mph (200 km/hr) 0.3%
150 mph (240 km/hr) 0.2%
Over 150 mph (240 km/hr) 0.1%
4.2.7 CATENARY POLE CRITERIA (1991)
Catenary systems are typically supported from poles made of steel, concrete, or wood. The design limit is usually
found to be the stress due to bending or the deflection due to wind loads, not buckling caused by vertical loads as is
frequently the case in buildings and other structures addressed in local codes or AISC recommendations. Overload
and safety factors have a way of being multiplied together in the design process until the overall factor of safety is
significantly greater than desired or required. In a similar manner the guaranteed strength of commercially
available structural steel and prestressed concrete can be significantly below test results. These two items can
combine to produce a catenary pole which is much stronger than necessary, and which will cost more than
anticipated. It is, therefore, recommended that some sample poles be tested to failure to ensure that the overall
design is reasonable and economical. Mass purchases of poles should be in accordance with a final specification and
design, prepared following analysis of test results.
4.2.7.1 Design Loads
a. It is recommended that the horizontal load be the worst case computed from Article 4.2.2 (including ice
loading, as appropriate) acting on the catenary system and any ancillary wires, plus any additional horizontal
loading (without ice) imposed either by the pole or by the support hardware. Poles placed on curves should
include the additional horizontal load imposed by the various wire tensions acting on the curve.

b. It is recommended that the vertical load be the worst case computed from Article 4.2.2 (including ice
loading, as appropriate) acting on the catenary system and any ancillary wires, plus the additional vertical
loading (without ice) imposed by the pole and by the support hardware.
c. It is recommended that the occasional imposition of additional vertical and horizontal loading, when ice is
present on the pole itself or on support hardware, shall be considered as one of the imponderable conditions
provided for by the use of safety factors. However, it is also recommended that design checks of worst case
scenarios be undertaken to verify the adequacy of selected poles to withstand local icing criteria.
4.2.7.2 Overload Capacity
a. It is recommended that the overload factors shown in Table 33-4-8 be applied to the calculated design loads
derived from Article 4.2.2.4 and Article 4.2.2.5.2, for use in calculation of stresses when using steel or
prestressed concrete poles.
b. It is recommended that the overload capacity factors found in Table 33-4-8 be increased, when wood poles
are used, to the factors shown in Table 33-4-9.
Table 33-4-8. Overload Factors 1

Load Factor
Transverse Loads
Wind 2.5
Wire Tension 1.65 3
Longitudinal Loads
General 1.1
Dead–Ends 1.65
Vertical Loads
1.5 4

Table 33-4-9. Wood Pole Overload Factors
Load Factor
Transverse Loads
Wind 4.0
Wire Tension 2.0
Longitudinal Loads
General 1.3
Dead–Ends 2.0
Vertical Loads 4.0
4.2.7.3 Design Margin
Recognizing that variations occur in the strength of commercially produced steel and other poles, it is
recommended that a design margin be used in selecting pole sizes as shown in Table 33-4-10.
Table 33-4-10. Design Margin
Type Margin
Steel Poles 1.05
Prestressed Concrete 1.1
Wood 1.25
4.2.7.4 Electrical Bonding
It is recommended that all poles and catenary support hardware be bonded to assure that insulation faults will be
properly detected and circuit breakers operated. This may be achieved by running a return conductor along the top of
the poles with intermittent connections to rails (see Part 5, Signal Compatibility with Alternating Current Railway
Electrification, Section 5.6, Use of Impedance Bonds with Alternating Current Railway Electrification). The use
of concrete or wood poles may require additional consideration regarding the means of bonding to be adopted.
4.2.7.5 Pole Coatings
The environmental conditions which surround a catenary pole frequently dictate the use of a coating or
preservative in order to obtain the desired economic life. Wood poles are normally pressure treated with various
chemicals to retard decay and repel insects and bacteria. Concrete poles need to be treated to reduce absorption of
water, which can be very detrimental during freeze/thaw cycles and causes corrosion of reinforcing steel.
Weathering steel poles can be used without coatings unless they are subjected to a high salt atmosphere, such as
near the ocean or near some types of chemical manufacturing plants, and provided that associated concrete
footings extend sufficiently above natural ground level to inhibit rain-splash of harmful ground-based salts. Plain
carbon steel poles are usually hot-dip galvanized, plated or given a multiple coat of paint preservative. Poles should
be cleaned of any scale, oil, rust, etc., before coatings are applied.
4.2.8 CATENARY POLE FOOTINGS/SEATINGS (2008)
Catenary pole footings are provided to transfer the loads imposed on the pole to the supporting ground. Since the
predominant forces in the catenary pole are bending, the pole footings are usually designed to maximize side
bearing capacity. Catenary poles can be installed in a number of different ways as follows:

• Direct implantation into native ground (wood or concrete poles).
• Direct implantation into cored concrete footings cast in prepared holes.
• Attached to concrete footings cast in prepared holes.
• Attached to steel or precast tapered concrete footings driven directly into the ground.
4.2.8.1 Design Loads and Design Methods
It is recommended that catenary pole footings be designed for the loads derived from Article 4.2.7.2 without
inclusion of the pole safety factor covered in Article 4.2.7.3. Foundation designs may be checked in accordance with
the method outlined in the Uniform Building Code.
4.2.8.2 Ground Conditions
4.2.8.2.1 Slopes
Catenary pole footings must frequently be placed on embankments or in cuts where the side bearing strength is
not equal to flat terrain. It is recommended that the pole footing depth be increased by the following factors for
embankment conditions:
a. 30 degrees embankment–1.25.
b. 45 degrees embankment–1.43. 1
4.2.8.2.2 Surface Conditions
The surface of relatively level ground near railroad tracks is frequently composed of loose ballast, cinders, sand and
other material with poor side bearing characteristics. It is, therefore, recommended that at least the first one foot
of footing depth be excluded when calculating footing depths in flat terrain.
3
4.2.8.2.3 Frost Effects
In order to avoid the detrimental effects of frost heave on catenary poles, it is recommended that the bottom of
poles or pole footings be located at least 2 feet below the frost line in all cases.
4.2.8.3 Ground Bearing Strength

4
The vertical and horizontal bearing strength of native and built-up ground varies widely and should be confirmed
on a site-specific basis. Typical values of horizontal bearing strength in normal ground vary from 1,000 to 500
pounds per square foot or less, while a typical vertical bearing strength may be in-the range of 8,000 pounds per
square foot. These values are given as examples; actual values may be dependent upon the specification adopted.
4.2.8.4 Gravity Footings
Gravity footings are used where the horizontal bearing strength of local ground is so low that it cannot be relied
upon to restrain the pole footing horizontally. It is recommended that gravity type footings be designed with a
safety factor of 1.5 against overturning forces.
4.2.8.5 Tapered Footings
Precast concrete tapered footings, which are driven into suitable ground without any excavation, compact the
earth and significantly increase the horizontal bearing strength of the earth by a factor of 1.3 to 1.5.

4.2.8.6 Rock Footings
Catenary poles may sometimes be placed in rock whose consistency may vary from soft crumbling sandstone to
solid granite bedrock. Care must be taken in selecting the proper grout or epoxy agent used to fix the pole or
anchor bolts in holes drilled or blasted in the rock to maximize shear strength and long-term stability.
4.2.8.7 Surface Drainage
Except for directly implanted poles, an interface will exist between the pole and its footing. This interface should
be sloped away from the pole to assist in drainage and to minimize the corrosive effects of water and dissolved salts
at the point where maximum stress is usually found. It is also recommended that additional preservative
treatments, in the form of special paints or caulking, should be applied in order to extend the service life of this
interface.
4.2.8.8 Anchor Bolts
Anchor bolts, when employed, form the critical interface between the catenary pole and its footing. It is
recommended that anchor bolts conform to the requirements of ASTM F 1554, which provides for three grades of
steel having yield strengths of 36-ksi, 55-ksi and 105-ksi. Designers should select the grade most appropriate to the
design of the foundations and the loads that must be carried.
Being a very critical link in the catenary support system and located near the surface of the ground where they can
be struck by various objects, particularly during construction, anchor bolts must be strong and tough throughout
all anticipated temperature ranges. Low temperatures, normally found in the Northern part of the United States
and all of Canada, may be sufficient to cause some steel alloys to become brittle and fracture unexpectedly under
shock loading conditions. Therefore, it is recommended that, in addition to the normal yield and ultimate stress
tests, anchor bolts to be used in cold climates be required to pass the Charpy Impact Requirements specified under
Supplementary Conditions S4 and S5 in ASTM F 1554, and shall meet the requirements listed in Tables S1.1 and
S1.2 as appropriate. The Charpy V-Notch test shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM A 370.
In addition, to minimize the possibility of damage in cold weather, anchor bolts should be protected during
construction to the greatest extent possible.
4.2.9 SECTIONALIZING CRITERIA (2001)
There are a number of key criteria applicable to section breaks, phase breaks and isolation switches, and one or
more individual criteria may influence the choice of hardware arrangement adopted for a specific railroad
electrification system.
A section break is a location in the catenary system where an electrical separation between circuits or sections of
the same voltage, frequency and phase relationship is provided, with a smooth pantograph transition and
uninterrupted collection of electrical current.
A phase break is a location in the catenary system where an electrical separation between circuits or sections at
different voltages, frequencies or phase relationships is provided, with a smooth pantograph transition, but with
effective interruption of current collection as pantographs pass through the transition zone.
The criteria to be considered are summarized in the following subsections, and recommended sectionalizing
practices are contained in Section 4.3.
4.2.9.1 Section Breaks
There are two types of section breaks, consisting either of a section insulator assembly incorporating overlapping
skids or runners; or of an air gap overlap in the catenary system.

Both types provide continuous current collection with short sections where the pantograph head is in simultaneous
contact with both electrical sections. Under certain train location scenarios, the pantograph head will conduct
power between the adjacent electrical sections while traversing this bridging area, which can have fault or safety
implications under certain circumstances.
a. Section insulators are assemblies of special insulators and catenary hardware which have to comply with the
pantograph transition requirements outlined above. Low speed assemblies can generally be specified for
speeds up to 40 mph (64 km/hr), and high speed assemblies are usually suitable for speeds up to 100 mph
(160 km/hr) or more. These speed limitations may have to be modified by use of special catenary support
features and by the degree of pantograph compatibility achieved.
Section insulators should be installed on straight track wherever possible, should be located at or close to the
elevated pantograph centerline position and just beyond a catenary support in the normal direction of travel.
b. Air gap overlaps are the arrangements used at each transition from one catenary tension length to the next
one along the route. They generally occur at about a one mile spacing and are normally fitted with cross
feeding jumpers to provide electrical continuity. An overlap can be used for sectionalizing by adding a
disconnect isolation switch to the cross feeding arrangement and inserting cut-in insulators into both
overlapping catenary sections at the out-of-running ends of the overlap span. These insulated overlaps are
strategically placed to provide sectionalizing at the desired locations in accordance with operational and
signaling requirements.
Air gap overlaps are the preferred means of sectionalizing wherever train speeds are significantly higher
than 60 mph (97 km/hr), where space permits and additional cost is justified.
1
c. Air gap electrical clearances should conform with both the static and passing guidelines in Part 2 of this
Chapter, together with calculated additional allowances using passing clearance criteria for differential
movement of live conductors and supports. These additional allowances should provide passing clearances
for unsynchronized wind movements when two parallel, overlapping conductors momentarily approach
each other under the design conditions derived from the guidelines in Article 4.2.2 of this Chapter. Long
span air gaps may require additional horizontal constraints at mid-span to minimize movement in high
wind conditions. 3
If non-bridging section insulators are used in certain low speed, low current flow situations, the air gap
chosen should be sufficient to extinguish any arc drawn before it or the train pantograph makes contact
with the continuing energized catenary system. The increased air gap may be 2 or 3 times the normal static
clearance, depending to some extent upon the speed involved.
4.2.9.2 Phase Breaks 4

There are three types of phase breaks, one of which consists of two consecutive insulating sections similar to non-
bridging section insulators. The other two consist of a sequence of air gap overlaps in the catenary system, in one
case with an automatic switching procedure for slow moving trains.
a. Insulating section phase breaks consist of two consecutive insulating sections installed in the catenary
system at a spacing which prevents any combination of electrically connected pantographs from bridging
across from one electrical section to the other. Dependant upon local operating practices and vehicle
electrical systems, the intervening section of catenary system can either be grounded or can be electrically
floating. Some local utility companies may require the center section to be grounded to prevent phase to
phase faults.
If an electrified railroad is operated without any electric traction power connections between adjacent
pantographs, the overall length of the phase break can be less than the minimum pantograph spacing, thus
permitting each motive power unit to transit individually through the phase break, always with only one

raised pantograph in service. A second, electrically disconnected, raised pantograph may be used for ice and
sleet removal purposes in storm conditions.
The differential weight and stiffness of the insulating section assemblies requires that careful adjustment
and regular preventative maintenance be provided to prevent increased wear and pantograph tracking
problems at high speeds.
b. Air gap overlap phase breaks have a second standard catenary system running parallel to the normal
catenary, arranged to provide several successive overlap transitions between the two catenaries. A typical
length of transition is 15 to 50 feet (4.5 to 15.1 meters), during which the second catenary is energized by
the pantograph bridging the two contact wires. The two wires may be in close electrical proximity, including
the zone of dual contact, for 100 feet (30.5 meters) or more, depending upon the wire tensions used.
The location and spacing of insulators and successive overlaps has to be carefully designed to prevent a train
with two or more pantographs from simultaneously bridging across all the overlaps. This would cause a
major fault on one or both sides of the phase break by direct connection of the dissimilar voltages,
frequencies or phases.
A phase break on a passenger railroad operated with multiple unit cars may need an air gap overlap phase
break at least 250 feet (76 meters) longer than the longest train; use of an insulating section phase break
may be preferred in many instances.
On a freight railroad the maximum consist length and the minimum distance between head end and helper
consists would be the significant criteria.
One or more short sections of the second catenary system can be provided with a feeder and normally open
disconnect isolation switch to provide a means of rescuing any train which becomes stranded in the phase
break. A stranded train with multiple pantographs may need special instructions in connection with this
procedure.
c. Switched overlap phase breaks are somewhat similar to the air gap overlap phase breaks described above.
However, circumstances may require that the traction power to the train be maintained at normal levels for
train handling or on-board system purposes, for example, when a phase break is located on a steep gradient.
In this instance, a complete electrical section between two overlap phase breaks is instantaneously switched
from one frequency or phase to the other when the train reaches the appropriate location. Switched overlap
phase breaks can be used only where the utility grid is very strong and/or where the train power demand is
relatively low. They are not likely to be suitable for heavy tonnage freight trains on severe grades.
The circuit breaker logic must include prior detection of the direction of travel, and detection of exit of the
last motive power unit out of the switchable location.
This type of phase break arrangement cannot be used for a change in the supply voltage to the train.
d. Air gap electrical clearances should conform with the guidelines in Part 2 of this Chapter suitably adjusted
in accordance with the voltage, frequency or phase relationship. For example, a phase change requires
increase of normal phase to ground clearances by a factor of 1.73 to comply with the phase to phase
relationship, before adjustments are made for wire movement in an air gap overlap phase break. Air gap
overlap phase breaks may not be suitable for 50 KV operation when pantograph width, vehicle sway, and
catenary movements caused by wind are taken into full account.
4.2.9.3 Isolation Switches
Isolation switches can be noload-type or can be load-break type which are capable of opening under electrical load
conditions. Depending on their application, isolation switches can either be an open air-type mounted on wayside
poles, or can be an enclosed type in metallic or nonmetallic enclosures attached to wayside poles, maintenance shop
walls or in entirely free-standing enclosures. Enclosed switches can be supplied with either internal or external
operating handles and other features such as electrical and/or mechanical interlocks, padlocking features, switch
mode viewing windows, weatherproof gasketing and louvering for venting purposes.

SECTION 4.3 ELECTRIFICATION FEEDING AND SECTIONALIZING ARRANGEMENTS
4.3.1 SCOPE (1991)

a. A coordinated arrangement for feeding and sectionalizing an overhead catenary electrification system is
essential in order to:
• Facilitate the effective detection of faults.
• Limit the extent of track affected when a fault occurs and establish alternate energized routes so that
operations can continue.
• Permit isolation of sections of the electrification system for safe maintenance of catenary and track
systems and faulted sections.
b. This section outlines the principles involved and presents typical arrangements. These arrangements are
shown for simplicity on an AC center feed system, but the principles can be applied to any feeding system.
4.3.2 TERMS (1991)

The following terms are for general use in this Section. Specialized terms appear in individual Articles. Refer to the
Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions.
Section Break 1
Phase Break
Disconnect Switch
Power Circuit Breaker
Substation
3
Switching Station
Paralleling Station
4.3.3 RECOMMENDED ARRANGEMENTS (2001)

a. The catenary system for each track or operationally integrated set of tracks should be sectioned so that 4
disconnect switches may be opened to isolate and de-energize the associated section of the catenary system,
either in the event of a fault or to facilitate routine pre-scheduled catenary, power supply, or other work
which may be close to or touch the catenary. All sections of the catenary should normally be capable of being
energized from two sources.
b. At interlockings, care should be taken to ensure that an outage of any one catenary section does not
preclude electrical operational running over the remaining routes through the interlocking. All sectioning
points at interlockings should be located within the interlocking signaling limits.
c. All circuit breakers should have a disconnect switch between them and the catenary system and bus section
to facilitate circuit breaker maintenance and provide visual assurance that the catenary section is not
connected to that circuit breaker.
d. In order to limit the unbalance on the utility transmission system, each traction substation is normally
connected to different phases of the utility transmission network. It is therefore necessary to separate
catenary sections at different phases with phase breaks at an approximate midpoint between substations.

This is conveniently achieved at switching stations, which are provided with circuit breakers to facilitate
catenary paralleling. This in turn improves the system current sharing, gives a better voltage profile, and
extends the substation feeding distance. Another function of the switching stations is to provide a power
feed-through during a substation outage. As this feed-through is required at both switching stations
adjacent to the deenergized substation, each substation needs to be equipped with a phase break to separate
the different phases where they meet at the catenary feeding location.
e. Each phase break should be located where there is a minimum probability of the locomotive consist being
stranded within the short dead section. This means that phase breaks should be located where trains are
normally proceeding at a minimum speed of 10 to 15 mph with no signals, yards, or overpasses nearby, on level
or easily graded tangent track or light curves. This is not always possible and the criteria may be reviewed in
ascending order of importance. Phase breaks and section breaks on parallel tracks should be located adjacent to
one another, not staggered along the track, in order to eliminate any confusion or unsafe management practices
by operational or technical personnel. Electrical traction power at the locomotive is normally shut off while
traversing insulating section and unswitched air gap overlap phases breaks separating supply substations or
utility power networks, in order to minimize arcing damage to catenary components and to avoid sudden power
demand changes on the utility power networks. Passenger and freight train auxiliary power may remain
connected to avoid shutdown of lighting and other auxiliary systems, unless a voltage change is being made.
Phase breaks on steep uphill gradients may require the use of switched overlap phase breaks in order to
maintain sufficient traction power availability for train opertional purposes. This arrangement may be
desirable to avoid excessive in-train buff and draft forces where grades exceed 0.5%, but is not recommended
for heavy tonnage freight trains on severe grades. See also the discussion in Article 4.2.9.2c.
f. An approved safety procedure should be adopted for application on all tracks and other areas with electrically
live catenary systems, overhead feeders and power cables, and be strictly enforced. An essential part of the
procedure is the assumption that all parts of the system are energized and dangerous, and that close approach
to any component or piece of equipment should only be permitted by qualified personnel with necessary
permission from the power dispatcher, and only after safety grounding connections have been put in place.
4.3.3.1 Single-track Mainline
a. The feeding and sectioning arrangements as can be seen from Figure 33-4-2 are very simple.
b. The passing siding can be fed from either end although normally it would be fed from the end nearest the
supplying substation. This means that if the section is fed from the next substation via the switching station
under emergency feeding arrangements, then the preferred feeding is the reverse of that shown. This
minimizes the voltage drop from the substation to the train.
c. Where there are junctions with other electrified routes, a substation or switching station should ideally be
located to permit sectioning as shown, if this is not possible emergency feeding can be a problem for the
route with the phase break in it.
d. Yards and shops should each be fed by a dedicated circuit breaker as shown. This insures that a fault on the
main line or the yard or shop does not adversely affect train operation elsewhere. For example, if a fault
occurs on a main line track and it is known that personnel are not working in the section, it may be
considered safe to reclose the breaker. However, in a yard or shop there are always people working and thus
reclosing a breaker without a complete ground level inspection should be prohibited for safety reasons. If
the mainline and yards or shops are supplied by the same breaker, the opening of a breaker by a fault should
be followed by an inspection of the yard or shop before the circuit breaker is reclosed and the mainline
section is reenergized. Yard tracks need not be electrically separate but may be grouped together as shown
in the diagram. The sectioning should be carefully designed to prevent any chance opening of a disconnect
switch from carrying more than the circuit capacitive charging current. If this occurred the switch may be
destroyed and any persons near it injured. It is not recommended to use yard trucks as a through feed. If
this is not economically feasible then the disconnect switch should be fitted with a load interrupting device
such as a vacuum interrupter.

Figure 33-4-2. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Single-Track Mainline
e. A Bus Tie Breaker should be used when two transformers are used at one substation. Without a tie breaker
3
only one transformer at a time can supply traction load, unless the transformers are on the same phase and
the traction switch gear has a sufficient fault interrupting rating.
4.3.3.2 Two-track Mainline
a. The philosophy for the arrangement is essentially the same as for a Single-track Mainline, except that at
substations and switching stations, adjacent trucks are normally paralleled even under transformer outage 4
situations. Thus Bus Tie Breakers should be provided as shown in Figure 33-4-3.
b. One or more paralleling stations may also be used between a substation and a switching station if the
distance between them is very long. This minimizes the voltage drop at the train, particularly if a section of
the circuit closer to the substation is out of service.
c. At interlockings the sectioning arrangements should permit continued operation under truck outage
conditions. If two or more interlockings are located between a substation and a paralleling or switching
station, an additional cross track connection and disconnect switch may be required to provide power to a
parallel catenary system.
4.3.3.3 Three-track Mainline
The philosophy for this arrangement is the same as for the two-track mainline. The arrangement at interlockings
are more complex as shown in Figure 33-4-4 and will probably be subject to greater variability to suit individual
railway operating practices and local track configurations.

Figure 33-4-3. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Two-Track Mainline
4.3.3.4 Maintenance Facilities
a. The philosophy for the arrangement of tracks is essentially the same as that for yard tracks. As indicated in
Figure 33-4-5, power to the maintenance yard facilities is usually supplied from an independent feeder
directly from the substation, with the mainline catenaries serving as back-up. Maintenance yard tracks need
not be electrically separated, but may be grouped together. Both situations are indicated in Figure 33-4-5
which illustrates that economies in sectioning and switching arrangements can be achieved by the grouping
or nesting together of tracks. Yard sectionalizing is divided into different zones. Each zone is capable of
being isolated or fed from adjacent zones, thereby allowing flexibility in the programming of outages for
maintenance and repairs.
b. Inspection and maintenance shop buildings can either have the catenary terminated at the face of the
building or run straight through, depending on the activities to be performed in each particular bay.
Examples of both are shown on the diagram. When the catenary system is required to run straight through
the building, sectioning should be provided at the building faces on all wired tracks to facilitate de-
energization of the catenary system on each track during vehicle maintenance to provide for the safety of
personnel working within the building area. Various types of protection systems should be incorporated into
the catenary system to prevent the catenary from being accidentally energized after power has been cut-off
through the building. These safety systems and procedures should eliminate the possibility of the wire being
reenergized while personnel are working in the section.

Figure 33-4-4. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Three-Track Mainline

3
SECTION 4.4 CONTACT WIRE AMPACITY
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION (1995) 4
a. The contact wire of a catenary system must perform its function of transferring power from the fixed
distribution system to the moving vehicle under some harsh physical and electrical conditions without
exceeding any limitations which would reduce its life or effectiveness as a critical part of a railway
electrification installation. In most catenary system designs the contact wire must be maintained at a
relatively high tension in order to insure smooth tracking of the vehicle-mounted pantograph for the
collection of power. The copper or copper alloys generally used for contact wires suffer irreversible reduction
in their strength when heated above their annealing point and are thus subject to breaking below their
designed tensions.
b. Temperature rises in a contact wire are usually produced through the cyclic interactions of many different
parameters and must be thoroughly investigated for each circumstance. This document gives the preferred
method for calculating contact wire ampacity as well as a table of calculated continuous contact wire
currents for various wire sizes and alloys under a set of typical assumed conditions.

Figure 33-4-5. Typical “Zone” Style Sectioning for Maintenance Yard
4.4.2 METHOD OF CALCULATING AMPACITY (1992)

a. The recommended technique for calculating the ampacity of contact wires was developed by Messrs. H. E.
House and P. D. Tuttle and published in the AIEE Transactions Paper No. 58-41 dated February 1958. This
technique essentially balances the heat gained and lost by the wire through current heating, solar heating,
convection and radiation. The referenced AIEE paper contains tables and charts of different variables which
are subject to temperature, altitude, and solar angle and should be consulted for any detailed engineering
investigations. The basic equation follows:
I2r = qe + qr – qs
where:
qe = convected heat loss

qr = radiated heat loss
qs = heat gained from solar and sky radiation
b. The right hand terms are then expanded to yield the following detailed equation:
⎧ D V 0.52
⎛ pf ⎞
Kc 4 Ka 4 ⎫ l
I = ⎨ 1.01 + 0.371 ⎝ --------------⎠ k t ( t c – t a ) + 0.138D∈ ⎛ ---------⎞ – ⎛ -----------⎞ – a ( Q D sin θ + Q d ) A′ ⎬ × --
μf ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎩ 100 100′ ⎭ r
where:
D = Conductor diameter in inches

pf = Density, pounds of air per cubic foot

V = Velocity of air in feet per hour
µf = Absolute viscosity of air in pounds per hour per foot
kf = Thermal conductivity of air in watts per square foot per degree Celsius
tc = Conductor temperature in degrees Celsius
ta = Ambient temperature in degrees Celsius
Tc + Ta
Tf = -------------------
- air film temperature in degrees Celsius
2
∈= Thermal emissivity constant for the conductor surface
Kc = Conductor temperature in degrees Kelvin
Ka = Ambient air temperature in degrees Kelvin
a = Solar absorption coefficient
QD = Direct solar radiation in watts per square foot
Qd = Sky radiation in watts per square foot
D
A´ = Projected area of the wire in square feet per lineal foot = ------
12
∅ = cos –1 [cosH cos(Z – Z )]
c c 1
1
Hc = altitude of the sum above the horizon, degrees
Zc = azimuth of the sun, degrees
Z1 = azimuth of the wire, degrees
r = Effective a-c resistance in ohms per foot
I = Continuous current in amperes 3
4.4.3 UNIFORM RATING PARAMETERS (2001)
Any meaningful ampacity comparison between wires of different sizes and different compositions should be based
upon a uniform set of conditions. The conditions outlined below represent typical conditions encountered in many
inland regions of North America and permit a realistic comparison of wire sizes and compositions as they affect the
continuous ampacity rating. These are referred to as typical conditions, and are subject to change with respect to 4
actual conditions relating to a specific project when supported by engineering analysis.

Table 33-4-11. Standard Conditions
Description Condition
Ambient Air 25°C
Conductor operating temperature, hard-drawn copper 75°C
Conductor operating temperature, alloys 100°C
Emissivity 0.5
Frequency of power system 60 Hz
Wind velocity 2 ft/sec
Resistance, ohms per circular Mil/foot at 20°C
Hard-drawn copper 10.674 ohms
ASTM alloy 80 12.964 ohms
ASTM alloy 55 18.857 ohms
Worn wire 70% of original section
Other factors taken from tables in AIEE paper 58-41
4.4.4 SAMPLE CALCULATION (1995)
The following example of a typical calculation is shown for illustrative purposes. The wire used in the calculations
is a 4/0 grooved hard-drawn copper contact wire worn to the 70% point.
⎧ 0.52 348 4 298 4 ⎫

I = ⎛ 0.442 × 0.068 × 7200⎞ × 0.00852 ( 75 – 25 ) + 0.138 × 0.442 × 0.5 × ⎛ ---------⎞ – ⎛ ---------⎞ – 0.5 ( 95.3 )0.036 ⎬ × ----------------------------
1
⎨ 1.01 + 0.371 ⎝ -------------------------------------------------------⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎩ 0.0473 100 100 ⎭ 0.0000872
I = 13.08 + 2.07 – 1.72

--------------------------------------------------
0.0000872
I = 392 amperes
NOTE: The 3-amp difference between the sample calculation result and the computer derived
results in the following table is due to rounding of numbers and using tabulated values of qs
found in the House and Tuttle paper.
4.4.5 TABLE OF CONTINUOUS AMPACITY RATINGS (1988)
a. Table 33-4-13 is a table of continuous (steady state) current ratings of various sizes of trolley (contact) wire
and is given for comparative purposes and should be used with appropriate engineering discretion. Detailed
designs of a catenary system should take into full account the short-time ampacity ratings (one to three
minutes) and the loading cycles expected to be generated by the operation of trains. Overall electrification
system designs may cause some sections of catenary to endure abnormal loading cycles and consequently
require increased wire size or the use of a parallel feeder. Care should be taken to determine the current
sharing between the wires making up the catenary system caused by mutual impedance and possible
composition differences of the wires, Operating temperatures of the alloys used in the tables are found in
Table 33-4-12.
b. A precautionary prediction of loss in wire tensile strength due to annealing at elevated temperatures should
be made for the design by a proper evaluation of the expected wire temperature-time experience under
system overload conditions since the effects are cumulative and permanent.

Table 33-4-12. Operating Temperatures
Type Temperature
Hard-drawn copper 75°C
ASTM alloy 80 100°C
ASTM alloy 55 100°C
4.4.6 OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY CONDITIONS (1988)
a. Electric locomotives and substation transformers normally are given a short time overload rating. This
rating may vary from 10% for an hour to 200% for a few minutes. These overload ratings are possible
because locomotives and substation transformers are forced cooled and/or equipped with a large oil bath
heat sink. These conditions do not exist with catenary wires.
b. Catenary wires in calm air will reach their equilibrium temperature from resistance heating in a very short
period of time; typically measured in terms of seconds up to perhaps a minute. These time frames are only a
small fraction of the time most railroaders associate with the term “overload rating.” These short time
frames are, however, sufficient to handle short circuits when the circuit breakers are properly set. Short
circuit currents of 10 to 30 times normal are typical and will quickly anneal wires if the circuit breakers do
not open. It is thus critical to ensure that appropriate maintenance and calibration procedures are followed.
4.4.7 OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY RATINGS (1988) 1

a. Due to the relatively short time it takes catenary wires to heat up, it is recommended that no overload or
short time ratings be used for catenary wire systems except those associated with the clearing of all circuits.
b. All non-short circuit related currents should be treated as continuous (steady state) conditions covered in
Article 4.4.2, Article 4.4.3, Article 4.4.4 and Article 4.4.5.
3

Table 33-4-13. Continuous Current (Steady State) Trolley Wire Ratings
Current Rating – Amperes

75 Degrees C Operating Temperature 100 Degrees C Operating Temperature
AWG New Wire Worn Wire New Wire Worn Wire
Type or Material
MCM No No No No
Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind
Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun
No No No No No No No No
No Wind No Wind No Wind No Wind
Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun
Sun Sun Sun Sun
Round 1/0 H.D. Copper 190 215 305 320 150 170 250 265
2/0 220 250 350 375 175 202 290 305
3/0 260 295 410 435 210 240 335 355
4/0 305 350 470 505 245 280 385 410
300 385 445 590 630 310 360 480 515
Round 1/0 ASTM Alloy 80 175 195 280 295 140 160 230 240 230 245 345 355 185 200 280 290
2/0 205 230 325 345 165 185 265 280 270 290 395 410 215 235 325 335
3/0 240 275 375 400 190 220 305 325 315 345 460 480 255 275 375 390
4/0 280 320 435 465 225 260 355 375 370 405 535 555 300 325 435 450
300 355 410 540 580 285 330 445 475 475 515 665 695 385 415 540 565
Round 1/0 ASTM Alloy 55 145 170 240 250 120 135 195 205 195 210 295 305 160 170 240 250
2/0 170 195 275 295 140 160 225 240 230 250 340 355 185 200 275 285
3/0 200 230 320 340 165 185 260 275 270 295 395 410 220 235 320 335
4/0 240 275 370 395 190 220 300 320 320 345 455 475 255 275 370 385
300 300 350 460 495 245 280 375 400 405 440 570 595 330 355 465 485
Grooved 2/0 H.D. Copper 230 265 365 390 185 215 300 315
3/0 265 300 415 440 215 245 340 360
4/0 310 355 480 51 250 290 390 415
300 395 455 595 640 320 370 485 520
350 435 510 655 705 355 410 535 575
Grooved 2/0 ASTM Alloy 80 215 245 340 360 170 195 275 295 280 305 410 430 230 245 335 350
3/0 245 280 380 405 195 225 310 330 320 350 465 485 260 280 380 395
4/0 285 330 440 470 230 265 360 385 380 410 540 565 305 330 440 460
300 360 420 550 590 295 340 450 480 485 525 675 705 390 425 550 575
350 405 470 605 650 325 380 495 530 540 585 745 780 435 475 640 635
Grooved 2/0 ASTM Alloy 55 180 205 285 305 145 165 235 250 240 260 355 365 195 210 290 300
3/0 205 325 325 345 165 190 265 280 275 300 400 415 225 240 325 340
4/0 240 280 375 400 195 225 305 325 325 350 465 480 265 285 380 395
300 310 355 405 500 250 290 380 410 415 450 575 605 335 365 470 490
350 345 400 575 555 275 320 420 450 460 505 640 670 375 405 520 545
1/0 H.D. Copper 205 235 325 345 170 190 265 285
2/0 240 280 375 400 200 225 310 330
3/0 280 325 430 460 230 265 355 380
4/0 330 385 500 535 270 315 415 440
350 460 540 680 735 380 440 560 605
Deep 350 H.D. Copper 450 520 665 715 355 415 540 580
Section 400 490 570 720 780 395 455 585 630
Deep 335 ASTM Alloy 80 405 470 600 645 320 375 485 520 540 585 740 775 430 465 600 625
Section
Deep 335 ASTM Alloy 55 340 400 510 550 275 320 415 445 460 505 635 665 370 400 516 535
Section

33
Part 5
Signal Compatibility with Alternating Current
Railway Electrification
— 1982 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Scope (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2 1

5.2 Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.2.1 Signals (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.2.2 Electric T raction (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3
5.3 Electrical Effects (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3

3
5.4 Discussion (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3
5.5 Recommendations (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.6 Use of Impedance Bonds with Alternating Current Railway Electrification . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.6.1 Bond Description (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.6.2 Impedance Bond Functions (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.6.3 Signal T rack Circuit Assumptions (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.6.4 Impedance Bond Failure Modes for Signals (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.6.5 Impedance Bond Failure Modes for Electric T raction (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.6.6 T ypical Impedance Bond Configurations (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-6
5.6.7 Non-T ypical Impedance Bond Circumstances (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-10

LIST OF FIGURES
33-5-1 Typical Signal Current Flow with Ungrounded Impedance Bonds and Properly Energized Track Relay. . 33-5-5
33-5-2 Unsafe Signal Current Flow through Grounded Impedance Bond Center Taps Around a
Broken Rail Falsely Energizing the Track Relay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-6
33-5-3 Grounding of Non-Signaled Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
33-5-4 Separation of Signaled and Non-Signaled Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
33-5-5 Substation Drain Bond on Signaled Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
33-5-6 Double Rail Track Circuit Meeting Single Rail Track Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-8
33-5-7 Single Track Singled Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-8
33-5-8 Double Track Signaled Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-8
33-5-9 Quadruple Track Signaled Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-9
33-5-10 Single Track Signaled Railroad with a 2 Mile Signaled Passing Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-10
SECTION 5.1 SCOPE (1982)
The alternating current electric traction system on a railroad interacts directly with the track circuits used by the
signal system since they both utilize the rails as part of their circuits. Care must be taken in the design of any
electric traction system to insure that the signal system can continue to function safely as intended to control
operation of the trains. The great majority of non-electrified railroads utilize a direct current track circuit to
control the signal system. These direct current circuits must be replaced with some form of alternating current
circuits. This section outlines the major concerns in selecting the new track circuits for use with high voltage
alternating current electrification and recommends a particular type which was proven itself in operation on major
electrified railroads.
SECTION 5.2 REQUIREMENTS OF THE SIGNAL AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS
5.2.1 SIGNALS (1982)
a. The signal system operates by dividing the track into many electrical blocks which are separated from each
other by insulated joints. The presence of a train in a block is detected when the wheels and axle electrically
connect the two rails. Wayside relay logic then sets the signals to the appropriate indication. The rails must
be insulated from each other and means must be provided to electrically isolate adjacent blocks.
b. The signal system must be able to detect broken rails.
c. Other devices connected to the signal system must remain operational. These may include: hot box
detectors, dragging equipment detectors, high/wide load detectors, loose wheel detectors, etc.
d. The electrical balance of the track circuit must not be destroyed.
e. Cab signals, if used or planned, must be taken into full consideration in order to insure their proper
operation.

Signal Compatibility with Alternating Current Railway Electrification
5.2.2 ELECTRIC TRACTION (1982)
a. The total loop impedance from the substation to the train must be kept as low as feasible.
b. The running rails must be used as part of the return path for the electric traction current.
c. The rails and all metallic structures must be adequately grounded at points compatible with the signal
system.
SECTION 5.3 ELECTRICAL EFFECTS (1981)
Operation of high powered electric locomotives subjects the signal system to a completely different environment
than is present under diesel operation. Some of the more important items are listed below.
a. Traction return current in the rails can be in the order of 500 times the current used for the signal circuits.
b. The return current has a number of harmonics of the fundamental frequency in it, some at relatively high
current levels.
c. There are large electromagnetic fields set up by the current flowing in the catenary and the rails which can
induce current in parallel conductors.
1
d. Most solid state equipped locomotives produced a distorted sine wave for the current flowing in both the
catenary and the rails.
3
SECTION 5.4 DISCUSSION (1981)
a. It is obvious from the characteristics noted above that the design of an electric traction system must be fully
coordinated with the design of the signal system. The first conflict between signals and the electrification
system occurs when the signal circuits must be broken into relatively short blocks while the traction return
current flowing in the rails wants to flow unimpeded back to the substation. The insulated joints required to
separate signal blocks from each other also blocks the flow of return current through the rails. This conflict 4
is resolved by using a frequency for the signal circuits which is different from that being used from the
electric traction power and introducing an impedance bond across the insulated joints in the track. The
impedance bond offers a very high impedance to the signal circuit while permitting the traction return
current to pass on its way back to the substation. The impedance bond is normally designed so that it can be
grounded and/or connected to the return conductor frequently present in the electrification system.
b. Caution must be exercised in multiple track territory when grounding or cross bonding impedance bonds on
adjacent tracks to insure that there is no way the signal current can leak into the wrong track if one of the
leads connecting to the rails becomes broken or if a rail itself breaks. The impedance bond must be sized to
carry the expected return current in each rail without overheating. The impedance bond is usually recessed
between the ties at the insulated joints and between the running rails. The impedance bond should be
provided with protection from equipment dragging from a train and be securely anchored to prevent theft.

c. The designer of the electrification system should advise the signal designer of the expected current in the
catenary and the rails as well as the level of harmonic frequencies expected to be generated by the
locomotives. This information will be used to determine the shielding required in any lineside cable and to
insure that the signal relays are immune to a false response caused by the primary current or its harmonics.
d. In choosing the frequency of the basic signal track circuit one must intentionally avoid the primary electric
traction frequency and any of its harmonics. Thus, if 60 Hz propulsion is used, the signal frequency must
not be 60, 120, 180, 240, 300,… Studies of harmonic levels versus the susceptibility of track signal systems
to interference dictates a relatively low signal frequency in order to avoid the large attenuations associated
with the higher frequencies.
e. Security of the signal track circuits is enhanced if the circuit is coded, or pulsed at a given rate per minute.
The coding of the track circuit means that, even if a stray frequency identical to the signal frequency were
generated it would not affect the safety of the signal system unless it was also pulsing at the same rate as
the signal circuit, an extremely remote possibility. The pulsing of the signal track current is also used to
carry the information needed for cab signals. The most commonly used code rates are 75,120 and 180 pulses
per minute, which, when combined with a zero code or energy, yield a four aspect cab signal system.
Additional aspects are obtained by using a second basic track frequency or by adding coda rates.
f. The use of a special frequency for the required alternating current track circuits requires the installation of
relatively small generators spaced along the railroad; these are usually installed at the electric traction
substations. A single phase transmission line then distributes this special power along the right of way to
each of the signal sites. This transmission line is frequently attached to the catenary supports.
SECTION 5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS (1981)
It is recommended that the signal track circuits used on electrified railroads be of the phase selective type utilizing
100 Hz power, coded at 120 pulses per minute where conventional wayside signals are used and existing signal logic
is to be retained. This type of signal track circuit with additional codes and/or frequencies is also recommended
where cab signals are to be used or where the track code is used as a communications medium. Special
circumstances sometimes found in large complex interlockings may necessitate the use of other types of track
circuits, such as a 200 Hz phase selective or 100 Hz single rail circuit.
SECTION 5.6 USE OF IMPEDANCE BONDS WITH ALTERNATING CURRENT RAILWAY

ELECTRIFICATION
5.6.1 BOND DESCRIPTION (1982)
The typical impedance bond used for railway electrification systems is essentially a center tapped auto transformer
arranged to provide a low impedance path for the traction current return, when the return current is relatively
balanced in the two rails, and a high enough impedance for the 100 Hz signal circuit so that operation of the signal
circuit will not be impaired. An important point to remember is that an auto transformer transfers most of its
energy by conduction and not through a magnetic circuit. An impedance bond will thus behave in an entirely
different manner if the current flows become unbalanced or part of its circuit opens up through various failure
modes.
5.6.2 IMPEDANCE BOND FUNCTIONS (1982)
Impedance bonds are normally used in pairs to permit the electric traction return current to pass the insulated
joints which serve to sectionalize the signal system into signal blocks. The center taps or neutrals of the two
impedance bonds are conducted together to form a path for the electric traction return current around the

insulated rail joints. The center taps can be connected to an electrical ground or return conductor at selected points
to improve the electrical characteristics of the power system. Single impedance bonds are frequently used near a
substation to directly drain the returning current to the substation without having to go through the nearest
grounded signal block point.
5.6.3 SIGNAL TRACK CIRCUIT ASSUMPTIONS (1982)
Per the recommendations contained in Section 5.5, Recommendations (1981) it is assumed that 100 Hz
universally coded phase selective track circuits are being used. It is further assumed that the length of these
circuits is limited to between 5,000 and 6,000 feet. Circuits only several hundred feet long may be used within
interlockings. Double rail track circuits are assumed with high capacity bond wires used on all rail joints.
5.6.4 IMPEDANCE BOND FAILURE MODES FOR SIGNALS (1982)
5.6.4.1 Failures Caused by Bond Locations
Impedance bonds are normally placed between the running rails and depressed between the two ties on American
railroads so that the connections to the rails do not cross under another rail producing the possibility of shorting
out the signal system. If unusual circumstances require placing the impedance bond outside the running rails
special precautions should be taken to insure the track connecting cables are heavily insulated and anchored so
that they cannot come in contact with the wrong rail.
5.6.4.2 Failures Caused by Improper Connections

1
The grounding or interconnecting of impedance bonds indiscriminately can produce undesirable paths for the
signal current to flow through. Figure 33-5-1 shows the normal and desired path for the signal current to flow
from the 100 Hz input transformer through the rails to the track relay and back. Figure 33-5-2 shows that the
grounding of the impedance bond center taps on both ends of a signal track circuit produces a very unsafe path for
the signal circuit current to bypass the dangerous condition of a broken rail and energize the track relay to give a
false clear indication. This very dangerous condition is prohibited by Federal Railroad Administration regulations
covering signal systems and can lead to disastrous derailments. Similar conditions can easily be produced in 3
multiple track territory if the interconnection of impedance bond center taps and grounding for the traction power
return current is not carefully designed.
Figure 33-5-1. Typical Signal Current Flow with Ungrounded Impedance Bonds and
Properly Energized Track Relay
5.6.5 IMPEDANCE BOND FAILURE MODES FOR ELECTRIC TRACTION (1982)
The windings in the impedance bond must be of sufficient size to carry normal and overload current expected
during normal duty cycles as well as the currents present during fault conditions. The impedance bond
characteristics during fault conditions must be well known in order to properly set the fault clearing relays at the
substation circuit breakers. Improper relay settings can result in major catenary damage if the circuit breakers are
not promptly activated.

Figure 33-5-2. Unsafe Signal Current Flow through Grounded Impedance Bond Center
Taps Around a Broken Rail Falsely Energizing the Track Relay
5.6.6 TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CONFIGURATIONS (1982)
5.6.6.1 Direct Grounding on Non-Signaled Track
Non-signaled electrified tracks are normally connected to the electrical grounds or return conductors at selected
intervals as shown in Figure 33-5-3. The rails are bonded together at each ground point and then each rail is
individually connected to the return conductor or electrical ground. This technique is normally utilized for yard
trackage and/or non-signaled branch lines. The track ends in a stub ended yard and should be bonded together and
grounded to insure that a broken rail condition cannot cause an unsafe voltage raise on the vehicles relative to
ground. Jointed rail in non-signaled territory must be properly bonded in order to provide the proper electrical
path for the return current flow.
5.6.6.2 Separation of Signaled and Non-Signaled Track
A single impedance bond must be used at the insulated joints separating signaled from non-signaled track as
shown in Figure 33-5-4 in order to permit the electric traction return current to flow around the insulated joints.
The center tap on the impedance rails and the two rails should be independently bonded to each other.
5.6.6.3 Drain Bonds
Electric traction substations are normally located at some distance away from signal location so that the phase
break and its short section of dead catenary will not be at a point where trains are expected to frequently come to a
stop. While this technique all but eliminates the possibility of a train being stopped in the phase break, the path of
the electric traction return current may not be the most desirable. A single impedance bond can be located at the
substation, as shown in Figure 33-5-5, with its center tap connected to the substation ground system if the two
adjacent sets of signal related impedance bonds do not have their center taps grounded. This single grounded
impedance bond is normally referred to as a “drain bond”, because its only function is to drain the electric traction
return current into the substation.

Figure 33-5-3. Grounding of Non-Signaled Track
Figure 33-5-4. Separation of Signaled and Non-Signaled Track

1
Figure 33-5-5. Substation Drain Bond on Signaled Track
5.6.6.4 Single Rail Track Circuits 4

Figure 33-5-6 shows the typical connection of impedance bonds where a full double rail signal system meets a
single rail signal system. The impedance bond center tap is connected to the common electric traction return rail,
while the signal control rail is left fully insulated and unconnected to the electric traction return system.
5.6.6.5 Typical Single Track Signaled Railroad
Figure 33-5-7 shows the typical sequence of grounding the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a single track
signaled railroad. Every other set of impedance bonds must not be connected to the electric traction ground return
system if the fail safe design of the signal system is to be preserved. For convenience the impedance bonds
connected to the ground return system are designated “A” points to indicate that all bonds are to be grounded. The
impedance bonds which do not have their center taps grounded are designated as “C” points to indicate that they
merely provide a continuous electric traction return current path.

5.6.6.6 Typical Double Track Signaled Railroad
Figure 33-5-8 shows the typical sequence of grounding the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a double
track signaled railroad. The same basic technique of using “A” points and “C” points outlined for a single track
railroad are again used with the addition of a “B” point to indicate that the center taps of the impedance bonds for
both tracks are connected together, but not grounded. This “B” point preserves the integrity of the signal system
while improving the path for the electric traction return current by connecting the four rails of the two tracks
together.
5.6.6.7 Typical Quadruple Track Signaled Railroad
Figure 33-5-9 shows the typical sequence of grounding the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a quadruple
track signaled railroad. The quadruple track railroad is essentially handled as two parallel double tracked
railroads. Note that the “B” points between the two double track segments are not normally
interconnected.
Figure 33-5-6. Double Rail Track Circuit Meeting Single Rail Track Circuit
Figure 33-5-7. Single Track Singled Railroad
Figure 33-5-8. Double Track Signaled Railroad

Figure 33-5-9. Quadruple Track Signaled Railroad

3

5.6.6.8 Typical Passing Siding
Figure 33-5-10 shows the typical sequence of grounding the center taps of the impedance bonds associated with a
simple two mile long passing track in single track territory where the passing track is fully signaled. This example
shows the multiple use of “C” points where the signal circuits are relatively short, as occurs in the signal circuits
associated with the two turnouts.
5.6.7 NON-TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CIRCUMSTANCES (1982)
a. It must be emphasized that the track configuration and associated signal circuits are unique for each
railroad that is electrified. The typical configurations shown in this section are for general guidance only.
The proposed grounding and interconnections of impedance bonds must be checked and approved by
qualified signal circuit designers.
b. Large and complex interlockings sometimes use single rail track circuits (when authorized under Federal
Railroad Administration regulations) for the signal system in order to reduce total costs. The bonding of
these signal circuits is beyond the scope of this section and should be undertaken by qualified signal system
designers. Since these large and complex interlockings usually occupy a relatively short distance in relation
to the electric traction distribution system, the effects of the electric traction return current flows is usually
minimal. The signal designer will normally try to locate an “A” point at one of the home signal locations for
an interlocking in order to simplify the interconnections between impedance bonds.
Figure 33-5-10. Single Track Signaled Railroad with a 2 Mile Signaled Passing Track

33
Part 6
Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC
Electrification Systems
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3 1

6.1.1 Purpose (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.1.2 Scope (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2 Electrification System Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3

6.2.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2.2 Traction Power Demand (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
3
6.3 AC Electrification System Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.3.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.3.2 Traction Power Supply System (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-6
6.3.3 Traction Power Distribution System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-7
6.3.4 Traction Power Return System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-13
6.3.5 Normal and Contingency Operation (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-13
6.4 Electrification System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14

6.4.1 System Configuration (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14
6.4.2 Substation Spacing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.3 Electrification Voltage (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.4 Utility Power Availability (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.5 Electromagnetic Interference (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.4.6 Voltage Rise Along the Return System (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.4.7 Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.5 System Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17

6.5.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.2 Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.3 Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.4 Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.5 Voltage Flicker Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18

6.5.6 Phase Unbalance Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18

6.5.7 Harmonic Distortion and System Resonance Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18
6.5.8 Short Circuit Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.9 Arc-Flash Hazard Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.10 Insulation Coordination Study (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.11 Protective Device Coordination Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.12 Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.13 Geotechnical Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.6 System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20

6.6.2 Standards, Codes, and Regulations (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20
6.6.3 Environmental Considerations (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-21
6.6.4 Service Conditions (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-22
6.6.5 Equipment Design (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-22
6.6.6 High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect Switches (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-23
6.6.7 Traction Power Transformers (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-23
6.6.8 Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-24
6.6.9 System Protection (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-25
6.6.10 Special Equipment (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.6.11 Signal Power Generating System (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.6.12 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.7 Utility Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27

6.7.1 Typical Rate Structure (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27
6.7.2 Location of Metering Equipment (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.7.3 Billing Concepts (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.7.4 Rate Structure Negotiation (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8 Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28

6.8.1 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8.2 Installation Verification Testing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8.3 System-Wide Integration Testing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-29
6.8.4 Pre-Revenue Operation Testing (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-29
LIST OF FIGURES
33-6-1 Traction Power System Study - Typical Direct-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram. . . 33-6-8
33-6-2 AC Traction Power System - Typical Direct-Fed System with Booster Transformers . . . . . . . 33-6-10
33-6-3 AC Traction Power System - Typical Autotransformer-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram33-6-
11

Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Electrification Systems
SECTION 6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 PURPOSE (2009)
The purpose of Part 6 of Chapter 33 is to provide guidelines and recommendations for study, design, and
construction methods for implementation of modern alternating current (ac) Traction Power Supply (TPS)
systems for proposed railroad electrification projects.
Further, the purpose of these guidelines and recommendations is to ensure that the traction power supply systems
are designed, manufactured, installed, and tested to deliver sufficient power to rolling stock and to provide safe,
efficient, and continuous operation of the systems under normal and contingency conditions, taking into account
the environmental conditions prevalent in the project locale.
6.1.2 SCOPE (2009)
The scope of the Part 6 includes new electrification systems for regional commuter rail, intercity rail, intercity
high-speed rail, and freight railroad systems considered for operation at electrification voltages recommended in
Part 3, Chapter 33; that is, at 12.5 kV ac, 25 kV ac, or 50 kV ac nominal electrification voltage, obtained through
transformation of utility ac power at commercial frequency of 60 Hz.
Some existing ac electrification systems operate at 12 kV ac nominal electrification voltage and 25 Hz frequency.
Systems and equipment operating at this voltage and frequency are not standard, and therefore, are not covered by
the Part 6. The system can be used for extension of existing systems, but are not recommended for construction of
new systems, as the cost of wayside frequency conversion equipment is usually much higher than the cost of 60 Hz 1
step-down transformers.
Other electrification systems and subsystems, such as the traction power distribution system, the traction power
return system, signal system, communications system and rolling stock are discussed only when essential to
operation of the traction power supply system.
SECTION 6.2 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM LOAD
6.2.1 GENERAL (2009)

4
Railroad traffic can be broadly divided into two major types, passenger and freight. Passenger rolling stock
typically operates with higher acceleration rates than freight rolling stock, and therefore, their power demand is
relatively high during acceleration and decreases considerably once the train has attained its normal cruising
speed. Freight trains operate at relatively low acceleration rates and their power demand during acceleration and
cruising can be of the same order of magnitude.
The train power demand is influenced by factors including train consist size, weight, maximum acceleration,
maximum train operation speed, alignment gradients, density of traffic, operating practices and rolling stock
propulsion equipment design.
6.2.2 TRACTION POWER DEMAND (2009)
6.2.2.1 Power Demand Characteristics
Power demand of traction power supply systems is significantly different from power demand produced by the
usual utility loads. Although there are exceptions, most of the utility loads are relatively slowly changing, well

distributed amongst the three phases of transmission and distribution circuits, nearly sinusoidal, and typically
with high power factor. Occurrence of short circuits is moderate especially on transmission circuits.
The same cannot be said about the traction loads, as they are highly fluctuating and single-phase. Older rolling
stock contains significant harmonics and operates at comparatively lower power factor. Short circuits occur
frequently on electrification systems.
6.2.2.1.1 Fluctuation
Traction power demand is of a highly fluctuating nature. This is a result of abrupt, impulse-like changes in power
requirements of trains as they accelerate and decelerate, as they encounter or leave track grades, and as they enter
and leave distribution system feeding sections. The magnitude and frequency of the impulses increase during peak
time (rush-hour) periods of operation as longer trains operate at shorter headways.
6.2.2.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Connection
AC electrification system traction loads are single-phase and are connected to a utility three-phase system phase-
to-phase. The unequal phase loadings of the three phases cause the utility system currents to be unbalanced. The
different currents in each phase cause unequal voltage drops in the three-phase utility network and this causes the
utility voltages and currents to be unbalanced.
6.2.2.1.3 Harmonic Content
The train load on the electrification system substations consists of number of single-car and/or multi-car trains
operating simultaneously on the system. The power electronics of the rolling stock propulsion and auxiliary
systems generate harmonic currents.
Harmonics generated by older thyristor controlled propulsion systems are significant and need to be taken into
account in any evaluation of harmonic characteristics of the system. The harmonics of rolling stock equipped with
modern propulsion systems using integrated gate bipolar thyristor (IGBT) converters are usually negligible and in
many cases can be ignored.
The harmonic currents generated by the rolling stock produce harmonic voltages along the traction power
distribution system and inject harmonics into the utility power supply system. If it is found necessary to lower the
harmonic content, it is recommended to install filtering equipment on-board the rolling stock.
6.2.2.1.4 Power Factor
Power factor of older thyristor-controlled propulsion systems is relatively low, especially during acceleration at low
speeds, and needs to be taken into account in any load flow evaluations. Modern rolling stock utilizing propulsion
systems with IGBT converters can be designed with power factor approaching unity.
6.2.2.1.5 System Faults
Traction power distribution systems are subjected to faults and short circuits in a greater degree than utility power
systems. This is mainly due to relatively low overhead system clearances, which are often further reduced under
bridges and in tunnels, and due to a relatively large number of support insulators used per mile of the system.
6.2.2.2 Power Demand Impact
The traction load is likely to have some effect on the utility power supply system and, possibly, on other adjacent
systems and subsystems.
The power demand fluctuation may cause a voltage flicker at utility busbars. This flicker may cause customer light
flickering and may affect the operation of some electronic equipment. Also, the fluctuating currents flowing in the

traction power supply equipment can cause pulsating forces which can be of significant magnitude, and therefore,
can be potentially harmful to substation equipment.
The voltage and current phase unbalance may increase heating of utility generators and utility customer motors.
The rolling stock injects harmonic currents into the traction power distribution and return systems where they are
combined with any existing harmonics of the power utility system. The harmonic currents produce voltage drops
at harmonic frequencies at the utility busbars, and in turn, the distorted busbar voltages produce harmonic
currents in the bus-connected equipment. The harmonics may cause malfunction of some electronic equipment,
electromagnetic interference (EMI) into wayside equipment, increased equipment heating and, in severe cases,
resonance of the utility system. As already mentioned, modern propulsion systems equipped with integrated gate
bi-polar thyristor converters exhibit very low harmonics and, in many instances, can be neglected.
Due to overhead contact system (OCS) impedance, rolling stock operating with low power factor causes voltage
drop in the OCS resistance and reactance. By comparison, modern rolling stock with power factor close to unity
causes voltage drop mainly in the OCS resistance and the reactive voltage drop is significantly reduced. Since the
OCS reactance is typically 3 to 4 times larger than the resistance, a significant reduction in voltage drop can be
achieved and the traction power substations can be located further apart.
The short circuit current may cause electromagnetic interference (EMI) into wayside equipment, voltage dip at
utility busbars, and pulsating forces in substation equipment.
1
SECTION 6.3 AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
6.3.1 GENERAL (2009)
The major components of any traction electrification system are the traction power supply, the traction power
distribution, and the traction power return systems, as briefly described below: 3
• Traction Power Supply System. The traction power supply system consists of all equipment between the
interface point with the local electric power utility company and the interface points with traction power
distribution and return systems. The supply system includes traction power substations located at
predetermined spacing along the system right-of-way. The substations receive power from the power
utility system and supply power to the traction power distribution system.
4
• Traction Power Distribution System. The traction power distribution system consists of all equipment
between the interface with the traction power supply system and the vehicle pantographs. The
distribution system consists of an overhead contact system (OCS) which includes the overhead catenary
system, feeders, supporting structures, and pole footings. Also included in the distribution system are any
necessary paralleling stations, autotransformer stations and switching stations. The system receives
power from the substations via overhead feeders or underground cables and supplies the power to the
rolling stock.
• Traction Power Return System. The traction power return system consists of all equipment between the
interface with the traction power supply system and the vehicle wheels. The return system includes
running rails, impedance bonds, cross-bonds, static wire, and ground. The rolling stock on-board
propulsion system conditions the power received from the distribution system for use by traction motors.
After the power is exerted in the traction motors, the traction current is returned to the substations via
the traction power return system and overhead feeders or underground cables.
Each of the electrification system components is described in more detail in the following sections.

6.3.2 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.2.1 Utility Power Supply
The traction power substations receive power directly from the local high voltage electrical power utility
substations located in the proximity of the route or from transmission lines crossing or running along the
alignment. Preferable utility system voltage levels are in the range of 115 kV to 230 kV. In areas where the utility
system does not operate in this range of voltage, consideration can be given to supplying the traction substation at
69 kV or 345 kV.
Connections to the utility high voltage lines are required to ensure high supply reliability. The systems below 115
kV are not usually the first choice as the system fault level may be too low causing excessive voltage flicker, phase
unbalance, and harmonic distortion that may result from the addition of the highly fluctuating, single-phase, and
non-sinusoidal traction load. Using supply at voltages above 230 kV is generally not cost effective due to the
considerable additional cost required for traction substation input equipment insulation.
The traction power substations are normally supplied by two high voltage lines which should be as independent of
each other as possible.
6.3.2.2 Substation Type and Equipment
The ac substations transform the utility power from high voltage to the ac electrification system utilization voltage. The
traction power supply equipment is contained in traction power substations and includes all equipment necessary to
transform and control the utility ac voltage to the traction power system ac utilization voltage used by the rolling stock.
The major items of equipment in each substation include high voltage supply line dead-end structures, high voltage circuit
breakers, high voltage disconnect switches, traction power transformers, medium voltage switchgear assembly, ac feeder
and return cables, raceways, ductbanks and conduits, auxiliary, signal, and communications power supply systems,
protective devices, programmable logic controllers, supervisory control and data acquisition systems, instrumentation,
indication, annunciation, lighting, temperature control system, busbars and bus connections, control and low voltage
wiring, equipment enclosures, insulation and grounding systems, foundations, substation control building housing, and
other miscellaneous equipment. In special circumstances, the traction power substations may also contain phase balancing
equipment, harmonic distortion filters, and power factor correction equipment.
Due to the high electrical clearances required in substations for high voltage equipment the traction power substations are
outdoor with each component delivered to site separately and installed on previously prepared foundations or footings.
Medium voltage switchgear and controls may be installed in prefabricated or field constructed buildings.
6.3.2.3 High Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect Switches
The function of the high voltage circuit breaker, together with main ac circuit breaker, is to disconnect the traction
power transformer from the system following a fault, severe overload condition, or for maintenance. Each circuit
breaker should be equipped with disconnect switches to provide a visible isolation of the circuit breaker during
maintenance.
6.3.2.4 Traction Power Transformers
The high voltage utility power is transformed to the distribution voltage by traction power transformers.
Normally, each substation is equipped with two equally-sized transformers to allow continuous system feeding in
the event of a power outage of one of the utility feeder, or of a transformer, or other item of high voltage equipment.
The single-phase traction power transformer primary windings are connected to two phases of the utility power system.
Because power is being drawn from only two phases of a three-phase system, a certain amount of current and voltage
unbalance will occur. In order to mitigate the effects of the unbalanced currents and voltages, the single-phase
connections should be alternated at successive transformers. Therefore, in an interconnected power network, the
unbalanced currents and voltages will tend to balance out by the time they reach utility generators or consumer motors.

6.3.2.5 Medium Voltage Switchgear
Each traction power substation includes a lineup of ac switchgear to distribute power to the OCS, auxiliary power
supply transformers, and substation special equipment, if installed. The switchgear should be configured to
include a main incoming circuit breaker, a busbar with a bus tie circuit breaker, and feeder circuit breakers. The
function of the main breaker, together with the high voltage circuit breaker, is to disconnect the traction power
transformer from the system following a fault, severe overload condition, or for maintenance.
Power to the OCS is supplied via feeder and catenary circuit breakers. The function of the circuit breakers is to
protect the overhead distribution system against short-circuit and to enable system outages for maintenance
purposes. It is recommended to equip each track and each feeding direction with its own dedicated circuit
breakers. Thus, for a two-track system operating in the east-west direction, the following feeder and catenary
circuit breakers would be required:
• Track 1 east
• Track 1 west
• Track 2 east
• Track 2 west
Additionally, use of a dedicated circuit breaker to the rolling stock maintenance facility should be considered, if the
facility is large and/or located nearby.
1
The substation auxiliary system can be protected by fuses or circuit breakers. Substation special equipment, such
as phase balancing equipment, harmonic filters, or power factor correction equipment is recommended to be
connected to the substation busbar via circuit breakers or circuit switchers.
The busbar needs to be equipped with a bus tie circuit breaker. The bus tie circuit breaker is normally open and is
closed only when two adjacent sections of the distribution system need to be connected in the event of a traction
power transformer outage. 3
6.3.2.6 Special Equipment
Depending on the system and rolling stock circumstances, the substations may need to be equipped by additional,
special, equipment including the following:
• Balancing Equipment – to limit the traction power substation unbalance caused to the power utility system 4
• Harmonic Filters – to limit the harmonic effect by the rolling stock to the power utility system and other
systems such as signaling and communications systems
• Power Factor Control Equipment – to control the power factor at the traction power substation input
6.3.3 TRACTION POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.3.1 Distribution System Configuration
Modern ac railroad electrification systems are recommended to use the following configurations of the distribution
systems:
• Direct-Fed System (DF) operating at 12.5 kV, 25 kV or 50 kV electrification voltages, single-phase, ac, at
the commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-1.

Figure 33-6-1. Traction Power System Study - Typical Direct-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram
• Feeder Booster Transformer System (BT) operating at 12.5 kV, 25 kV or 50 kV electrification voltages,
single-phase, ac, at the commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-2.
• Autotransformer-Fed System (ATF) operating at 2 x 12.5 kV or 2 x 25 kV electrification voltages, single-

phase, ac, at the commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-3.
6.3.3.2 Direct-Fed System
System Connection. In the direct-fed system, traction power from substations is distributed to trains by the catenary
system. The catenary system is connected through medium voltage switchgear to one end of the substation transformer
secondary winding. The other end of the winding is solidly connected to the rail/static wire/ground return system.
Phase Breaks. Since each traction power transformer primary winding is connected to different phases, the secondary
windings of adjacent transformers are out-of-phase. In order to electrically separate the sections of distribution system
operating at different phases, phase breaks are installed in the catenary system at the substations and at approximately the
midpoint between substations.
Switching Stations. In order to provide for the catenary system switching in the event of substation outages, switching
stations are provided at the substation midpoint phase break locations. To facilitate the overhead system switching
operations, each switching station is equipped with medium voltage switchgear. The switchgear is configured to include
catenary circuit feeder circuit breakers on each side of the phase break and a bus tie circuit breaker. The catenary feeder
circuit breakers are normally closed and the bus tie circuit breaker is normally open. The purpose of the bus tie breaker is
to connect the adjacent sections of the distribution system in the event of a substation outage.
Paralleling Stations. Where substation to switching station spacing is large, and at the end of an electrified line,
the distribution system may be equipped with paralleling stations. Each paralleling station is equipped with 1
medium voltage switchgear in similar configuration as in switching stations. However, since the catenary voltage
on either side of the paralleling stations is of the same phase and magnitude, bus tie circuit breakers and phase
breaks are not required.
Benefits of Paralleling Stations and Switching Stations. The switchgear in switching and paralleling stations
enables sections of the distribution system to be disconnected following a fault and for maintenance. The
switchgear is configured to permit paralleling of the overhead distribution system conductors in multiple track 3
areas. The conductor paralleling decreases the effective system impedance between substations and trains and
improves voltage profile along the system. The paralleling also provides for better current sharing between
conductors of adjacent tracks and improves system fault detection.
6.3.3.3 Booster Transformer System
Booster transformers can be used in the direct-fed system to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI). The 4
system, however, has not been used in recent years, as more and more communications circuits are replaced by
systems immune to EMI. Booster transformers are 1:1 current transformers installed between the catenary
system and the booster feeder at insulated overlaps along the distribution system, usually at 1.5-2 mile spacing.
The purpose of the booster transformers is to cause the catenary and return currents flow as closely as possible to
each other to cancel their external effects and reduce the EMI with wayside equipment. The higher number of
booster transformers yields higher level of mitigation, but impedance of the distribution system correspondingly
increases. The position of the return feeder can be selected for greatest mitigation effects.
6.3.3.4 Autotransformer-Fed System
System Connection. In the autotransformer-fed system, traction power from substations is distributed to trains by
overhead autotransformer feeder and catenary systems. The autotransformer feeder system is connected to one
end of the substation transformer secondary winding and the catenary system is connected to the other end of the
winding through medium voltage switchgear. The secondary winding of the transformers is provided with a center
tap, which is tied to the rail/static wire/ground return system.

Figure 33-6-2. AC Traction Power System - Typical Direct-Fed System with Booster Transformers
Figure 33-6-3. AC Traction Power System - Typical Autotransformer-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram
For a multi-track high-density operation, two or more feeders are recommended to provide for redundancy in the system.
Phase Breaks. Since each traction power transformer primary winding is connected to different phases, the
secondary windings of adjacent transformers are out-of-phase. In order to electrically separate the sections of
distribution system operating at different phases, phase breaks are installed in the overhead catenary system at
the substations and at approximately the midpoint between substations. The autotransformer feeder is sectioned
at the same location using insulators.
Switching Stations. In order to provide for the autotransformer feeder and catenary system switching in the event
of substation outages, switching stations are provided at the substation midpoint phase break locations. To facilitate
the overhead system switching operations, each switching station is equipped with medium voltage switchgear. The
switchgear is configured in two sections. The autotransformer feeder section includes circuit breakers on each side
of the sectionalizing point and a bus tie circuit breaker. Similarly, the catenary section includes circuit breakers on
each side of the phase break and a bus tie circuit breaker. The autotransformer feeder and catenary circuit breakers
are normally closed and the bus tie circuit breakers are normally open. The feeder and catenary circuit breakers are
recommended to be arranged to operate mechanically and electrically together. The purpose of the bus-tie breakers
is to connect the adjacent sections of the distribution system in the event of a substation outage.
Paralleling Stations. In the autotransformer system substation to switching station spacing is often large, and
therefore, the distribution system may be equipped with a number of paralleling stations installed between the
substation and the switching station. At the end of an electrified line, the distribution system may be equipped
with paralleling stations to improve voltage profile along the system. Each paralleling station is equipped with
medium voltage switchgear in similar configuration as in the switching stations. However, since the
autotransformer feeder and the catenary voltages on either side of the paralleling stations are of the same phase
and magnitude, there is no need for a bus tie circuit breakers or phase breaks.
Benefits of Paralleling Stations and Switching Stations. The switchgear in the switching and the paralleling
stations enables sections of the distribution system to be disconnected following a fault and for maintenance. The
switchgear is configured to permit paralleling of the overhead distribution system conductors in multiple track
areas. The conductor paralleling decreases the effective system impedance between substations and trains and
improves voltage profile along the system. The paralleling also provides for better current sharing between
conductors of adjacent tracks and improves system fault detection.
Autotransformers. In the autotransformer system, traction power to the catenary-rail system is delivered from the
feeder-catenary system distribution via autotransformers, and therefore, autotransformers are required to be
installed at each paralleling and switching station. The autotransformer winding ratio must correspond to the
distribution voltage (feeder-to-catenary) and the traction voltage (catenary-to-rail) ratio.
For example, using autotransformer ratio of 2:1, two system alternatives are possible:
• 2 x 12.5 kV resulting in the following system voltages:
– 25 kV between the autotransformer feeder and the catenary systems
– 12.5 kV between the autotransformer feeder system and the rail/static wire/ground return system
– 12.5 kV between the catenary and the rail/static wire/ground return system
• 2 x 25 kV resulting in the following system voltages:
– 50 kV between the autotransformer feeder and the catenary systems
– 25 kV between the autotransformer feeder system and the rail/static wire/ground return system
– 25 kV between the catenary and the rail/static wire/ground return system

The autotransformer-fed system enables power to be distributed along the system at higher than the train utilization
voltage. For example, in the 2 x 25 kV autotransformer system power is distributed at 50 kV while the trains operate
at 25 kV. This arrangement results in lower voltage drop along the system than would be possible with the 25 kV
direct-fed system. This lower voltage drop improves the voltage profile along the line and permits greater substation
spacing, and consequently, a lower number of substations than would be possible with the direct-fed system.
As the current in the feeder flows in the opposite direction as the current in the catenary it mitigates the effects of
electromagnetic interference with other wayside equipment or circuits, as discussed in the Booster Transformer
system below.
6.3.4 TRACTION POWER RETURN SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.4.1 Return System Conductors
The trains collect propulsion power from the OCS using pantographs and return the current back to the
substations via a traction power return system. The traction power return system for railroad electrification
consists of the running rails, impedance bonds, cross-bonds, overhead static wires, return conductors,
autotransformer feeders, and the ground itself. Normally, both running rails of each track serve as return
conductors, except at special trackwork locations, and around expansion or sectionalizing joints, where electrical
continuity should be provided by jumper cables connected to the rails. The running rails should be welded in
continuous lengths and any bolted joints must be electrically bonded.
In order to enable both rails to carry the return current and to maintain the double rail signaling track circuits
commonly used by North American railroads, any existing dc track circuits must be changed to ac track circuits,
and impedance bonds must be installed at signal section block points. 1
6.3.4.2 Return System Continuity and Grounding
At locations requiring insulated joints, the electrical continuity of the return system should be maintained by use
of impedance bonds. The running rails should be cross-bonded for traction power equalization through impedance
bonds at every traction power substation and as required by the design of the signal or train control systems. The
cross-bonds are periodically connected to the static wire which connects OCS supporting structures. The static 3
wire is grounded at frequent intervals. The result is that a portion of the return current flows in the rails, the
static wire, and the ground.
The purpose of this design is to reduce the effective return system resistance, provide as low an impedance return
system as possible to limit voltage rise along the rails (rail-to-ground potentials), and to improve catenary fault
detection by creating sufficiently high short-circuit currents.
4
Particular attention should be paid to return system grounding arrangements at, and in the vicinity of, passenger
stations to avoid undesirable voltage rise between the station metallic structures and trains.
The cross bond grounding must be coordinated with the signaling system design, refer to Part 5 of this Chapter.
6.3.5 NORMAL AND CONTINGENCY OPERATION (2009)
6.3.5.1 Continuity of Supply
The power supply, distribution, and return systems should be designed so that adequate propulsion power
continues to be supplied to the system under normal and contingency operation. Therefore, electrical continuity
must be provided in the distribution system from substation-to-switching station under normal operating
conditions and under single traction power transformer outage. Electrical continuity must be provided from
substation-to-substation under full substation outage conditions.

At the substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations, the distribution system continuity is provided by
the normally closed feeder and catenary circuit breakers. In the event that a feeder circuit breaker needs to be
opened for repair or maintenance, two approaches are possible:
• Provision of hand-operated or motor-operated outdoor or indoor type bypass disconnect switch
• Provision of a transfer bus and an additional circuit breaker which can substitute for any circuit breaker
via the transfer bus
The distribution system is sectionalized into electrical sections to limit the length of the track to be de-energized
following a fault or for system maintenance. The sectioning can be performed at substations, paralleling stations,
and switching stations, as well as at interlockings where crossovers and turnouts are installed.
6.3.5.2 Normal Operation
During normal operation of the power system, i.e., when all major components of the system, such as substation
transformers, feeders, and autotransformers, are in service, rated train operating performance during peak-hour
traffic conditions should be maintained. This includes providing full performance train voltage levels to allow
simultaneous starting of trains.
6.3.5.3 Contingency Operation
Normally, each traction power transformer is feeding its own section of system. During a substation transformer
outage, continuity of supply to that section is achieved by immediate closing of the substation bus tie circuit
breaker. The remaining substation transformer then feeds both sections of the system.
Each traction power transformer in a substation is recommended to be supplied by an independent transmission line.
In this event, an entire substation failure is unlikely. Nevertheless, provision for such a contingency should be made
in the system design. Following an outage of an entire substation, the two neighboring substations should maintain
continuity of supply. These substations must be capable of supplying their own sections of the system as well as the
adjacent sections previously supplied with the now outaged substation. This is facilitated at switching stations
situated on either side of the outaged substation. During the substation outage, the normally open switching station
bus-tie breakers are closed, thus extending the supply area of the two neighboring substations in operation. The bus-
tie breaker in the out-of-service substation remains open to separate the two supplies at different phases
When a substation at the end of the system is out-of-service, the end-of-the-line is supplied from the closest
operating substation by closing bus tie circuit breakers in the switching station and the outaged substation.
In the event of one traction power transformer, feeder, or autotransformer outage, the system should operate at near-
full performance. For multiple contingencies, system performance restriction of the rolling stock can be expected.
This can result in lower acceleration rate of trains, possible lower maximum speed of operation, and longer trip time.
SECTION 6.4 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM SELECTION
6.4.1 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION (2009)
The main advantage of the direct-fed system is its simplicity in comparison with the autotransformer-fed system
and the booster transformer system. The substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations require
switchgear for the catenary system only.

The booster transformers can be utilized to mitigate electromagnetic interference. However, the booster transformers
and along-track feeders increase the system complexity and cost. Further, the impedance of the distribution system is
higher, often resulting in more substations. The booster transformer system has not been used in recent years.
The autotransformer-fed system requires overhead, along-track, autotransformer feeders and switchgear for the
catenary system and the feeders in all substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations. Additionally, all
switching stations and paralleling stations are equipped with autotransformers.
6.4.2 SUBSTATION SPACING (2009)
Substation spacing depends on the train headways, train consist sizes, alignment characteristics, operation
practices, and the traction power supply, distribution and return system configurations. To determine the
substation spacing, a computer-aided load-flow simulation of the traction electrification system should be
performed. Normally, number of computer studies are performed to simulate the electrification system under
various operating scenarios and to optimize the system design parameters.
Typical substation spacing for 25 kV ac direct-fed system is approximately 15 to 20 miles, and typical substation
spacing for 50 kV ac direct-fed system is approximately 30 to 40 miles.
The booster transformers introduce impedance into the distribution system, and therefore, the substations need to be
spaced at shorter intervals than possible with the direct-fed system, typically 10 to 15 miles apart for 25 kV system.
The autotransformer system arrangement permits longer substation intervals than possible with the direct-fed
system which is advantageous in areas where sufficiently frequent and adequate sources of utility power input are
not available. Typical substation spacing for 2 x 25 kV ac autotransformer system is 30 to 40 miles. 1
6.4.3 ELECTRIFICATION VOLTAGE (2009)
The 25 kV ac and 50 kV ac electrification voltages should be considered first. In alignment with numerous low
overhead clearance obstructions, 12.5 kV ac voltage can be evaluated. However, 12.5 kV voltage is usually only
selected when expanding an existing system electrified at this voltage.
Generally, electrification at the higher voltages is more cost effective then at the lower voltages. The higher
3
electrification voltage results in lower distribution system currents and lower voltage drops along the system.
Substations can be spaced further apart, distribution system conductors of lower cross-sectional area can be
selected, or both.
The higher electrification voltages, however, require higher clearances between conductors and grounded
structures. This is an important consideration in areas of low clearance bridges and in tunnels. Cost of any 4
required civil modifications needs to be always compared to the savings obtained in the traction power supply and
distribution systems.
6.4.4 UTILITY POWER AVAILABILITY (2009)
Availability of utility power connections to substations needs to be considered when selecting the system type and
electrification voltage.
For ac electrification system, high voltage substations or transmission lines are required to supply power to the
traction power substations. Since transmission systems are not always available, the substation locations are often
governed by the locations of power utility high voltage substations, transmission lines, or high voltage cables.
During the preliminary design of any electrification project the power utility should be contacted at an early stage
of the substation location effort. The input required from the utility company includes substation supply
availability, transmission feeder availability, spare capacity, and short circuit fault levels for the potential supplies
in areas considered for traction power substations locations.

6.4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (2009)
The electrification systems currents can cause an electromagnetic interference (EMI) with other subsystems and
equipment along the wayside. This is due to the currents in the traction power substations, the distribution
system conductors, and the vehicles which are rapidly fluctuating and contain harmonic frequencies. The overall
electrification system EMI levels need to be limited to protect the system itself and the wayside facilities, including
signaling circuits, communications circuits, and equipment adjacent to the system right-of way from potentially
harmful effect of the EMI.
The EMI from traction power substation is localized and usually does not present a significant problem. The EMI
from the distribution system is usually more significant. Since the distribution system extends for many miles, the
electromagnetic induction and its possible adverse effects are a function of the disturbing current magnitude and
the length of exposure. The EMI from rolling stock may affect the signaling, communications and other wayside
equipment it transverses.
In the direct-fed system, all traction power supply and return currents are flowing from the substations along the
entire substation-to-switching station length. In the autotransformer-fed system, the traction power supply and
return currents tend to be confined between the much closer-spaced paralleling stations and switching stations.
The substation-to-switching station length in the direct-fed system is usually significantly longer than the spacing
between paralleling stations and switching stations in the autotransformer-fed system. Therefore, since the
traction current flows over greater distances in the direct center fed system than is the case in the
autotransformer-fed system, there is a likelihood of higher electromagnetic induction and possible interference
into wayside facilities with the direct center fed system than is the case with the autotransformer-fed system.
Additionally, the electromagnetic interference in the autotransformer-fed system is reduced by the presence of the
autotransformer feeder. As the currents in the feeder and catenary systems are 180° out-of-phase, the currents in
the two conductors travel in opposite directions, and the electromagnetic fields of the conductors cancel each other
out and contribute to lower levels of EMI.
In the direct-fed system the booster transformers can be used to mitigate the EMI in circumstances where other
EMI reduction is not effective due to special local conditions.
6.4.6 VOLTAGE RISE ALONG THE RETURN SYSTEM (2009)
Voltage rise along the return rails is a function of the return current magnitude, the rail resistance, and the length
of the return circuit. Increased potentials along the rails cause increased voltages between rolling stock and
platform, and possible discomfort for passengers boarding the trains.
In the direct-fed system all traction return currents from trains flows back to the substations along the entire
substation-to-switching station length. In the autotransformer-fed system, the return current from trains flows
between the much closer-spaced paralleling stations and switching stations.
Leakage of part of the current from the rails to ground can be often ignored for the purpose of rail potential rise
calculation to err on the safe side. Since the voltage rise along the rails is a function of the return current
magnitude and the length of current flow, the potential rise along the rails is higher in the direct-fed system than
in the autotransformer-fed system. The rail potential rise can be minimized by periodical grounding of rails at
cross-bond locations, with due consideration to broken rail protection, and by provision of parallel feeders.
6.4.7 ACHIEVING COST EFFECTIVE ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN (2009)
During a typical preliminary design effort, the substation, paralleling station, and switching station locations are
adjusted, the traction power transformer and autotransformer ratings modified, and the size of the distribution
conductors changed to obtain optimum performance of the overall system.

For example, longer substation spacing will result in lower train voltages along the distribution system, higher
currents in the distribution system, and higher substation power demands. Alternatively, shorter substation
spacing will result in higher train voltages along the distribution system, lower currents in the distribution system,
and lower substation power demands. Locations of suitable utility feed points and available real estate are factors
that also must be considered.
The most satisfactory and suitable combination of the technical parameters and the most economic design is
achieved by conducting system studies. The studies should evaluate the traction power system performance, its
impact on the serving utility, and its impact on the wayside facilities that may or may not belong to the railroad.
Often, an iterative process needs to be employed. In this process, an initial system design is studied first, and if
system performance objectives are not met, adjustments to the system parameters are made, and the system
performance is examined again with the new parameters. Frequently, several repeats of the system studies are
required to obtain the most desirable combination of technical parameters at the lowest overall system cost.
SECTION 6.5 SYSTEM STUDIES
6.5.1 GENERAL (2009)
The system studies described in this section are recommended to be performed for each new electrification system
design and for extensions and modifications of existing systems. The studies should be performed at various stages
of design as discussed.
6.5.2 TRAIN OPERATION SIMULATION AND LOAD-FLOW STUDY (2009) 1
The purpose of train operation simulation and load-flow study is to develop an overall traction electrification
design. The design should define spacing of traction electrification system facilities and develop rating of major
items of equipment, such as circuit breakers, transformers, underground cables, and distribution system
conductors. As a minimum, the output of the study should include voltage profile along the alignment, currents in
the distribution system conductors, and substation transformer power demands. The study is recommended to be
performed during preliminary design.
3
6.5.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE STUDY (2009)
The distribution system conductors of appropriate sizes and materials need to be selected to deliver sufficient
power to the rolling stock without causing excessive voltage drop along the electrification system and without
conductor overheating. Based on the distribution conductor currents developed in the Traction Power System 4
Load-Flow Study, the conductor temperature profile versus time should be developed and the maximum
temperature achieved compared with the conductor manufacturer’s recommendation. Comparison of the
conductor ampacity to the current RMS value is not considered sufficiently accurate. The study is recommended to
be performed during preliminary design.
6.5.4 POWER AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPATIBILITY STUDY (2009)
Each electrification project is likely to require some investigation into the impact of electromagnetic interference.
Rolling stock, the systems components, and equipment along the electrified railroad right-of-way can be subjected
to potentially harmful inductive and conductive interference. A comprehensive system-wide compatibility study
should be performed on every new electrification project. The study should take into account the rolling stock and
the systems equipment, including the traction electrification system, the signal system, the communications
system, and the fare collection system.
Concerns have also been raised regarding harmful effects of electromagnetic fields. No conclusive research has proved
this to be an issue and at the present time, the United States has no national standards which establish acceptable

limits of electromagnetic field strengths. Several states have adopted guidelines and regulations and these should be
followed in states where electrification is planned. Also, it is recommended that the designer follows guidelines
established by other professional or regulatory organizations, such as the World Health Organization (Environmental
Health Criteria), the International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee (INIRC) of the International Radiation
Protection Association (IRPA), and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
The study is recommended to be initiated during the preliminary engineering effort and should be periodically
updated throughout the project duration. A study following introduction of revenue service is recommended using
the same procedures as the baseline study. Comparison of the studies may be used for evaluation of need for any
additional possible EMI mitigation measures.
6.5.5 VOLTAGE FLICKER STUDY (2009)
When traction power substation connection points to the power utility system are evaluated, utility voltage flicker
study should be performed. The study should determine the response of the utility system to the fluctuating
traction loads and verify the utility system capability to satisfactorily supply the electrification system. The study
should be performed during preliminary design stage of the project.
6.5.6 PHASE UNBALANCE STUDY (2009)
A single-phase traction load unbalances the three-phase utility system and causes negative sequence current flows
in power generators and three phase motors. These currents produce additional heating in the machine rotors.
ANSI C50.13 and NEMA MG-1 standards cover continuous and short time negative sequence current capability
for cylindrical rotor synchronous generators. Rotating machines should withstand the effects of continuous
negative sequence current of 5-10 % of rated stator current without injury. On a short time basis, the magnitude of
product I22 t should not exceed 40 for motors, hydraulic turbine or engine driven generators, 30 for indirectly
cooled turbine generators, 10 for directly cooled generators up to 800 MVA and 5 for some very large machines, e.g.
1,600 MVA. I2 is the negative sequence current in per unit of machine rated current and t is time in seconds.
The unbalance limits should always be agreed with the power utilities. For example, in a recent railroad
electrification study in the USA, the following limits were used:
• Voltage unbalance at the point of substation connection to power utility: 3%
• Negative sequence current in generators: 5%
Comparisons of the study results with the accepted limits will reveal whether the system phase unbalance is
acceptable. In the event that the voltage and current unbalance does exceed the accepted limits, the unbalance can
be reduced by allocating power feeding to alternate phases of the supply system at successive substations and by
the use of phase balancers. The study should be performed during preliminary design stage of the project.
6.5.7 HARMONIC DISTORTION AND SYSTEM RESONANCE STUDY (2009)
Thyristor control equipment on board of rolling stock causes harmonic current flows which cause additional
voltage drops in the system, distortion of utility system voltages, and increase in heating of rotating plant and
capacitors. Harmonic currents in the OCS may also induce noise in control, telecommunication, and signal
circuits. In systems with appreciable susceptance, a particular harmonic may coincide with the natural frequency
of the system and cause system resonance which will in turn produce additional distorted currents and voltages.
IEEE Standard 519 recommends the maximum permissible limits for individual single harmonic distortion and
total harmonic distortion (THD). It is recommended that the IEEE Std. 519 distortion limits recommendations
are followed with the power utility agreement.

Comparisons of the study results with the accepted limits will reveal whether the system current and voltage
harmonic distortion are acceptable. In the event that the harmonics exceed the accepted limits, the distortion can
be improved by the application of on-board or wayside filter circuits. When modern rolling stock with IGBT drives
is used, the harmonics are likely to be low and the actual necessity for such measures is regarded as rare. The
study should be performed during preliminary design stage of the project.
6.5.8 SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY (2009)
Short circuit study should be performed during preliminary design to select appropriate impedance of traction
power transformers and short circuit current interrupting capability of wayside circuit breakers and switchgear.
Further, results of the study are used for ground grid design, arc-flash hazard study, and protective device
coordination study.
6.5.9 ARC-FLASH HAZARD STUDY (2009)
Arc-flash hazard study on substation switchgear should be based on the short circuit study. The study should
determine calculated incident energy at various distances from the equipment and identify the calculated flash
protection boundaries. The study should include requirements of OSHA 29 9CFR, NFPA 70E, NEC and IEEE Std.
1584 and should provide recommendation on personnel protection equipment (PPE) and appropriate labeling of
equipment. The study should be performed during final design stage of the project.
6.5.10 INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY (2009)
An overall system insulation coordination study is recommended to be performed for each new electrification 1
system design. The study should be performed to protect the rolling stock, the traction electrification system, the
signal system, the communications system, and the fare collection system from excessive overvoltages primarily
caused by lightning strikes and switching surges. The study is recommended to be performed during the final
engineering phase of a project.
6.5.11 PROTECTIVE DEVICE COORDINATION STUDY (2009)

3
The protective device coordination study should ensure that all protective relays are selected, applied, and set to
disconnect faulted equipment out of the circuit following a short circuit without affecting any healthy equipment.
The study is recommended to be performed during the final engineering phase of a project.
6.5.12 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION CONTROL STUDY (2009)

4
The purpose of the atmospheric corrosion control study is to protect the railroad systems and their surroundings
from atmospheric corrosion impact which can cause failure, increased maintenance costs, and reduced aesthetics.
The study is recommended to be performed during the final engineering phase of a project.
6.5.13 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY (2009)
Soil conditions along the right-of-way should be determined by using existing known data. The purpose of the
study is to determine the locations and number of soil borings required for design of foundations and footings for
the system facilities.

SECTION 6.6 SYSTEM DESIGN
The traction electrification system equipment should be designed for a minimum functional life expectancy of
thirty (30) years. For that purpose a Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) plan in compliance with ISO-9001
should be established and followed in all phases of system design. During design stage, the quality of work should
be monitored by performing reviews of submittals and conducting design review meetings.
All traction electrification system equipment should be designed to maintain sufficient voltage levels at the rolling
stock current collection devices without overloading and overheating of any of the system equipment.
The design must take into account the effects of the highly fluctuating pattern of traction current, the phase-to-
phase utility connections, the frequent distribution system faults, and the harmonic content and power factor of
the traction loads to ensure minimal impact on the power supply utility system and wayside equipment.
The overall system insulation needs to be coordinated to ensure that the voltage surges caused by lightning strikes
to the system and circuit breaker switching operations do not damage the system equipment.
The systems must not cause electromagnetic interference affecting wayside signal and communications circuits.
The traction electrification system design must be compatible with the other systems, including the signal,
communication, and fare collection systems.
6.6.2 STANDARDS, CODES, AND REGULATIONS (2009)
All design work, material selection, installation, testing, and construction should conform to, or exceed, the
requirements of the latest editions of standards and codes issued by the following organizations:
Aluminum Association of America AAA

American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association AHDGA
American Institute of Steel Construction AISC
American Iron & Steel Institute AISI
American National Standards Institute ANSI
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME
American Society for Testing & Materials ASTM
American Welding Society AWS
Association of American Railroads AAR
Building Officials Conference of America BOCA
Construction Specifications Institute CSI
Illuminating Engineering Society IES
Industrial Fasteners Institute IFI
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers IEEE
Instrument Society of America ISA
Insulated Cable Engineers Association ICEA
National Association of Corrosion Engineers NACE
National Board of Fire Underwriters NBFU
National Electrical Code NEC

National Electrical Contractor's Association NECA

National Electrical Manufacturers Association NEMA
National Electrical Testing Association NETA
National Electrical Safety Code NESC
National Fire Protection Association NFPA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA
Steel Structures Painting Council SSPC
Underwriters Laboratories UL
Additionally, the system must also meet the applicable state, county, and city codes and regulations.
6.6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (2009)
Environmental considerations include the impact of environment onto the electrification system and the impact of
the electrification system on the environment. The adverse impacts of both factors should be limited as much as
economically possible.
6.6.3.1 Climatic Conditions
The traction electrification system should be designed taking into account the climatic conditions in the project
locale. The climatic conditions should include the maximum and minimum values for the following parameters:
1
• Maximum and minimum ambient temperature (°F)
• Maximum ice thickness (inches)
• 24-hour rainfall (inches)
• Maximum and minimum relative humidity (%) 3

• Maximum wind speed (mph)
• Altitude above sea level (feet)
• Existence of any corrosive atmosphere, such as salt spray

4
The climatic factors at the project altitude should be used as the design guidelines. The climatic factors should be
given for the system operating conditions and structural design, and should be derived from publicly-available data
recorded in the project locale.
6.6.3.2 Environmental Impact Statement
If federally funded, the electrification project is likely to require an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). The
factors which will have to be addressed include protection of natural resources during construction and operation,
soil erosion and sedimentation, air quality improvement, wetlands, wildlife, noise and vibration, and aesthetic
impact. Adverse effects on the environment should be limited as much as is economically possible. In order to
avoid regulatory delays, it is recommended that the EIS be prepared as soon as possible after the project
commencement. All possible candidate sites for substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations should be
included in the environmental impact study of the project.

6.6.4 SERVICE CONDITIONS (2009)
It is recommended that the following service conditions be identified in the equipment specifications:
• Indoor or outdoor installation requirement
• Seismic levels or vibrations from passing trains
• Short circuit duty at utility substations and line tapping points
• Short circuit duty at the traction transformer secondary windings
• Rolling stock harmonic frequency spectrum magnitude and power factor
6.6.5 EQUIPMENT DESIGN (2009)
Traction power equipment is generally located in unmanned substations, paralleling stations, and switching
stations, and therefore, the equipment should be simple and reliable. The equipment should be designed
considering ease of access for testing and maintenance.
6.6.5.1 Basic Impulse Insulation Level
An insulation coordination study is recommended to be performed for all voltage levels in the traction power
substations, so that suitable Basic Insulation Level (BIL) and appropriate surge arresters can be selected. The
primary voltage equipment BIL, applicable to HV circuit breakers, HV disconnect switches and transformer
primary windings, must be fully coordinated with the utility system BIL. The low (secondary) voltage system BIL,
applicable to transformer secondary windings and switchgear, is recommended to be as shown below:
Electrification Voltage (kV) Minimum Equipment BIL (kV)

12.5 150
25 200
50 450
The surge arresters and surge protecting devices should be applied in accordance with IEEE C62 series of standards.
6.6.5.2 Tests
Comprehensive tests should be specified for all substation equipment including design, production and installation
verification tests in accordance with the relevant IEEE, ANSI and NEMA standards. When large numbers of
equipment are being purchased under the same contract, the buyer should reserve the right to repeat the basic
acceptance tests on a random sample of the batch in order to maintain quality control.
6.6.5.3 Spare Parts, Special Tools and Test Equipment
All traction power supply equipment is recommended to be ordered with a full complement of spare parts, special
tools and test equipment in sufficient quantity to last two years after equipment acceptance. The procurement
documents should request guaranteed cost of additional equipment for an order executed within the two years.
6.6.5.4 Documentation
Each manufacturer should be required by specification to furnish a comprehensive set of documentation with the
delivered equipment. This documentation is recommended to include product data, fully dimensioned drawings
including weights and erection details, preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance and heavy repair manuals,
test procedures, and test results.

6.6.6 HIGH (PRIMARY) VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND DISCONNECT SWITCHES

(2009)
Selection of high (primary) voltage circuit breakers, disconnect switches and protective equipment is governed by
the circuit voltage level and short circuit fault level existing at the particular electrical power utility supply. The
high voltage supply arrangement and protection should be designed in accordance with the power utility practices
and should be reviewed by the power utility. The high voltage circuit breakers and disconnect switches should be
installed in accordance with IEEE C37 series of standards.
6.6.7 TRACTION POWER TRANSFORMERS (2009)
Consideration should be given to specifying traction power transformers for a particular project with the same
characteristics to standardize design and maintenance, and permit equipment interchangeability. The traction
power transformers should be installed in accordance with IEEE C57 series of standards.
6.6.7.1 Continuous and Overload Current Ratings
Substation transformers should be rated on the basis of the Load Flow Study results. Each transformer must be
rated to supply continuously its own load under normal operating conditions, together with the additional load of
the adjacent electrical section under a transformer or substation outage. Because of the traction load fluctuation,
it is recommended that the transformers should be specified to supply the rated power continuously with
superimposed overload cycle equal to 150% of continuous rating for 2 hours and 300% of continuous rating for 5
minutes without significant reduction of service life expectancy.
1
It is recommended that transformer rating includes spare capacity for future increases in train sizes or number of
trains in operation.
6.6.7.2 Temperature Rise
The IEEE standard recommends that the transformer winding temperature rise above ambient temperature,
based on its continuous rating, should not be permitted to exceed 65°C using resistance measurements. However, 3
due to the fluctuating nature of the traction current and the presence of harmonics, the designer may use a lower
value. The winding hottest-spot temperature rise should not be permitted to exceed 80°C.
6.6.7.3 Harmonics
Rolling stock with thyristor-controlled propulsion equipment can generate significant levels of frequency
harmonics. Harmonic currents increase the total RMS current loading of the traction power substation and power 4
utility equipment, and therefore, produce additional heating. Coordination with the vehicle design team is
recommended especially if on-board filtering equipment is being considered. It is recommended that the
transformer specifications include the projected RMS current values of all harmonics expressed as a percentage of
fundamental frequency. As a minimum, harmonics from the third through the twenty-first harmonic should be
included.
6.6.7.4 Impedance
The selected value of transformer impedance must be low enough to avoid excessive voltage drop in order to obtain
long substation feeding distances. The impedance should not be too low, however, as this would affect the economy
of transformer and low voltage switchgear design. Judgment based on engineering and economic factors is
required to obtain the optimum value.

6.6.7.5 Core and Windings
The fluctuating load currents and relatively high incidence of heavy fault currents produce pulsating forces and
mechanical stresses in the transformer windings. These forces and stresses may cause axial and radial movement
of the coils and eventual transformer failure. It is recommended that the specifications include the requirement
for augmented mechanical strength of the transformer core and include an internal bracing system for windings.
Winding and tap connections should be located to minimize their movement and damage.
6.6.7.6 Voltage Ratios and Tap Changers
It is recommended that the transformer no-load voltage ratio at a normal tap position be for "nominal voltage plus
5%." For example, for 25 kV system the transformer secondary voltage is recommended to be set at 26.25 kV. This
allows for utility voltage variation of +5% without exceeding the normal upper voltage of 27.5 kV. It is
recommended that four (4) no-load taps in 2.5% increments, two (2) below and two (2) above the normal tap be
provided to permit such adjustments.
In locations where the utility voltage varies in wide ranges, application of transformer load tap changer may be
considered. However, since load changers increase the transformer maintenance, their operation should be limited
only to adjust for utility voltage variation and their operation should be precluded due to voltage drop caused by
passing trains.
6.6.7.7 Oil Preservation and Pressurization System
It is recommended that each transformer be equipped with oil expansion tanks and an inert gas pressure system
along with appropriate gauges, alarms and safety valves. Removable radiators are recommended to facilitate
maintenance. The large volume (several hundred gallons) of cooling oil in the transformer tank and radiators
creates a large heat sink that can absorb significant overloads under cyclic loading without any adverse effects on
the transformer. The transformers should be installed with appropriate oil containment provisions to minimize
environmental damage in the event of a leak in the tank or radiators.
6.6.7.8 Noise Level
The specifications should include maximum exterior noise levels, in accordance with IEEE/ANSI Standards, if the
transformer is to be located in a populated area.
6.6.7.9 Acceptance Tests
Short circuit tests should be considered an essential part of the acceptance procedure, due to the operating
environment of the transformer. Tests should be run for each primary voltage type and each rating of the
transformers.
6.6.8 MEDIUM (SECONDARY) VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR (2009)
The OCS is susceptible to frequent short circuit faults and, therefore, switchgear with vacuum or sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers is recommended. The circuit breakers should be capable of several hundred
operations at short circuit current levels and several thousand operations at rated current levels. The medium
voltage switchgear should be applied in accordance with IEEE C37 series of standards.
6.6.8.1 Switchgear Type
Whenever voltage rating permits, metal-clad switchgear assemblies with horizontal draw-out circuit breakers are
recommended. The switchgear should be located in metal or brick housings and installed in dead-front, floor-
mounted, free-standing cubicles. Indoor, fixed, metal-enclosed switchgear or outdoor circuit breakers are
recommended alternatives to the metal-clad, draw-out circuit breaker type switchgear.

6.6.8.2 Ratings
Switchgear and circuit breakers are recommended to be rated on a symmetrical current basis as recommended by
the IEEE/ANSI C37 series of standards. The continuous and overload ratings of feeder switchgear should be
compatible with the overhead conductor ampacity and the traction transformer rating. The incoming and bus-tie
switchgear are recommended to be rated at a higher continuous current rating than the feeder switchgear.
The switchgear must be able to carry the short circuit current for sufficient time to enable the protective relaying
to operate. Once the switchgear is required to open, current interruption should be fast without restrike due to
transient voltage recovery.
6.6.9 SYSTEM PROTECTION (2009)
6.6.9.1 Transformer Protection
Each traction power transformer is recommended to be equipped with phase and ground fault overcurrent relays
and differential relays. Two stage winding temperature relay alarms should be provided, which should be designed
to provide an alarm at lower excess temperature level and to open the low voltage circuit breaker at higher excess
temperature. A two-stage sudden pressure relay for internal transformer faults should initiate an alarm for gas
accumulation and trip out the transformer with an oil surge.
6.6.9.2 Catenary Protection
The catenary system can experience high peak load currents and low fault currents which can be comparable in
magnitude. This precludes the use of overcurrent type protection, as overcurrent relaying cannot distinguish
1
between the high load and low fault currents.
The most feasible solution for catenary protection is the use of distance relaying. This form of protection is
comparatively simple to apply, is of high speed class, and provides primary and back up facilities inherent in a
single scheme. The distance relay measures impedance along the protected line and is arranged to operate for
faults between the relay location and a selected point. The relay reach is usually divided into three protection
zones, thus enabling time discrimination for faults in different line sections.
3
Faults occurring in the Zone 1 are recommended to be cleared with no intentional time delay. Zones 2 and 3 should
have adjustable time delays and train start detection feature using di/dt, dv/dt, and d /dt trigger conditions to
prevent the distance relay operation under train accelerating current. Further, it is recommended that the relay be
equipped with circular and polygonal tripping characteristic with independently adjustable line resistance, line
reactance, and “load blinding” settings to prevent the relay operation on train load.
4
A high proportion of catenary faults will clear once the circuit breaker is opened and the air in the fault location is
de-ionized. Depending on the railroad operating practices, use of an auto-reclosing operating device can be
considered. Such a relay will reclose the circuit breaker after an interval of 3 to 15 seconds, if not manually
overridden. In the case of persistent faults, the circuit breaker will latch out on the second or third opening.
In addition to distance relaying, consideration should also be given to thermal overload protection which prevents
the system conductors from overheating and possible annealing. In order to accelerate the fault clearance, and in
special circumstances, where sufficiently high short circuit currents are not available to clear remote faults,
transfer trip of remote circuit breakers using pilot wire or fiber optic communication can be considered.
Catenary system protection must be immune to system harmonics and must ensure full discrimination of
protective devices. The protection must also provide a complete back up in the case of breaker or relay failure and
be inoperative under inrush of magnetizing current to autotransformers and rolling stock on-board transformers.

6.6.9.3 Overvoltage Protection
It is recommended to provide comprehensive overvoltage to protect the traction power supply system and its
components from overvoltages caused by lightning strikes or switching surges. The protective equipment should
include appropriately rated surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors. The grounding connection
should be as short as possible and without unnecessary bends in the grounding wire. Recommended standards for
application of surge protection include Underwriters Laboratories, UL 96A, National Fire Protection Agency’s
NFPA 780, and Lightning Protection Institute’s LPI 175.
6.6.10 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT (2009)
6.6.10.1 Load Balancing Equipment
In the event that at a particular location the power utility short circuit level is low and the traction load is high,
utility system voltage and current unbalance may exceed the unbalance limit. Although this is a relatively rare
phenomenon, the high unbalance can be corrected by using static or dynamic load balancing equipment.
6.6.10.2 Power Factor Correction and Harmonic Frequency Filtering
Design of equipment such as power factor correction capacitors and harmonic frequency filters should take into
consideration the presence of voltages and currents at harmonic frequencies. It is recommended that the traction
power design should take into account harmonics caused by traction loads as well as harmonics that may be
already present on the utility system. With increased frequency of harmonics the capacitor impedance decreases
and the capacitors may become overloaded and overheated.
6.6.11 SIGNAL POWER GENERATING SYSTEM (2009)
The signal power supply system can be supplied by the local power utility or from the traction power system
substations and switching stations. Trackside signal power supply points usually include a motor/generator set or
a solid state converter and associated transformers, control and protective equipment.
The system specifications should include limits on frequency and voltage variations. In order to maintain
continuous power supply, back-up generators or converters should be provided for a trackside system with
automatic power transfer equipment enabling transfer from main to back up supply during emergencies. For
direct utility supply, it is recommended that dual supply lines should be installed with automatic transfer
equipment. Depending on the signaling system, the restoration of signal power is required to be achieved in a
specified time to avoid interfering with normal train operation.
6.6.12 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (SCADA) (2009)
The use of a computer-based SCADA system is recommended for monitoring and control of the unmanned traction
power supply, signaling power supply and system sectioning facilities. As a minimum the system should
incorporate the following features:
• Remote control of all circuit breakers, motor-operated disconnect switches and electrical lockout relays
• Status indication of all circuit breakers, disconnect switches and grounding switches
• Status indication of protective relaying, ac auxiliary power equipment and dc auxiliary power equipment
including the station battery and battery charger
• Status of communication system
• Enable/disable automatic reclosing of circuit breakers

• Metering of ac and dc voltages, currents, real power (kWs), reactive power (kVArs), and energy
consumption (kWhs)
• Maximum demand prediction
• Recording of maintenance clearance permits and maintenance status
• Work permit, power removal and out of service equipment tagging
• Catenary power removal coordination with railroad operations and track blocking
• Annunciation of circuit breaker tripping and low substation voltages
• Annunciation of facility intrusion and smoke/fire alarms
• Sequence of events recording
• Voice communication
Depending on the system size, it is recommended that the SCADA system be equipped with one or more color
visual display units which may be supplemented with modular or rear projection screens for large systems. It is
also recommended that the selection and de-selection of equipment and control command transmittal be
performed from the computer keyboards. In order to facilitate SCADA system maintenance, software changes, and
to avoid disruption of service due to failures, duplication of the SCADA system is recommended at each railroad
control center. 1
SECTION 6.7 UTILITY METERING
6.7.1 TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURE (2009) 3
Every power utility company has a different rate structure with the same or similar components. A typical rate
structure for provision of electrical power to the railroad may consist of the following:
• Energy charge - includes charge for energy consumed over a billing period of time. The energy charge
may or may not use ratchets. 4
• Fuel cost adjustment - includes adjustment for fuel cost variation.
• Demand charge - covers the utility generation and transmission costs. The demand charge may or may
not use ratchets.
• Dedicated utility facility cost - covers major connection costs.
• Miscellaneous charges - may include connection charges, and penalties for low power factor and excessive
phase unbalance.
• Discounts - may include high voltage service and off-peak usage discounts.

6.7.2 LOCATION OF METERING EQUIPMENT (2009)
The metering equipment can be located on the substation high (primary) voltage side or at the traction power
transformer secondary. The primary voltage metering requires more expensive HV potential and current
transformers, while the low (secondary) voltage metering is more complex as it must compensate for transformer
losses. Overall, the secondary voltage metering system is less expensive and therefore is recommended whenever
permitted by the utilities.
6.7.3 BILLING CONCEPTS (2009)
Each power utility may have a different rate structure and the tariff applied to a railroad electrification supply has to
be negotiated. It is recommended that the billing concepts presented in this section be included in such negotiations.
6.7.3.1 Conjunctive Billing
Coincidental or conjunctive billing is applicable when several substations are supplied by the same utility. Due to
the fact that the train load moves along the alignment, peak demands on individual substations are unlikely to
occur simultaneously. Therefore, coincident power demand measured at several substations during the maximum
demand period is likely to be lower than the sum of maximum demands as measured individually at each
substation. Considerable billing savings can be realized by totaling the power demands of several substations at
coincidental time interval.
6.7.3.2 Time-of-Day and Time-of-Year Pricing
These pricing concepts are designed to charge a higher rate during peak-load periods and lower rates at other times.
6.7.4 RATE STRUCTURE NEGOTIATION (2009)
It is recommended that the electrification system owner begin early discussions with the power utilities to
negotiate the most advantageous electrical rate structure and identify any possible connection costs. It is
recommended that during the negotiations the system owner is supported by technical staff as well as by an
experienced rate structure attorney to achieve most advantageous tariff for the expected load.
SECTION 6.8 CONSTRUCTION
6.8.1 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL (2009)
The Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) program established at the commencement of the design stage
should be maintained. During manufacturing and construction stages of the project it is recommended to monitor
the quality of work by observing manufacture, inspecting construction, and witnessing factory and field tests.
6.8.2 INSTALLATION VERIFICATION TESTING (2009)
Field tests should be performed to verify that the system has been correctly installed and that there are no
equipment incompatibilities. Verification that all equipment is installed according to the design and is in operable
condition should be performed prior to conducting the field tests, including:
• Visual inspection of equipment.
• Calibration and adjustments of protective relays and instruments.

• Connection check of feeders and disconnect switches.
• High potential feeder insulation check.
The following tests are recommended:
• Substation grounding resistance test
• Substation equipment, power cables, and control wiring dielectric tests
• Substation equipment functional and operational tests
• Substation Infrared temperature measurement of all busbar connections, cable splices
• Substation relay coordination and calibration tests including short circuit tests:
– Line-to-rail short circuit, local and remote, bolted and high-resistance
– Line-to-ground short circuit, local and remote, bolted and high-resistance
• Substation audible sound-level test while two trains are starting at full acceleration
6.8.3 SYSTEM-WIDE INTEGRATION TESTING (2009)
System-wide integration tests should be performed to verify that the traction power supply, the traction power 1
distribution, and the traction power return systems have been correctly integrated with the rolling stock, signal
system, and communications system, and that there are no system incompatibilities.
The following tests are recommended:
• Train Operation Tests. The test should be performed with all substations in service and with one
substation out-of-service. As a minimum, following data should be measured and recorded the during the 3
tests:
– Train voltage
– Train current
– All feeder circuit breaker currents at three adjacent substations 4

• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System. Following installation of the SCADA system and
communications system, interface tests should be conducted to verify the following:
– Proper operation of all SCADA equipment.
– Proper data communications to and from each PLC.
6.8.4 PRE-REVENUE OPERATION TESTING (2009)
Following satisfactory completion of all individual equipment tests, system installation verification testing, and
system-wide integration testing, a system pre-revenue operation test should be conducted.
During the test, rolling stock consists should be operated at minimum headways and the following functions
monitored and recorded:

• All substation equipment parameters at three adjacent substations
• All SCADA functions for satisfactory operation, including:
– All control functions from the Control Console and remotely located PC
– All monitoring functions
– All measuring functions

33
Part 7
Rail Bonding1
— 1994 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes – Electric Traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3

7.1.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3
7.2 Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6

7.2.1 General (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6 1
7.2.2 Terms (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6
7.2.3 Manufacture (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-8
7.2.4 Physical Properties and Tests (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9
7.2.5 Standard Dimensions (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9
7.2.6 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10
7.2.7 Inspection and Rejection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10 3
7.2.8 Guarantee (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10
7.3 Specification for Welded T ype Rail Head U-bonds and Extended Bonds. . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.1 Purpose (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.2 Drawings (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.3 Tender (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.4 Alternates (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.5 Material and Workmanship (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.6 Design (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.7 Conductors (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.8 Terminals (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.9 Identification (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.10 Resistance of Installed Bonds (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.11 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.12 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.13 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.14 Marking (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.3.15 Warranty (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.4 Specification for Rail-head Pin-type Bonds and T rack Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15

7.5 Specification for Thermite T ype Welded Rail-head Bonds and T rack Connectors . . 33-7-17
7.5.1 Purpose (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.2 Drawings (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.3 Tender (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.4 Material and Workmanship (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.5 Design (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
7.5.6 Conductors (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
7.5.7 Terminals (Sleeve or Other Device Supplied by Manufacturer) (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.8 Attaching Metal (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.9 Identification (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.10 Resistance of Installed Bonds (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.11 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.12 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.13 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.14 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.15 Marking (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.5.16 Warranty (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6 Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21

7.6.1 Purpose (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.2 Drawings (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.3 Tender (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.4 Material and Workmanship (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.5 Design (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.6 Conductors (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.7 At taching Metal (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.8 Resistance of Installed Connections (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.9 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.10 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.11 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.12 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.13 Marking (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.14 Warranty (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
LIST OF FIGURES
33-7-1 Sample Bonded System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-5

33-7-2 Ohms Resistance of Splice Bars per Joint in Parallel with Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-7
33-7-3 Extended Bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
33-7-4 U-bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
33-7-5 Showing Points of Measurement for Determining Installed Bond Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
33-7-6 Replacement Drawing 1048 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-16
33-7-7 Concentric Construction – Stranded Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
33-7-8 Rope Lay Construction – Stranded Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
33-7-9 Copper Cable Weld to Horizontal Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22

Rail Bonding
33-7-10 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22

33-7-11 Cable Weld to Vertical Ground Rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-12 Splice of Vertical Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-13 Splice Weld of Copper Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-14 “T” Weld of Copper Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-15 Splice Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables – Copper Ferrules used
for Added Mechanical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-16 Lug Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables to Copper Bus Lug –
Copper Ferrule used for Add Mechanical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-17 Splice Welds of Catenary Feeder Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-18 Lugs Welds of Catenary Switch Terminal Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-19 Multiple Cable Lug Weld to Impedance Bond Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
33-7-20 Typical Grounding System for Oil Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-25
LIST OF TABLES
33-7-1 Specification for Stud Terminal Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9

33-7-2 Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10 1
33-7-3 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
33-7-4 Electrical Resistance – Microhms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
33-7-5 Amp Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
33-7-6 Cable Stranding Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
SECTION 7.1 METHOD OF DETERMINING RAIL BOND SIZES – ELECTRIC TRACTION
7.1.1 GENERAL (1994)

a. When discussing the bonding of running rails for an electrified system certain contributing factors must 4
be assumed to have already been studied and decided upon. These factors would involve a study of the
overall system from an economic and performance standpoint and would include:
(1) Spacing and location of substations.
(2) Maximum allowable voltage drop for operation of motors.
(a) Desired drop in overload feeders involving study of cost of copper.
(b) Desired drop in return system involving study of electrolysis and stray currents.
(3) Weight of rail.
(4) Single rail propulsion system or double rail propulsion system with impedance bonds.
(5) Multiple track cross bonded or single track operation.

b. The size and type of rail bonds would now be a matter of keeping allowable voltage drop in the return
system at its proper limit, using bonds which are heavy and strong enough to carry the full load current
and withstand normal vibration fatigue and mechanical damage.
c. The voltage drop in the system would equal the voltage at the substation minus the voltage at the load.
The maximum allowable voltage drop would occur at a point maximum distance from the substation
while maximum current was being drawn or:
VMD = VOR + VRSD

= IMAX ZOF + IMAX ZRS
where:
VMD = Maximum voltage drop

VOFD = Voltage drop in overhead and feeders at maximum current
VRSD = Voltage drop in return system
IMAX = Maximum current
ZOF = Impedance of overhead and feeders
ZRS = Impedance of return system
Also:
ZRS = ZT + ZB
where:
ZT = Impedance of track
ZB = Impedance of bonds
NOTE: This assumes that there is no auxiliary return in parallel with the track. Auxiliary returns
are rarely used and should be unnecessary with proper design.
d. For example, assume a system to be bonded as follows (see Figure 33-7-1).
Maximum distance between substations 15 miles. Three thousand-volt d-c system. Maximum allowance
voltage drop 500 volts. Maximum starting load current 1,500 amperes. One hundred and thirty-pound
rail. Double rail propulsion with impedance bonds. Double track operation cross bonded at every other
impedance bond location. Maximum unbalance in rails 10% for proper operation of signal system.
Signals to operate at 60-cycle a-c. After a study of local terrain and cost of copper, ratio of voltage drop
desirable in return circuit to overhead feeder circuit approximately 1 to 4. All calculations made are
assuming no help from paralleling splice bars. This will in all cases give results which will over bond
because the splice bars are always in place and giving help in actual operation, allowing a large margin of
safety.
Therefore:
VMD = 500 V
IMAX = 1,500 A

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-1. Sample Bonded System

1
e. Since it is a d-c system the only impedance would be the d-c resistance of the component parts.
ZOF = ROF
ZRS = RRS
3
ZT = RT
ZB = RB
f. At the 1 to 4 ratio, voltage drop in overhead and feeders:
500 × 3 4
V OFD = ------------------- = 375V = I MAX R OF
4
V RSD = 500 – 375 = 125V = I MAX R RS
V RSD 125
R RS = --------------
- = ------------- = 0.0834 Ohms
I MAX 1500
g. With four rails in parallel, resistance per rail = 0.0834 × 4 = 0.3336 Ohms. Since maximum voltage drop
must occur at a point farthest from the substation. 0.3336 Ohms represents the rail + bond resistance in
7.5 miles.
h. From a rail resistance chart 100 lb rail = 0.0399 Ohms per mile.
R Rail = 0.0399 × 7.5 = 0.2998 Ohms

R Bonds = 0.336 – 0.2998 = 0.0338 Ohms

i. In 7.5 miles these are:
7.5 × 135 = 1015 bonds
NOTE: The graph (Figure 33-7-2) shows the effect upon track circuit resistance, using various
types and lengths of signal bonds, when the parallel resistance of the splice bar is taken
into effect. It will be seen that the various curves (A′, B′, C′ and D′) are asymptotic to the
straight line values (A, B, C and D) figures neglecting spice bar resistance. The actual
resistance, as represented by the curves, will approach the values of the bond plus rail
resistance but will be equal to it only if the resistance of the splice bar path is infinity. This
condition is never reached in normal practice thus giving track circuit resistance of a
lower value than that arrived at by ignoring the splice bar path. The effect of splice bar
resistance on power bonds is not as great due to the lower installed resistance of these
bonds, but the same principle holds.
″Resistance per bond″ = ″0.338

----------------- = 0.000,0335″
1015
= 33.5 microhms per bond
j. From a rail bond resistance chart it is found that a 4/0 × 7″ U shaped copper bond has a resistance of 40
microhms and would be close enough to be acceptable. If a longer bond spanning the splice bar is
desirable, two 400,000 CM bonds. 36 feet long, could be used giving the same installed resistance. Since
bare exposed conductors will carry one ampere per 500 CM without undue heating, the 4/0 bond would
easily carry the rail current.
k. At a 1 to 4 ratio the voltage drop in the overhead feeder circuit would be 500 minus 125 or 375 volts.
Resistance would be 375 divided by 1,500 or 0.25 ohms. Since 7-1/2 miles would be 39,500 feet, the
resistance per 1,000 feet of copper conduct would be 0.25 divided by 39.5 or 0.00634 ohms. This would
mean an equivalent copper area in the conductor of approximately 1,750,000 CM to give the desired
resistance.
l. The economics of using a 1 to 4 or higher ratio is now easily seen when it is realized that 39,600 feet of
1,750,000 CM copper conductor would equal 215,000 pounds of copper, using a figure of 5,405 pounds per
1,000 feet. At approximately 38 cents per pound, this cost would be $81,500 for the copper alone at the
producing mill. The equivalent copper area of the return circuit is approximately 5,300,000 CM.
SECTION 7.2 SPECIFICATION FOR STUD TERMINAL COPPER RAIL BONDS
7.2.1 GENERAL (1978)
The Intention of this specification is to provide for the manufacture and delivery of rail bonds of the stud
terminal type for the bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically operated systems.
7.2.2 TERMS (1978)
The following terms are for general use in this Section. Refer to the Glossary located at the end of the chapter
for definitions.
Compressed Terminal Bonds

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-2. Ohms Resistance of Splice Bars per Joint in Parallel with Bonds
Conductor
Conductor Cross-sectional Area
Drift Pin

Duplex Conductor
Pin Terminal Bonds
Single Conductor
Stud of Bond Terminal
Taper Punch
7.2.3 MANUFACTURE (1978)
7.2.3.1 General
The terminals and conductors shall be made to conform in quality and purity to the requirements of the ASTM
specifications for either electrolytic copper, designation B–5, or lake copper, designation B–4. A copper sleeve
approximately 0.031 inch thick shall be inserted between the terminal proper and the conductor where it enters
the terminal. The strands at the point of egress from the terminals shall not be injured in manufacture. The
terminals shall be welded to the conductors by the best commercial practice such as drop forging.
7.2.3.2 Terminal Studs
All terminal studs shall be milled to nominal diameter. The copper shall be thoroughly annealed, flow freely
when compressed or expanded and shall show no indications of checks, cracks or other defects.
7.2.3.3 Conductor
Each conductor shall be composed of the number of strands specified in Table 33-7-1 for the length of bond
required. The area shall not be less than the nominal size measured by adding together the areas of all strands
of the bond, taken at right angles to their axes.

Rail Bonding
Table 33-7-1. Specification for Stud Terminal Rail Bonds
Terminal Stud
Conductor Construction
Length, Inches
Stud
Bond
Size of Terminal Bond Size of Individual
Length Maximum
Bond Diameter, Length 20″ Length Wire, Inches
Pin Compressed and Under Over
Inches of Lay, (Note 1)
20″
Inches
Number of Strands 61 91 127
1-0 and smaller 3/ 4 3/4 7/ 8 61 61 2.82 0.0418 – –
2-0 3/ 4 3/4 7/ 8 61 61 3.17 0.0469 – –
3-0 3/ 4 3/4 7/ 8 91 61 3.56 0.0527 0.432 –
4-0 3/ 4 3/4 7/ 8 127 61 4.00 0.0592 – 0.041
250,000 cm 7/ 8 3/4 7/ 8 127 61 4.34 0.0644 – 0.0446
300,000 cm 7/ 8 3/4 7/ 8 127 61 4.76 0.0705 – 0.0489
350,000 cm 7/ 8 3/4 7/ 8 127 61 5.15 0.0761 – 0.0528
400,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 127 91 5.50 – 0.667 0.0564
450,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 127 91 5.84 – 0.707 0.0598
500,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 127 91 6.15 – 0.745 0.0631 1
Duplex Conductor
400,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 Note Note Note Each conductor in a
450,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 Note Note Note duplex bond shall
conform with
stranding for nearest
500,000 cm 1 3/4 7/ 8 Note Note Note size single conductor in 3
the above table.
Note 1: Allowable variation plus 0.002.
7.2.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS (1978)
The completed bonds shall be annealed after manufacture by the manufacturer’s best practice. The strands, at 4
the point where they leave the terminal, shall be soft enough to permit of being bent to an angle of 90 degrees
with the axis of the bond and back to their normal position without breaking. The ohmic resistance measured
between points on the two terminals of an extended bond shall not exceed the resistance of a length of the
conductor equal to the distance between the two points.
7.2.5 STANDARD DIMENSIONS (1978)
7.2.5.1 Terminal Studs
The diameter of terminal studs shall not vary more than 0 mils over or 5 mils under the nominal diameter in
Table 33-7-1.
7.2.5.2 Pin Terminal Holes
The diameter of the holes in the pin terminal shall not vary more than 5 mils ± from the nominal diameter in
Table 33-7-1.

7.2.5.3 Drift Pins and Taper Punches
The diameter of drift pins and taper punches shall not vary more than two mils ± from the nominal diameter in
Table 33-7-2.
Table 33-7-2. Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches
Terminals Diameter Drift Pins

Taper Punches
in Inches Diameter in Inches
Greatest Diameter of Standard

Outside Hole Through Greatest Diameter of Oversize
Standard Oversize Taper Punches
Stud Terminal Taper Punches in Inches
in Inches
7/ 8 12 / 32 1/ 2 9 / 16 15 / 32 17/ 32
3 /4 11 / 32 7 / 16 1/ 2 13 / 32 15/ 32
1 17 32 43 / 64 3 /4 7/ 8 23/ 32
7.2.5.4 General
Bonds shall be of the form, makeup and length specified on customer’s drawing.
7.2.6 PACKING (1978)
All bonds shall be packed securely so as to insure arrival at destination without distortion of form specified on
customer’s drawing, or injury to the bonds in transit.
7.2.7 INSPECTION AND REJECTION (1978)
a. The purchaser may inspect the material at all stages of manufacture and proper facilities shall be
provided for making tests at the manufacturer’s plant.
b. If the material has not been accepted at point of production and if it does not meet with the
requirements of this specification, upon receipt at destination, it may be rejected.
7.2.8 GUARANTEE (1978)
The contractor guarantees the material to be in accordance with the requirements of this specification and
agrees, upon written notice to supply promptly and without charge, to the satisfaction of the railroad company,
all necessary material to make good all defects in design, material or workmanship developing in the material
supplied under this specification under ordinary use within 12 months after being placed in the service of the
railroad.

Rail Bonding
SECTION 7.3 SPECIFICATION FOR WELDED TYPE RAIL HEAD U-BONDS AND
EXTENDED BONDS
7.3.1 PURPOSE (1978)
The purpose of this specification is to provide welded type stranded rail head bonds and track connectors in No.
4/0 AWG and 250,000 cir rail sizes for the bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically
operated systems.
7.3.2 DRAWINGS (1978)
Figure 33-7-3, Figure 33-7-4 and Figure 33-7-5 form an essential part of this specification.
Figure 33-7-3. Extended Bond

3
Figure 33-7-4. U-bond

Figure 33-7-5. Showing Points of Measurement for Determining Installed Bond Resistance
7.3.3 TENDER (1978)
The tender shall be for material meeting the requirements of this specification. If the contractor wishes to vary
from the specification, a tender may be submitted covering the material he desires to furnish. The tender shall
be accompanied by full information showing wherein the requirements of this specification are not met.
7.3.4 ALTERNATES (1978)
The provisions contained in the alternate requisites section of these specifications form a part hereof only when
substituted for the provisions contained in this specification.
7.3.5 MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP (1978)
Material and workmanship shall be first class in every respect.
7.3.6 DESIGN (1978)
The general construction and dimensions of bonds and connectors shall conform to Figure 33-7-3 or Figure 33-
7-4.
7.3.7 CONDUCTORS (1978)
a. The flexible stranded copper conductors shall be made of concentric one-direction lay construction.
b. The capacity and number of wires shall be as provided for in Table 33-7-3 for a given type of bond.
c. Copper wire shall meet the requirements of current ASTM Specification, serial designation B1.

Rail Bonding
Table 33-7-3. Conductors
Diameter Each Wire Lay

Size of Bond No. of Wires
Inches Inches
Single Strand
No. 4/0 61 0.0589 4.5
No. 4/0 91 0.0482 4.5
No. 4/0 127 0.0408 3.5
250,000 cm 91 0.0524 5.5
250,000 cm 127 0.0444 4.5
250,000 cm 147 0.0412 5.0
Double Strand
No. 4/0 61 0.0416 2.8
7.3.8 TERMINALS (1978)

a. Terminals shall be made of copper or steel and attached to the copper conductors in accordance with the
Manufacturer’s standard practice, approved by the Purchaser. A sleeve of soft annealed copper,
approximately 0.03 inch thick, may be inserted between the terminal proper and the conductor where it
enters the terminal (see Figure 33-7-3 and Figure 33-7-4). 1
b. Bonds and connectors which may be assembled by a welding process shall be welded with a device
capable of producing uniformly good results.
c. When welded, welds shall be so made that the ends of all the wires are united with the terminals to
insure a dense and homogeneous metal.
3
d. Terminals shall be so designed that, when placed in position on the rail head, a welding scarf (welding
surface) shall be formed with the side of the rail head which is in accord with good welding practice for
the process or method used.
7.3.9 IDENTIFICATION (1978)

Each terminal shall be so marked or of such individual design that the manufacturer of such bond or connector 4
can be readily identified. The mark shall be plainly stamped on the terminal and located on the outside adjacent
to the strand, where it will not be damaged by welding; thus making the mark readily visible after the bond has
been applied.
7.3.10 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS (1978)

a. When installed by the Manufacturer’s recommended and approved welding materials on low carbon
rolled steel 1/2 inch thick by 2 inches wide, electrical resistance at 60 degrees F shall be of a value not
exceeding that indicated in Table 33-7-4 for the several lengths of bonds.
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin bridge method, with current taps at the
edge of the plate outside of the span of the bond on a line through the terminal centers. Potential
contacts shall be made on clean steel at points exactly 1 inch from the outer ends of terminals and
exactly on a line through the center of the terminals. Figure 33-7-5 illustrates the method of testing.
Plates shall be effectively insulated. Tests shall be made at a temperature of 68 degrees F. Direct current
shall be used at a value not in excess of 100 amp.

Table 33-7-4. Electrical Resistance – Microhms
Size of Straight Extended Length

Type
Bond 7″ 10″ 14″
No. 4/0 Gas weld 56 65 80
No. 4/0 Steel arc weld 63 70 85
No. 4/0 Copper arc weld 56 65 80
250,000 cm Gas weld 52 61 73
250,000 cm Steel arc weld 59 66 78
250,000 cm Copper arc weld 52 61 73
7.3.11 PURCHASER’S ORDER REQUIREMENTS (1978)
The Purchaser’s order shall specify the following requirements which shall be met:
a. Type, capacity and length of bond.
b. Type, capacity and length of connector.
7.3.12 INSPECTION (1978)
a. The Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture.
b. The Purchaser may inspect the completed product to determine that the requirements of this
specification have been met.
c. If material has not been accepted at the point of production and if, upon arrival at destination, it does not
meet the requirements of the specification, it may be rejected, and the Contractor, upon request, shall
advise the Purchaser what disposition is to be made of the rejected material. The Contractor shall pay all
freight charges.
d. If the Purchaser is to make the inspection at the point of production, it shall be so stated.
7.3.13 TESTS (1978)
a. Tests may be made at the point of production, or on samples submitted, and may also be made at
destination. The method is illustrated by Figure 33-7-5.
b. The Contractor shall give the Purchaser sufficient notice of the time when the material will be ready for
testing.
c. The Contractor shall provide, at the point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests
under the supervision of the Purchaser.
d. If tests are to be made at the point of production, the Purchaser shall so state and also indicate which of
the tests herein specified are to be made and what portion of the material shall be tested.
e. Two samples of welded test specimens for electrical test shall be supplied by the Contractor at the
request of the Purchaser, samples to be prepared under the supervision of the Purchaser. Test values
shall not exceed values specified in Article 7.3.10a.

Rail Bonding
f. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.3.10a, the Contractor
may be permitted to prepare two additional specimens, under the supervision of the Purchaser. If one
additional test sample fails, the entire lot may be rejected.
g. If two or more of the 10 samples selected for visual examination fail to meet the requirements of the
specifications as to finish or conformity to dimensions, the Purchaser at his discretion may call for 10
additional samples for examination. If additional samples fail to meet the requirements, the entire lot
may be rejected; or the Purchaser may examine each item, rejecting such as fail to conform.
7.3.14 MARKING (1978)
The Purchaser’s order, requisition and package number, name of the Consignor, and name and address of the
Consignee, shall be plainly marked on the outside of the package.
7.3.15 WARRANTY (1978)
The Contractor shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and
workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to
manufacturing, at the point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective
within one year alter shipment to the Purchaser. This warranty shall not apply to any material which has been
subjected to misuse, negligence or accident.
SECTION 7.4 SPECIFICATION FOR RAIL-HEAD PIN-TYPE BONDS AND TRACK

CONNECTORS
For the purpose of providing rail-head pin-type bonds and track connectors for the bonding of track rails (where 3
applicable) in electrically operated systems, the mechanically applied rail-head type bond covered by AREMA
C&S Section Specification 179–48, is adopted, by reference, except that Paragraph 1, Purpose, thereof shall
read:
This specification is for the purpose of providing mechanically applied rail-head pin-type bonds and track
connectors for track circuits carrying return propulsion current.
4
and that Figure 33-7-6 shall be used in lieu of drawing 1048 referred to in Paragraphs 2 and 5 of C & S Section
Specification 179–48.

Figure 33-7-6. Replacement Drawing 1048

Rail Bonding
SECTION 7.5 SPECIFICATION FOR THERMITE TYPE WELDED RAIL-HEAD BONDS AND
TRACK CONNECTORS
7.5.1 PURPOSE (1978)
This specification is for the purpose of providing thermite type welded rail-head propulsion bonds and track
connectors. It sets forth specific detail requirements representing modern electric propulsion practice for new
installations and for the replacement of existing material when general renewal or replacement becomes
desirable.
7.5.2 DRAWINGS (1978)
Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8 form an essential part hereof.
7.5.3 TENDER (1978)
The tender shall be for material, design and assembly meeting the requirements of this specification in its
entirety.
Material and workmanship shall be first-class in every respect.

1
Figure 33-7-7. Concentric Construction – Stranded Conductors

7.5.5 DESIGN (1978)

General construction and dimensions of bonds and track connectors shall conform to Figure 33-7-7 and
Figure 33-7-8.

a. The stranded conductors of Figure 33-7-7 shall be made of concentric construction as follows:
(1) 4/0 cable shall be 127 strands of 0.0408 inch diameter dead soft copper wires. All wires to be twisted
in the same direction with 33 inches lay of the outer strands (weight per foot–0.68 lb).
(2) 250,000 CM cable shall be 156 strands of 0.040 inch diameter dead soft copper wires. All wires to be
twisted in the same direction with 3 inches lay of the outer wires (weight per foot– 0.82 lb).
b. Copper wires shall meet the requirements of ASTM specification B-3.
c. The stranded conductors of Figure 33-7-8 shall be made in rope lay construction, center strand of 12 to
19 wires, surrounded by 6 strands of 12 to 19 wires, each. Make-up of finished cable shall have a
maximum nominal diameter of 7/32 inch, and shall have a breaking load of not less than 1,100 pounds.
d. Hard-drawn copper wire shall meet the requirements of ASTM current Specification B-1.
e. Copper Alloy wire shall meet the requirements of ASTM current Specification B-105.
Figure 33-7-8. Rope Lay Construction – Stranded Conductors

Rail Bonding
7.5.7 TERMINALS (SLEEVE OR OTHER DEVICE SUPPLIED BY MANUFACTURER) (1978)
Terminals where used shall be made of approved material and construction and attached to the conductors in
accordance with Manufacturer’s standard design.
7.5.8 ATTACHING METAL (1978)
Attaching metal shall be the Manufacturer’s design and specification.
7.5.9 IDENTIFICATION (1978)
a. Each terminal of the bond shall be so marked that the manufacturer of the bond or connector can be
readily identified.
b. Each box of bonds shall be stamped with the nominal bond size, i.e.
c. Attaching metal cartridges shall be identified by numbers or letters on the loose cap of the cartridges.
d. Attaching metal carton shall have cartridge number printed on the carton top.
e. Track circuit connectors in coiled bundles shall be tagged with manufacturers catalog number.
7.5.10 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS (1978) 1

a. When installed on steel plates 2 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick, electrical resistance shall be of a value
not exceeding the following:
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin bridge method, with current taps at the
edge of the plate outside of the span of the bond on a line through the terminal centers. Potential
contacts shall be made on clean steel at points exactly 1 inch from the outer ends of terminals and 3
exactly on a line through the center of the terminals. Plates shall be effectively insulated. Tests shall be
made at a temperature of 68 degrees F. Direct current shall be used at a value not in excess of amps
shown in Table 33-7-5.
Table 33-7-5. Amp Test
Bond Maximum Resistance

4
Size Length Ohm
100 Amp
4/0 9 inches 0.000080
4/0 13 inches 0.000095
250 MCM 13 inches 0.000085
10 Amp
3 / 16 5 inches 0.00050
3 / 16 6-1/2 inches 0.00060
3 / 16 7-1/2 inches 0.00070
3 / 16 9-3/4 inches 0.00085

Purchaser’s order shall specify the following:
a. Bonds under track connectors shall conform to specification.
b. Nominal length of bond and cable size (see Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8).
c. Length of track circuit connector and terminal forms by catalog number.
d. Attaching metal, molds and welding apparatus where required shall be specified by Manufacturer’s
catalog number or by indicating for what bond size and nominal length, attaching metal, and/or welding
apparatus is desired.
e. Whether inspection and/or tests will be made at point of production.
Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture to determine that the requirements of this
7.5.13 TESTS (1978)
a. Manufacturer shall give the Purchaser sufficient notice when material will be ready for testing.
b. Manufacturer shall provide, at point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under
supervision of the Purchaser when called for on order.
c. A quantity of 10 bonds, and/or connectors taken at random from each 3,000 or less, may be selected by
Purchaser for examination as to detail finish, general quality of manufacture, and conformity to
dimension requirements of Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8 or Purchaser may, at his discretion, inspect
entire lot.
d. Two samples of welded test specimens for electrical test shall be supplied by manufacturer. Samples shall
be prepared under supervision of Purchaser. Test values shall not exceed values specified in
Article 7.5.10a.
e. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.5.10a, manufacturer
may be permitted to prepare two additional specimens, under supervision of the Purchaser. If one
f. If two or more of the 10 samples selected for visual examination fail to meet the requirements of the
specification as to finish or conformity to dimensions, Purchaser, at his discretion, may call for 10
additional samples for examination. If additional samples fail to meet requirements, the entire lot may
be rejected, or Purchaser may examine each item, rejecting such as fail to conform.
7.5.14 PACKING (1978)
Bonds and/or connectors shall be packaged in suitable containers. Attaching metal, attaching molds, and
accessories may be packed separately at the discretion of the manufacturer.

Rail Bonding
7.5.15 MARKING (1978)
a. Containers shall be imprinted as follows:
• Bond and/or track connectors nominal wire size and nominal length – i.e. 4/0-9 inches.
b. Shipping label shall show the following:
(1) Purchaser.
(2) Destination as specified by Purchaser.
(3) Purchaser’s order number.
(4) Manufacturer’s name and address.
7.5.16 WARRANTY (1978)

Manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and
workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to
manufacturing, at point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within
one year after shipment to the Purchaser. This warranty shall not apply to any material which has been subject
to misuse, negligence or accident.
SECTION 7.6 SPECIFICATION FOR COPPER THERMITE WELDED ELECTRICAL

CONNECTIONS
7.6.1 PURPOSE (1978)

3
This specification is for the purpose of providing copper thermite type welded electrical connections. It sets
forth general and specific requirements representing modern power and grounding practice for new
installations when general renewal or replacement becomes desirable.
7.6.2 DRAWINGS (1978)

4
Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, Figure 33-7-14, Figure 33-7-15,
Figure 33-7-16, Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18, Figure 33-7-19 and Figure 33-7-20 form an essential part hereof.
7.6.3 TENDER (1978)
a. The tender shall be for material, design, and assembly meeting the requirements of this specification.
b. Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, and Figure 33-7-14 show
typical connections for use in protective grounding of buildings and apparatus.
c. Figure 33-7-15 and Figure 33-7-16 show typical power connections for locomotives and other equipment
using extra flexible cable.
d. Figure 33-7-17 and Figure 33-7-18 show typical connections for use in power feeders and switches in an
electrified system utilizing a catenary.

Figure 33-7-9. Copper Cable Weld to Horizontal Figure 33-7-10. Copper

Surface
Figure 33-7-11. Cable Weld to Vertical Ground Rod Figure 33-7-12. Splice of Vertical Ground
Figure 33-7-13. Splice Weld of Copper Cables Figure 33-7-14. “T” Weld of Copper Cables
e. Figure 33-7-19 shows a typical lug connection for connecting to an impedance bond on an electrified
system. Note that the weld type shown has two cables welded to one lug.

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-15. Splice Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables –

Copper Ferrules used for Added Mechanical Support
1
Figure 33-7-16. Lug Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables to Copper Bus Lug –
Copper Ferrule used for Add Mechanical Support
4
Figure 33-7-17. Splice Welds of Catenary Feeder Cables
Figure 33-7-18. Lugs Welds of Catenary Switch Terminal Lugs

f. Figure 33-7-20 (including details 1 and 2) shows a grounding system for a hazardous location, in this
case a railroad fuel or oil siding. The main purpose of this grounding system is to protect against static
electric build-up and discharges.
Figure 33-7-19. Multiple Cable Lug Weld to Impedance Bond Terminal

Material and workmanship shall be first-class in every respect.
7.6.5 DESIGN (1978)

a. The design of copper thermite welded type electrical connections shall be by the manufacturer based on
his experience in providing the most serviceable and economical connections and accessories.
b. Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, Figure 33-7-14, Figure 33-
7-15, Figure 33-7-16, Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18, Figure 33-7-19 and Figure 33-7-20 show
connections of various types and gram weights of copper thermite charge for various cable sizes.
c. Where special type connections are desired, the manufacturer shall work in cooperation with the
purchaser to promote a satisfactory design.

a. The copper cable conductors considered as standard for grounding shall be concentric lay stranded
ASTM classes A, B, C and D. The listing of cables in Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11,
Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13 and Figure 33-7-14 and Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18 and Figure 33-7-
19 are for the stranding classes shown in Table 33-7-6.
Table 33-7-6. Cable Stranding Classes
Cable ASTM Stranding

Size Class A B C D
1/0 7 19 37 61
4/0 7 19 37 61
4/0 7 19 37 61
400 MCM 19 37 61 91
500 MCM 37 37 61 91
750 MCM 61 61 91 127
b. Copper cable conductors for power connections are generally flexible or extra-flexible. Cables shall be
specified by any or all of the following:

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-20. Typical Grounding System for Oil Siding
(1) Circular rail size and number of strands (i.e. 500 MCM, 427 strands or 500 MCM, 61 × 7 strands.).
(2) Number of strands and individual wire size (i.e. 1100/0.0201 or 1100/No. 24.).
c. Rectangular copper bus for lug connections shall be given in actual fractional sizes (i.e. 1/4 × 1-1/2).
d. Ground rods are designated by nominal fractional sizes.
e. Copper cable sizes other than described in paragraph a and paragraph b shall be considered “special”
and be specified by AWC number of circular rail size, number of strands and ASTM stranding

classification, if known. Where possible, a sample of the “special” cable should be submitted to the
manufacturer.
f. For conductors other than copper, specify by accepted terminology (i.e. 5/16, 7-strand galvanized steel).
7.6.7 ATTACHING METAL (1978)
a. Attaching metal cartridges shall be identified by numerals or letters on the loose cap of the cartridges.
b. Attaching metal carton shall have cartridge number printed on the carton top.
c. Welding accessories shall be marked with a metal tag showing:
(1) Manufacturer’s catalog number.
(2) Conductor size to be used with welding accessories.
(3) Cram weight of copper thermite charge or cartridge to be used.
(4) Copper ferrule catalog number, if required.
7.6.8 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED CONNECTIONS (1978)
a. Resistance of 24 inches of conductor containing a connection shall not exceed the resistance of 30 inches
of plain conductor.
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin Bridge method or low-resistance
ohmmeter. Tests shall be made with direct current at a value not exceeding 100 amperes. All tests values
shall be corrected to 68 degrees F for comparative purposes with tables of cable resistance.
a. Purchaser’s order shall specify the following:
(1) Type of connection (using manufacturer’s designation if possible).
(2) Exact material required (i.e. complete welder, replacement mold only, etc.)
(3) Conductor size to be used.
(4) If a special connection is required, the above information along with any descriptive information
and/or sketch or drawing of the connection should accompany the request.
b. Purchaser’s order shall specify the following for welding charges:
(1) Grand weight or catalog number of charges.
(2) Number of charges, keeping in mind the manufacturer’s standard packaging.
c. Purchaser’s order shall specify wither inspection and/or tests will be made at point of production.

Rail Bonding
Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture to determine that the requirements of this
7.6.11 TESTS (1978)
a. Manufacturer shall give the purchaser sufficient notice when material will be ready for testing.
b. Manufacturer shall provide at point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under
supervision of the purchaser when called for an order.
c. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.6.8a, manufacturer
may be permitted to provide two additional specimens, under supervision of the purchaser. If one
7.6.12 PACKING (1978)
Welding accessories and attaching metal shall be packed in suitable containers. Attaching metal, molds and
accessories may be packed separately at the discretion of the manufacturer.
7.6.13 MARKING (1978)

1
Shipping label shall show the following:
a. Purchaser.
b. Destination as specified by purchaser.
c. Purchaser’s order number. 3

d. Manufacturer’s name and address.
7.6.14 WARRANTY (1978)
Manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and
workmanship under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to 4
manufacturing, at point of production, any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within
one year after shipment to the purchaser. This warranty shall not apply to any material which has been
subjected to misuse, negligence or accident.


33
Part 8
Catenary and Locomotive Interaction1
— 1986 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2

8.1.1 Introduction (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.1.2 Electrical Characteristics (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.1.3 T ypes of T raction Motor Control Circuits (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
1
8.2 Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with the Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-9
8.2.1 Pantograph Basics (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page 3

33-8-1 Basic Bridge Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-3
33-8-2 Bridge Output Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-3 D.C. Chopper System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-4 Locomotive System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-5 PWM Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-7
33-8-6 Greatly Simplified Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-7
33-8-7 Idealized Speed-Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8
33-8-8 Thyristor Forced Commutation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8

SECTION 8.1 LOCOMOTIVE ELECTRIC INTERACTION WITH THE CATENARY
The catenary and power supply system interact with the locomotive and its power control system. The modern
series of thyristor controlled locomotives provides various forms of distortion to the current draw from the
power supply. There is also a mechanical interaction between the catenary and pantograph power collection
systems. This part of the manual is intended to promote a more complete understanding of these interactions.
8.1.2 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (1986)
a. In A.C. input locomotives, a transformer is used to convert high voltage (12.5, 25 or 50 KV) to levels more
compatible with the control equipment and the traction drive motors.
b. The transformer output voltage must be varied to provide for speed and power changes in the traction
motors. Modern systems use various combinations of semiconductors such as diodes, thyristors (SCRs)
and transistors for power control. All of these devices generate harmonics on the secondary side of the
transformer which may be coupled back through the primary to the catenary where it can radiate and
cause interference with communication wires. The harmonics are also directly coupled into the rails and
can cause signal interference. Particular care must be taken to avoid even order harmonics due to the
tendency for translation into a D.C. component.
c. The magnitude of harmonics generated is a function of the type of power control circuit used. One of the
most influential factors affecting the harmonics present on the catenary is the transformer impedance or
degree of coupling between primary and secondary. High impedance tends to minimize harmonic
generation and also limit fault current on the system; however, this also raises the size and weight of the
transformer and adversely affects power factor. The system designer has the problem of achieving the
best compromise between conflicting requirements.
d. Care must also be taken, in the transformer design, to ensure that the initial inrush current when first
energizing a transformer or when reenergizing after a momentary interruption, is coordinated with the
catenary system.
e. Secondary filters are frequently used to control harmonics, and also to improve power factor. Care must
be taken, however, to avoid resonances with the power distribution system either on a power system
frequency basis or from the impulse type excitation which the semiconductor voltage control system
generates.
f. In addition to the conventional lightning arresters on the roof of the locomotive, protection is required
on the secondary windings, against transients generated by substation switching, pantograph bounce,
and operation through dead sections.
8.1.3 TYPES OF TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS (1986)
Refer to Figure 33-8-1 for simplified circuits.
8.1.3.1 Diode Bridge Rectifier
a. The single bridge connection may be used to provide a DC source for a non-line synchronized motor
controller such as a DC chopper or variable frequency AC invertor or to supply power for the traction
motors without intermediate controls.

Catenary and Locomotive Interaction
Figure 33-8-1. Basic Bridge Rectifiers 4
b. The output of such a bridge must be filtered to reduce the ripple voltage fed to the traction motors
directly or to the variable voltage/frequency device such as a chopper or invertor. If fed directly to the
motors, some kind of tap changing at the transformer is necessary since the diodes by themselves are not
capable of varying voltage. The filter is normally a simple inductance/capacitance type.
c. The capacitor acts also as a source for high peak currents required by the forced-commutation circuits of
an invertor or chopper. The effect of the high frequency commutations on the catenary system are
reduced by the filter effect of the capacitor bank, transformer reactance and other inductances in the
system. Small high frequency current spikes generated when the diodes block at the end of their
conduction period have to be minimized by L-R-C snubber circuits mounted on each diode.
d. Power factor of a diode bridge is high, roughly in the 90% area. Correction above this limit by means of
capacitors must be done with great care so as to avoid system resonance problems which can vary with
the distance between locomotive and substation.

8.1.3.2 Thyristor Controlled Bridge
a. A thyristor can be turned “ON” by its control electrode called a “gate” but will not turn “OFF” unless
the voltage across the anode/cathode connections is reversed. In a line powered rectifier, the voltage is
automatically reversed at the end of each half-cycle and the thyristor turns off naturally. In an invertor
or DC chopper application, with a DC supply link, no reversal of voltage occurs and the thyristor has to
be “force commutated” by an external commutating circuit. Typically, the current has to be reversed for
25 to 50 microseconds to turn off a thyristor. The rates of change in current, at commutation, may be of
the order of 100 Amps/microsecond at levels up to triple the peak load current. Considerable electrical
noise is radiated by this type of switching activity; furthermore, it is at a repetition rate that can vary as
the load changes. A thyristor controller is a diode/thyristor combination where the output power is
controlled by adjusting the time during the line cycle at which thyristor conduction occurs. This type of
controller can be used to drive the traction motors directly and the minimum current requirement of the
components is the maximum required for the motors. A basic thyristor controller has inherently poor
power factor which can be improved by use of several bridges added in series. There are various
combinations, of three bridges shown in Figure 33-8-1 (a) (b) with alternative arrangements shown in
Figure 33-8-1 (c) (d), where all bridges are under thyristor control and addition or subtraction of voltage
is sequentially controlled. Idealized waveforms of the voltage increase mode obtained by phasing on, or
adding rectifiers, in sequence are shown, for one half cycle, in Figure 33-8-2.
b. At the time in each cycle when the thyristors start conduction, fast switching transients are developed.
The rate of change in current is controlled by inductances of transformer windings and by bus bar
reactances. Filtering is fitted across the transformer windings to reduce telephone interference (TIF)
caused by higher order harmonics, and also absorb high frequency transients. Consequently, fast rates of
change which occur at the thyristor should not feed back to the line current. The distribution of the
various harmonic components will vary with the point of conduction in the cycle. At low speeds the
power factor will be poor due to basic action of the phase control function. In addition, due to high motor
current at low speed, reactive current overlap into the next half-cycle can be quite extensive which also
degrades the power factor. Overlap is also a function of the coupling between transformer windings. A
thyristor bridge may also be used as a DC supply to a chopper or invertor at fixed voltage in cases where
variations in catenary voltage are encountered.
8.1.3.3 Chopper
a. A chopper supplies pulsed DC to a load, such as a traction motor, by turning on and off a DC supply
voltage. This DC supply rust be capable of supplying pulses of current with a very low voltage drop; this
is the function of the line filter (see Figure 33-8-3) capacitor C. The inductor, L, supplies a constant
current 1 the load and capacitor. Since 1 is a DC current proportional to the average of the pulses 3
supplied to the motor, the chopper has the unique characteristic of having the transformer secondary
current proportional to the KW of the load which is not directly related to motor current, in effect, a DC
transformer.
b. This, plus the effective isolation of the chopper harmonics by the line filter, allows inherent power factors
in the 90% range and very low harmonics.
c. There are many locomotives which could benefit from power factor and performance improvement. For
retrofit purposes, a DC chopper can offer a good economic alternative to the thyristor controller or AC
invertor. Most applications so far have been addressed to the use of chopper controls from a DC catenary
or third rail where the chopper can be used as a direct link with the motor (see Figure 33-8-4). Major
difference between an AC invertor and a DC chopper lies in the filtering permitted in the connection to
the motor. In a three-phase drive, the motor feed can be filtered and wiring to the motor does not become
part of the active commutation process. In a chopper configuration, the motor is more closely tied in to
the commutation circuitry.

Figure 33-8-2. Bridge Output Voltage
Figure 33-8-3. D.C. Chopper System

3
Figure 33-8-4. Locomotive System

d. In addition, for transit applications, the equipment is mounted under the main body of the transit car
with less enveloping metal work to provide a shield. Careful attention to vehicle construction details
should minimize potential problems.
e. Variable speed industrial drives using asynchronous motors have been in use for almost 20 years with
designs specifically dedicated to high power traction applications for locomotives. The most popular
technique is Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). In PWM, a carrier frequency of approximately 500 Hz is
time modulated to provide a variable frequency source varying typically from one to 70 Hz. Individual
thyristors switch at the 500 Hz rate (Figure 33-8-5). A PWM design requires thyristors with a fast turn-
off characteristic for an efficient range of modulation.
f. An alternate system uses one or more three phase invertors (Figure 33-8-6) operating at the output
frequency of the system. For comparison with the PWM system, basic switching repetition for individual
thyristors would be 0 to 70 Hz. Switching periods at the lower rate allow more latitude on turn-off time
so that a softer commutation can be used with less sophisticated thyristors. An inductor is normally in
series with the DC capacitor bank and tends to keep current levels relatively constant. This leads to the
label “Constant Current” Invertor (CCI) as compared with the constant voltage concept of a PWM
system. From an EMI point of view, the PWM system with high circulating current and fast rates of
change is potentially a more active source of EMI than a CCI system.
8.1.3.4 Auxiliary A.C. and Head End Power For Passenger Equipment
a. On electric locomotives up to 800 KVA of three phase power may be generated by thyristor invertors for
use in the locomotive and to provide power to passenger cars (when required). Power from the catenary
passes through the transformer to a thyristor controlled bridge arrangement for voltage control. The
invertors consist of three-phase bridges for optimum reduction of harmonics. Output from the invertors
is typically 175 KVA auxiliary power for the locomotive and 625 KVA for the passenger cars. Power to the
passenger cars may have additional L-C filters for harmonic reduction.
b. Any fast transients generated are reduced by the AC filter on the locomotive and are not transmitted to
the passenger cars.
c. Although experience is limited, no serious interaction with cab signalling or railroad communications
has been experienced.
d. Invertor components are contained in robust compartments inside the body of the locomotive, wiring
runs and power connections are minimized to reduce stray emissions. Wiring is segregated to avoid stray
pickup and is within the main body of the locomotive. The external skin of the locomotive itself acts as a
totally enclosed ground shield to further attenuate commutation current radiation or similar
interferences escaping to the external environment.
8.1.3.5 General Requirements
a. There are many thyristor based circuits which provide similar results. Choice of type for a particular
application will be made based upon economics and individual manufacturers preference. The power
factor (PF) characteristic will be of the form shown in Figure 33-8-7 for a series motor connection. When,
however, field weakening is allowed, it permits a more optimum PF performance over a wider speed
range of the curve. The number of bridges used to make up the converter is a function of the type of duty
for which the locomotive is intended. For high speed passenger service, a lower power factor may be
accepted at low speed as the operating time under that condition will be mostly transitory in nature.
Satisfactory operation with a two-bridge converter may be obtained when used in conjunction with field
weakening.

Figure 33-8-5. PWM Waveform
Figure 33-8-6. Greatly Simplified Inverter
b. Freight operation, however, requires a locomotive to haul at low speeds for most of its service life. For
satisfactory PF performance with a thyristor converter more bridges would be required than for the
passenger unit assuming no other means to improve power factor have been employed. Most passenger
trains accelerate out of the poor power factor range in a very short time compared with a freight train.
c. As more semiconductor bridges are used, the amount of transient disturbance at thyristor conduction
reduces and eases the requirement for EMI filtering. Cost will tend to be higher as the converter and
control electronics increase with a reduction in overall reliability. In turn, however, an extra degree of
redundancy could be built into the design as compensation, so that a failure on one winding can be
bypassed.

d. Variations in the basic thyristor phase control circuit are possible to improve power factor. One such is a
“forced commutation” arrangement shown in Figure 33-8-8.
e. Centering the applied voltage pulse as described moves the current into phase with the voltage, resulting
in a considerable improvement in power factor. Power factors of 94% are possible without the dangers of
resonance problems inherent in large blocks of capacitors.
f. Power factor has to be considered very carefully in each application. The effect on long term power costs
and the utility company are easily understood. A more serious situation occurs, however, when
considering voltage at the locomotive pantograph. The combination of low power factor and long
catenary sections may result in a very low voltage applied to the locomotive. This has to be take into
account when coordinating the locomotive characteristics with the catenary system and substation
locations.
Figure 33-8-7. Idealized Speed-Power Factor
Figure 33-8-8. Thyristor Forced Commutation

SECTION 8.2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANICAL INTERACTION WITH THE CATENARY
8.2.1 PANTOGRAPH BASICS (1986)
a. The requirement for reliable electric train operation has led to much study of the interaction of
pantograph and overhead catenary equipment, throughout the world. The following guidelines present a
basic design philosophy which allows for both locomotive and wayside requirements.
b. A pantograph is required to collect current from an overhead wire which has low mass, and may have
substantial variations in wire height and gradient at tunnels, bridges, and road crossings. For good
current collection, the contact between pantograph and overhead wire should remain relatively stable
with less than 1% loss of mechanical contact up to maximum operating speed.
c. Climatic conditions should be taken into account and if severe icing will be encountered, then provision
should be made for compensation in uplift. Care should also be taken to minimize collection of ice and
snow to prevent locking up joints and bearings.
d. The pantograph should be designed to be sacrificial in the event of an entanglement with the catenary
wire. Remaining parts of the pantograph attached to the locomotive should have an extended maximum
height below the catenary support arms to reduce the potential for damage to the permanent structures.
e. In addition, the pantograph must be electrically satisfactory for the specified current and voltage, and
operate in all weather conditions in an exposed and sometimes severe environment. The design must be
as simple and robust as possible. 1
f. The pantograph should be bi-directional and aerodynamically neutral since the overhead line is designed
for a specific mean uplift pressure. Current collection can be significantly degraded if the pressure is
changed by airflow at speed. Poorly compensated pantographs running at 125 mph can show uplift
variations of + 50%.
g. Moving structural members should preferably be of rounded cross section for aerodynamic efficiency to 3
minimize the effects of both locomotive speed and side winds.
h. The main-frame structural frequencies should be suitably damped to avoid excitation resonances from
overhead line stagger and from the locomotive or power car suspension frequencies.
i. Suitable collector head suspension must be provided to reduce further the effective dynamic mass at
hanger-passing frequency and at discrete features such as registration arms, overlaps, and neutral 4
sections (phase breaks). The suspension response rust be faster than the main-frame response to provide
initial reaction to these low amplitude discontinuities.
j. Care must be taken, during the design, to ensure that the pivot points for the collector head provide
positive contact on front and rear carbon strips over the operating speed range and in both directions.
k. Mass of the collector head must be minimized to allow the best possible tracking of contact wire
irregularities at splices or points of localized wear. Since minimal weight is beneficial carbon carriers
may use hollow section aluminum alloy extrusions with appropriate cross-sectional shape for good
aerodynamics. Horns can be light tubular steel or aluminum alloy castings.


33
Part 9
Ancillary Power Systems
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 Wayside/Standby Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1

9.1.1 Background (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
9.1.2 Current Practice (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
9.1.3 Design Factors To Be Considered (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-2
1
SECTION 9.1 WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS
9.1.1 BACKGROUND (2007) 3

Locomotive hauled coaches have been the staple of railroad passenger service for many years, with the
locomotive serving as the primary source for powering lights, HVAC, and heating typically through train line
utilities. In the past, steam was often used for heating, and wheel coupled generators charged batteries that
were a common source for lighting and ventilation.
When these coaches were parked at stations or yards and the locomotives were removed, a network of steam
pipes supplied from a central boiler plant provided trackside connections to heat the coaches. In addition, each
car was equipped with an electrical connector to which local 220 V ac (delta) electrical power could be attached
to keep batteries charged on a per car basis.
9.1.2 CURRENT PRACTICE (2007)
Modern passenger coaches for the most part use a distributed three phase 480 volt three wire system, which
originates at the locomotive and is trainlined to the coaches in the consist. Each coach has a distribution
system, consisting of appropriate protection, controls, transformers, motors, lighting, compressors, etc., that
are configured to supply the designed “hotel” loads of the coach. When these coaches are parked, an electrical
connection is made to only one point in the consist of cars. This connection allows ALL of the cars to be
powered from a single wayside supply, so that the locomotive can be shut down or removed for service.
Appropriate controls must be furnished and operated to isolate the on board source, the locomotive Head End
Power (HEP), from the ground/ wayside source. This power source can be provided by the local utility as a
stand alone service, or can be incorporated in the yard distribution system. The need for isolating the sources

is obvious and typical of any standby / emergency generator system, albeit one that is reversed in this instance
in that the locomotive generator is the normal supply.
9.1.3 DESIGN FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED (2007)
9.1.3.1 Load
The most significant factor is the anticipated load. Most coaches are equipped with on board selectors to reduce
load when in standby mode. Some have multiple steps, i.e., normal / standby / layover, with each step
presenting a different load profile. In designing a system, it is important to understand the practices of the
operating railroad to determine if coaches will be kept on wayside power at full or partial load.
Under the ideal scenario requiring the smallest local service, the coaches will be stored on layover (lowest) load
and will be transferred to locomotive HEP before being switched to full power. However in certain climatic
conditions, it may not be possible to fully heat (or cool) the cars in time for revenue service, depending on the
HVAC recovery rates and the duration of time the locomotive is powered up prior to departure. This situation
may necessitate a higher level of wayside power that is sufficient to supply full load to the consist. As an
example, if the load is 25 kW per car in layover mode and 60 kW at full load, the size of the service equipment
and associated feeders, cables, protection, connectors and controls more than doubles for the higher load. The
higher load requirement may also have adverse effects on the cost of electricity, since the demand charges will
ratchet up.
9.1.3.2 Location
The proposed layover site should be reviewed to determine the optimum location for locating service, supply,
control and connectors. This review should consider the direction in which the train consists will be facing
(locomotive end) and the points where the wayside cable connections will be made to the consists. In most
installations, the connection is plugged into the rear end of a consist, as opposed to the locomotive end, so that
switching of the locomotive off the consist will not affect the standby power connection. Generally, connections
can be made at either end of the consist. However, a mid-consist feed is also possible, although this is generally
less desirable.
9.1.3.3 Connections
The current approaches all seem to follow or be minor variations of systems developed in the 1970s. Every
coach has (four) three-wire 480 V busses running the length of the car. These four sets of cables are paralleled
by phase, and serve as a distribution bus for all electrical loads on the car. At each end of the car, there are four
pin & sleeve female connectors, two on each side of the coupler. Each connector has three large (400 amp) pins
and three small (30 amp) control pins. When trainlined, four sets of double ended male connector jumper
cables bridge between the four plug sockets on one coach and the four plug sockets on the adjacent car, thus
creating a 1600 amp “feeder”. These interconnections continue for the length of the train and into the
locomotive where the “bus” on the locomotive is supplied by a generator.
At the rear end of the train consist, the last car has a short jumper placed between the two plugs on each side of
the coupler, thus creating two “short loops”. These jumpers serve two purposes. First to safely cover the
exposed pins that will be energized by the onboard connectors, and second to complete two independent control
circuit loops, one on each side of the consist. These two circuits must be complete before the locomotive
generator can supply power to the consist. Since two series circuits have been created, the loss of a car-to-car
jumper anywhere in the consist will open the circuit and drop out the generator main contactor or breaker. The
design of the connectors is such that the small control pins break before the large power pins when the
connection is broken. This design ensures that an employee removing an energized jumper will not interrupt
power circuits at the connector.

Ancillary Power Systems
9.1.3.4 Locomotive
Locomotives are usually equipped with four connectors at each end, the same as a coach. This arrangement
allows multiple locomotives in a consist to be train-lined. When this is done, one locomotive is designated to
supply the HEP while the others operate in a “by-pass” mode similar to a coach. Depending on the control
configuration, a set of “short loops” may also be required at the head end of the locomotive.
Various control voltages and schemes are in use but the most common is a 74 volt dc control circuit with
separate monitoring for left and right side “train line complete” indication and interlocking. This information
is usually presented on the main HEP power control panel in the locomotive.
When a locomotive is in “by-pass” mode, it should not be possible for its generator to feed the bus and the
“trainline complete” circuits should be disconnected. Only the SOURCE locomotive should provide the power
to the “trainline complete” circuits. This requirement is significant when designing a wayside power supply
system.
9.1.3.5 Wayside Power Circuits
Once the anticipated load per car has been identified by consideration of coach mode (layover / standby / full
load), the number of cars to be stored at each location must be determined. Finally the locomotive layover
load must be considered, recognizing that a “shut down” locomotive has many heaters, chargers, pumps and
blowers that may need power, to the extent that the “shut down” load may be as much as 100-150 kW.
Application of demand factors must be carefully evaluated, since all cars in a cold train will be powered up
simultaneously to prepare for a run.
1
If multiple trainsets are to be stored at the same site, a single common service with distribution feeders usually
makes sense. Protection, usually in the form of a molded case circuit breaker, should be applied. Since the
train consist presents a 3-wire load, some form of ground fault detection and interruption will be necessary,
especially when feeding the load from a grounded 480/277 V wye service. The load point should be switched by
an appropriately sized 3-pole contactor downstream from the molded case breaker. Vacuum contactors are
frequently used, with the output from the contactor being cabled to the trackside connectors. Typically, two 3
cast boxes each containing two pin and sleeve connectors (identical to those used on the coaches) are installed
on concrete pads located trackside. Four sets of jumper cables, similar to those used car-to car but longer,
provide the connection between the trackside boxes and the four connectors on the coach.
9.1.3.6 Control Circuits
While there are many ways of designing control circuits they all must include the following: 4
a. A documented procedure to insure that the locomotive HEP has been shut down and isolated from both
the control and power trainlines before wayside power connections are made.
b. A monitor circuit to insure both control trainline complete loops (right & left) are continuous as a
prerequisite to energizing wayside power.
c. A trip circuit to de-energize the wayside power should either loop be detected open (usually the result of
a car to car or car to ground box jumper being removed).
d. A trackside control stand that provides indication to the operator of system condition (right / left loop
complete, wayside power energized / de-energized) and provisions for Lock out / Tag out to afford
employee safety during maintenance operations.

Many properties find that Modular Motor Control center architecture lends itself to the design of a facility with
multiple standby services. This system allows the feeders, transformers, and switchgear to be centralized away
from the roadbed, with only outlet boxes and remote controls being installed trackside.

33
Part 10
Illumination
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2

10.1.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.2 Lighting of Fixed Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2

10.2.1 Outdoor Area Lighting – Floodlighting in Railroad Yards (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2 1
10.3 Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9

10.3.1 Maintenance (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9
10.4 Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11

10.4.1 Electric Lamp Characteristics (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11 3
10.5 Evaluation Measurements and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
10.5.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
LIST OF FIGURES
33-10-1 Retarder Classification Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-6

33-10-2 Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, High-bay Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-10
33-10-3 Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, Low-bay Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-10
LIST OF TABLES
33-10-1 Levels of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-3

SECTION 10.1 ILLUMINATION
10.1.1 GENERAL (2005)
This section was edited to update recommended practices for the application of lighting and illumination in railway
applications. It should be understood that lighting designs for railway applications should be performed by a
qualified lighting professional.
The majority of the information contained in the earlier versions of SECTION 10 has been expanded, updated or
reprinted in the Illumination Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), “Lighting Handbook” including the
engineering and maintenance recommendations. This section covers items that may be specific to railway
applications and generally not cover under these IESNA guidelines.
SECTION 10.2 LIGHTING OF FIXED PROPERTIES
10.2.1 OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING – FLOODLIGHTING IN RAILROAD YARDS (2005)

10.2.1.1 General
a. Adequate lighting of railroad yards, work tasks and areas, storage areas and platforms is essential to
promote safety to personnel, expedite operations, and reduce pilferage and damage.
b. The purpose of this section is to present recommended illumination levels applicable to the varied tasks
encountered on railroad properties and to guide the lighting designer in the proper application of the
lighting medium to assure satisfactory visibility to all concerned. Included are descriptions of the visual
tasks encountered on railroad properties, design data, and graphic illustrations or select technical items.
c. Recommended levels of illumination included herein were determined by scientific evaluation of the seeing
tasks, and the Manual material presented is a joint effort of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Outdoor
Productive Areas subcommittee of the Industrial Lighting Committee, together with personnel from the
former AAR Lighting Committee and former AREMA Committee 18.
d. Railroad properties can be divided into general areas which have different seeing tasks within them. By
considering each type of property separately, and further breaking down each type into areas involving
specialized seeing tasks, specific levels of illumination can be recommended that cover most variations
among individual railroads. Refer to Table 33-10-1 for recommended illumination levels. Different levels
may be required if closed circuit television is utilized to aid in operations.
e. Railroad regulations should be observed with respect to the location of any lighting equipment above or
adjacent to tracks.

Illumination
Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Illumination Location
Seeing Tasks–
Area to be Lighted Level References
Operation Performed
(Footcandles) (Figure 33-10-1)
(Note 2)
I. Retarder Classification Yard

1. Receiving Yard
a. Switch points – incoming end 2.0 A Walking between cars, bleeding
b. Body of yard 1.0 B air systems, opening journal box
covers, inspecting air hoses and
c. Switch points – hump end 2.0 C safety appliances, etc.
2. Hump Area
a.Entire side of car in view of scale operator 20.0 D Scale operator checks car
and in view of hump conductor. numbers and weights, hump
b.Underneath car and both sides of running 20.0 vertical conductor confirms car number
gear from a point approximately 10 feet and sends car to proper track;
ahead of inspection pit to a point just inspection of running gear while
past inspection pit. car is in motion; coupling must be
c.On side of car as it approaches car 20.0 vertical easily seen so wedge can be 1
uncoupler (pin puller), from a point applied with car in motion.
approximately 15 feet ahead of its
position to approximately 5 feet past.
d.On front of car as it approaches wedge 20.0 vertical
inserter, from a point approximately
15 feet ahead of his position to 3
approximately 5 feet past.
3. Control Tower and Retarder Area
In a vertical plane parallel to the tracks and at 10.0 vertical E Check extent of track occupancy,
a point 6 feet above the center of hump and gage speed of car coming from hump
retarder tracks; if an illumination meter is and manually set retardation; check
used to check an installation it should be car number against switching list
aimed in a direction perpendicular to the and see that car goes to correct
4
tracks and toward the tower side. track at correct speed.
4. Head End
Top of rails throughout head end on all 5.0 F Operator must see car actually
“lead” tracks. clear switch points so that
following cars will not be
impeded and take corrective
action, if necessary.
5. Body
Top of rails throughout body of 1.0 G Walking, determine extent of
classification yard. track occupancy; couple air hoses,
place and remove track skates,
etc.
6. Pull-Out End

Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination (Continued)

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Seeing Tasks–
Operation Performed
(Note 2)
Top of rails along switch tracks. 2.0 H Walking, determine switch
positions and operate them, if
necessary.
7. Dispatch or Forwarding Yard
Top of rails. 1.0 I Walking, couple air hoses, etc.
II. Hump and Car Rider Classification Yard
1. Receiving Yard
a.Switch points 2.0 – Switchmen walk along lead
tracks and throw switches. Car
riders on rolling cars must see
cars on tracks ahead of them so
b.Body of yard 1.0 – that they can apply brakes
adequately to reduce impact and
prevent damage. Car rider must
see to get off car and walk back
along yard tracks to hump.
2. Hump Area
a. Side of car 5.0 vertical – Yard clerk reads car numbers,
uncouples cars, car rider must see
b. Entire area 5.0 – grab irons and ladders to safely
climb onto cars.
III. Flat Switching Yards
a.Side of car when viewed by yard 5.0 vertical – Switchmen walking around in
supervisor head-end and pull-out end of
yard. Yard supervisor may also
b.Switch points 2.0 – have to read car numbers at
head-end of yard.
IV. Trailer-on-Flatcar Yards
a. Horizontal surface of flat car 5.0 – Tractor operator must accurately
back up or drive along tops of
flatcars, uncouple tractor, pull
b. Hold-down points 5.0 vertical – off; personnel must tie down
trailers to flatcars which requires
them to see beneath the trailers.
V. Container-on-Flatcar Yards

Illumination
Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination (Continued)

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Seeing Tasks–
Operation Performed
(Note 2)
5.0 — Crane operators to pick up
containers from:
a. any part of the trailer
parking yard and place
them precisely on flatcars.
b. flatcars to precise locations
on trailers.
Personnel tie down and release
containers from all sides of
vehicles.
VI. Mainline Interlockings
a. Home Signal to Home Signal 2.0 — Maintenance Personnel walking
on right-of-way and maintaining
interlocking equipment.
Note 1: All footcandle values are assumed to be in the horizontal plane and measured at rail elevation unless 1
otherwise specified.
Note 2: These are general recommended levels. The direction of lighting or luminaire type may require different
levels for specific installations.
10.2.1.2 Retarder Classification Yards
10.2.1.2.1 General 3
The large and often highly automated retarder classification yard, with its supporting yards and servicing facilities,
presents a number of different seeing tasks that are considered under the following locations (See Figure 33-10-1).
10.2.1.2.2 Receiving Yard
a. Inbound freight trains generally pull into a receiving yard where road locomotives and freight cars are 4
uncoupled and moved to servicing or storage tracks. Air lines between cars may be disconnected, cars may
be inspected, axles tested, etc. A locomotive then pushes the cars to the hump for classification.
b. Seeing tasks throughout the area consist of walking between cars, bleeding air systems, and observing air
hoses, safety appliances, etc.
10.2.1.2.3 Hump Area
a. The hump area includes those facilities between the leaving end of the receiving yard and the entering end
of the main retarder. Located in this area are the hump conductor, scale operator, and the car uncoupler.
Special facilities in this area may include a car inspection pit, broken wheel flange detector, and a facility to
insert disposable wedges into couplers to insure that they are held open for coupling to other cars in the
yard. In some yards, a hump conductor operates remotely controlled power switches to route the car onto
the proper track in the classification yard.

Figure 33-10-1. Retarder Classification Yard
b. Seeing tasks in the hump area are diversified. The scale operator is usually required to visually check each
car number to insure that the weight is recorded against the proper car. The hump conductor also should
confirm the car number against his list, to insure that the car is sent to the proper yard track. The car
inspectors must have a high level of light on the underneath surfaces of the car and on the running gear to
permit ready and precise inspection of a car that is in motion. The car uncoupler should be able to see the
uncoupling mechanism in order to safely reach it while the car is in motion. The operator of the wedge
inserter, if one is used, must be able to accurately see the coupler in order to apply the wedge, again with the
car in motion.
c. The hump conductor, car inspector, car uncoupler and wedge operator should have supplemental lighting, in
addition to general lighting in the hump area as indicated in Table 33-10-1.
10.2.1.2.4 Control Tower and Retarder Area
a. Many retarder classification yards are equipped with various methods for determining car speed,
“rollability,” track occupancy, etc. These devices automatically set retarders to permit a car to roll from the
hump to its proper position in the yard without action by the control tower operator. Other less automated
yards may require the operator to visually check the extent of track occupancy in the yard, gauge the speed
of the car coming from the hump and manually set the amount of retardation to be applied to the car. Even
in the automated yard, the operator may also be required to do this manually in the event of failure of one or
more of the automatic features. In many yards, the control tower operator is expected to check the car
number against a switching list and see that the car goes to the correct track. Accordingly, it is essential that
the operator quickly and accurately identify the moving car.
b. Under clear atmospheric conditions, it is important that there be no direct light projected toward the
operator, and this covers a considerable angle. However, under adverse atmospheric conditions of dense fog,
for example, it is general practice to utilize auxiliary lighting equipment on the far side of the tracks
opposite the retarder control tower which will reveal the outlines of cars in silhouette.
10.2.1.2.5 Head End of Classification Yard
After a car is classified and leaves the retarders, it rolls along one of several “lead” tracks with various switches
branching off each lead track into the classification yard tracks. The operator should be able to see that the car
actually clears switch points and clearance points so that following cars will not be impeded or perhaps damaged. If
a car does not clear, a locomotive enters the yard to move the car, and if for some reason a car is sent down the
wrong yard track, the locomotive must pull it back. Some highly automated yards have indicating systems to show

Illumination
locations of all cars and track occupancy conditions on the classification tracks. Again, if automated features fail, it
is as important for the operator to be able to see yard conditions as accurately in the automated yard as in the less
automated one.
10.2.1.2.6 Body of Classification Yard
A relatively large number of parallel tracks form the body of the classification yard. Cars having a common initial
destination are sent from the hump to a given track in the classification yard. In many yards, the operator must be
able to see the body of the yard sufficiently well to determine the extent of track occupancy. On some railroads,
personnel are required to move along cars in the body of the classification yard to couple air hoses, etc. At the
leaving end of the body of the classification yard, skatemen place track skates to stop moving cars at the desired
location and remove the skates later for pullout. Some yards use automatic car stoppers instead of skates.
10.2.1.2.7 Pull-Out End of Classification Yard
a. The pull-out end of the classification yard includes the area where yard tracks converge into one or more
ladder tracks in leaving the yard. In this area, switchmen may walk along the track, ride standing on
switcher step, cling to the end car to observe switch position, or step down while still in motion to throw
switches as required.
b. Two or more ladder tracks may converge into two pullout tracks connected crossovers and also connected to
the lead tracks to the departure or local yards. Switches for crossovers and lead tracks are sometimes power-
operated from an adjacent control point by the switchmen with consequent increased switching speeds.
Switchmen must be able to see that the switches take the position directed by the controls.
1
10.2.1.2.8 Dispatch or Forwarding Yard
Some railroads pull strings of cars from classification tracks into a dispatch yard to make up a train. Here, air
hoses are coupled, and perhaps other inspections are made. As in the receiving yard, the main seeing task in the
dispatch yard consists of walking between tracks.
10.2.1.3 Hump and Car Rider Classification Yards 3

10.2.1.3.1 General
a. In contrast to the often highly automated retarder classification yards, there are many yards that do not use
retarders and tower operators for classification of cars. This type of yard, referred to as the “hump and car
rider” classification yard, depends upon manpower for operation. An incoming freight train is pushed to the
hump where it is uncoupled and a car rider climbs aboard each car, or “cut” of a few cars. The cars are 4
allowed to roll from the hump toward the classification yard tracks, where switchmen, often directed by a
loudspeaker from the hump, manually operate switches to permit the car to roll onto the proper track. As
the car rolls along its classification track, the car rider gages the distance to other cars on the track and
manually applies the car brakes, by turning the brake wheel, to slow the car so that the impact will not be
severe. Upon stopping the car, the rider gets off and walks back to the hump to repeat the riding cycle.
b. This type of classification yard may be supported by a receiving yard and a dispatch yard where the same
seeing tasks are encountered as in their retarder yard counterparts.
c. The seeing tasks in the classification yard, and around the hump, are considerably different in the rider-
type yard than in the retarder yard. Around the hump area, a yard clerk should be able to read car numbers,
cars must be uncoupled, and car riders must be able to see grab irons, ladders, etc., to safely climb onto the
cars. Switchmen operating along the lead track must have safe seeing conditions to enable them to walk
along the lead track and operate switches. Car riders on the cars rolling into the yard should be able to see
cars on the track ahead so that they can brake adequately to reduce impact and prevent consequent damage
to lading. The rider must then be able to see to get off the car and walk back along yard tracks to the hump.

10.2.1.4 Flat Switching Yards
10.2.1.4.1 General
a. Nearly all railroads have many relatively small flat switching yards on their systems. Often a flat switching
yard is located adjacent to an industrial area where cars are received from industries and at some period of
the day, or night, these cars are moved to a larger classification yard for further forwarding. Empty cars may
also be returned to the flat switching yard for distribution locally to industries for loading. Operations at the
flat switching yard consist of a switchman at the head end operating one of perhaps a half dozen or so
switches to permit a locomotive to push or pull cars onto a given track in the yard. The locomotive may then
return for more cars and push or pull them onto another track, etc., until the cars are arranged in the
desired order on the yard tracks, from which the cars are pulled out to move to some other location.
b. The only seeing requirement in most yard areas of this type is for safe walking conditions for switchmen
around the head end and pull-out end switches. A yard supervisor may also be required to read car numbers
at the head end of the yard in order to assign cars to their proper tracks. A locomotive pushes cars into the
body of the yard, and in most cases, the locomotive headlight furnishes sufficient light to provide adequate
seeing for the locomotive engineer.
c. General lighting is recommended over the entire yard to permit switchmen to see the location of standing
cars. Additional light should be provided in the area of the switches at the head end and pull-out end of the
yard.
d. If a yardmaster or yard clerk must read car numbers, local lighting must be provided at his location.
10.2.1.5 Trailer-on-Flatcar Yards
10.2.1.5.1 General
a. Hauling highway-type trailers loaded on special railroad flatcars has grown rapidly in recent years. There
are several types of flatcars in use, and several methods of placing trailers on them. One of the most
prevalent methods in use is to provide a ramp leading from the ground level up to the floor level of flatcars.
The trailer is backed up the ramp by highway tractor, then backed or pushed from one flatcar to the next
until it is on its prescribed car, working from the back car forward. Certain specialized methods are used in
some places to lift and pivot the trailer onto flatcars from the side. Once the trailers are on the flatcars, most
railroads use specialized tie-down equipment and methods to secure the trailers for shipment by rail.
b. Seeing tasks involved require the tractor operator to be able to back up or drive along the floor of the
flatcars, uncouple the tractor and pull off. Personnel must then tie down the trailers to the flatcars,
requiring them to be able to see beneath the trailers.
10.2.1.6 Container-on-Flatcar Yards
10.2.1.6.1 General
a. In container-on-flatcar yards, demountable load containers are detached from the trailer and loaded onto
the railroad flatcars, or vice versa, by crane. Usually, the trailers are lined up parallel with the flatcars. A
crane straddling both the trailers and flatcars picks up the demountable containers and places them on the
cars.
b. The seeking task involves the transfer of the container between the trailer wheel frame and the flat car, also
locating, releasing, and tying down of the container.
c. Other types of container-on-flatcar operations may employ different methods of loading and unloading, but
the illumination required is similar.

Illumination
10.2.1.7 Mainline Interlockings
10.2.1.7.1 General
a. In mainline interlockings maintenance-of-way personnel are required to continuously inspect and maintain
the operation of interlocking equipment including those for track, signals and communications and electric
traction. This requires the movement of personnel in and about the tracks from home signal to home signal.
These interlocings are of vital importance to the safe and effective performance of railroad operations.
b. Specific seeing tasks include the inspection, maintenance and testing of switch points and switch machines,
sectionalizing switches and section breaks, central instrument house and local control cases, snow melter
facilities and miscellaneous conduit and cable installations to support C&S and ET facilities.
c. Lighting for mainline interlockings should be designed with either automatic (photoelectric) controls or
local lighting controls.
SECTION 10.3 FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENT LIGHTING
10.3.1 MAINTENANCE (2005)

10.3.1.1 General
a. Proper maintenance will provide these features: 1

(1) Increased production.
(2) Fewer errors.
(3) Fewer accidents.
(4) Improved morale. 3

(5) Improved protection from vandalism.
b. Protecting the return from investment in a lighting system requires a lighting maintenance program that
periodically returns footcandle levels back as nearly as possible to the original design. Lighting levels fall off
principally because dirt accumulates on lamps and reflecting surfaces; there is also the normal loss of light
output from lamp aging. 4
c. A good maintenance program, to provide the necessary protection, should include the periodic cleaning of
lamps and fixtures, cleaning or repainting of room surfaces, such as walls and ceilings, replacing burnt-out
lamps, and maintaining proper voltage levels.
d. In many installations it will be found the light output is only 50% as high as it should be. Light output can
be increased by repainting, cleaning fixtures, and by correcting the voltage to designed levels.
e. Figure 33-10-2 and Figure 33-10-3 show how much light output decreases over a two-year period in various
types of high-bay and low-bay areas.

Figure 33-10-2. Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, High-bay Areas
Figure 33-10-3. Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, Low-bay Areas
10.3.1.2 Cleaning
10.3.1.2.1 Cleaning Schedule
The cleaning frequency required for a particular plant or office can best be determined by taking periodic light
meter readings after the first cleaning. When footcandles have dropped 15% to 20% it is time to clean again. An
alternate method would be to have an annual cleaning program scheduling each office area or shop to be cleaned at
a definite date. This method permits one trained crew to do all the cleaning as they progress from one plant to the
other. The scheduling can be planned taking into account dirt conditions, fixture ventilation, time required to clean
each luminaire, and size of maintenance crew.

Illumination
10.3.1.3 Relamping
10.3.1.3.1 Group Relamping
The labor costs saved by group relamping usually more than compensate for the value of the depreciated lamps
that are thrown away before they burn out. Other advantages also accompany group relamping such as more light,
fewer work interruptions, better appearance of the lighting system, and less maintenance of auxiliary equipment.
Group relamping should be related to lamp life but may be varied slightly to fit into convenient schedules when
there will be less interruption of work.
10.3.1.3.2 Spot Relamping
Some areas require spot replacement because of a hazardous location or to maintain appearances. In these areas
and locations where specialized high-cost lamps are in use, spot relamping may prove to be the most economical
method of replacement.
10.3.1.4 Voltages
a. Light sources are designed to operate most economically when supplied with rated voltages. Voltages either
too high or too low will affect the life, efficiency and economy of the lamps.
b. The main types of lamps currently in use include Metal Halide, High Pressure Sodium, Low Pressure
sodium and flourescent. Standard fixtures are available in various voltages ratings including 120, 240, 277
and 480. Consultation with the fixture manufacturer is recommended to determine the best fixture for a
specific application to include the affect of line voltage on fixture life and rated light output. 1
SECTION 10.4 LAMPS

3
10.4.1 ELECTRIC LAMP CHARACTERISTICS (2005)
a. For more detailed information, it is suggested that the Illuminating Engineering Society Lighting
Handbook, and the electric lamp manufacturers be consulted.
b. Electric lamps may be divided into three major types, namely: incandescent-filament lamps, electric-
discharge lamps and light emitting diodes. 4
SECTION 10.5 EVALUATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS
10.5.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. Since the primary considerations in railway car lighting vary with the accommodations and the task as
described, evaluation measurements should be based on tasks or functions normally found in the area of the
railway under construction. When evaluating the lighting for any particular area the applicable combination
of measurements will have to be employed.
b. The following general factors apply to any tests:
(1) Extraneous light should be excluded where possible.

(2) The voltage should be held constant at the switchboard or the voltage used for each reading and the
reading corrected for any voltage deviation from normal.
(3) Fluorescent lamps should be burned 100 hours before tests are made.
(4) Fluorescent systems should be lighted for at least one-half hour before any readings are taken.
(5) When photoelectric cell type instruments are used, the ambient temperature should be above 60 degrees
F and such instruments should have their cells exposed to the approximate levels of illumination to be
measured for at least 15 minutes prior to taking any readings.
c. Information should include the following:
(1) Name and type of property.
(2) Location when test is made.
(3) Names of those conducting test.
(4) Date.
(5) Time of Day:
(a) Daylight with shades drawn.
(b) Night with shades drawn.
(c) Night with shades up.
NOTE: Unshaded windows at night are black surfaces with very low reflectance factors. Shades are
usually of a much higher reflectance value.
(6) Instruments used, date of last calibration, and whether equipped with color correction filter.
(7) Identification of area tested.
(8) Color and cleanliness of walls, ceiling, furniture and floors.
(9) Type of lighting fixtures and record of which fixtures were lighted.
(10) Conditions of fixtures:
(a) New or old.
(b) Type of reflector and condition.
(c) Cleanliness.
(11) Wattage and rated voltage of lamps.
(12) Color of lamps, if fluorescent.
(13) Voltage at switchboard.
(14) Location where readings were taken.
(15) Description of readings:

Illumination
(a) Horizontal or vertical plane, or 45 degree plane.
(b) Distance above floor.


12
Part 12
Power Supply and Electrification Systems1
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2

12.1.1 References to Other Applicable Chapters (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2
12.1.2 Approach to These Guidelines (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2
12.1.3 Scope and Definition of Electrification Systems (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
1
12.2 Electric Traction Systems Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.2.1 Systems Selection and Design (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.2.2 Vehicle Propulsion Types and Performance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-4
12.2.4 Adopted Electrification System AC or DC (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-5
12.2.5 Electrification Parameters (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-5 3
12.3 Electrification System Design Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7
12.3.1 Clearances (OCS) (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7
12.3.2 Type of Substation (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-9
12.3.3 Type of Distribution System – Overhead Contact System or Contact Rail (1996) . . . . . . 33-12-10
12.3.4 High-Voltage Sub-Transmission Lines (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-17
12.3.5 Protection and Remote Control/Monitoring (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-18
12.3.6 Negative Return Circuit (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-20
12.3.7 Grounding and Bonding (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-21
12.3.8 Stray Current Control (1996) (also see Article 12.5.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-21
12.3.9 Electrical Characteristics of Running Rail (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-21
12.3.10 Harmonics (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
12.4 Traction Power Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22

12.4.1 Supervisory (Central) Control Interface (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
12.4.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-24
12.4.3 ETS System (1996) (See Article 12.2.5.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-24
1

Electric Energy Utilization
12.5 Special Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-26

12.5.1 Corrosion Control and Protection (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-26
12.5.2 Compatibility with Train Control (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-26
12.5.3 Street Level Running Considerations (LRT) (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-26
12.5.4 Elevated Construction (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.5.5 Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.6 Testing and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27

12.6.1 Safety Certification Considerations (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.6.2 System Integration and Interface Management (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.6.3 Maintainability and Reliability (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.6.4 Start-up and Testing (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
12.6.5 Safety (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-27
LIST OF TABLES
33-12-1 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7

33-12-2 Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-8
33-12-3 Support Structure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-14
33-12-4 Traction Power Supervisory Control Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-25
This section will offer guidelines to address the methods and procedures utilized in providing traction power and
the control of traction power needed for the propulsion of Rapid Transit and Light Rail systems. This material
previously published in Chapter 12, Rail Transit, Part 5, Power Supply and Electrification Systems, have been
renumbered and, with the exception of Section 5.1.4 Terms, has been incorporated in its entirety. As a
consequence, there may be some duplication of material in other sections of Chapter 33. In addition, Figure 12-3-
1 of Chapter 12, has been moved to Chapter 33 and is now included as Figure 33-2-2A.
12.1.1 REFERENCES TO OTHER APPLICABLE CHAPTERS (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.1.2 APPROACH TO THESE GUIDELINES (1996)
These guidelines include descriptions, requirements, and functional design suggestions for the supply, distribution,
and supervision of traction power systems for Light Rail Transit (LRT) or Heavy Rail Transit (HRT) Systems.

Power Supply and Electrification Systems
12.1.3 SCOPE AND DEFINITION OF ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS (1996)
a. The following major components comprise design of the traction power system:
• Alternating current or transformer-rectifier substations.
• Contact rail or overhead contact system.
• Running rails.
• Power cables.
• Raceway systems.
• Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA).
b. The Transit Vehicles are propelled by electric traction motors driving steel wheels through the appropriate
gearing. Electric traction power is normally supplied to the vehicle from wayside distribution through an
overhead contact system distributing power through a contact wire installed over each running track, upon
which a pantograph collector on each car maintains contact. For HRT, electric traction power is normally
supplied to the vehicle from wayside distribution through a contact rail installed along each running track,
upon which collector shoes or paddles on each car maintain contact. For LRT and HRT, the running rails of
each track are used for the traction power negative return, except at crossovers or other locations as
determined.
c. The traction power system must supply sufficient power to transit vehicles to provide safe, efficient, and 1
continuous operation of the transit system. Design of the traction power system must be coordinated with
the local electrical utility.
d. The traction power system design must be coordinated with other subsystems (vehicles, civil works,
signaling, communications, SCADA, etc.) including vehicle propulsion (DC or AC) and power control
operating tolerances. The vehicle auxiliaries should accept the full range of traction power system voltage
variations. 3
SECTION 12.2 ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS

4
12.2.1 SYSTEMS SELECTION AND DESIGN (1996)
a. Light rail transit usually operates single cars in multiple consists of up to four cars or more. Light rail
transit is suited for street running modes and on semi-exclusive or exclusive ROW. LRT operating in street
running modes obey traffic signals along with motorists. Signal priority or preemption can be established
with local DOT’s to enhance train operations. Power for Light Rail Transit is usually supplied by an
overhead contact system and collected through a pantograph on the car.
b. Heavy rail transit usually operates on exclusive ROW with two car units and in consists of up to 10 units.
Power for heavy rail transit is usually supplied by contact rail or “third rail” and collected on the vehicle
through collector shoes or paddles which ride on top of, or underneath, the contact rail.
c. The system should be designed to use proven hardware and design concepts. The systems fixed facilities
(structures and buildings) should be designed for continued operation over a minimum period of 50 years.
Major fixed system equipment should be designed for a minimum of 30 years.

d. Major equipment should be supplied by established manufacturers, have a documented operating history of
previous and current usage, and be available off the shelf, so far as practicable. The same requirements
should apply to spare parts.
e. Specifications for the system should be prepared in such a way as to encourage competitive bidding by
established manufacturers of rail transit power supply and electrification systems.
12.2.2 VEHICLE PROPULSION TYPES AND PERFORMANCE (1996)
a. Direct current series motors geared to each or both axles of a truck.
(1) Speed control is obtained by varying armature current and field strength. The current and torque
produced at a standstill may be reduced by strengthening the field or lowering the terminal voltage or
both. With the DC compound wound motor the start may be made with full armature current in the
series field coils and maximum current in the shunt-field coils. Speed increase is accomplished by
reducing resistance in the armature circuits until the armature and series field are connected across the
line. Further speed is obtained by reducing the shunt-field current until the shunt field is disconnected.
(2) Series-parallel operation of traction motors provides efficiency at low speeds with high tractive effort.
Pulsating current motors and chopper control are refinements to speed control of the DC motor.
(3) On 3,000 Vdc systems usually two or three motors are operated permanently in series.
b. Alternating Current induction motors driven by power from two independent invertor systems, each driving
two AC motor-gear units in two end car trucks. This system allows operation of single truck in the event of
a malfunction of one invertor.
Advantages of AC propulsion systems are:
• Reduced maintenance. With AC induction motors, brushes and commutators are not used.
• High efficiency. Traction inverters use gate turnoff thyristors (GTDs) or Insulated Gate Bi-polar
Transistors (IGBTs) in combination with microcomputer control. Voltage and frequency are continuously
controlled to maximize efficiency throughout the speed range for both motoring and braking.
• High reliability. Bidirectional motion in motoring and dynamic braking without the use of customary
power switchgear such as motor reversers, motor/brake setup switches, and field shunt contactors
associated with DC traction drives are eliminated.
c. Single-phase commutator series motors. AC trolley voltage is stepped down to values suitable for direct
application to the traction motors.
d. Asynchronous motors. Polyphase induction motors can be operated from 3-phase supply and from single-
phase trolley circuit by use of phase converter mounted on the locomotive. By simultaneously varying the
voltage and frequency, motor torque is closely regulated for precise speed control.
The following should be included in the traction power system:
a. Overhead Contact System (OCS) or contact rail system required for supplying power to the vehicles,
including the catenary system, contact rail system, physical support system, and the associated feeder
system.

b. Substations required for the use of AC or rectification of AC and supply of traction and facilities power,
including high-voltage switching, protection apparatus, power transformers, rectifier transformers, rectifier
assemblies, DC switchgear, positive bus, negative bus panels, interconnecting bus work, feeders, grounding
and bonding system, control batteries and chargers, local and remote control, and supervision of equipment.
c. Electrical supervisory control interface functions required for supervising and controlling the performance
of power and electromechanical equipment vital to the continuous operation of the transit system. The
traction remote supervisory control and indication functions should interface with the Supervisory Control
And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system.
12.2.4 ADOPTED ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM AC OR DC (1996)
Rapid transit systems usually operate on direct current systems supplied through transformer-rectifier equipment.
Nominal voltages are in the range of 600 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc.
12.2.5 ELECTRIFICATION PARAMETERS (1996)
12.2.5.1 Climatic and Geographical Conditions
12.2.5.1.1 Design Environment
Environmental considerations for the Traction Power system to operate satisfactorily should include but not be
limited to the following:
1
• Elevation.
• Humidity.
• Precipitation.
• Ambient temperature:
3
– Highest recorded.
– Lowest recorded.
– Yearly average.
• Conductor Design Temperature Range: (bare copper wire, steel/aluminum rail): 4

– High.
– Normal.
– Low.
• Atmospheric pollution.
• Ice loading.
• Lightning (Isokeraunic Level).
• Seismic Zone.
• Soil.
• Soil resistivity.

• Winds.
12.2.5.2 Traction Voltage
Traction voltage must be of sufficient potential so as to optimize the size of the traction power current carrying
conductors to the nominal operating currents required of the train vehicles.
12.2.5.3 Type of Substation
Substation types vary from AC to DC and the rectification equipment can be of various state of the art designs.
Transformer-rectifier DC substations in the voltage range of 600 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc are most commonly used in the
United States.
12.2.5.4 Grounding Philosophy
a. As a principal goal, the Traction Power system must be designed to provide safety both to personnel and to
the overall system. The design of the grounding system must preclude any unsafe condition to either the
system, personnel, patrons or the community.
b. DC systems are normally operated ungrounded, AC systems are grounded.
12.2.5.5 Voltage Ranges
Traction Power voltages can be in the range of 600 Vdc to 3,000 Vdc or from 11 KVac to 50 KVac.
12.2.5.6 Power Distribution Systems
a. Electrification of Rapid Transit Systems has been accomplished by means of three power systems:
• Alternating-current single-phase systems.
• Alternating current three-phase systems.
• Direct current systems.
b. Direct current systems in the voltage range of 600 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc are the most commonly adopted rapid
transit systems for LRT or HRT.
12.2.5.6.1 Control of DC Power Supply
a. Power supply to contact rail or OCS should be controlled by DC feeder circuit breakers installed at rectifier
substations. The power supply should be sectionalized so that a power section for each track portion
between rectifier substations is supplied from both ends by DC feeder circuit breakers located at adjacent
substations. Each circuit breaker should be equipped for automatic operation on a current “magnitude-of-
increment or rate-of-rise” basis, or other apparatus to positively distinguish between heavy loads and faults,
with a load-sensing automatic reclosure feature. In addition, wayside motorized dc disconnect switches
should be installed at strategic locations such as crossovers and stations without traction power substations
to provide further sectionalization and to enhance flexibility of train operations.
b. Circuit breakers and wayside sectionalizing switches controlling power zones should normally be operated
remotely from Operation Control Center by means of the supervisory control system, preferably SCADA.
Controls should be provided to permit local operation of all circuit breakers within substations.
c. Provisions should be made to permit interruption in power supply to power sections by means of emergency
trip sections located at designated intervals throughout the system.

12.2.5.7 Substation Spacing
12.2.5.7.1 Basis for Location, Spacing and Rating
Traction Power Substations (TPSs) should be located, whenever practical, at or near passenger stations to
minimize voltage drops in contact rails or OCS and running rails during train acceleration. DC traction power
substations are typically located 1 to 1-1/4 miles apart. These locations should be optimized with respect to system
safety, system efficiency, system availability, stray current control, and minimum life cycle costs.
12.2.5.7.2 Normal Operation
The spacing and rating of TPSs must be designed so that adequate power will be supplied to the system, with all
substations operating, to maintain rated train operating performance during peak-hour traffic conditions. This
includes providing full performance train voltage levels to allow simultaneous starting of maximum number of
design trains at any passenger station and at a reduced performance at any point between stations.
12.2.5.7.3 Contingency Operation
With any one TPS out-of-service, one train of maximum design consist should be capable of starting and
accelerating at rated train operating performance as if the system was operating normally. Two trains, however,
should be able to start simultaneously at the outage but then may accelerate and perform at a reduced operating
level.
1
SECTION 12.3 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
12.3.1 CLEARANCES (OCS) (1996)
a. Electrical clearances between the OCS and other facilities must be in accordance with State and/or local 3
regulations.
b. Mechanical clearances between the OCS and other facilities must be in accordance with State and/or local
regulations.
c. For vehicle-related clearances, full allowance should be included for dynamic displacement of the vehicle
under operating conditions (including track and other installation and maintenance tolerances). 4
d. The clearances shown in Table 33-12-1 should be maintained between live conductors (including
pantograph) and any grounded fixed structures in accordance with Chapter 33, Electrical Energy
Utilization, Part 2, Clearances.
Table 33-12-1. Clearances
Type Passing Static

Normal 4 inches 6 inches
Absolute Minimum 3 inches 5 inches
e. Passing clearance is the clearance between the catenary system or pantograph and an overhead structure
under actual operating conditions during the short time it takes the power unit(s) of a train to pass.

f. Static clearance is the clearance between the catenary system when not subject to pantograph pressure, and
the overhead structure.
12.3.1.1 Construction and Maintenance Tolerance
Design of the OCS should be based upon a total construction-plus-maintenance tolerance for the lateral and
vertical locations of the structures as shown in Table 33-12-2.
Table 33-12-2. Tolerances
Location Lateral Vertical

Contact Wire
Railroad Crossings ± 2 inches ± 1 inches
Overlap locations ± 1 inch ± 2 inches
(between Parallel wires)
All others ± 2 inches ± 2 inches
Structures
Along track spotting tolerance
Special trackwork locations = ± 2-6
At other locations = ± 5-0
Cross track spotting tolerance
At restricted locations = ± 3/4 inch
(13-0 track spacing along semi-exclusive or
exclusive ROW)
At other locations = ± 1-1/2
inches

12.3.2 TYPE OF SUBSTATION (1996)
12.3.2.1 General
a. Power supplied to LRT or HRT for the operation of trains is most commonly of direct current supplied by
transformer rectifier substations. Primary power is taken from the local electric utility at high voltage AC,
three phase, and transformed and rectified to a nominal DC voltage in the range of 600 Vdc to 1,500 Vdc.
b. Direct-current traction power should be provided by traction power substations with rated voltage output at
100% load. Maximum voltage output (at rated input voltage) below 1% full load at the substation bus should
not exceed design levels. Rectifier-inherent voltage regulation should be per NEMA RI-9 – linear from 1%
full load to 100% load and as linear as technically feasible from 100% load to 450% load.
c. The OCS, contact rail, running rails, and associated connections must be capable of maintaining a voltage at
the vehicle no lower than vehicle design minimum operating voltage.
12.3.2.2 Train Data for Traction Power Calculations
The following constitute the basis for preliminary traction power calculations:
• Car length.
• Empty car weight.
• Car weight with passengers (design). 1

• Maximum car speed.
• Maximum rate of acceleration.
• Maximum deceleration.
• Traction motors per car. 3

• Vehicle voltage.
• Vehicle minimum voltage.
• Vehicle voltage at rated performance.

4
• Average station dwell time.
• Car auxiliaries power.
• Gear ratio.
• Wheel diameter.
• Type of motor.
• Limiting current.
• Frontal area of vehicle.
• Maximum stopping distance.
• System operation (maximum cars/train minimum headway).

12.3.3 TYPE OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM – OVERHEAD CONTACT SYSTEM OR CONTACT

RAIL (1996)
12.3.3.1 Overhead Contact System
a. The OCS includes the catenary system, the physical support system, and the associated feeder system.
b. The catenary system consists of the conductors, including the contact wire and supporting messenger; in-
span fittings; jumpers; conductor terminations; and associated hardware located over the track and from
which the vehicle draws power by means of physical contact between the pantograph and contact wire. The
catenary system must provide for satisfactory current collection under all operating conditions.
c. The physical support system consists of foundations, poles, guys, insulators, brackets, cantilevers, and other
assemblies and components required to support the catenary system in the appropriate configuration. The
design must support the catenary system in accordance with allowable loading, deflection and clearance
requirements. The supports throughout the system should incorporate double insulation in accordance with
the requirements of regulatory agencies. Structure grounding and bonding measures must be provided in
accordance with corrosion control and safety requirements.
d. The feeder system consists of the feeder conductors, jumpers, switches, duct-work, and associated hardware
that feed the power to the catenary system. The feeder system, in combination with the catenary system,
must provide for the supply of traction power to the vehicles within the allowable voltage limits.
e. Electrical continuity must be provided in the OCS from substation to substation. At the substations, the
catenary system continuity should be sectionalized to provide isolation of each electrical section. An
arrangement providing continuity and flexibility for sectionalization of the OCS while any substation is
undergoing repair or maintenance should be incorporated. This can be accomplished through the
application of both electrically and manually operated outdoor and indoor type disconnect switches as
required for operations and maintenance.
f. Jumper cables should be provided to maintain electrical continuity at special trackwork locations where it is
necessary to have a physical separation in the catenary system. At locations where jumper cables are used to
provide electrical continuity, they should provide sufficient conductivity for the OCS circuit ampacity.
g. The design of the overhead contact system should be based on technical, operation and maintenance
requirements, aesthetics, and economic considerations.
12.3.3.1.1 Subway
a. In a subway system, a low profile simple catenary fixed termination (SCFT) system can be used. This
consists of a single contact wire and a messenger wire located over the track. The system should be fixed
termination, with the result that conductor tension will vary with temperature.
b. The catenary should be supported by direct insulated attachment of the messenger wire to the subway
ceiling, with the contact wire registered by support arms. The limited clearance requires close support
spacing to minimize system depth.
c. The feeder system should consist of underground feeder taps from the traction power substations to the
overhead contact system, including associated jumpers, switches and hardware.
12.3.3.1.2 Street Running
a. On surface streets, a single-wire fixed termination (SWFT) catenary system can be used. Cross-span or
head-span construction should be used wherever practicable. This system should consist of a single contact
wire located over the track.

b. The use of new OCS pole supports in such areas should be kept to a minimum, making use of attachments
to adjacent structures and buildings, traffic light poles, and street lighting poles whenever possible in order
to reduce clutter (aesthetics).
c. A supplementary along-track feeder system might be required to meet ampacity and power requirements.
The feeders should be insulated cables located in buried cable ducts running parallel to the track.
d. Feeder connections to the catenary system should be provided as required, using risers at support
structures.
12.3.3.1.3 Exclusive or Semi-Exclusive Right of Way (ROW)
a. On exclusive or semi-exclusive ROW, simple catenary auto-tension (SCAT) system should be used. The
catenary system should consist of a messenger wire with a single contact wire supported by vertical hangers.
The system should be designed to meet ampacity and power requirements without the use of supplementary
along-track feeders. The system can be auto-tension by means of weight-tensioning devices located at the
termination points of the conductors. Tension in the conductors, should remain constant up to the
conductor temperature of 130 degrees F, after which a resulting increase in temperature is accompanied by
a decrease in tension up to a maximum temperature of 165 degrees F. The physical support system should
consist of concrete foundations, tapered tubular steel poles, and hinged cantilevers. Center poles (between
tracks) with back-to-back cantilevers should be used wherever practicable.
b. The feeder system should consist of underground feeder taps from the traction power substations to the
overhead contact system, including associated jumpers, switches, and hardware.
1
12.3.3.1.4 Main Yard and Shops and/or Maintenance-of-Way Satellite Yard
a. In the yards and shops, a single wire fixed termination (SWFT) system can be used. This consists of a single
contact wire located over the track. The terminations of the contact wire should be made directly to the
poles with the result that conductor tension will vary with temperature.
b. The poles should be tapered tubular steel, or any other type that is designed to be consistent with the rest of 3
the system. Wherever practicable attachments to the exterior walls of the shops should be used. The contact
wire should be supported by cross-span wires and cantilevers. On curved track, backbone systems can be
used to minimize the number of poles.
c. A feeder system is required to meet power requirements. The feeders should be insulated cables located in
buried cable ducts wherever practical and routed in accordance with the yard/shop sectionalizing scheme.
Feeder connections to the catenary need be provided as required, using risers at support structures. 4
Switches and associated hardware should be provided for sectionalizing.
12.3.3.1.5 Operations
a. The OCS must be designed for vehicle operations as determined. A design margin of ten miles per hour (10
mph) should be allowed over the specified maximum vehicle operating speeds.
b. The OCS may need to be designed for multiple pantograph operation with pantographs spaced in
accordance with the specified train consists.
c. For purposes of the OCS design, it should be assumed that vehicles will not operate on the system when
wind speeds are in excess of 55 mph.

12.3.3.1.6 Sectionalization
a. The OCS catenary should be electrically sectionalized, consistent with the location of the traction power
substations, the track layout, the signaling scheme and proposed operations. The sectionalization should
allow sections of the OCS to be de-energized for maintenance and emergency purposes.
b. On the exclusive or semi-exclusive ROW where the SCAT system can be used, the OCS catenary should be
sectionalized by means of insulated overlaps wherever possible. In the event that an insulated overlap is not
possible, mechanical section insulators should be used.
c. In cases of subways, where low-profile SCFT catenary can be used, the OCS should be sectionalized by
means of insulated overlaps. Mechanical section insulators should be used at crossovers.
d. In areas where the SWFT system is used, the OCS should be sectionalized by means of mechanical section
insulators.
e. Inside shop buildings, the OCS catenary should be sectionalized at each entrance location to the building
and at other locations as determined.
12.3.3.1.7 Span Lengths and Staggers
a. The span lengths (spacing between contact wire registration points) and staggers should be designed to
provide for pantograph security (i.e. no pantograph de-wirement) and to maintain good current collection
and uniform wear of the pantograph carbon collector. Pantograph security is established by maintaining a
minimum contact wire edge distance (from the tip of the pantograph) of 6 inches (3 inches at overlaps)
under worst operating condition. In addition, the contact wire must be staggered to provide for uniform
pantograph wear.
b. The design should consider the effects of environment, track geometry, vehicle and pantograph sway, and
installation and maintenance tolerances. Vehicle roll into the wind should be taken equal to 50% of the
maximum dynamic roll value in accordance with AREMA Manual, Committee recommendation, Bulletin
694.
c. The determination of span lengths for single wire systems must take into consideration the requirements of
State and/or local regulations regarding broken OCS suspensions and fastenings.
12.3.3.1.8 Catenary Conductors
a. The contact wire should be solid grooved hard-drawn copper conforming to ASTM Specification B47.
b. The messenger wire should be standard hard-drawn copper conforming to ASTM Specification B189 with
stranding conforming to ASTM Specification B8, class B or higher.
c. Conductor tensions must be in accordance with the requirements of State and/or local regulation. Thirty
percent cross-sectional area loss due to wear of the contact wire and the effect of temperature change should
be taken into consideration in the design for conductor tension.
12.3.3.1.9 Feeder Conductors
a. Feeder conductors should be insulated, non-shielded, single conductors suitable for use in wet or dry
locations and rated at least 2,000 VDC, or at voltage consistent with system design voltage, 90 degrees
conductor temperature for normal operation, 130 degrees C for emergency operation, and 250 degrees C for
short-circuit conditions. The conductors may be copper, conforming to ASTM B189 material with Class C
stranding, and conforming to ASTM B8 with EPR insulation and low smoke jacket.

b. Traction power cables connecting DC feeder breakers to the overhead contact system and from running
rails to the negative bus must be sized to accept maximum overload and short-circuit currents with a
temperature rise not to exceed safe insulation design limits of the cables.
c. Feeders should be standardized on a single-conductor size by using multiple conductors for different
ampacities. The feeder cables must have sufficient conductivity to maintain traction power voltage levels at
the LRV and current ampacities as determined. The traction power feeder cables must be sized to operate at
rated cable insulation temperature during normal operating conditions.
d. At points of entry and exit of underground feeders, protection against current surge due to lightning strikes
should be provided.
12.3.3.1.10 Feeder Ductwork
a. Feeder ductwork can be buried underground and should consist of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or fire retardant
FRE conduit encased in concrete. Design of ductwork such as conduit size, design cable pull, maximum total
angular turn, minimum embedment depth below grade, manhole spacing and duct gradient should be in
accordance with NEC requirements. Feeder ductwork should be identified by a yellow warning tape 6 inches
wide marked “Warning – High Voltage,” laid 12 inches above concrete encasement in backfill.
b. Feeder ductwork should be run as directly as practicable and should be located to avoid interference with
foundations, piping and other similar underground work. Risers consisting of PVC-coated or galvanized
rigid steel conduit can be provided at feeder connections to the catenary system.
12.3.3.1.11 Contact Wire Heights and Gradients 1

a. Minimum contact wire heights must be in accordance with the requirements of the local regulatory
agencies. At railroad crossings, contact wire height should be a minimum of 24 feet or in compliance with
State and/or local regulations. Maximum contact wire gradients should be in accordance with the Part 4,
Railroad Electrification Systems.
b. The contact wire height at supports should take into consideration the effect of wire sag and installation 3
tolerance (including track construction and maintenance tolerances).
12.3.3.1.12 Structure Design
a. OCS support structures must be designed to carry the design loads according to the requirements of
allowable stresses and deflections.
4
b. Local regulations should be used except where more stringent AISC and ACI requirements for steel and
concrete design are applied.
12.3.3.1.13 Design Loads
a. OCS support structure design loads must be the system self-weight plus the loads indicated in State and/or
local regulations, Light or Heavy Loading.
b. Self-weight must be the actual weights of poles, cantilevers, assemblies and conductors computed according
to the AISC Manual of Steel Construction or obtained from manufacturer’s catalogs, as applicable.
c. Wind loads must be determined in accordance with State and/or local regulations.
d. The design load should be multiplied by the following overload factors to allow for uncertainties in loading
conditions.

Design for strength = 1.1
Design for deflection = 1.0
12.3.3.1.14 Design For Strength
a. Steel poles, cantilevers and other structures should be designed by the allowable stress method according to
the AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.
b. Reinforced concrete drilled pier foundations can be designed by the ultimate strength method according to
the local Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete; anchor bolts should be designed by the
alternate method (working stress method). The anchor bolts should be designed based on ungrouted pole
baseplate.
c. Laterally loaded pier foundations can be proportioned according to the Texas Transportation Institute,
Resistance of a Drilled Shaft Footing to Overturning Loads – (Research Reports 105-1, 2 and 3). A minimum
factor of safety (to failure of soil) of 2.0 should be used in the design.
d. For combined dead plus live (wind) loading, the 33% increase in allowable stress can be waived.
12.3.3.1.15 Design for Deflection
a. OCS support structures must be designed so that structure deflections under service loads will not cause
excessive movement of the contact wire. In addition, the steel pole can be raked to compensate for the
deflection generated by the self-weight and conductor tension loading.
b. Design of support structures should be based on the criteria for deflection and foundation rotation found in
Table 33-12-3.
Table 33-12-3. Support Structure Design
Structure Loading Maximum Deflection Remarks

Steel Pole Live (wind) 2-1/2 inches (at contact wire level, Total deflection at contact wire
excluding foundation rotation level including foundation
effect). rotation effect shall be  4
inches
Dead + Live 2.5% of pole height
Foundation Live (wind) 0.5% rotation
Dead + Live 5.0% rotation
12.3.3.1.16 Seismic Design
OCS support structures should be designed to conform to the seismic design requirements where applicable.
12.3.3.1.17 OCS Grounding and Bonding
a. The OCS must be grounded in accordance with NEC requirements. Generally, footing resistance of
individual structures should be maintained at a maximum of 25 ohms. If necessary, ground rods should be
installed.
b. Ground connections to disconnect switches and ground leads on all surge arresters should have a maximum
ground resistance of 5 ohms. Ground rods can be utilized to obtain the required ground resistance. OCS
support poles must be bonded to the concrete pier foundation.

12.3.3.2 Contact Rail
a. Contact rail can be of two general types:
• Overrunning.
• Underrunning.
b. In the overrunning type the rail is of low-carbon steel or steel rail with aluminum cladding huck-bolted to
the web for added current carrying capacity at minimal weight. 80 lb steel rail with aluminum cladding can
increase current carrying capacity from 800,000 CM to 4.6 MCM. The rail can be supported on porcelain or
fiberglass insulators which are supported on extended ties (approximately every sixth tie) or by direct
fixation.
c. With the underrunning type contact rails, the collector device on the vehicle maintains contact with the
contact rail on its lower surface. The contact rail can be supported by brackets or other suitable supports.
d. Generally contact rail in the United States for heavy rail transit is of the overrunning type as described
below:
(1) The contact rail for mainline tracks should have an electrical resistance not greater than 0.002 ohms
per thousand feet at 20 degrees C and should be capable of carrying at least 4,000 Amp DC or more,
according to vehicle design and operation, continuously at a temperature rise not exceeding 40 degrees
C over a 30 degrees C ambient in still air. Contact rail for a yard area should have an electrical
resistance not greater than 0.004 ohms per thousand feet at 20 degrees C, and should be capable of 1
carrying at least 2,000 Amp DC or more, according to vehicle design and system operation, or special
yard loading such as vehicle preheating or cooling, continuously at a temperature not exceeding 40
degrees C over a 30 degrees C ambient in still air.
(2) Contact rail height should allow sliding of current collector shoes on top of contact rail when the contact
rail is seated upon support insulators with at least 8 inches leakage path to the supporting tie. The top
wearing surface of the contact rail should be at least 2 inches wide to lessen wear. 3
(3) The support insulator should be centered below the contact rail and the insulator base should be
sufficiently wide to provide a stable arrangement for the rail. The contact rail and support insulator
should withstand, without permanent deformation, the stresses caused by the maximum short circuit
forces.
(4) Contact rail joints should not have misalignment or roughness. Bolted butt joints should have minimum 4
gap between rail ends and be ground smooth for maximum wear and abrasion of collector shoes.
(5) Feeder connections to contact rail should be designed, located, and attached to provide permanent
connection without excessive protrusion from the side of the rail. The standard rail lengths should be
connected by means of bolted or welded joints.
(6) The relative position of the contact rail to the running rails should be coordinated with the design of the
vehicle current collector.
(7) The standard contact rail lengths should be not less than 39 ft nor more than 60 ft ±1%. The rail should
have sufficient section modules so that the maximum deflection with a concentrated load of 25 pounds
at midpoint between support insulators placed 10 ft apart should be not more than 1/64 inch.
(8) Protective cover should consist of a curved insulating board covering the top of the contact rail. Side
cover-board should be provided where the contact rail is adjacent to safety or maintenance walkways.

Protective coverboards should have adequate clearance to ensure no obstruction of current collector
shoes movement and to permit insertion of shoe paddles.
(9) The protective cover-board should extend a minimum of 12 inches beyond the tip of the end approach.
(10) Contact rail through stations should be located at trackside opposite the platform.
(11) Contact rail at grade should be located in the area between running tracks, except at yard areas, special
trackwork, and through center platform stations.
(12) In sections of contact rail of 2,000 ft or less, a contact rail anchor should be provided at midpoint;
otherwise, rail anchors should be provided at maximum 1,000 ft intervals at midpoint between
expansion joints. Spacing of anchors should be adjusted to provide an anchor near the middle of curved
sections, with expansion joints at point of tangent.
(13) The contact rail should be physically continuous between substations except at crosswalks and special
trackwork locations or sectionalizing points where it is necessary to have separations in the contact rail.
End approaches should be provided at each separation to facilitate vehicle current collector shoe return
to the contact rail without significant bounce.
(14) The design of the entire contact rail system should ensure that, during normal operation, at least one
current collector shoe of a two-car train is always in contact with the rail.
(15) The contact rail system should be electrically continuous. At cross walks or special trackwork locations
(or around expansion or sectionalizing joints), electrical continuity should be provided by jumper cables
either bolted or welded to the contact rail. At substations, electrical continuity should be provided via dc
switchgear, and at wayside locations via motorized disconnect switches connected to the contact rail by
cables. The disconnect switches and cables should provide conductivity that will not reduce the circuit
capacity of the contact rail.
(16) Contact rail sectionalizing at substations and at the locations of the wayside disconnect switches (as
required to provide definite traction power zones) should be implemented by means of non-bridgeable
type gaps. The length of the non-bridgeable gap between power zones should be such that it cannot be
bridged by front and rear shoes of a transit vehicle. In the vicinity of passenger stations, each non-
bridgeable gap should be located preferably in the normal decelerating zone. At stations where it is
more economical to locate gap locations other than at stations, the gap should be of special design to
prevent interruption of power to trains during normal operation.
12.3.3.2.1 DC Power Cables
a. All DC traction power cables should be stranded, nonshielded copper conductors.
b. The traction power cables connecting the DC feeder breakers or wayside dc disconnect switches to the
contact rail, and from the running rails to the negative bus should be sized to accept maximum overload
currents and a temperature rise not to exceed safe insulation design limits of the cables, based on a
minimum insulation life of 40 years.
c. The cables should have sufficient conductivity to maintain traction power voltage levels within the limits
determined, confining the major voltage drop to contact and running rails, rather than permitting excessive
voltage drop in the connecting cables.
d. Traction power feeders for each power zone should have cable ampacity as required, by the ratings of the
associated dc feeder circuit breakers. These ampacities should not be compromised by virtue of different
types of raceway arrangements for various sections of the feeder.

e. Negative cable should be provided between the substation negative bus and the connection to each pair of
the running rails. Current carrying capacity of negative cable per each pair of running rails should be equal
the current carrying capacity of positive cable per each DC feeder circuit.
f. Since the contact rail constitutes a vibrating mass, provision should be included in the design of all cable
terminations to the rail to assure no cable failures. The design should utilize standard stranding feeder
cables terminating at a junction box adjacent to the contact rail, with extra-flexible stranding cables
provided for the final bolted or welded connection to the rail.
g. Feeders should be of a common conductor size, using multiple conductors for the different ampacities.
Conductor size should be selected so as to minimize installation costs.
12.3.4 HIGH-VOLTAGE SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES (1996)
12.3.4.1 Substation Power Supply
a. The local utility provides 3-phase, 60 Hz power circuits as primary service.
b. The alternative primary service voltages and methods of primary power distribution to the traction power
substation should be evaluated. The evaluation can determine the most cost-effective investment and lowest
annual operating cost that will provide adequate and reliable service to the LRT or HRT system.
12.3.4.2 High-Voltage AC Power Cables
The high-voltage power cables for interconnection of substation equipment should conform to the following 1
requirements:
a. All cables for incoming service to a traction power substation are usually furnished and installed by the
serving utility up to agreed-upon interface point, and in accordance with their standards.
b. Minimum cable size must be based on the system maximum available short-circuit currents.
3
c. Cable ratings must be based on a 100% demand load factor and the 2-hour (overload) rating of the rectifier
equipment. Cable size should be based upon the circuit breaker fault clearing rating of 8 cycles and a
temperature rating of 90 degrees C for normal operation, 130 degrees C emergency overload, and 250
degrees C for short circuit.
d. Sizes of AC high-voltage cables installed in air or in conduit in air should be based on the current carrying
ratings of one circuit in air temperature with a spacing between loaded cables that is adequate to prevent
4
mutual heating.
e. Sizes of high-voltage AC cables installed underground should be based on earth temperature with
appropriate derating factors applied for the number of loaded circuits in the underground duct bank.
f. AC high-voltage cables in conduit or underground ducts should be single conductor shielded type preferably
with copper conductors.
g. AC high-voltage cable installed on racks should be three-conductor shielded type preferably with copper
conductors.
h. All AC high-voltage power cables should be moisture-proof and should pass the IEEE 383 flame test.

12.3.5 PROTECTION AND REMOTE CONTROL/MONITORING (1996)
12.3.5.1 Substation Equipment (Light Rail Vehicle)
a. Substations can be prefabricated units or individual components equipped with high voltage AC switchgear,
transformer-rectifier units, DC power switchgear and can be designed to operate unattended. Controls can
be provided to operate all switchgear from the control center or from local control switches in the
equipment. Transformer-rectifier units should be connected in accordance with ANSI Standard C34.2;
mainline and yard units can deliver a 12-phase, double-way output, and the shops unit can deliver a 6-phase
(or 12-phase if harmonic problems exist), double-way output. Rectifier transformers should be self-
ventilated dry-type Class AA, suitable for indoor service. Silicon diode rectifiers should be free-standing
indoor type metal enclosed, natural convection air-cooled. The transformer-rectifier units should be rated in
accordance with NEMA RI-9; mainline units should be extra-heavy traction rating class, and shops unit
should be medium traction rating class.
b. The cathode and feeder breakers should be indoor, metal enclosed, draw-out, single-pole, semi-high speed
capable of interrupting the maximum short-circuit current available. Auxiliary equipment should include
lightning or surge protection; interconnecting buswork; control-power battery and charger; provision for
stray-current control drain cables; and provision for interfacing with the Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition System (SCADA).
c. Circuit breakers should be installed to provide isolation of track sections.
d. Circuit breakers should be equipped with direct acting instantaneous over-current “rate-of-rise” and
automatic reclosure relaying. At the substation, circuit breakers should be used for all feeders.
e. Circuit breakers can be operated remotely from the control center by means of the Supervisory Control or
SCADA System. Local controls must be provided to permit local manual operation of circuit breakers within
each substation. During local operation, supervisory control for each device operated locally should be
bypassed. Substation interconnecting buses can be copper with silver-plated joints at bolted connections.
Buses must be sized on the basis of NEMA standards and must be adequately supported to withstand
available short-circuit current at the appropriate bus-voltage level.
f. The primary service cables from the utility company should be extended to the substation incoming-line
cubicles by the power company. Required duct banks may be designed by the utility company and can be
installed by the traction power contractor. Power company metering provisions must comply with the
company’s requirements. Where incoming service from overhead lines is subject to lightning surges,
adequate protective lightning arresters should be provided.
12.3.5.2 Substation Equipment (Heavy Rail Vehicle)
a. Substations should be equipped with unitized transformer-rectifier assemblies. Protective relaying should
be compatible with the requirements of serving utility to provide selective tripping.
b. Substations should be designed to operate unattended. Controls should be provided to operate all
switchgear both from Operation Control Center (OCC) or from local control switches in the substation.
c. High voltage AC switchgear must be rated in accordance with ANSI Standard C37.06.
d. Transformer-rectifier units should each be rated in accordance with NEMA Standards Pub. No. RI 9-1968
(R1979) for extra-heavy traction service with the possible exception for main shop unit (if used) which can
be rated for medium service. Output voltage of transformer-rectifier units shall be of nominal system design
voltage at 100% rectifier load. Inherent voltage regulation of transformer-rectifier units should be a
maximum of 6% between 1% and 100% full load.

e. Rectifier transformers should be dry-type indoor, and dry-type or liquid-immersed-type outdoor, and can be
rated up to 34.5 KV depending on the serving utility.
f. Silicon diode rectifiers can be indoor type, air-cooled, and self-ventilated. A redundant diode in each parallel
group should be included. Each rectifier unit should be connected for 12-phase operation with the exception
for main shop rectifier (if used) which can be connected for 6-phase operation if harmonic levels permit.
g. The DC main and feeder circuit-breakers should be single pole, high speed, or semi-high speed, as required.
h. Auxiliary equipment should include interconnecting buswork where practical, 125 volts DC control power
supply, provision for future stray current corrosion control drain cable, and interface with the Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system.
i. All interconnecting buses should be either tin-plated aluminum, tin-plated copper, or copper with silver-
plated joints at pressure connections. Buses should be sized on the basis of applicable standards. All buses
should be adequately supported to withstand available short circuit current stresses at the appropriate bus-
voltage level.
j. The primary service cables from the utility company must be extended into the space allocated for the
utility company service equipment. Two imbedded PVC or ABS conduits should be provided for the utility
company primary service cables. Utility company service equipment should be installed as required by their
standards, and in accordance with agreements with them.
k. Underground service should be recommended wherever feasible; however, where incoming service is from
overhead lines subject to lightning surges, adequate protective lightning arrestors should be provided. 1
12.3.5.3 Equipment Arrangement
a. Substation housing should have adequate area to accommodate traction equipment and ancillary
components. The arrangements of the equipment must permit doors to be opened, panels to be removed,
and switchgear removable elements to be withdrawn. Ceiling heights and structural openings must permit
entry and removal of the largest components installed in the structure. 3
b. If substations are located below grade they should be constructed with equipment hatches to permit the
removal of equipment from the substation to the ground level above or doors to permit the removal of
equipment from the substation to track level for loading onto flat cars.
c. Where cable trenches, under-floor raceways, pits, or embedded conduits are provided beneath switchgear,
the trenches, pits, or conduits should be initially extended to permit addition of future equipment, if 4
planned. All pits or trenches so provided should be furnished with safety covers for use until future
equipment is installed. Conduit setups should be capped. Adequate drainage should be provided wherever
water may be present.
12.3.5.4 Lighting
Indoor lighting can be provided by fluorescent fixtures. Design should provide for minimum maintained lighting
levels of 30 ft candles vertical, average. Such lighting should be located so as to illuminate satisfactorily the vertical
surfaces of equipment such as switchgear and transformer rectifier units. Locations of lighting fixtures should be
coordinated to avoid interference with overhead raceways or other major wiring and should not be directly above
switchgear, rectifiers, or transformers. Outdoor lighting can be provided by sodium lamp fixtures with unit photo
cell control. Design should provide a minimum illumination level of 1 ft candle at ground level. The general
lighting should be controlled from switches located near each access door.

12.3.5.5 Emergency Lighting
a. Substations should be provided with emergency lighting from individual unit equipment consisting of
rechargeable lead acid batteries and battery chargers, with one or more lamps mounted on the equipment
and a relaying device arranged to energize the lamps automatically on failure of the ac power. The battery
should have the capacity to supply rated load for 1.5 hours at not less than 87.5% nominal battery voltage.
b. Sufficient fixtures should be provided to illuminate egress paths as required by code(s).
12.3.5.6 Convenience Outlets
Duplex convenience outlets should be located approximately 25 ft apart around the interior walls of the substation.
One 20 A duplex outlet near the switchgear and rectifier should be separately circuited to permit use of a heavy-
duty vacuum cleaner or up to 1/2-horsepower portable air compressor.
12.3.5.7 Feeder Supports
a. Traction power positive cables from the DC feeder breaker connections and negative cables from the
negative bus connections should be run in appropriate raceways such as metal or nonmetallic trays,
nonmetallic conduit, cable trenches, or on racks through the substation. Raceways should provide adequate
cross-sectional area to permit a neat alignment of the cables and to avoid crossing or twisting (where laid).
b. On racks, porcelain or fiber cable-support insulators designed for this purpose should be used. Such
supporting racks should be spaced to avoid excessive weight or pressures on the cable insulation. The cables
should be arranged in not more than two layers. Positive and negative cables must be run in separate
raceways.
c. Design of supports shall be in accordance with the requirements of the NEC. The design should be
coordinated with the signaling and communication cabling design as well as with that of the other traction
facilities. In particular, feeders should be located such that possible interference, both mechanical and
electromagnetic, should be minimized.
12.3.6 NEGATIVE RETURN CIRCUIT (1996)
12.3.6.1 Rail Bonding
a. The rails should be welded in continuous lengths and bolted joints must be electrically bonded. At locations
requiring insulated joints, the traction power direct current continuity of negative rails must be maintained
by use of impedance bonds.
b. In areas of double track equipped with vital double-rail AC track circuits, cross-bonding between tracks for
negative-traction, current-return equalization should be accomplished by impedance-bond center-tap
connections at each substation return feeder location. In no instance should consecutive impedance bonds
be used for either cross-bonding or substation return connections. In areas of trackage equipped with single-
rail AC track circuits, cross-bonding between tracks should be accomplished by direct connections between
the negative traction return rails only. In areas of trackage not equipped with track circuits, cross-bonding
between tracks should be accomplished by direct connections to both running rails.
c. Impedance bonds should have a minimum ampacity of 1,000 amps continuous “on” with short time rating of
5000 amps per rail. Impedance bond center tap connecting cables and cross-bonding cables should be 750
kcmil insulated copper, the number should be determined by load requirements at each location. Track
ballast needs to be clean, dry, and well drained, and should not contact the running rails for mitigation of
stray current and loss of shunting or calibration with signal systems.

12.3.7 GROUNDING AND BONDING (1996)
12.3.7.1 Substation Grounding
a. Each substation should be equipped with a copper ground bus and necessary cabling to a substation
grounding grid.
b. Noncurrent-carrying metal enclosures or parts of alternating current equipment, including ac apparatus

and rectifier-transformers, should be securely connected to the ground grid.
c. Enclosures for traction power rectifiers, DC switchgear, and DC busways should be installed insulated from
ground on their support surfaces, and each should be connected to the substation ground grid through a
ground fault detection system.
d. Where metallic structures interconnect grounded and ungrounded equipment, e.g. the bus connection
between rectifier and rectifier transformer, adequate insulated sections should be provided. The main
negative bus of each traction power substation should be connected to the return negative bus through a
shunt for current measurement purposes.
e. The DC systems are normally operated ungrounded. An insulated floor surface (epoxy, rubber, neoprene,
nylon, or other insulating material) should be provided around and under all ungrounded enclosures and
should extend 5 feet beyond the enclosure on all sides.
f. Traction power rectifier transformer output (DC) windings must be isolated from ground.
1
g. The ground grids can consist of driven ground rods and conductor mats embedded in the earth, and should
be designed for safe step-and-touch potentials. These grid materials should be resistant to corrosion by the
earth’s chemistry. (See Article 12.5.1.)
12.3.8 STRAY CURRENT CONTROL (1996) (ALSO SEE Article 12.5.1)
a. To minimize stray currents and to provide a means of monitoring such currents in the affected structures
3
and utilities in the proximity of LRT facilities, the following provisions should be considered:
• The mainline traction power system can be isolated from the yard(s) and subway segment.
• Rails should be insulated from direct contact with ground by means of insulated pads.
• Cross bonds should be installed between rails at appropriate locations. 4

• Test stations can be established to facilitate measurements.
• Electrical continuity between pole structure and foundation should be maintained.
b. The mitigation measures listed above should be coordinated with corrosion control consultants.
12.3.9 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUNNING RAIL (1996)
a. The running rails are normally 115 or 119 pounds per yard, per Section AREA specifications, 1962.
b. Both running rails of each track should serve as negative conductors, except at special trackwork or other
special rail conditions. Rail should be welded in continuous lengths. At locations requiring insulated joints,
the traction power DC continuity of running rails should be maintained by use of impedance bonds.

c. Running rails should be cross-bonded for traction power equalization through impedance bonds at every
traction power substation where ATO is used, as a minimum. Intervals between consecutive cross-bonds
should not exceed 1.5 miles. The locations of impedance bonds used for cross-bonding should be coordinated
with the design of the signal system or Automatic Train Control System.
d. Running rails should be insulated from roadbed and insulated track fasteners should be used. Track ballast
should be clean, dry, and well-drained, and should not contact the running rails.
12.3.10 HARMONICS (1996)
Harmonics are generated by the transformer-rectifier units and should eliminate effectively any harmonic
currents from being generated. Twelve-phase operation and alternate “delta-wye” windings of adjacent
transformers where multiple transformer-rectifier units are housed in the same substation and the use of filters
are some of the methods to eliminate unwanted harmonics.
SECTION 12.4 TRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT
NOTE: Additional material for this section is under development.
12.4.1 SUPERVISORY (CENTRAL) CONTROL INTERFACE (1996)
12.4.1.1 Supervisory Control Indications
a. All the essential functions of switchgear operation and control can be performed at Control Center by means
of a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. All essential indications of instruments and
meters at the traction power substations (such as voltage levels, circuit breaker positions) can be
telemetered for selective display at Control Center. See Table 33-12-4 for a suggested list of control and
indication/alarm functions which may be provided for remote and local operation.
b. A communication interface cabinet (CIC) or (PLC) should provide the hardware interface between the
substation equipment and the SCADA system. Substation equipment should also be provided with suitable
control devices to permit local operation. During local operation of any equipment, remote supervisory
control functions for that equipment should be disabled by means of a “LOCAL-REMOTE” control selector
switch.
c. The control operation of a typical traction power substation is described below.
12.4.1.1.1 Substation Start-Up Sequence
The following depicts the start-up sequence for a typical rectifier substation from Operation Control Center:
a. Select substation.
b. Select and close incoming line high-voltage AC circuit breaker.
c. Select and close rectifier transformer high voltage AC feeder circuit breaker or load interrupt switch.
d. Select and close rectifier main DC circuit breaker.
e. Select and close DC feeder circuit breaker.

12.4.1.1.2 Conditions Preventing Start
The conditions which will prevent start-up of a rectifier substation remotely should include but not be limited to:
a. Incoming line high-voltage AC circuit breaker, lockout trip relay in operated position.
b. Equipment LOCAL-REMOTE switch in LOCAL position.
c. Loss of control voltage.
d. Transformer-rectifier unit, lockout trip relay in operated position.
12.4.1.1.3 Substation Shutdown Sequence
The following depicts the shutdown sequence for a typical rectifier substation from Operation Control Center:
a. Select substation.
b. Select and trip DC feeder breaker.
c. Select and trip rectifier main DC circuit breaker.
d. Select and trip rectifier transformer, high-voltage AC feeder circuit breaker or load interrupter switch.
e. Select and trip incoming line high-voltage ac circuit breaker. 1

12.4.1.1.4 Transformer-Rectifier Lockout
The following devices should operate the transformer-rectifier lockout relay and cause shutdown until it is reset by
hand in the substation. One continuous alarm signal should be transmitted to Operation Control Center to
indicate a transformer-rectifier lockout. The specific device that caused the lockout should be indicated on the local
annunciator panel in the substation, including but not limited to: 3
• Transformer winding over-temperature device, second step.
• Transformer sudden pressure device (liquid immersed only).
• Rectifier over-temperature device, second step.
• Rectifier hot-structure ground relay (if used).

4
12.4.1.1.5 Operation Control Center Supervision
a. A power supervisory console should be provided at the Operation Control Center for the supervision of
substation and wayside electrical apparatus. In addition, changes in the status of substation and wayside
electrical apparatus should be placed in a direct access memory storage system with the time and date of
entry for diagnostic and documentation purposes. The normally unattended substations should be
continuously supervised from Operation Control Center, including but not limited to the following:
• Substation high-voltage AC rectifier.
• Rectifier main dc circuit breakers.
• Substation secondary feeder circuit breakers (AC and DC).
• Wayside disconnect switches.

• Emergency trip stations.
• Substation equipment alarms.
• Substation analog metering including DC voltage.
b. A partial list of substation and OCS supervisory control points is suggested in Table 33-12-4.
12.4.2 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) (1996)
a. Equipment for which a power interruption of greater than 1/4 cycle duration may cause a malfunction
should be classified as critical loads requiring a UPS.
b. A UPS System might be required by State and/or local regulations in subways or similar environments to
provide battery powered emergency lighting for the evacuation of people and/or to keep safety sensitive
systems operable to accomplish evacuation.
c. Signalling or ATO are systems where battery backup or UPS might be required.
12.4.3 ETS SYSTEM (1996) (SEE Article 12.2.5.6)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Table 33-12-4. Traction Power Supervisory Control Points
Remote Functions Local Functions

Equipment
Control Indication/Alarm Indication/Alarm
AC SWITCHGEAR
Main Incoming Breaker X X X
O/C Trip X X
Motorized Fused Load Break Disconnect Switch X X X
AC-DC CONVERSION EQUIPMENT
Transformer Winding Over-temperature (Note 1) X X
Rectifier Over-temperature (Note 1) X X
Rectifier Diode Failure (Note 1) X X
Rectifier AC Surge Suppressor (Note 1) X X
Rectifier DC Surge Suppressor (Note 1) X X
Rectifier Enclosure Alive X X
Rectifier Enclosure Grounded X X
DC SWITCHGEAR
Cathode Breaker X X X
1
Feeder Breakers X X X
Pilot Wire Transfer Trip Failure X
Reclosure Failure X
DC Switchgear Enclosure Alive X X
DC Switchgear Enclosure Grounded X X
OCS De-energized X X
3
MISCELLANEOUS
Plugged Air Filter X
Intrusion Detection X
Fire Detection
System Trouble X 4
System Power Supply X
Fire Alarm X
Loss of Control Voltage AC Switchgear X X
Loss of Control Voltage AC-DC Conversion Equipment X X
Loss of Control Voltage DC Switchgear X X
Loss of Control Voltage Supervisory Cabinet X X
Battery Grounded X X
DC Bus Voltage X X
Emergency Trip Switch @ Substation Building X
Note 1: Remote Indication Alarm/Functions listed above should be combined into a single Indication/Alarm
point by equipment designation; alarm should annunciate “AC-DC conversion equipment trouble.”

SECTION 12.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
12.5.1 CORROSION CONTROL AND PROTECTION (1996)
Three types of corrosion control need to be addressed and protected against: stray current, soil, and atmospheric
corrosion.
12.5.1.1 Stray Current Corrosion
a. Stray earth current generated by normal system operations should not exceed 0.20 ampere per 1,000 ft of
system.
b. Positive or negative traction power distribution circuits should not have direct or indirect electrical
connections to earth.
c. Ancillary systems and equipment connected to either the positive or negative traction power distribution
circuits should not contribute more than 5% of the system earth conductance.
d. Water infiltration into the trackway area should not contact the rails, fasteners and/or conductive rail
appurtenances during normal system operations.
12.5.1.2 Soil Corrosion (corrosion caused by soils and groundwater)
a. Pressure and nonpressure piping and conduit should be nonmetallic, unless required for specific
engineering purposes. Aluminum and aluminum alloys should not be used for direct burial purposes. Where
this is not practical, buried metallic pressure piping may require cathodic protection, and buried
nonpressure piping may require corrosion protection.
b. Corrosion control may be required for those facilities, where failure caused by corrosion may affect the
safety of or interrupt continuity of operations.
c. Six inches should be provided between new and existing metallic structures. When conditions do not allow a
6-inch clearance, electrical contact with structures needs to be protected against.
d. Electrical continuity should be provided for all buried non-welded pipe joints.
12.5.1.3 Atmospheric Corrosion
a. Criteria for atmospheric corrosion should be developed for the preservation of structure appearance and
reduction of maintenance costs.
b. Corrosion control engineering should be interfaced and coordinated with other disciplines, including,
mechanical, utility, electrical, civil, structural, trackwork, electrification, signaling, and communications
designs.
12.5.2 COMPATIBILITY WITH TRAIN CONTROL (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.5.3 STREET LEVEL RUNNING CONSIDERATIONS (LRT) (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

12.5.4 ELEVATED CONSTRUCTION (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.5.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND COMPATIBILITY (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 12.6 TESTING AND ANALYSIS
12.6.1 SAFETY CERTIFICATION CONSIDERATIONS (1996)
12.6.1.1 Codes and Standards
a. In general, the Rail Transit Electrification System design must be in compliance with and certified by local
regulatory agencies.
b. Additional codes and standards should be applicable to specific aspects of the design.
c. In all cases, latest editions of the codes and standards must be applicable.
1
d. All materials, apparatus and equipment, installing methods, and testing should conform to or exceed the
requirements of the latest ANSI, NEMA, NEC, IEEE, UL, ICEA, EIA, ASTM, AREMA, and other
standards, as applicable.
12.6.2 SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND INTERFACE MANAGEMENT (1996)

3
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.6.3 MAINTAINABILITY AND RELIABILITY (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.6.4 START-UP AND TESTING (1996) 4
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
12.6.5 SAFETY (1996)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit

33
Chapter 33 Glossary
The following terms are used in the railway electrification industry.
Access-way
That portion of the ground, any floor, passage, stairway or other recognized fixed foothold, affording
approach to high voltage electrical equipment, and on which it is intended that railroad or other qualified
personnel shall walk or stand while such electrical equipment is “live.”
Air Break
An OCS arrangement for providing section isolation wherein electrical sections are insulated from each
other by an air space and overlap each other in the horizontal plane to provide smooth transition of a
pantograph from one section to another without interruption of the power supply to the locomotive or car,
also called “Air Gap” or “Insulated Overlap.”
Air Break Switch 1

A switch or isolator, the contacts of which make and break in the air.
Along-Track Feeder
A portion of an OCS feeder that is approximately parallel to the track, typically mounted on the same OCS
structures.
3
Along-Track Movement
Movement of OCS of an auto-tensioned OCS due to thermal expansion and contraction of the conductors.
Assembly
An arrangement of hardware used repetitively in an OCS and typically given a reference code to simplify
cataloging.
Auto-tensioned OCS
An OCS arrangement whose conductors are maintained at a constant tension over a specified range of
conductor temperature by means of balance weights, springs, or pneumatic and hydraulic tensioning devices.
Autotransformer
Apparatus which serves to reduce current in traction power conductors on AC electrification systems. It
uses a single winding having three terminals. The intermediate terminal is connected to the rail and its
position determines the catenary to rail voltage. The other two terminals are connected to the catenary and
feeder wires.

Auxiliary Messenger
A conductor in a compound catenary system, installed between a messenger wire and the contact wire, used
in high speed electrification, and/or to increase the ampacity of the OCS and to improve mechanical
characteristics; also called “Auxiliary Wire” or “Auxiliary Trolley Wire.”
Backbone
A cable between two OCS poles providing lateral registration to the OCS conductors in span, typically used
in lieu of additional pull-off poles.
Balance Weight
An assembly containing weights used to maintain constant conductor tension in an auto-tensioned OCS
placed at one or both ends of a tension section.
Basic Insulation Level (BIL)

Voltage level specified in NESC for air clearances and equipment ratings for protection against impulse
voltage flashover.
Blow Off
Lateral displacement of OCS conductors caused by wind pressure.
Body Span
A center horizontal cable of a cross catenary used to carry the horizontal loads of the messenger(s).
Bond
An electrical connection between metal hardware, structural components or cables.
Booster Transformer
Two-winding current transformer with one winding connected in series with the OCS and the other in the
return system for the purpose of diverting return current from rails to the return circuit to reduce
interference with adjacent electric circuits; also called “suction transformer.”
Bridle Wire
A flexible tension member extending longitudinally at supporting points in an OCS which substitutes for a
messenger wire over a support; also called “stitch wire.”
Cantilever
A frame for supporting OCS, often including solid core insulators; for auto tensioned systems cantilever
connections at pole are hinged to enable along-track movement.
Carbon Collector
A carbon strip on top of a pantograph or insert of a harp assembly on trolley poles which provides a sliding
contact with a contact wire for current collection.
Catenary
Mathematical term to describe the shape of a cable sagging under its uniformly distributed weight and used
in railroad electrification to describe a system consisting of two or more conductors, hangers and in-span
hardware of an overhead contact system, excluding supports.

Glossary
Catenary Attachment
An assembly of insulators and hardware attached to an overgrade bridge, tunnel, station or other structure
which supports, steadies or dead-ends an OCS.
Chainage
The stationing or mileage marking along an alignment or track.
Circuit
Alpha-numeric identification for an electrical section between two switching points.
Clearance Envelope
An envelope around a vehicle, pole, or electrical conductor into which no person or equipment may intrude.
Clearance Gauge
A clearance diagram for vehicles and their loads into which no fixed equipment may intrude.
Clipping In
Clamping of electrical conductors after correct positioning and tension have been achieved.
Compound Catenary
An OCS arrangement of three or more conductors comprising a contact wire supported from an auxiliary 1
wire, which is supported from the messenger wire.
Constant Tension OCS

See “Auto-tensioned OCS.”
Contact Bridge 3
A rigid bar about 2 meters long fixed closely above the in-running contact wire forming a slot for a second
contact wire to pass through.
Contact Rail System

A positive electrical distribution system for transmission of traction power to transit vehicles using an
electrical conductor located alongside the track, also known as a “third rail.” 4
Contact Wire
An overhead wire with which the pantograph or other current collector is designed to make contact, also
called “trolley wire.”
Contact Wire Gradient

Slope of a contact wire relative to top-of-rail.
Contact Wire Height

Height of the underside of the contact wire above a road or top-of-rail level when not uplifted by the
pantograph or trolley pole.
Counterbalance
See “Counterweight.”

Counterpoise
A buried wire or a configuration of wires to provide a low resistance to grounded systems.
Counterweight
The weighted tensioning device at one or both ends of a tension section of a constant tension OCS, also
called “counterbalance.” See “Balance Weight.”
Creep
A non-elastic elongation of wires under tension.
Cross Bonding
Electrical interconnection of rails of separate tracks to facilitate traction power return through impedence
bonds when signals are used.
Cross Catenary
Transverse cables or cables strung between poles or other fixed structures which support one or more
catenaries.
Cross-Track Feeder
Portion of an OCS feeder that is perpendicular to the tracks usually connecting the OCS to the feeder
system.
Cross Span
A single across track wire supporting one or more single contact wires typically in a light rail or streetcar
trolley system.
Current Transformer (CT)

A transformer that supplies current exactly proportional to the system currents, typically used in control
circuits and protective relaying circuits.
Current Collectors
See “Carbon Collector.”
Dead-end Assembly
A fixed termination for OCS or other tensioned conductors.
Deenergized
Electric apparatus, such as overhead wires, substation conductors, cables, third rail, switches and circuit
breakers, which is disconnected from their electric power source(s) but not necessarily grounded.
Deflector
An OCS assembly which maintains the relative position of contact wires at crossovers.
Disconnect Switch
A no-load interrupting type electrical switch for disconnecting electrical power from a line section.

Glossary
Drop Bracket
An assembly fixed below a registration pipe that permits the heel of the steady arm to be adjusted for height.
Dynamic
Pertaining to the horizontal or vertical disturbance by a vehicle or conductor due to the movement along
track of that vehicle or to the passing of trolley poles or pantographs mounted on the vehicle.
Electrical Clearance, Passing

Minimum clearance between live parts of either a vehicle (such as a pantograph) or the OCS and grounded
parts of fixed structures or the vehicle, which exists during the passage of an electrically powered vehicle.
Electrical Clearance, Static

Minimum clearance between grounded structures and live parts of the OCS when not subjected to
pantograph pressure.
Electrification/Electric Traction System

System whereby traction power is provided to trains via an overhead contact system or third rail system.
Electrified Section/Territory
Portion of a railroad equipped for electric train operation by overhead contact system or third rail system.
Energized
1
Electric apparatus, such as overhead wires, substation conductors, cables, third rail, switches and circuit
breakers, which is connected to an electric power source.
Envelope
A theoretical outline which is greater than the physical dimensions of the item (see “Clearance Envelope”).
3
Equalizer
Jumper in an OCS that distributes current between messengers and contact wire by interconnection at
regular intervals along the system.
Equivalent Span 4
Weighted average span length for a given tension section of OCS, used in sag and tension calculations. Also
called “ruling span.”
Face of Pole (Column)

Absolute nearest part of a pole (column) from a track, but excluding base plate unless this is located
significantly above the level of the rails and intrudes into the clearance envelope.
Feeder
A conductor which supplies power to, or augments the power-carrying capacity of, the OCS or contact rail
system.
Fixed Termination OCS

An OCS arrangement whose conductors have fixed dead ends such that their tension varies inversely with
temperature.

Floating Section
A section of insulated wire or rail with no electrical connections to a power supply or to a grounding circuit.
Also called “Neutral Section.”
Frog
A track device where two running rails intersect and which provides flange ways to permit wheels and wheel
flanges on either rail to cross the other; piece of overhead hardware providing the same function for trolley
contact wires and permitting the passage of trolley pole current collectors.
Ground
Conducting mass of the earth; physical connection between an apparatus and ground grid or rod.
Ground Grid (Mat)

A buried grid for installations such as substations and switch platforms to provide low resistance path to
ground.
Ground Rod
A metal rod with ground wire connection driven into the ground to disperse currents.
Ground Wire
A conductor installed for the purpose of providing electrical continuity between the supporting structures of
the overhead contact system or transmission lines and the grounding system.
Grounded
Connected to the conducting mass of the earth in such a manner as will ensure at all times an immediate
discharge of electrical energy without danger.
Grounding
The act or operation of applying a temporary or permanent ground connection.
Hanger
A fitting providing vertical support between the messenger and auxiliary or contact wires of an OCS.
Harp
Type of trolley pole collector shoe assembly.
Headspan
The top cable of a cross catenary used to carry the weight of one or more OCS equipments.
Heel of Steady or Pull-Off Arm

The end opposite the contact wire clamp of a steady arm.
Hinged Cantilever
Hardware used for attaching the cross arm to a pole which allows movement along track by allowing the end
away from the pole to swing.

Glossary
Hog
To arch upward in the middle of span (opposite of sag).
Horn
The bent or downward angled portion of a pantograph head at either end of the carbon collector.
Hot Stick
An insulated telescoping device typically used for measuring the height of live conductors above rails or
ground; name used for various insulated tools used by linemen.
Impedance Bond
A single winding coil with center tap between rails that has a high reactance to high frequency currents used
to maintain integrity of signal track circuits while allowing traction power return through the rails.
Inclined Catenary
An arrangement of OCS conductors such that the messenger carries the horizontal (radial) load of the
contact (and auxiliary) wires on curved alignment, in addition to providing vertical support, and in which the
contact wire closely follows the centerline of curved track.
In-Running Wires
Conductors of an OCS that provide continuous sliding contact for the pantograph.
1
Insulated Joint
A rail joint in which electrical insulation is provided between abutting sections of rail.
Insulated Overlap
An OCS overlap that also provides insulation between adjoining electrical OCS sections.
3
Isokeraunic Level
Measure of incidence of discharge of atmospheric electricity (lightning strikes) at a specific location.
Isolating Switch
A switch provided for isolating electrical apparatus and circuits. 4
Jumper
An electrical connection installed in an overhead contact system to provide continuity between tension
lengths or conductors.
Knuckle
A short rigid bar providing mechanical connection between adjacent conductors.
Lightning Arrester
A device which protects electrical equipment against over voltage due to lightning by providing a path to
ground through a spark gap, or spark gap with variable resistance elements.
Live
An electrically energized circuit or component.

Load Breaking Switch

Switch that will connect or interrupt load current.
Load Flow Simulation

An analysis that calculates the combined performance, including power consumption, voltage and current
data, of trains operating simultaneously, typically used for the sizing and locating of substation equipment
and OCS conductors and feeder cables.
Loop
An auxiliary or secondary path for electric current to flow to a load.
Messenger Wire
The wire from which the contact wire or auxiliary messenger is suspended by means of hangers in a catenary
OCS.
Messenger Stringing Tension

The tension to which a messenger is loaded before it carries the load of the other parts of a catenary system
such as hangers and contact wire.
Midpoint Anchor
The structure between two balance weights at which an auto-tensioned catenary is fixed longitudinally.
Midpoint Guy
The span guy that provides the midpoint anchor restraint.
Midpoint Guy Pole

The pole, normally with a down guy, that takes the strain from the midspan guy.
Midspan Offset
The deviation of the contact wire from the superelevated centerline of a curved alignment at midspan, also
called “versine.”
Multiple Unit Train

Passenger train consisting of self-powered cars typically equipped with current collecting pantographs or
third rail collectors.
Negative Feeder
In an AC system, an energized feeder adjacent to the catenary system that utilizes autotransformers to boost
or maintain OCS voltage at selected points, and provide dual voltage transmission capability, and provide
some mitigation of electrical interference to adjacent electrical circuits; in a DC system, portion of return
circuit back to the traction power substation.
Neutral Section
See “Floating Section.”

Glossary
Neutralizing Wire
A conductor installed parallel to communication circuits for the purpose of reducing inductive interference
on those circuits.
No Load Switch
An electrical switch designed to be opened or closed only when current is not passing in the circuit in which
it is placed.
Offset of Contact Wire

Deviation of the contact wire from the alignment at the superelevated centerline of the track.
Offset Pole
The pole next to the counterweight structure within an overlap section that carries the radial load of the
anchoring equipment.
Out-of-Running (OOR) Wires

Conductors of an OCS that do not provide primary passage for the pantograph.
Overhead Contact Rail

Overhead conductor in form of a rigid rail used in place of contact wire used, for example, on moveable
bridges or close clearance tunnels.
1
Overhead Contact System (OCS)
That part of traction power electrification system comprising the contact or trolley wire, auxiliary,
messenger, supports, foundations, balance weights or tensioning devices and other equipment and
assemblies that deliver electric power from a substation to the rail vehicle pantograph or trolley pole.
Overlap Jumper 3
A full current jumper at tensioning overlaps.
Overlap Section
A portion of the overhead contact system between two main structures, where the contact and messenger
wires of two adjoining sections overlap and terminate, while allowing for continuous collection of power by a
pantograph. 4
Pantograph
Current collector apparatus comprising a mechanically jointed frame mounted on top of electrically powered
rail vehicles that provides a sliding electrical contact with the contact wire.
Pantograph Sway
Lateral displacement of the pantograph induced by vehicle roll, lateral shock loads, cross-track tolerance and
gauge deviation.
Pantograph Up-Thrust
Nominal upward force exerted by the pantograph on the contact wire.

Parallel Groove Clamp

A device used to clamp two parallel grooved wires together.
Paralleling Station
An electrical substation which connects catenary and negative feeder through autotransformers to balance
and boost catenary voltage.
Phase Break
An arrangement of insulators and grounded or non-energized wires that is located between two sections of
the overhead contact system that are fed from different AC phases or at different frequencies or voltages
under which a pantograph may pass without shorting or bridging the phases, frequencies or voltages.
Pin Insulator
An insulator, usually upright, attached by a pin, standoff or cantilever.
Portal Structure
An OCS structure consisting of a crossbeam or truss supported by two columns placed on either side of
multiple tracks for supporting OCS conductors.
Potential Equalizer
A jumper in the OCS that provides electrical continuity between adjacent conductors.
Potential Transformer
See “Voltage Transformer”
Power Director
Person in charge of the electric power distribution system for a railroad, also known as “power dispatcher”
or “load dispatcher.”
Power Transformer
A device which transforms power on an AC system from one voltage level to another (e.g., from 115kV to
25kV).
Presag
Static difference between the average contact wire height at the end hangers in a span and the height at
midspan.
Prestress
To apply to a ductile conductor a higher tension than for normal operation to accelerate the removal of
conductor stretch (in stranded conductors) and creep effect for a prescribed period during construction.
Prestretch
See “Prestress.”
Pull Off Registration

Registration of a contact wire towards the pole by means of cross-track spans and assemblies or cantilever
assemblies.

Glossary
Pulley System
The combination of block(s) and sheave(s) and their attachment(s) used in messenger support and OCS
conductor termination systems.
Push Off Registration

Registration of a contact wire away from the pole by means of cross-track spans and assemblies or cantilever
assemblies.
Radial Load
Transverse or across-track horizontal loads induced in support and registration assemblies due to deviation
of the OCS conductors from a straight line between two adjacent registration points.
Rail Bond
Electrical connection between adjacent lengths of rail.
Rail Return
The combination of track structure, jumpers, impedance bonds, grounds and cables that provide an electrical
return path from a train to a substation.
Rake
A preset lean of an OCS pole from vertical.
1
Registration
The process of lateral positioning of contact wires over the track.
Registration Pipe
The horizontal pipe to which the drop bracket or heel of the steady arm is attached.
3
Return Wire
A conductor used to supplement the current-carrying capacity of the rail return current.
Ruling Span
See “Equivalent Span.” 4
Sag
The vertical deviation of a conductor between two supports; the process of wire tensioning when employing
the magnitude of sag measurement as a means to obtain a preset tension in a conductor.
Section
The electrical circuit beyond one or between two or more switching points.
Section Break or Gap

An electrical break in an OCS permitting separation of circuits while allowing for continuous collection of
power from catenary or third rail.

Section Insulator
A device for dividing an OCS into electrical sections while maintaining mechanical continuity and
continuous path for trolley poles or pantograph collectors.
Segments
A curved device deployed in trolley bus OCS to provide a smooth circular path in a horizontal plane for power
collectors.
Shield Wire
See “Static Wire.”
Shoe
Device used to hold a carbon collector to a pantograph; sliding contact on underside of electrical equipment
that collects power from a third rail.
Shoe Paddle
Wedge shaped non conductor inserted between contact shoes and third rail to isolate a car from third rail
power.
Signal Rail
The track rail used as the conductor for the track circuits controlling signaling appliance in a single rail
signal system, and not used for traction return current. (Note: in modern U.S. systems both rails are used
for both signals and power.)
Simple Catenary
An OCS arrangement of two conductors comprising a contact wire supported by a messenger wire.
Span Length
Distance along an alignment or track between supporting points.
Sprawl
The string line of a contact wire on inclined catenary.
Stagger
Offset of the contact wire from a projected track centerline at a support due to registration, and created to
distribute wear on pantograph carbon collectors.
Stagger Effect
The value added to blow off to determine maximum displacement when stagger of adjacent supports are not
equal.
Static Clearance
See “Electrical Clearance, Static.”
Static Position of Wire

Position of the wire without uplift and without wind.

Glossary
Static Wire
Wire or cable located above OCS conductors to conduct atmospheric electricity (lightning) to ground.
Stay
A short rod or wire providing restraint; a guy.
Steady Arm
A lateral restraining rod attached to a contact wire at a structure typically used in light loading conditions.
Steady Span
Lowest cable of a cross catenary used to carry the horizontal loads of the contact wire(s).
Stitched Catenary
An inverted Y arrangement, used at the supports of a catenary system to improve dynamic performance at
the contact wire/pantograph interface.
String line
A length of string or similar nonconducting material held against the gauge line of a track at each end for the
purpose of measuring the middle ordinate; theoretical straight line created by a string line.
Substation 1
A location where power is received at high voltage and changed to the voltage and characteristics required at
the OCS, third rail or other delivering electrical system, containing equipment such as transformers,
rectifiers, circuit breakers and sectionalizing switches.
Switching Station
A location where power is switched between feeders and OCS conductors or third rails, or between various
OCS conductors or third rails containing circuit breakers and sectionalizing switches.
3
System Height
Distance between messenger and contact wire of a catenary system normally at the support structure.
Tail 4
Wire that joins the yoke plate to the balance weight assembly.
Tangent Chord Catenary

An arrangement of OCS conductors through curves such that a messenger supports only the vertical loading
of contact (and auxiliary) wires with the horizontal loads on the contact (and auxiliary) wires being carried
by registration assemblies at support or pull-off structures.
Tensioning
Method of controlling sag from supported wires by pulling.
Tensioning Device
An assembly containing weights, springs or pneumatic and hydraulic tensioning devices used to maintain
constant conductor tension in an auto-tensioned catenary, typically placed at each end of a tension section.

Tension Length (Section)

Length of OCS between its mechanical terminations.
Third Rail
See “Contact Rail System.”
Transition Curve (Spiral)

A curve of increasing or decreasing radius that connects a curve to a tangent or another curve.
Transmission Lines
A system of conductors and structural supports used for electric power transmission, usually at very high
voltage.
Trolley Jumper
Jumper between contact wires.
Trolley Pole
A pole mounted on the roof of a streetcar or tram for current collection from a contact wire.
Trolley Shoe
A device on the end of a trolley pole which provides the sliding contact with a contact wire.
Trolley Wire
Alternative term for contact wire, typically used in single wire OCS.
Twin Contact Wire

An arrangement of OCS conductors comprising two contact wires typically used at restricted clearance
bridges with insufficient room for a messenger, or to improve conductance.
Uplift
Lift of a contact wire and or messenger due to upward pressure of passing pantograph or trolley pole.
Voltage Transformer (VT)

A transformer that provides voltage exactly proportional to, but usually much lower than, the system
voltage, typically used for control circuits and protective relays.
Warning Portal
A portal placed at level crossings to warn highway traffic of the high voltage overhead wire danger and
restrict height of loads.
Wood Stick Insulator

An insulator made from wood capable of carrying mechanical tension from the conductor to which it is
attached.
Yoke or Yoke Plate

A plate or casting typically proportioned to accommodate unequal tensions in two or more wires or cables
which are terminated on one side and which are balanced by a single terminating cable on the other side.

General Subject Index
A ACCOUNTING (CONT)
Account 13 - Fences, Snowsheds, and Signs 16-12-9
Account 16 - Station and Office Buildings 16-12-9
ABBREVIATIONS 15-6-5 Account 17 - Roadway Buildings 16-12-9
ABILITY TO RESIST 30-2-8 Account 18 - Water Stations 16-12-10
Test 3B: Spike Lateral Restraint 30-2-9 Account 19 - Fuel Stations 16-12-10
ABRASION VERSUS FLEXIBILITY 27-1-14 Account 20 - Shops and Enginehouses 16-12-11
ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS 8-5-1, 8-29-5 Account 22 - Storage Warehouses 16-12-11
ABUTTING JOINTS 15-3-8 Account 23 - Wharves and Docks 16-12-11
AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 33-6-5 Account 24 - Coal and Ore Wharves 16-12-12
General 33-6-5 Account 25 - TOFC/COFC Terminals 16-12-12
Normal and Contigency Operation 33-6-14 Account 26 - Communication Systems 16-12-13
Traction Power Distribution System 33-6-7 Account 27 - Signals and Interlockers 16-12-13
Traction Power Return System 33-6-14 Account 29 - Power Plants 16-12-14
Traction Power Supply System 33-6-6 Account 31 - Power Transmission Systems 16-12-14
ACCEPTABILITY, MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 Account 35 - Miscellaneous Structures 16-12-15
ACCEPTABILITY, OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-9 Account 37 - Roadway Machines 16-12-15
ACCEPTANCE 4-2-23, 4-3-37, 5-7-4 Account 39 - Public Improvements, Construction 16-12-16
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA Account 44 - Shop Machinery 16-12-16 1
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-14 Account 45 - Power-Plant Machinery 16-12-17
ACCEPTANCE Account 52 - Locomotives 16-12-18
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-2-37 Account 53 - Freight-Train Cars 16-12-18
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-42 Account 54 - Passenger-Train Cars 16-12-19
ACCESS SYSTEMS FOR MAINTENANCE OF WAY MACHINES Account 55 - Highway Revenue Equipment 16-12-19
27-2-62 Account 56 - Floating Equipment 16-12-20
General 27-2-62 Account 57 - Work Equipment 16-12-20
Purpose 27-2-62 Account 58 - Miscellaneous Equipment 16-12-21 3
Scope 27-2-62 Account 59 - Computer Systems and Word Processing
ACCESS TO WORKS 4-3-31 Equipment 16-12-22
ACCESSIBILITY OF PARTS 15-1-42 General 16-12-5
ACCOUNT DEFINITION 16-12-4 Information to be Reported 16-12-4
ACCOUNTING 16-12-1 Introduction 16-12-4
Authority for Expenditures 16-12-23 Scope 16-12-4
General 16-12-23 Joint Facilities 16-12-24
Capital Expenditure or Operating Expense 16-12-22 General 16-12-24
General 16-12-22 National Transportation Agency of Canada System of
Definition of Unit of Property 16-12-5 Accounts 16-12-25
General 16-12-5 General 16-12-25
Depreciation Accounting 16-12-23 Property Asset Ledgers 16-12-25
Explanation of Contents of ICC Account Listings 16-12-4 Roadway Completion Reports 16-12-24
Account Definition 16-12-4 General 16-12-24
Information to be Reported 16-12-4 Typical Items Included 16-12-4
Typical Items Included 16-12-4 A CCURACY & CALIBRATION, RAIL W EAR PARAMETERS 2-2-39
ICC Primary Accounts 16-12-5 ACHIEVING COST EFFECTIVE ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
Account 2 - Land for Transportation Purposes 16-12-5 DESIGN 33-6-17
Account 3 - Grading 16-12-5 ACID RESISTANT COATING 8-10-4
Account 4 - Other Right-of-Way Expenditures 16-12-6 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Account 5 - Tunnels and Subways 16-12-6 Due to Surcharge Loads 8-20-6
Account 6 - Bridges, Trestles and Culverts 16-12-7 Due to Unbalanced Water Pressure 8-20-9
Account 7 - Elevated Structures 16-12-7 Due to Weight of Backfill 8-20-6
Account 8 - Ties 16-12-7 ADA REQUIREMENTS 11-3-5
Account 9 - Rails and Other Track Material 16-12-8 ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS 27-2-38
Account 11 - Ballast 16-12-8 ADDITIVES 8-25-8
© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association I-1

Index
ADHESION 16-3-3 ANTI-BONDING PAPER 8-29-20

ADHESIVE, MEMBRANE 8-29-15 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 15-6-37
ADMIXTURE APPLICANT’S RESPONSIBILITIES 15-8-26
Types of 8-1-20 APPLICATION
ADVANCE MATERIAL 15-3-22 Dampproofing 8-29-29
ADVANCES IN ENERGY COST SAVINGS FOR RAILWAY of Loads 8-17-53
BUILDINGS AND SHOP FACILITIES 6-5-5 and Measurement of Prestressing Force 8-17-53
ADVANTAGES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR REPAIR of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
SHOPS 6-3-3 Application Procedures 4-3-32
AGGREGATE 8-1-9, 8-1-22, 8-1-55 Introduction 4-3-31
Coarse 8-1-41 Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in
Coarse, Freeze-Thaw Test 8-1-15 Welded or Brazed Applications 4-3-31
Fine 8-1-10
Lightweight Coarse, for Structural Concrete 8-1-14 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-54
Normal Weight Coarse 8-1-12 Requirements and Instructions, Fire-Retardant Coating
AGREEMENT, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 for Creosoted Wood 7-1-14
AIR BRAKES 15-6-99 of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Anchorage
AIR BUFFERS 15-6-34, 15-6-103 Zones 8-17-39
AIR LOADING, SAND FACILITY 6-6-10 APPLICATION PROCEDURES, RAIL BONDS 4-3-32
AIR PRESSURE, SAND FACILITY 6-6-9 APPLICATIONS 27-1-21
AIR RIGHTS, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
ALERT TRAIN CREWS OR DISPATCHERS 16-5-9 APPLYING THE SPIRAL TO COMPOUND CURVES 5-3-6
ALIGNING AND LOCKING 15-6-14 APPROACH 9-2-3
ALIGNMENT 1-4-71 APPROVAL OF PLANS 1-5-9, 1-5-21, 1-5-27
of Finished Holes 15-3-15 APPROXIMATE METHODS, POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE
ALIGNMENTS AND CLEARANCES 12-4-45 ZONES 8-17-40
ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES 4-3-44 ARC-FLASH HAZARD STUDY 33-6-20
ALLOWABLE LOAD ON PILES 8-4-5 ARCH
ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES 8-3-15 Sidewalls and 8-11-3
ALLOWABLE STRESSES 8-20-15, 8-17-19 ARCHES 8-21-24
During Erection 15-4-5 Lining 8-14-13
Service Load 8-2-38 Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Fill 8-29-6
Unit, for Stress Graded Lumber 7-2-60 ARTICULATED CARS 16-2-9
ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED ASPHALT 8-29-28
LUMBER 7-2-60 Coatings, Emulsified 8-29-28
ALTERNATES 33-7-12 for Mopping 8-29-14
ALTITUDE COMPENSATION 33-2-10 Plank 8-29-17
AMENITIES 17-4-3 Primer 8-29-28
AMERICAN SOFTWOOD LUMBER STANDARDS PS 20-70 7-1-3 Roof Coatings, Asbestos-Free 8-29-29
ANALYSES, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 ASPHALTIC PANELS 8-29-17
ANALYSIS ASSEMBLING MACHINERY
and Design, Reinforced Concrete 8-2-33 in Frames 15-6-103
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 9-1-23 on Structural Supports 15-6-103
ANCHOR BOLTS 15-1-64 ASSEMBLY 1-4-72
ANCHOR PULL 8-20-13 and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70
ANCHORAGE 8-20-13, 15-6-23 ASSESSMENT AND RETROFIT, EXISTING BRIDGES 9-1-30
of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13 ASTM D
Flexibility 8-20-13 41 8-29-8
Mechanical 8-2-29 43 8-29-8
of Rail 15-8-13 173 8-29-8
ANCHORAGE BEARING REACTION FORCE 8-26-36 226 8-29-8
ANCHORAGE ZONES, ANCHORAGE BLISTERS AND 227 8-29-9
DEVIATION SADDLES 8-26-34 312 8-29-9
ANCHORAGE ZONES, FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN 449 8-29-9
GENERAL 8-26-35 450 8-29-10
ANCHORAGE ZONES, POST-TENSIONED 8-17-34 517 8-29-10
ANCHORAGE ZONES, PRETENSIONED 8-17-45 692 8-29-10
ANCHORAGES IN DIAPHRAGMS 8-26-36 946 8-29-10
ANCHORAGES IN SPECIAL BLISTERS 8-26-36 1187 8-29-10
ANCHORED BULKHEADS, DESIGN OF 8-20-11 1190 8-29-11
ANCILLARY POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-1 1227 8-29-11
Wayside/Standby Power Systems 33-9-1 1327 8-29-11
ANNUAL BUDGET 16-15-8 1668 8-29-11
ANNUAL OPERATING EXPENSES 33-1-6 2178 8-29-11
I-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Index
ASTM D (CONT) BALLAST (CONT)

2823 8-29-11 Property Requirements 1-2-10
3515 8-29-12 Ballast Materials for Concrete Tie Track Installation 1-2-12
4215 8-29-12 Chemical Analysis 1-2-11
4479 8-29-12 Gradations 1-2-12
4586 8-29-12 Limiting Test Values 1-2-11
6134 8-29-12 Physical Analysis 1-2-10
ASTM DESIGNATIONS, APPLICABLE 8-29-8 Replacement and Cleaning 16-10-14
ASTM - INTERNATIONAL 8-1-7 Sampling and Testing 1-2-14
AT GRADE CROSSINGS 11-3-5, 12-3-10, 17-3-4 General 1-2-14
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION CONTROL STUDY 33-6-20 Scope 1-2-9
ATTACHING METAL 33-7-19, 33-7-26 Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-19
ATTITUDE SURVEYS 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Commentary 1-2-25
AUDIBLE NAVIGATION SIGNALS 15-6-100 Construction of Sub-ballast Section 1-2-24
AUDIT SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION 6-5-8 Design 1-2-20
AUDITOR QUALIFICATIONS 6-5-7 General 1-2-19
AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE PILES 8-4-13, 8-4-16 Inspection 1-2-25
AUTOMATIC CAR IDENTIFICATION (ACI) SYSTEM 14-1-2 Measurement and Payment 1-2-25
AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL (ATC) SYSTEM 17-6-4 Production and Handling 1-2-24
AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK LOADING/UNLOADING Summary 1-2-26
FACILITIES 14-4-31 Testing 1-2-24
AUTOMOBILE LOADING/UNLOADING 14-4-31 and Subgrade 30-1-5
AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS, EQUIPMENT, DESIGN CRITERIA Substructure Introduction 1-2-4
FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-3 Description 1-2-4
AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS 7-2-70 Nomenclature 1-2-4
AXLE, WHEEL AND HUB SPECIFICATIONS 27-2-40 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9
BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST 18-2-2
BAR CODE FORMAT 27-1-20
B BAR CODES AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR ROADWAY
1
WORK EQUIPMENT 27-1-18
BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS 8-17-54
BACKFILL 1-4-72, 8-10-14, 8-25-8 BARREL AND APRON 1 8-16-13
Character 8-20-3 BARREL AND APRON 2 8-16-13
Character of 8-5-3 BASE AND MASONRY PLATES 15-1-64
Computation of Pressure 8-5-5 BASE OF FOOTINGS, DEPTH 8-3-7
Design of 8-5-7 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES 15-1-37, 15-10-7
BACKFILLING and Deflections 15-8-6
Bore Holes 8-22-10 and Hydraulic Pressures 15-6-28 3
BACKGROUND 2-2-5 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Roadway Signs 1-7-4 General Design of Prestressed Concrete 8-17-18
Wayside/Standby Power Systems 33-9-1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF SCOUR 1-3-20
BAGGING 5-7-4 Contraction Scour 1-3-22
BALANCING OF GEARS 15-6-103 Lateral Stream Migration 1-3-23
BALLAST 1-2-1, 5-8-9, 16-10-12 Local Scour 1-3-22
Account 11 16-12-8 Long-term Elevation Streambed Changes (Aggradation
and Ballast Pressure 30-1-6 and Degradation) 1-3-21 4
Concrete Ties 30-4-45 References for Section 3.4 1-3-24
Design 1-2-5 Scour 1-3-20
Track Substructure Design 1-2-5 Total Scour 1-3-24
Gradations 1-2-18 BASIC DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, CONTINUOUS AND
Inspection 1-2-14 CANTILEVER STEEL STRUCTURES 15-1-69
Loading 1-2-13 BASIC ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Maintenance Practices 1-2-15 Basic Principles of Location 16-1-7
Ballast Gradations 1-2-18 Definition of Location 16-1-2
Commentary 1-2-15 Investment Evaluation 16-1-5
Methods of Unloading and Distributing Ballast 1-2-15 Principles of Economic Design 16-1-3
Replacement of Ballast and in Track Cleaning 1-2-15 Traffic Forecasts 16-1-8
Materials 1-2-9 BASIC FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND
Types of Materials 1-2-9 LATERAL STRUCTURE OPENINGS 33-2-11
Materials for Concrete Tie Track Installation 1-2-12 BASIC PROCEDURE 33-1-2
Measurement and Payment 1-2-15 BASIC STRESS 7-2-6
General 1-2-15 BATTER PILES 8-4-4
Methods of Unloading and Distributing 16-10-14 BATTERY-CHARGING AREA OR ROOM FOR MATERIALS
Production and Handling 1-2-13 MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 6-7-6
General 1-2-13
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering I-3

Index
BEAMS, CONNECTION OF SECONDARY 8-26-41 BOILER OPTIMIZATION 6-5-5

BEAMS, NOTCHED, WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES 7-2-80 BOILER TEST KIT 6-5-10
BEARING 7-2-61, 15-6-29 BOLTED CONNECTIONS, WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES 7-2-79
and Anchorage 8-5-13 BOLTS
Area 5-7-2 Bearing on 7-2-72
at Angle to Grain 7-2-69 and Holes 15-6-103
on Bolts 7-2-72 and Nuts 15-6-44
BEARING AT ANGLE TO GRAIN 7-2-69 in Tension 15-6-32
BEARING ON BOLTS 7-2-72 BOND DESCRIPTION 33-5-5
BEARING CONSTRUCTION 15-11-1 BONDING 8-11-7
Bronze or Copper-Alloy sliding Expansion Bearings 15-11-8 BONDING, FUTURE 8-1-28
Construction and Installation 15-11-3 BORINGS
Elastomeric 15-11-12 Core 8-22-9
Manufacture or Fabrication 15-11-3 Core, in Rock 8-22-5
Multi-Rotational bearings 15-11-16 Depth of 8-22-4
Packaging, Handling and Storage 15-11-3 Dry Sample 8-22-5, 8-22-8
PTFE Bearing Surface 15-11-9 Number and Location of 8-22-4
Shop Drawings 15-11-2 BOX GIRDER CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS
BEARINGS 8-2-35, 15-6-102 8-26-42
and Anchorage 15-4-4 BOX GIRDERS 8-21-4, 8-21-24
BEDDING BOX-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION 8-2-37
Factors 8-10-6 BRACING 15-1-66, 15-1-70
BELT CONVEYOR SCALES 7-1 BRACING BETWEEN COMPRESSION MEMBERS 15-1-24
BENDING, TIE TESTS 30-2-3 B RACING M EMBERS U SED AS T IES OR S TRUTS O NLY 15-1-62
Test 1A: Bending - Railseat Positive 30-2-3 BRACING OF TOP FLANGES OF THROUGH GIRDERS 15-1-60
Test 1B: Bending - Railseat Negative 30-2-4 BRACING OF VIADUCT TOWERS AND BENTS 15-1-62
Test 1C: Bending - Center Negative 30-2-5 BRAKE SYSTEMS 27-2-10
Test 1D: Flexural Fatigue 30-2-7 BRAKES 27-2-24, 17-5-10
BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING Air 15-6-99
Concrete Reinforcement 8-1-20, 8-1-56 and Machinery Design for Braking Forces 15-6-21
BENDING PROPERTIES 4-3-16 for Span Operation 15-6-99
Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint BRAKING
Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint Bars 4-3-16 Dynamic 16-3-13
Steel Drive Spikes 5-10-3 Electric 16-3-9
Tie Plates 5-1-3 BRANDING 4-3-31
Track Spikes 5-2-3 and Stamping 4-2-13
BENDS, HOOKS AND 8-2-17 BRIDGE, CULVERT, AND TUNNEL RECORDS 18-1-5
BENEFITS OF BAR CODES 27-1-18 BRIDGE AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES 17-4-4
BENTONITE 8-25-7 BRIDGE INSPECTION PROCEDURE 15-7-23
BENTS 7-2-12 BRIDGE FABRICATION SHOP 14-7-6
BEVEL GEARS 15-6-102 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 29
BEVELING OR SLOTTING OF RAIL ENDS 4-4-76 BRIDGE OPERATOR 15-6-109
BIAXIAL LOADING 8-2-53 BRIDGE PIERS, DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR 8-5-12
Buildings and Support Facilities 6-B-1 BRIDGE TIES. SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE
Concrete Structures and Foundations 8-B-1 TIES
Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 16-B-1 BRIDGES 1-3-61, 1-3-149, 16-8-7
Roadway and Ballast 1-B-1 Construction and Maintenance 16-10-21
Steel Structures 15-B-1 Decks and Floors
Timber Structures 7-B-1 Cast in Place Concrete 8-29-6
Yards and Terminals 14-B-1 Precast Slabs for 8-29-6
BID DOCUMENTS, ORGANIZATION OF, RAILWAY and Drainage Structures 11-4-2, 12-4-36
BUILDINGS 6-1-3 Alignments and Clearances 12-4-45
Bidding Requirements 6-1-3 Construction 12-4-44
Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-5 Curved Girder Bridges 12-4-88
Contract Forms 6-1-3 Hydraulic and Hydrologic Concerns 12-4-41
General Conditions 6-1-4 Introduction 12-4-36
Recommended Format 6-1-3 Joint Railroad/Transit Operations 12-4-36
Special Conditions 6-1-4 Marine Protection 12-4-42
Technical Specifications 6-1-4 Operational Concerns 12-4-42
BIDDING REQUIREMENTS 6-1-4 Retaining Walls 12-4-44
BILLING CONCEPTS, UTILITY METERING 33-6-28 Stray Current Effects 12-4-44
BINS 6-3-11 Structure Serviceability Criteria 12-4-40
BODY OR CAB TOP 27-2-34 Transit System Loads 12-4-36
Utilities 12-4-44

Index
BRIDGES (CONT) CALIBRATION RAILS 4-4-64

Evaluation of 15-8-31 Manufacture of 4-4-64
Organization 16-8-7 Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection
Railway, Clearance Diagrams 28-1-4 Systems 4-4-64
and Trestles, Wood CALIBRATION OF TEST EQUIPMENT 4-4-69
Methods of Fireproofing 7-3-41 CAMBER 15-1-15, 15-1-70
Rules for Rating Existing 7-2-117 CANDIDATE SELECTION AND CLASS SIZE CRITERIA 27-1-23
Walkways and Handrails on 15-8-27 CANTILEVER BULKHEADS 8-20-15
Wood Railway, Design 7-2-1 CANTILEVER POLES 8-12-1
BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS 8-26-37 Construction 8-12-2
BRIDGES, NEW 9-1-17 Installation 8-12-2
BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS - ACCOUNT 6 Design 8-12-3
16-12-7 General 8-12-3
BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION General 8-12-2
BEARINGS 15-10-13, 15-11-8 Introduction 8-12-2
BUDGETING 18-1-7 Scope 8-12-2
BUILDING CONFIGURATION 6-13-4 Materials 8-12-2
BUILDING AND UTILITY PLANS AND RECORDS 18-1-6 Pole 8-12-2
BUILDING SYSTEMS 6-8-16 CANTILEVER WALLS 8-5-11
BUILDINGS 14-4-53 CAPACITY
Arrangement, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities Locomotive 16-3-3
6-4-13 of Plant 8-1-41
Codes 6-3-4 Sanding Facility 6-6-7
Construction and Maintenance 16-10-22 of Waterway Openings 1-3-5
Reinforced Concrete 8-2-6 CAPACITY AND SIZE 8-2
Superstructure Details, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair CAPACITY OF WATERWAY OPENINGS 1-3-5
Facilities 6-4-19 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES 12-2-20, 17-2-6
and Support Facilities 6-i CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COSTS 33-1-4
Types 6-3-5 CAPITAL E XPENDITURE OR O PERATING E XPENSE 16-12-22
BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES 9-1-34, 9-2-23 CARPENTRY SHOP 6-9-6 1
BULK GRANULAR SOLIDS TERMINALS CARRIER PIPE 1-5-11, 1-5-23
Design of 14-4-45 CARRYING CAPACITY, WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES 7-2-117
CAR BODY EXTERIOR 17-5-3
BULKHEADS, CANTILEVER 8-20-15
CAR BODY INTERIOR AND ENVIRONMENT 17-5-11
BULK-FLUIDS 14-4-49
CAR SHOPS 12-4-31, 17-4-4
Site Selection 14-4-50
CARS
BULK-SOLID 14-4-43
Articulated 16-2-9
BUSINESS INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 16-B-1
BUTTRESS WALLS 8-5-11
Dynamometer or Test, Field Testing 16-2-19 3
Four-Wheel 16-2-10
BUTYL GUM TAPE 8-29-15
Moving Equipment 6-3-11
BUTYL RUBBER
Self-Propelled Rail 16-3-16
Butyl-based IIR 8-29-14
Speed Control
Continuous 14-2-12
C Intermittent 14-2-10
System, Hybrid 14-2-14
CASING PIPE 1-5-6 4
CAB 27-2-11 CAST STEEL 15-1-41
CAISSONS 8-5-13 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
Cofferdams or Forms 8-1-42 Bridge Decks or Floors 8-29-6
CALCULATING RAIL PROFILE QUALITY INDEX (RPQI) Piles 8-4-11
2-2-39 CAST-IN AND POST-INSTALLED INSERTS FOR CONCRETE
Calculation Methodology 2-2-39 TIES 30-4-52
General 2-2-39 CATENARY AND LOCOMOTIVE INTERACTION 33-8-1
CALCULATING SCOUR 1-3-25 Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary 33-8-2
Estimating Contraction Scour 1-3-31 Electrical Characteristics 33-8-2
Estimating Local Pier Scour 1-3-43 Introduction 33-8-2
Evaluating Local Scour at Abutments 1-3-49 Types of Traction Motor Control Circuits 33-8-2
Predicting Aggradation and Degradation 1-3-25 Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with the Catenary 33-8-9
Predicting Lateral Migration 1-3-28 Pantograph Basics 33-8-9
References for Section 3.5 1-3-59 CATENARY DEFINITIONS, STANDARDS AND CONCEPTS
Total Scour Calculation Problem 1-3-53
33-4-3
CATENARY POLE CRITERIA 33-4-12
CALCULATIONS 33-2-13 CATENARY POLE FOOTINGS/SEATINGS 33-4-14
Train Performance 16-2-10 CATENARY SUPPORT OPTIONS 33-4-3
Using a Computer 16-2-14 CATENARY SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA 33-4-8

Index
CAUSE OF FAILURES 27-1-13 CHOICE OF DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT (CONT)

CELLULAR CONFINEMENT SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS FOR Traffic and Operating Factors 16-1-15
RAILROAD USE 1-10-24 CHORD DEFLECTION 7-2-122
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements 1-10-26 CLAIMS 2-3-13
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-27 CLASSES 1-6-10
Description 1-10-24 CLASSIFICATION
Material Requirements 1-10-25 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3
Measurement and Payment 1-10-27 of Existing Bridges 15-7-2
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-26 of Investigations 8-22-2
CEMENT 8-1-8, 8-1-41, 8-25-8 Locomotive 16-3-4
Membranes 8-29-15 of Piles 7-1-8
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND CONCRETE ADMIXTURES of Roadway Signs 1-7-2
8-1-19 Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS, OTHER 8-1-9 Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-2-117
Acceptability 8-1-9 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGE WORK 15-6-9
Documentation 8-1-10 CLASSIFICATION OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-9
General 8-1-9 CLEANING, FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 17-7-5
Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice 8-1-10 CLEANING SITE 8-22-10
Specifications 8-1-9 CLEANING AND COATING OF EXISTING STEEL RAILWAY
CENTER OF GRAVITY CORRECTION FOR STRAND BRIDGES 15-8-32
TENDONS 8-26-24 CLEARANCE AND SAFETY 27-2-35
CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CLEARANCE CRITERIA 33-4-10
CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT STATIONS 12-2-24
CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 7-2-52, 7-2-118, 15-1-19
Fixed Obstructions 28-1-1
For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-52
Double-Track Railway Tunnels 28-1-6
CERTIFICATION
General 28-1-2
Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-16
General Outline 28-1-3
Quality Control, Inspection, and Identification,
Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-12 Highway Structures Over Railroads 28-1-8
Overhead Electrification 28-1-8
CHANNEL LIGHTS 15-6-108
Railway Bridges 28-1-4
CHAPTER 8 8-i
Railway Side Tracks and Industrial Tracks 28-1-7
CHAPTER 8 CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS
8-i Single-Track Railway Tunnels 28-1-5
CLEARANCE MODIFICATION 33-1-6
CHARACTER
CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS, LEGAL 28-3-19
of Backfill 8-20-3
CLEARANCES 11-3-5, 15-1-12, 17-3-3, 33-2-1, 28-i
of Foundation 8-5-4
ADA Requirements 11-3-5
of Hydraulic Traffic (Abrasive, Corrosive, Etc.) 1-4-6
Fixed Objects 11-3-5, 17-3-3
of Subsurface Materials 8-3-5
Freight Operations 11-3-5, 17-3-3
CHARACTERISTICS OF REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES
General 11-3-5, 12-3-7, 17-3-3
(RCL) 14-2-33
CHARTING ALL O BSTRUCTIONS, S UGGESTED M ETHODS 28-3-9 Methods and Procedures 28-3-1
CHECK ANALYSIS 4-3-20 Allowances for Horizontal Movements, Passenger
CHECKS, SPLITS, SHAKES 7-2-7 Cars 28-3-3
CHEMICAL General 28-3-3
Analysis 1-2-11 Computing Curve Offsets on Loads 28-3-19
Composition Examples 28-3-19
Heat-Treated Carbon-Steel Track Bolts and Nuts 4-3-19 Tables 28-3-19
Joint Bars Excessive Loads 28-3-11
Forged Compromise 4-3-15 Report Information 28-3-12
Mocroalloyed 4-3-15 Field Handbook, Measuring Excess Dimension Loads
Quenched Carbon-Steel 4-3-15 28-3-52
Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2 Combined Center of Gravity Formula 28-3-58
Steel Drive Spikes 5-10-2 Instructions for Measuring 28-3-53
Steel Rails 4-2-4 Legend 28-3-54
Steel Tie Plates 5-1-3 Reporting Measurements of Excess Width or
Control Height 28-3-53
Selection of Herbicides 1-9-7 Legal Clearance Requirements 28-3-20
CHEMICAL CONTROL General 28-3-20
Techniques 1-9-12 Maintenance Procedures that can Adversely Effect
CHEMICAL HARDNESS REQUIEMENTS FOR STRIKING AND Clearances 28-3-67
STRUCK TOOLS 5-6-6 Methods of Measuring Railway Line Clearances
CHOICE OF DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT 16-1-14 28-3-49
Causes of Expenses 16-1-16 Modifications to Clearances Reporting 28-3-61
Effects of Line Characteristics 16-1-16 Procedure 28-3-61
Highway-Rail Grade Crossings 16-1-16 Purpose 28-3-61

Index
COMBINATION FREIGHT AND PASSENGER STATIONS 6-8-14

CLEARANCES (CONT) COMBINATIONS OF DISSIMILAR TYPES OF CONNECTIONS 15-1-44
Preserving Existing Clearance During Maintenance COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS 7-2-70
Work 28-3-68 COMBINED CENTER OF GRAVITY FORMULA 28-3-54
Safe Movement of Excess Dimension Loads on COMBINED COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, SPECIAL
Foreign Trackage/Joint Tracks 28-3-66 REQUIREMENTS 6-13-7
Blanket Authority 28-3-67 COMBINED FOOTINGS 8-3-15
Clearance Data 28-3-66 Sizing 8-3-16
Operations 28-3-66 COMBINED STRESSES 7-2-119, 15-1-32
COMBINED USE OF GUARD TIMBERS AND G UARD R AILS 7-3-46
Priorities 28-3-66 COMMENTARIES, RAIL 4-6-1
Procedures 28-3-66 COMMENTARY
Scope 28-3-66 Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-22
Suggested Method Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box
Charting All Obstructions 28-3-10 Culverts 8-16-18
General 28-3-9 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-20
Presenting Published Clearances 28-3-9 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-55
General 28-3-10 Pile Foundations 8-4-17
Movable Objects 11-3-5, 17-3-3 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges
Passenger Operations 11-3-5, 17-3-3 8-26-43
Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-2-1
Overhead Electrification 33-2-2 Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the
Altitude Compensation 33-2-10 Railway Right-of-Way 1-5-20
Basic Forumlae for Calculation of Vertical and Lateral Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-25
Structure Openings 33-2-11 Vegetation Control 1-9-19
Calculations 33-2-13 COMMENTARY INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY
Construction Clearance 33-2-3 STRUCTURES
Depth of Construction of the Catenary 33-2-9 Inspection 8-21-22
Electrical Clearances (Air Clearances) 33-2-3 Site and Crossing 8-21-23
General 33-2-2 COMMENTARY 1
Lateral Displacements and Superelevation 33-2-10 INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY
Load Gauge 33-2-10 STRUCTURES 8-21-23
Technical Notes 33-2-14 COMMENTARY TO SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY
Tolerances in the Catenary System and Position of STRUCTURES 9-2-1
Track 33-2-13 COMMISSARY 6-13-6
Vertical Clearance 33-2-12 COMMODITY STORAGE 14-4-53
Regulatory Requirements 11-3-5, 17-3-3 COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 14-5-10
Reporting, Modifications or Additions 28-3-57
Third-rail Clearance Diagram 33-2-2
COMMON INDUSTRY PRACTICE, MEASUREMENT 3
FREQUENCY PRACTICES FOR TRACK GEOMETRY
Track and Roadway Considerations 12-3-1 MEASURING VEHICLES 2-4-2
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 33-4-8 Railroads 2-4-2
CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION 6-8-20, 6-10-5 Summary 2-4-3
COACH SHOP, MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9 Transit Systems 2-4-3
COACH SHOP, SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-3 Yards, Terminals and Sidings 2-4-2
Combined Coach Locomotiv Shop 6-13-8 COMMON INSPECTION ITEMS 18-3-37
COACH SHOP AND/OR LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, STRUCTURAL
REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9
COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALS 18-4-1 4
COMMUNICATIONS 15-6-8, 33-1-6
COAL AND ORE WHARVES, ACCOUNT 24 16-12-12 Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-5
COAL-TAR Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-22
Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28 Signal Systems 17-6-7
COAL-TAR PITCH 8-29-28 Support, Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations
for Mopping 8-29-14 6-8-20
COATED CORRUGATED STEEL PIPE AND ARCHES, System, Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-22
SPECIFICATIONS 1-4-17 Systems, Account 26 16-12-13
COATINGS 1-4-84, 7-3-41 Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5
CODE REQUIREMENTS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 11-6-2, 17-6-16
Site Considerations for Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive
Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities 6-13-3 COMMUNITY RELATIONS 12-2-12, 17-2-4
Site Considerations for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3 COMMUTER AND INTERCITY RAIL SYSTEMS 11-i
COEFFICIENTS, THERMAL AND SHRINKAGE 8-2-34 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
COFFERDAMS, CAISSONS OR FORMS 8-1-42 Facilities and Structural Considerations 11-4-1
COLLARS 15-6-40 Introduction 11-1-1
COLORS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE Maintenance of Way Considerations 11-7-1
BUILDINGS 6-2-13 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion
COLUMN Considerationis 11-6-1
Loads 8-3-16 Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-1

Index
COMMUTER AND INTERCITY RAIL SYSTEMS (CONT) CONCRETE (CONT)

Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas 8-19-9
COMMUTER STATIONS 6-8-12 Formulas 8-19-10
COMPACTION 8-5-7 Notations 8-19-9
COMPANY EQUIPMENT 15-4-9 Loads and Forces 8-19-4
COMPARISON OF UNIT STRESSES IN TIMBERS IN OPEN Dead Load 8-19-4
AND BALLASTED-DECK TRESTLES 7-2-80 General 8-19-4
COMPENSATED GRADIENTS 5-3-16 Impact 8-19-4
COMPENSATED GRADIENTS Live Load 8-19-4
Proposed AREMA standards for 5-3-16 Other Loads 8-19-4
COMPLETION OF WORK 5-5-5 Materials 8-19-5
COMPLIANCE, INSPECTION AND SAMPLING Concrete 8-19-5
REQUIREMENTS 1-10-20 Reinforcing Steel 8-19-6
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Rating 8-19-2
Use 1-10-26 Computation of Stresses or Strengths 8-19-3
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-13 General 8-19-2
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-18 Inspection 8-19-3
Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-8 Load Carrying Capacity 8-19-2
System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-21 Maximum 8-19-2
COMPONENT WEAR LIMITS 17-7-4 Normal 8-19-2
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-2-35 Chuting 8-1-38
COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-17-18 Compacting 8-1-39
COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE SPANS 15-1-56 Condition of Exposure 8-1-45
COMPOSITE TIE TYPES 30-5-3 Continuous Depositing 8-1-40
COMPOSITE TIES, ENGINEERED 30-5-1 Continuous Work, Depositing 8-1-42
COMPOSITE TRUSSES 7-2-120 Cover for Bar Bundles 8-2-19
COMPRESSED AIR 6-3-8, 6-4-18 Cover for Corrosive and Marine Environments 8-2-19
Devices 15-6-46 Cover, Minimum 8-2-18
COMPRESSION Delivery 8-1-37
Allowable Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-60 Depositing 8-1-37
COMPRESSION MEMBERS 8-2-52, 15-1-46 Depositing in Sea Water 8-1-44
Limits for Reinforcement 8-2-21 Depositing, Under Water 8-1-41
Slenderness Effects in 8-2-54 Design of Reinforced 8-2-1
Strengths 8-2-52 Handling and Placing 8-1-37
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN OR CENTRALLY High Strength 8-1-52, 8-1-59
LOADED COLUMNS 7-2-60 Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive 8-1-42
COMPRESSION TESTS 8-1-35 Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-7
COMPROMISE EFB WELDS IN TRACK 4-3-45 Materials 8-17-10
COMPUTAION Methods of Depositing 8-1-42
of Stresses, Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-2-117 Minimum Cover 8-1-44, 8-1-46, 8-17-12
COMPUTATION Mixing 8-1-37
of Applied Forces 8-5-4 Mixture Proportions 8-1-53, 8-1-61
of Backfill Pressure 8-5-5 Mixtures, Strength of 8-1-33
of Deflections 8-2-34 Moderate Exposure 8-1-45
of Lateral Forces 8-28-5 Placement of 8-1-46
Acting on Bulkheads 8-20-6 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42
of Stresses Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42
or Strengths 8-19-3 Placing Cyclopean 8-1-42
COMPUTER AND TECHNICIAN’S ROOM 6-11-6 Placing Rubble 8-1-42
COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND WORD PROCESSING Prestressed 8-26-22
EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 59 16-12-22 Protecting in Sea Water 8-1-44
CONCLUSIONS Protection for Reinforcement 8-2-18
Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems 6-14-13 Pumping 8-1-38
CONCRETE 8-1-44, 8-19-5, 15-6-35 Ready-Mixed 8-1-36
Admixtures 8-1-20, 8-1-57 Reinforcement
Air Content of Air-Entrained 8-1-33 Development and Splices 8-2-23
in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water 8-1-45 Spacing 8-2-18
Bonding 8-1-40 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Bridges Sea Water 8-1-44
Rules for Rating Existing 8-19-1 Seals 8-1-44
Excessive Loading 8-19-11 Segmental Bridges 8-26-8
Action to be Taken 8-19-11 Selection of Materials 8-1-6
General 8-19-2 Severe Exposure 8-1-45
Scope 8-19-2 Site, Mixed 8-1-36

Index
CONCRETE (CONT) CONCRETE SLAB TRACKS (CONT)

Structures Continuity of Slab Track over Bridge Deck 8-27-20
and Foundations 8-i Design of 8-27-8
Inspection 8-21-1 Materials 8-27-7
Introduction 8-21-1 Modification of Existing Tunnel Concrete Invert to Slab
Repair and Rehabilitation 8-14-1 Track 8-27-20
Determination of Causes of Concrete Deterioration Transition Areas 8-27-26
8-14-3 Treatment at Slab Ends 8-27-17
Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and CONCRETE SLABTRACK
Damage 8-14-4 Direct Fixation Fastening System 8-27-14
Methods 8-14-4 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER 8-17-45
Reevaluation 8-14-5 CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS
Results 8-14-4 Casing Removal 8-24-11
Special Cases 8-14-5 Continuity of Work 8-24-12
Introduction 8-14-3 Records 8-24-12
Principal Materials Used in Repair 8-14-5 Testing 8-24-12
Epoxy Materials 8-14-6 CONCRETE TIE REPAIR 30-4-55
Fiber Reinforcement Polymers (FRP Railseat Abrasion Repair 30-4-56
Composites) 8-14-6 Shoulder Replacement or Repair 30-4-55
Non-Shrink Grouts 8-14-6 CONCRETE TIES 30-4-1
Polymers in Concrete 8-14-6 Ballast 30-4-45
Reinforcement 8-14-5 Cast-In and Post-Installed Inserts for Concrete Ties 30-4-52
Repair Methods 8-14-6 Commentary 30-4-51
Arch Lining 8-14-13 Concrete Tie Repair 30-4-53
Internal Structural Repairs 8-14-13 Electrical Properties 30-4-26
Non-Structural Crack Repair 8-14-18 Flexural Strength of Prestressed Monoblock Ties
Reinforcement Splices 8-14-21 30-4-19
Surface Repairs Using Polymer Concretes 8-14-12 Flexural Strength of Two-Block Ties 30-12-23
Surface Repairs Using Portland Cement General Considerations 30-12-4
Materials 8-14-6 Lateral Rail Restraint 30-4-26
1
Tuckpointing 8-14-12 Longitudinal Rail Restraint 30-4-26
Repair Methods for Prestressed Members 8-14-22 Material 30-4-9
Summary 8-14-24 Recommended Practices For Shipping, Handling,
Temperature 8-1-40 Application and Use 30-4-44
Ties, Resistance to Train Movement 16-2-9 Testing of Monoblock Ties 30-4-26
Tremie 8-25-9 Testing of Two-Block Ties 30-4-39
Very Severe Exposure 8-1-45 Tie Dimensions, Configuration and Weight 30-4-16
CONCRETE BRIDGES Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53 3
Rules for Rating Existing Ties for Turnouts 30-4-45
Load Combinations and Rating Formulas CONDITIONS TO REPORT 15-7-24
Loads and Forces 8-19-9 CONDITIONS REQUIRING HEADWALLS, WINGWALLS, INVERTS
CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING 8-26-42 AND APRONS AND REQUISITES THEREFORE 1-4-68
CONCRETE JOINTING 8-1-28 CONDUCTING AN INSPECTION 6-15-3
CONCRETE PILES CONDUCTORS 33-7-12, 33-7-18, 33-7-24
Cast-In-Place 8-4-11 CONDUITS AND INSERTS 8-11-6
Precast 8-4-11 CONFERENCE ROOM 6-2-9 4
CONCRETE PIT 15-8-26 CONFIGURATION(S)
CONCRETE P LACEMENT FOR C ONCRETE S LAB TRACK 8-27-10 Building 6-13-4
CONCRETE SLAB Train 6-13-3
Continuously Reinforced 8-27-9 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK 8-27-1 CONNECTIONS
Design Considerations 8-27-23 Bolted, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-79
General Considerations 8-27-6 of Components of Built-up Members 15-1-45
Loading Conditions 8-27-6 and Splices 15-1-43
Scope and Notations 8-27-3 CONNECTORS 7-2-79
Application 8-27-3 CONSIDERATIONS, OVERALL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
Definitions 8-27-5 RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-13
Special considerations 8-27-17 CONSIDERATIONS, SPECIAL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
Transition Areas 8-27-17 RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-13
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK, CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONSIDERATIONS, STRUCTURAL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
8-27-23 RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-13
CONCRETE SLAB TRACKS CONSIDERATIONS FOR PERFORMING LATERAL
Commentary 8-27-22 RESTRAINT MEASUREMENTS 2-2-5
Construction 8-27-10 CONSOLE ROOM 6-11-6
Continuity of Slab TRack over Bridge Deck 8-27-26 CONSOLIDATION 8-11-7

Index
CONSTRAINTS 12-2-13 CONSTRUCTION (CONT)

CONSTRUCTION 27-1-7 Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-8
Bridge Bearings 15-11-1 Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-26
Introduction 15-11-2 Uncased Gas 1-5-20
Bridge and Drainage Systems 12-4-44 of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir Areas 1-3-34
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2 Slurry Wall 8-25-1
Details and Methods Specifications for Tunnel Construction 1-8-3
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-12 Temporary Structures for 8-28-1
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-17 of Timber Structures 7-3-1
Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-7 Traction Power Supply for Railroad AC Electrification
Drawings 15-8-26 Systems 33-6-29
of Embankment and Roadbed 1-3-40 Installation Verification Testing 33-6-29
of Embankment Protection 1-3-41 Pre-Revenue Operation Testing 33-6-30
and Expansion Joints 8-11-5 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 33-6-29
Forms 8-1-23 System-Wide Integration Testing 33-6-30
and Maintenance Operations 16-10-1 of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
Appendix 16-10-28 Waterproofing 8-29-20
Details of Track Calculations 16-10-28 Wire Ropes 15-6-72
Ballast 16-10-12 CONSTRUCTION AND ON-SITE INSPECTION 25
Economic Section 16-10-12 CONSTRUCTION CLEARANCE 33-2-3
Ballast Depth Under Ties 16-10-12 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND METHODS 1-10-8, 1-10-14,
General 16-10-12 1-10-19, 1-10-21, 1-10-27
Methods of Unloading and Distributing 16-10-14 CONSTRUCTION FUNDAMENTALS 31
Replacement and Cleaning 16-10-14 CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATIONS, STRESSES AND
Bridges 16-10-21 STABILITY 8-26-19
General 16-10-21 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SOURCES 1-1-8
Type of Structures 16-10-21 CONSTRUCTION OF FACILITIES 14-4-64
Buildings 16-10-22 CONSTRUCTION OF OTHERS 9-1-35
General 16-10-22 CONSTRUCTION OF SUB-BALLAST SECTION 1-2-24
Methods 16-10-22 CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
Handling of Traffic 16-10-27 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
General 16-10-27 C ONSTRUCTION S PECIFICATIONS I NSTITUTE F ORMAT 6-1-6
Other Track Material 16-10-15 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES 33-4-11
Proper Use 16-10-15 CONTACT WIRE AMPACITY 33-4-21
Reclamation 16-10-18 CONTACT WIRE DEFLECTIONS 33-4-11
Rail 16-10-3 CONTACT WIRE GRADIENTS 33-4-12
Methods of Extending Rail Life 16-10-8 CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING 14-4-38
Methods of Joining and Laying 16-10-7 CONTIGENCY MINIMUM V EHICLE O PERATING V OLTAGE 33-3-2
Selection Criteria 16-10-3 CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL STRUCTURES
Rail Support 16-10-9 15-1-69
Design Analysis 16-10-9 Basic Design Assumptions 15-1-69
Performance Criteria 16-10-9 Bracing 15-1-70
Roadway 16-10-20 Camber 15-1-70
Equipment 16-10-20 Cover Plates 15-1-71
General 16-10-20 Definition 15-1-69
Methods 16-10-20 Deflection 15-1-69
Special Features 16-10-20 Impact Load 15-1-70
Track 16-10-19 Longitudinal Stiffeners 15-1-70
Equipment 16-10-19 Splices in Flexural Members 15-1-72
General 16-10-19 Uplift 15-1-70
Methods 16-10-19 CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEM 14-2-16
Tunnels 16-10-23 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT, RAIL GRINDING 4-4-92
Construction 16-10-23 CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL (CWR) 5-5-19
Introduction 16-10-23 CONTOUR BLENDING OF CORNERS 5-6-56
Maintenance 16-10-23 CONTRACT DOCUMENTS 1-1-38
Methods 1-4-71, 16-8-3 CONTRACTING AND CONTRACT MANAGEMENT 18-1-7
of a New Line of Railroad with Continuous Welded Rail CONTRACTION SCOUR 1-3-22
(CWR) 5-5-12 CONTRACTOR’S DRAWINGS 8-17-49
of New Tunnels 16-10-23 CONTRACTS
Of Conrete Slab Track 8-27-10 Forms 6-1-4
Of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments 8-7-3 CONTRACTS, EASEMENTS, AND AGREEMENTS 18-1-2
Organization of 16-8-2 CONTROL 16-9-15
Phase 8-25-3 Consoles 6-11-2
Pipelines of Deflections 8-2-65
CONTROL FUNCTIONS 16-15-16

Index
CONTROL SYSTEM - PROPULSION SYSTEM CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY 17-6-7 General 12-2-10
CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS 8-3-4, 8-5-3 Land Availability 12-2-11
CONTROLS 27-2-34 Operations Criteria 12-2-10
CORE BORINGS 8-22-9 Rail Corridor Criteria 12-2-10
in Rock 8-22-5 Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface 12-2-11
CORRIDOR EVALUATION 12-2-11, 17-2-4 Regulatory Interface 12-2-11
Central Business District Interfaces 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Route Identification 12-2-10
Community Relations 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Traffic Sources and Destinations 12-2-10
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Corridor Implementation 12-2-20
Equipment Capability Requirements 17-2-4 Capital Cost Estimating 12-2-20
General 12-2-11, 17-2-4 General 12-2-20
Joint Facility Development Opportunities 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Implementation Schedule and Plan 12-2-20
Land Availability 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating 12-2-20
Multi-Modal Interfaces 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Operations Simulation 12-2-20
Passenger Convenience 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Corridor Implementation Considerations 17-2-5
Property Value Impacts 12-2-13, 17-2-4 Data Collection 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Rolling Stock Requirements 12-2-13 Attitude Surveys 12-2-8
Safety/Security 12-2-13, 17-2-5 Demographic Data 12-2-8
Selection of Route within Corridor 12-2-11, 17-2-4 Environmental Data 12-2-9
Shared Right of Way 12-2-13, 17-2-4 General 12-2-8
Shared Trackage 12-2-13, 17-2-4 Geographic and Physical Data 12-2-10
Suitable Support and Maintenance Opportunities Population and Economic Data 12-2-11
12-2-12, 17-2-4 Transportation Demand Data 12-2-10
CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION 12-2-12, 17-2-3 Zoning Data 12-2-9
Constraints 12-2-11, 17-2-4 General Information 11-2-1, 12-2-3, 17-2-3
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Environmental 11-2-1
General 12-2-10, 17-2-3 Identification of Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5
Land Availability 12-2-11, 17-2-4 Communications Technology 12-2-16
Operations Criteria 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Electric Traction Characteristics 12-2-19
1
Rail Corridor Criteria 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Fare Collection Technology 12-2-16
Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface 12-2-11 General 12-2-13
Regulatory Interface 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Propulsion Technology 12-2-15
Route Identification 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Route Technical Constraints 12-2-17
Route Owner Interface 17-2-4 Safety and Security Technology 12-2-16
Traffic Sources and Destinations 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Signal Technology 12-2-15
CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION 12-2-25 Stations and Facilities 12-2-17
CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS 17-2-5 Track Technology 12-2-15 3
Capital Cost Estimates 17-2-6 Vehicle Technology Types 12-2-13
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Multi-modal Interfaces 17-2-5
General 17-2-5 Planning 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Implementation Schedules 17-2-6 Economic Acceptance 12-2-5
Operations and Costs Estimates 17-2-6 Environmental Acceptance 12-2-6
Operations Simulations 17-2-6 General 12-2-4
12-2-1, 17-2-1 Institutional Issues 12-2-8
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-2-1 Safety / Security 12-2-6 4
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-11, 17-2-4 Social Acceptance 12-2-6
Central Business District Interfaces 12-2-12 User Needs 12-2-4
Community Relations 12-2-12 Regional Transportation Interfaces 12-2-19
General 12-2-11 Central Business District Stations 12-2-19
CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes
Joint Facility Development Opportunities 12-2-12 12-2-22
Land Availability 12-2-12 Types of Interfaces 12-2-19
Multi-Modal Interfaces 12-2-12 Typical Station Interfaces 12-2-19
Passenger Convenience 12-2-12 CORROSION CONTROL AND PROTECTION 33-12-27
Property Value Impacts 12-2-13 CORROSION PROTECTION 8-2-19
Rolling Stock Requirements 12-2-13 CORRUGATIONS 2-1-2
Safety / Security 12-2-13 COST/OPPORTUNITIES, ENERGY AUDITS 6-5-6
Selection of Route Within Corridor 12-2-11 COSTS
Shared Right-of-Way 12-2-13 Eliminated or Reduced by Defect Detectors 16-5-13
Shared Trackage 12-2-13 Incurred from Defect Detectors, Initial and Annual
Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas 12-2-12 16-5-12
Corridor Identification 12-2-10, 17-2-3 COSTS AND BENEFITS, PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS 16-7-1
Constraints 12-2-11 Cost and Benefit Analysis 16-7-6
Costs and Benefits 16-7-6

Index
COSTS AND BENEFITS, PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS (CONT) CULVERTS (CONT)

Force Account Project Estimates 16-7-4 Backfill 1-4-72
Introduction 16-7-1 Construction Methods 1-4-71
Plans, Specifications and Special Provisions 16-7-5 End Treatment 1-4-74
Preliminary Engineering for Public Improvements 16-7-3 General 1-4-70
Project Completion and Billing 16-7-7 Handling and Unloading 1-4-71
Public Improvement Agreements 16-7-5 Multiple Installations 1-4-74
Public Improvement Project Development 16-7-2 Preparation of Foundation 1-4-71
Public Private Partnerships 16-7-2 Protection of Pipe Culver
t from Construction Loads 1-4-74
COUNTERFORT, RETAINING WALLS 8-5-11 Safety Provisions 1-4-75
COUNTERMEASURE DESIGN GUIDANCE 1-3-78 Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and
COUNTERMEASURE SELECTION 1-3-62 Aprons and Requisites Therefore 1-4-68
COUNTERWEIGHTS 15-6-14, 15-6-35, 15-6-107 Headwalls 1-4-68
COUPLERS 8-26-40 Introduction 1-4-68
COUPLING BANDS 1-4-13 Inverts and Aprons 1-4-70
Class I and Class II 1-4-22 Wingwalls 1-4-69
COUPLINGS 15-6-102 Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
COVER PLATES 15-1-71 Description 1-4-90
COVER AND SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT 8-17-45 Installation 1-4-90
COVERS 15-6-46 Measurement 1-4-90
CRACKS Payment 1-4-90
Repair, Non-Structural 8-14-18 Scope 1-4-90
CRAFT SHOPS 6-13-6 Culvert Rehabilitation 1-4-78
CRASH WALLS 11-4-2, 12-4-89, 17-4-4 General 1-4-78
CRASHWORTHINESS 17-5-11 In Place Installation of Concrete Invert 1-4-81
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE 8-26-14 Localized Repairs 1-4-79
CREOSOTE Methods of Rehabilitation 1-4-78
Primer 8-29-28 Relining Materials 1-4-79
CREW FACILITIES 6-13-5 Survey of Existing Structures 1-4-78
CRIB WALLS 8-6-1 Design Criteria for Corrugated Metal Pipes 1-4-56
Design 8-6-2 Criteria 1-4-56
General 8-6-2 Formulas 1-4-56
General 8-6-2 Loads 1-4-58
Definitions 8-6-2 Minimum and Maximum Height of Cover in Feet 1-4-60
Pipe Arches 1-4-63
Scope 8-6-2
Pipe Culvert Design 1-4-58
Specifications for Metal 8-6-5
Design Criteria for Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65
General 8-6-5
Criteria Formulas 1-4-65
Installation 8-6-5
Minimum and Maximum Height of Cover in Feet 1-4-66
Manufacture 8-6-5 Seam Strength of Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65
Specifications for Reinforced Concrete 8-6-3 Earth Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe through Fills
General 8-6-3 1-4-76
Installation 8-6-4 General 1-4-76
Manufacture 8-6-4 Precautions in Unstable Soils 1-4-77
Specifications for Timber 8-6-6 Protection of Pipe Against Percolation, Piping and
General 8-6-6 Scour 1-4-77
Installation 8-6-6 Safety 1-4-77
Materials 8-6-6 Size and Length of Pipe 1-4-76
CRIB WALLS. SEE MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
EMBANKMENT Type of Pipe Suitable for Jacking 1-4-76
CRITERIA, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR Hydraulics of Culverts 1-4-29
CONSTRUCTION 8-28-2 Design Method 1-4-29
CRITERIA FOR USE OF INCREASED ALLOWABLE STRESSES Flow Conditions 1-4-30
7-2-146 Hydraulic Computations 1-4-34
CRITERIA FORMULAS 1-4-65 Introduction 1-4-29
CROSS FRAMES AND D IAPHRAGMS FOR D ECK S PANS 15-1-61 Location and Type 1-4-6
CROSS GRINDING RAIL ENDS 5-10-10 Character of Hydraulic Traffic (Abrasive, Corrosive,
CROSS TIE DIMENSIONS 30-1-4 etc.) 1-4-6
CROSSING SURFACE MATERIAL SELECTION AND Economics of Various Types 1-4-8
INSTALLATION 5-8-11 Foundation Conditions 1-4-7
CROSSING SURFACE MATERIALS 5-8-11 Height and Character of Embankment 1-4-7
CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES 18-2-4 Loading, Live and Dead 1-4-7
CULVERTS 1-4-1, 8-21-25 Span Required 1-4-6
Assembly and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70 Topographic Conditions Determining Angle,
Alignment 1-4-71 Gradient, and Length of Structure 1-4-7
Assembly 1-4-72 Waterway Required 1-4-6

Index
CULVERTS (CONT) CURING (CONT)

Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-33, 9-2-23 Membrane 8-1-47, 8-1-58
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11
Applications 1-4-100 Steam 8-1-48
Construction Requirements 1-4-102 Wet 8-1-47
General 1-4-100 CURRENT C OLLECTION AND P RIMARY POWER S YSTEM 17-5-10
Hydraulic Design 1-4-101 CURRENT PRACTICE, WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER
Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-104 SYSTEMS 33-9-1
Materials 1-4-100 CURVED GIRDER BRIDGES 12-4-88
Operation and Maintenance 1-4-104 CURVES 5-3-1
Related Filter Materials 1-4-101 Compensated gradients 5-3-16
Safety Provisions 1-4-104 Computing Offsets on Loads 28-3-18
Structural Design 1-4-102 Elevations and Speeds for Curves 5-3-11
Rehabilitation 1-4-78 Elevation of Curves 5-3-11
Reinforced Concrete Pipe 8-10-1 Minimum Tangent Lengths Required Between Reverse
Specification for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82 Curves for Yard Operations 5-3-14
Coatings 1-4-84 No Sprial and No Superelevation 5-3-14
Design 1-4-84 With Spirals and Superelevation 5-3-15
Fabrication 1-4-83 Resistance and Radial Trucks 16-2-7
General 1-4-82 Speeds of Trains through Level Turnouts 5-3-13
Material 1-4-83 Spirals 5-3-2
Specifications for Coated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Applying the Spiral to Compound Curves 5-3-6
Arches 1-4-17 Formulas 5-3-5
Specification for Bituminous Coated Galvanized Steel Notation 5-3-4
Pipe and Pipe Arches 1-4-17 Purpose 5-3-2
Specification for Polymeric Coated Corrugated Staking Spirals by Deflections 5-3-5
Galvanized Steel Pipe or Pipe Arches 1-4-17 Staking Spirals by Offsets 5-3-6
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Aluminum The Spiral Curve 5-3-3
Alloy Plate Pipe, Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26 String Lining of Curves by the Chord Method 5-3-6
Fabrication 1-4-28 Process 5-3-7
1
General 1-4-26 Scope 5-3-6
Material 1-4-27 Tools Required 5-3-7
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe, Vertical Curves 5-3-15
Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-24 CUTS 1-1-13
Fabrication 1-4-26
General 1-4-24
Material 1-4-24
D
Specifications for Placement of Reinforced Concrete
3
Culvert Pipe 1-4-9 DAMPPROOFING 8-29-5
Specifications for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe Application 8-29-29
and Pipe-arches for Culverts and Storm Drains, and Method 8-29-29
Underdrains 1-4-10 Preparation of Surfaces 8-29-29
Coupling Bands 1-4-13 Temperature 8-29-29
Fabrication 1-4-10 Introduction 8-29-28
Field Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-16
General 1-4-10
Scope 8-29-28 4
Materials 8-29-28
Material 1-4-10 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings 8-29-29
Mill or Shop Inspection 1-4-16 Asphalt 8-29-28
Shape 1-4-14 Primer 8-29-28
Workmanship 1-4-16 Coal-Tar Pitch 8-29-28
Standard Specification for Corrugated Aluminum Alloy Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28
Pipe 1-4-17 Creosote Primer 8-29-28
Coupling Bands - Class I and Class II 1-4-22 Emulsified Asphalt Coating
Fabrication 1-4-20 Protective 8-29-28
General 1-4-17 Emulsified Asphalt Coatings 8-29-28
Material 1-4-18 Woven Cotton Fabrics 8-29-28
Shape - Class I and Class II 1-4-23 DAPPING OR SIZING TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 7-1-27
Wood, Recommended Practice for Design 7-2-121 DATA 33-1-3
CURING 8-1-48, 8-1-58, 8-17-50 DATA BASE, PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 16-9-15
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-51 DATA COLLECTION 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Attitude Surveys 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Slag 8-1-51 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-51 Demographic Data 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Hot Weather 8-1-47 Environmental Data 12-2-8, 17-2-3

Index
DATA COLLECTION (CONT) DEFINITIONS (CONT)

General 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Definitions of Rail Surface Conditions
Geographical and Physical Data 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Corrugations 2-1-2
Population and Ecomonic Data 12-2-9, 17-2-3 Discrete Anomalies 2-1-2
Transportation Demand Data 12-2-10, 17-2-3 General 2-1-2
Zoning Data 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Rail Head Profile 2-1-11
DAVIS FORMULA 16-2-4 Rail Profile Quality Index Definitions 2-1-11
DEAD LOAD 7-2-51, 7-2-118, 8-16-9, 8-19-4, 15-1-16 Rail Wear Terminology 2-1-3
For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-51 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3
DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT, PROVISION Equated Mileage Parameters 16-11-2
FOR FUTURE 8-26-38 Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2
DEAD LOADS 8-26-13 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of
DECAY 7-2-8 Roadway Machines 27-2-56
DECK 15-4-8 of Rail Surface Conditions 2-1-2
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, ECONOMICS AND Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility
LOCATION 16-5-1 Guideline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-57
Alert Train Crews or Dispatchers 16-5-9 Sizing of Footings 8-3-7
Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-9 Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2
and Terminology, Methods of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21
Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-10 of Terms 15-1-6, 15-4-2
Design Considerations for Defect Detectors 16-5-8 of Track Quality Index (TQI) 2-1-4
General Information 16-5-8 Types of Audit 6-5-6
Rail Mounted Detector Equipment 16-5-9 DEFLECTION 15-1-12, 15-9-8, 8-17-17
Design Criteria Cross Reference 16-5-9 Computation of 8-2-34
Economics of Detectors 16-5-11 Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-69
Costs Eliminated or Reduced 16-5-13 Control of 8-2-65
General 16-5-11 Permanent Set 7-2-10
Initial and Annual Costs Incurred 16-5-12 DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC 8-2-28
Integration of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-11 DEGREE OF CONTROL, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-4
Introduction 16-5-2 DELIVERY 5-6-15, 27-2-39
Location of Defect Detectors 16-5-5 of Materials 15-4-3
General Criteria 16-5-5 Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-28
Rolling Stock Detectors Site Considerations 16-5-6 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-6
Wayside Condition Detectors Site Considerations 16-5-7 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 12-2-8, 17-2-3
References in 2002 AREMA Communications & Signals DENSITY 7-2-7
Manual of Recommended Practice, Volume 2, Part 5
DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTING 16-12-23
Defect Detection Systems 16-5-14 DEPRECIATION GROUPINGS 16-14-2
Summary 16-5-14 Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) 16-14-3
Types of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2 Class Life Asset Depreciation Range System (ADR) 16-14-3
Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-2 Class Life System 16-14-3
Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-4 Guideline Depreciation 16-14-3
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, INTEGRATION OF 16-5-11 Original 1942 Submission 16-14-2
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, LOCATION OF 16-5-5 Section 94 (Technical Correction as of 1956) 16-14-2
DEFECT DETECTORS, DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR 16-5-8 Tax Reform Act of 1986 16-14-4
DEFECT DETECTORS, TYPES OF 16-5-2 DEPRESSED FLOORS 6-4-14
DEFECT FOUND AFTER DELIVERY 4-3-31 DEPTH
DEFECTIVE MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 of Base of Footings 8-3-7
DEFECTS of Borings 8-22-4
Found After Delivery 4-3-31 of Embedment 8-20-11
DEFINITION, CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL DEPTH OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CATENARY 33-2-9
STRUCTURES 15-1-69
DESCRIPTION
DEFINITION OF VERTICAL TRACK STIFFNESS 30-1-12 Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad
DEFINITIONS 15-9-32, 33-3-2, 2-1-1 Use 1-10-24
Compilation of Various Track Geometry Parameters and
Related Elements, Used When Describing Track Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates
Geometry 2-1-12 1-4-90
General 2-1-12 Generic Track Geometry Measuring Vehicle 2-2-2
The Horizontal Track Geometry 2-1-12 Substructure Introduction 1-2-4
The Longitudinal Vertical Track Geometry 2-1-14 DESIGN 1-1-12, 1-2-5, 1-2-20, 1-4-84, 5-6-14, 5-7-2,
The Track Geometry in the Track Plane 2-1-16 15-1-1, 15-10-1, 33-7-12, 33-7-18, 33-7-24
Related Terminology 2-1-16 Analysis, Rail Support 16-10-9
The Track Geometry in the Transverse Vertical Plane Anchor Bolts and Rods 15-10-12
2-1-15 of Anchored Bulkheads 8-20-11
Measurements 2-1-15 of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls 8-28-6
Concrete Slab Track 8-27-5 of Anchored Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls 8-28-8
Definition of Track Quality Index (TQI) 2-1-12
Track Quality Index 2-1-12

Index
DESIGN (CONT) DESIGN (CONT)

and Construction, Details of, Retaining Walls and General 6-9-9
Abutments 8-5-8 Machine Maintenance Area 6-9-4
Appendix 15-1-68 General 6-9-5
Reactions 15-1-68 Machines Area
Supplemental Formulas 15-1-70 Large 6-9-4
Assumptions 8-17-18 Medium 6-9-4
of Backfill 8-5-7 Small 6-9-4
Basic Allowable Stresses 15-1-36 Other Workshop Areas 6-9-5
Cast Steel 15-1-40 Carpentry Shop 6-9-6
Masonry 15-1-40 Electrical Machine Repair Area 6-9-7
Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins 15-1-36 Electronic Equipment Room 6-9-8
Timber Bridge Ties 15-1-40 Engine Rebuild Area 6-9-6
Weld Metal 15-1-39 General 6-9-5
Bearing Selection Criteria 15-10-6 Hydraulic Repair 6-9-7
of Braced Excavations 8-28-10 Machine Shop 6-9-7
Bracing 15-1-66 Motor Car Repair 6-9-6
Bracing Members Used As Ties or Struts Only Paint Shop 6-9-5
15-1-68 Shop Equipment Repair and Maintenance 6-9-6
Bracing of Top Flanges of Through Girders 15-1-66 Steel Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop 6-9-8
Bracing of Viaduct Towers and Bents 15-1-68 Test Bay 6-9-8
Cross Frames and Diaphragms for Deck Spans 15-1-67 Wash Bay 6-9-8
Lateral Bracing 15-1-66 Support Areas 6-9-9
Portal and Sway Bracing 15-1-67 First Aid Room 6-9-11
Bronze or Copper-Alloy Plates 15-10-8 Flammable Storage 6-9-11
Cantilever Poles 8-12-3 Lunch and Locker Rooms 6-9-10
of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls 8-28-5 Materials Management Area 6-9-10
of Cantilever Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls 8-28-7 Office 6-9-9
Cast Steel 15-10-7 Special Requirements 6-9-9
Central Guide Keys and Guide Bars 15-10-13 Toilet Facilities 6-9-10
1
of Cofferdams 8-28-10 Tool Room 6-9-10
Considerations Typical Facility Arrangements 6-9-11
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Criteria for Corrugated Metal Pipes 1-4-56
Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-3 Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-1
Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-69 Equipment 6-11-2
Basic Design Assumptions 15-1-69 Auxiliary Functions 6-11-3
Bracing 15-1-70 Control Consoles 6-11-2
Camber 15-1-70 Overview Displays 6-11-3 3
Cover Plates 15-1-71 Functional Requirements 6-11-4
Definition 15-1-69 Dispatcher Location 6-11-4
Deflection 15-1-69 Locker Facilities 6-11-4
Impact Load 15-1-70 Lunch Room 6-11-4
Longitudinal Stiffeners 15-1-70 Relay Racks and Computer Equipment 6-11-4
Splices in Flexural Members 15-1-72 Service Spaces 6-11-4
Uplift 15-1-70 Smoking Area 6-11-4
of Crib Walls 8-6-2 Supervisory Offices 6-11-4 4
Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-1 Room Finishes 6-11-6
Introduction 6-12-2 Computer and Technician’s Room 6-11-6
Location 6-12-2 Console Room 6-11-6
Operations 6-12-2 Offices 6-11-6
Scope and Purpose 6-12-2 UPS and Battery Room 6-11-6
Washing Facility 6-12-3 Site Considerations 6-11-2
Drip/Clean-up Area 6-12-5 Support Systems 6-11-4
Service Equipment (Support Area) 6-12-6 Communications 6-11-5
Typical Facility Arrangement 6-12-3 Fire Protection 6-11-5
Washer Building 6-12-5 HVAC Systems 6-11-5
Washing System 6-12-3 Lighting 6-11-4
Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Uninterruptible Power Supply 6-11-5
Repair Shops 6-9-1 Wiring Spaces 6-11-5
Introduction 6-9-2 Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-1
Design Considerations 6-9-3 Building Arrangement 6-4-13
Location 6-9-3 General 6-4-13
Organization 6-9-3 Building Superstructure Details 6-4-19
Scope and Purpose 6-9-2 Floors 6-4-19
Machine and Material Handling 6-9-9

Index

Track Doors 6-4-19 General Construction Materials 6-10-3
Walls and Roof 6-4-19 Mechanical and Electrical Facilities and
Communications 6-4-22 Equipment 6-10-4
General 6-4-22 Types 6-10-2
Systems 6-4-22 General 6-10-2
Electric Lighting and Power Supply 6-4-21 Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities 6-7-1
General 6-4-21 Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-1
Equipment and Related Facilities 6-4-14 Electrical Equipment 6-2-16
Depressed Floors 6-4-14 Electrical Considerations 6-2-16
Drop Tables 6-4-15 Lighting 6-2-16
Elevated Platforms 6-4-14 Finish Materials 6-2-12
Jacking Operation 6-4-15 Colors 6-2-13
Locker and Toilet Facilities 6-4-16 Exterior Materials 6-2-12
Locomotive Progression Systems 6-4-15 Floor Coverings and Finishes 6-2-12
Material Handling Platform 6-4-16 Furniture 6-2-14
Office 6-4-16 Sound Control 6-2-14
Pits 6-4-14 Wall and Ceiling Finishes 6-2-12
Store Room 6-4-16 Fire and Life Safety 6-2-17
Truck Repairs and Overhaul 6-4-16 Fire Protection 6-2-17
of Falsework Systems 8-28-14 Life Safety 6-2-17
Fire Protection 6-4-23 Functional Requirements 6-2-4
Foreword 6-4-3 Employee Circulation Considerations 6-2-5
Classification 6-4-3 General Considerations 6-2-4
Definition 6-4-3 Special Equipment Considerations 6-2-5
Scope 6-4-3 Work Sequence Considerations 6-2-4
Heating and Ventilating 6-4-20 Mechanical Considerations 6-2-15
General 6-4-20 Elevators 6-2-16
Heating 6-4-21 Energy Efficiency 6-2-16
Ventilating 6-4-20 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 6-2-15
Pollution 6-4-22 Plumbing 6-2-16
Air 6-4-22 Site Considerations 6-2-3
Noise 6-4-22 Code Requirements 6-2-3
Water 6-4-22 Expansion 6-2-3
Service Facilities 6-4-17 Landscaping 6-2-3
Compressed Air 6-4-18 Location 6-2-3
Electrical Cleaning Solvent 6-4-19 Parking 6-2-3
General Washing System 6-4-18 Spacial Requirements 6-2-6
Locomotive Devicing 6-4-19 Conference Room 6-2-9
Locomotive Toilet Servicing 6-4-19 File Space 6-2-7
Locomotive Washing 6-4-18 General Considerations 6-2-6
Lubricating Oil Office Space 6-2-7
Drainage 6-4-17 Space Required for Aisles 6-2-8
Supply 6-4-17 Special Room Allowance 6-2-8
Oxygen/Natural Gas/Propane Systems 6-4-19 Storage Spaces 6-2-8
Radiator Water Reclaim System 6-4-18 Structural Requirements 6-2-10
Used Oil Filters 6-4-17 Floor Systems 6-2-10
Water Supply Systems (Raw and Treated) 6-4-18 Framing Systems 6-2-10
Site Consideration 6-4-13 Partitions 6-2-11
Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-1 Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-1
Introduction 6-16-2 Electrical Systems 6-8-18
Services Provided 6-16-4 Communications Support 6-8-20
Site 6-16-2 Lighting 6-8-18
Types of Main Line Fueling Activities 6-16-3 Power 6-8-19
Criteria for Observation Towers 6-10-1 Train Information Systems 6-8-19
Introduction 6-10-2 Functional Requirements 6-8-7
Site Considerations 6-10-2 Combination Freight and Passenger Stations
Special Features 6-10-5 6-8-14
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 6-10-5 Commuter Stations 6-8-12
Tower Furnishings 6-10-6 General Considerations 6-8-7
Tower Roof Overhang 6-10-5 Intercity Passenger Stations 6-8-7
Tower Size 6-10-5 Intermodal Stations 6-8-14
Towers 6-10-6 Introduction 6-8-3
Tower Construction 6-10-3 General 6-8-3
Types of Stations 6-8-3

Index

Mechanical Systems 6-8-17 Fracture Control Plan for Fracture Critical Members
Escalators/Elevators 6-8-19 Fatigue 15-1-67
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 6-8-17 General Features, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-11
Plumbing 6-8-17 General Requirements 15-1-7, 15-10-5
Site 6-8-4 Camber 15-1-14
Development 6-8-4 Clearances 15-1-12
Selection 6-8-4 Deflection 15-1-11
Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-1 Dimensions for Calculations of Stresses 15-1-13
Building Codes 6-3-4 Materials 15-1-7
General 6-3-4 Nameplates 15-1-14
Environment Control 6-3-11 Open Deck Bridge Ties 15-1-14
Finish 6-3-8 Provision for Expansion 15-1-14
Exterior 6-3-8 Skew Bridges 15-1-14
Interior 6-3-8 Spacing of Trusses, Girders, and Stringers 15-1-11
General 6-3-3 Steel Inner Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 15-1-14
Advantages 6-3-3 Types of Bridges 15-1-11
Mechanical 6-3-9 Welding 15-1-10
Bins 6-3-11 General Rules 15-1-42
Car Moving Equipment 6-3-11 Accessibility of Parts 15-1-42
Hoists 6-3-10 Combinations of Dissimilar Types of Connections
Hose Reels 6-3-10 15-1-44
Jacking Systems and Related Equipment 6-3-9 Connections and Splices 15-1-43
Jib Cranes 6-3-10 Connections of Components of Built-Up Members 15-1-45
Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment 6-3-7 Development of Fillers 15-1-44
Compressed Air 6-3-8 Drainage of Pockets 15-1-42
Gutters and Downspouts 6-3-8 Eccentric Connections 15-1-43
Heating 6-3-7 Effective Bearing Area of Rivets and Pins 15-1-42
Lighting and Power 6-3-8 Effective Diameter of Fasteners 15-1-42
Separation, Recovery or Disposal of Oil 6-3-8 Field Connections 15-1-44
1
Sewers 6-3-8 Net Section 15-1-43
Ventilation 6-3-8 Sealing 15-1-45
Miscellaneous Considerations 6-3-9 Slenderness Ratio 15-1-42
Doors 6-3-9 Thickness of Material 15-1-42
Firewalls 6-3-9 Welded Closed Box Members 15-1-45
Walls 6-3-9 of the General Zone 8-17-35
Windows and Skylights 6-3-9 Inclined Bearings 15-10-12
Site Considerations 6-3-3 Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-2 3
Landscaping 6-3-4 Load, Forces and Stresses 15-1-16
Location 6-3-3 Dead Load 15-1-16
Parking 6-3-3 Distribution of Live Load 15-1-17
Trackage 6-3-4 Bracing Between Compression Members 15-1-24
Space Requirements 6-3-5 Centrifugal Load 15-1-22
Heavy Repairs 6-3-7 Combined Stresses 15-1-35
Size 6-3-5 Earthquake Loads 15-1-36
Special Areas 6-3-6 Fatigue 15-1-24 4
Structural Requirements 6-3-5 Impact Load 15-1-20
Building Types 6-3-5 Lateral Loads from Equipment 15-1-23
Floors 6-3-5 Longitudinal Load 15-1-24
Roofs 6-3-5 Proportioning of Truss Web Members 15-1-36
Structural Systems 6-3-5 Secondary Stresses 15-1-36
Summary 6-3-12 Stability Check 15-1-22
Criteria for Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65 Wind Load on Loaded Bridge 15-1-23
of Track Cut Spike 5-2-5 Wind Load on Unloaded Bridge 15-1-23
Definition of Terms 15-10-3 Live Load 15-1-17
Direct Fixation 12-4-98 Loads and Forces 15-1-16
Elastomeric Bearings 15-10-8 Loads
Expansion Bearings 15-10-6 of the Local Zone 8-17-43
Fixed Bearings 15-10-6 Concrete 8-2-11
Floor Members and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-56 Masonry 15-10-8
End Connections of Floor Members 15-1-57 Materials 15-10-9
End Floorbeams 15-1-56 Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or
Floorbeams and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-57 Compression 15-1-46
Forms 8-1-21 Compression Members 15-1-46

Index

Effective Area for Tension Members - Fatigue of Rail 4-1-1
15-1-50, 15-9-29 Recommended Rail Sections 4-1-1
Effective Net Area for Tension Members - Strength Reinforced Concrete 8-2-1
15-1-48, 15-9-29 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-4
Lacing and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-1-57
Compression Members 15-1-48 Edge Distance of Fasteners 15-1-58
Outstanding Elements in Compression 15-1-47 Fasteners in Indirect Splices 15-1-59
Stay Plates 15-1-47 Grip of Rivets 15-1-57
Members Stressed Primarily in Bending 15-1-50 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners 15-1-58
Composite Steel and Concrete Spans 15-1-56 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners 15-1-57
Flange Sections 15-1-51 Sizes of Fasteners in Angles 15-1-58
Flange Splices 15-1-53 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Flange-To-Web Connection of Plate Girders 15-1-52 Rocker Plates, Rockers and Rollers 15-10-10
Proportioning Girders and Beams 15-1-50 Scope 15-10-8
Rigid Frame Structures 15-1-60 Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97
Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 15-1-53 Shoes and Pedestals 15-10-10
Thickness of Web Plates 15-1-51 of Shoring Systems 8-28-5
Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and Sole, Base and Masonry Plates 15-10-11
Longitudinal) 15-1-54 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-26
Web Splices 15-1-53 Specifications for Tunnel Construction 1-8-2
Method Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-5
Culverts 1-4-29 of Tie Plates for Use with Area Rail Sections 5-1-7
Methods Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53
Reinforced Concrete 8-2-5 Timber 15-10-8
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-9-56, 15-10-30 Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-55
Of Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-8 Welded Construction 15-1-59
Of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments 8-7-2 Fillet Welds 15-1-60
Special Considerations 8-7-2 Fracture Critical Members 15-1-60
Of Waterfront Facilities 14-4-5 Material Weldability 15-1-60
Pile Foundations 8-4-2 Prohibited Types of Joints and Welds 15-1-59
Pins and Pin-Connected Members 15-1-62 Transition of Thickness or Widths in Welded Butt
Forked Ends of Compression Members 15-1-63 Joints 15-1-59
Pins 15-1-62 Welded Attachments 15-1-60
Reinforcing Pates at Pin Holes 15-1-62 of Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-1
Section at Pin Holes 15-1-62 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9
Proposals and Drawings 15-1-6 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
Definition of Terms 15-1-6 BOX CULVERTS 8-16-1
Design of Public Works Projects 15-1-7 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
Drawings to Govern 15-1-7 BOX CULVERTS METRIC
Notice to Engineer 15-1-7 Backfill 8-16-14
Patented Devices 15-1-7 Backfill and Bedding Materials 8-16-5
Permits 15-1-7 Barrel and Apron 8-16-12
Proposals 15-1-6 Concrete 8-16-5
Shop Drawings 15-1-6 Dead Load 8-16-7
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14 Definition 8-16-2
of Public Works Projects 7-2-5, 15-1-7 Design Considerations 8-16-6
Qualification Specifications for Elastic Fasteners on Design to Accomodate Flow 8-16-6
Timber Cross Ties 5-9-1 Drainage and Waterproofing 8-16-14
General Requirements 5-9-3 Existing Embankment Materials 8-16-4
Fastener Profile 5-9-3 Existing Foundation Materials 8-16-4
Minimum Acceptance 5-9-3 General 8-16-7
Qualification Test Facility 5-9-3 Impact Load 8-16-12
Submittals 5-9-3 Longitudinal Reinforcement 8-16-14
Introduction 5-9-2 Miscellaneous Materials 8-16-6
Terms 5-9-2 Miscellaneous Metal 8-16-5
Laboratory Qualifying Tests 5-9-3 Other Forces 8-16-12
Longitudinal Rail Restraint 5-9-5 Reinforcement 8-16-5
Repeated Load Test 5-9-6 Scope 8-16-3
Rotational Restraint 5-9-8 Structural Design 8-16-6
Sampling 5-9-3 Units 8-16-2
Test Configuration 5-9-3 Wingwalls 8-16-12
Test Sequence 5-9-4 DESIGN AND REVIEW RESPONSIBILITIES 15-9-32
Uplift Test 5-9-4

Index
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 16-1-8 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9

Balanced Profiles 16-1-11 Design Considerations 8-5-9
Communications Facilities 16-1-13 Design Philosophy and Concepts 8-5-9
Communications Facilities Required 16-1-9 Design Procedure 8-5-9
Compensation for Curvature 16-1-11 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS 7-2-55
Customer Service 16-1-9 Design Equations 7-2-62
Environmental, and Public Policy Concerns 16-1-13 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-55
For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-23 DETAILED GEOTECHNICAL EXPLORATION IN ROCK 1-1-6
For Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-8 DETAILED GEOTECHNICAL EXPLORATION IN SOIL 1-1-4
For Defect Detectors 16-5-8 DETAILING PROVISIONS, SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY
Grade Through Tunnels 16-1-11 STRUCTURES 9-1-25
Helper Districts 16-1-10 DETAILS OF DESIGN 8-16-12
Initial Construction 16-1-8 Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-79
Momentum Grades and Locomotive Short-Time Ratings DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR
16-1-11 ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS 8-5-11
Motive Power 16-1-9 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE
Passing Sidings 16-1-12 PIERS 8-5-12
Ruling Grades 16-1-10 DETAILS OF INSPECTION, TIMBER TRESTLE RAILWAY
Signal Design Concerns 16-1-12 BRIDGES 7-3-13
Terminal/System Operators 16-1-9 DETAILS OF PRESTRESSING TENDONS AND DUCTS
Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-76 8-17-12
Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-3 DETAILS OF TRACK CALCULATIONS 16-10-28
DESIGN CRITERIA 33-3-3 DETAILS, CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT 8-2-17
Cross Reference, Defect Detector Systems 16-5-9 DETECTOR EQUIPMENT, RAIL MOUNTED 16-5-9
Railway Buildings 6-1-13 DETECTORS
Electrical 6-1-14 Economics of 16-5-11
Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning 6-1-14 Rolling Stock 16-5-4
Materials 6-1-13 Wayside Condition 16-5-4
Overall Considerations 6-1-13 DETERMINATION
Special Considerations 6-1-13 of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration 8-14-3
1
Structural Considerations 6-1-13 of Groundwater Level 8-22-6
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS of Wave Heights 1-3-34
Mechanical Considerations DETERMINING REHABILITATION NEEDS 16
Elevators 6-2-16 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Energy Efficiency 6-2-16 Bundled Bars 8-2-26
Plumbing 6-2-16 Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-26
Spacial Requirements 6-2-6 Deformed Bars in Tension 8-2-25
DESIGN EQUATIONS, ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS 7-2-62 Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-25 3
DESIGN FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERTED, DEVELOPMENT OF FILLERS 15-1-44
WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-2 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND 8-17-14
DESIGN FEATURES DEVELOPMENT OF THE SITE, RAILWAY PASSENGER
Of Direct Fixation Fastening System 8-27-16 STATIONS 6-8-4
DESIGN-GENERAL DEVIATION SADDLES 8-26-37
Design, Construction or Reconstruction of DIAGRAMS
Highway/Railway At-Grade Crossings 5-8-3 Clearance, Fixed Obstructions 28-1-1
DESIGN LOADS 8-16-7, 8-17-4 Equipment 28-2-1 4
Falsework Systems 8-28-15 DIAMETER 27-1-6
DESIGN METHODS 8-16-6 DIAPHRAGMS 8-17-17
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS DESIGN DIAPHRAGMS, DEEP BEAMS, CORBELS AND BRACKETS,
CONSIDERATIONS, TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS 8-26-32
DESIGN PROCEDURE, TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9 DIESEL LOCOMOTIVES 16-2-19, 16-3-11
DESIGN STRESSES, LOADINGS, AND DEFLECTIONS, DIMENSIONAL REQUIREMENTS, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE
FALSEWORK SYSTEMS 8-28-17 TIES 30-5-4
DESIGN OF WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE, BONDED INSULATION RAIL
Loads, Forces and Stresses 7-2-51 JOINTS 4-3-34
DESIGN OF WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES FOR DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
RAILWAY LOADING for Structural Members 15-3-4
Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber DIMENSIONS
7-2-60 for Calculations of Stresses 15-1-13
Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) Rail Anchors 5-7-3
7-2-55 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
DESIGN THEORY AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS DIRECT FIXATION 12-4-98
8-17-18 Design 12-4-98
DESIGN VALUES FOR GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER Introduction 12-4-98
(GLULAM) 7-2-55

Index
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM 8-27-14 DRIVEN PILES 8-4-14

Design Features 8-27-16 DRIVING
Laboratory Testing of Fasteners 8-27-17 Piles 7-3-4
DIRECT TRUCK LOADING 6-16-3 Timber 7-3-6, 7-3-7
DISC BEARINGS 15-10-32 DROP TABLES 6-4-15
DISCRETE ANOMALIES 2-1-2 DRY SAMPLE BORINGS 8-22-5, 8-22-8
DISCUSSION 33-5-3 DRY SAMPLES 8-22-6
DISPATCHER LOCATION 6-11-4 DRYERS, SAND FACILITY 6-6-8
DISTANCE BETWEEN RAIL WEAR MEASUREMENTS 2-2-39 DUCT
DISTRIBUTION Area 8-26-38
of Flexural Reinforcement 8-2-64 Confinement Reinforcement 8-26-40
of Live Load 15-1-17 Minimum Radius of Curvature 8-26-38
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 33-4-5 Size, Clearance and Detailing 8-26-39
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE Supports 8-26-39
STUDY 33-6-18 DUCT DETAILS 8-26-38
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM TYPE 33-12-10 DUCTILITY LIMITS 8-17-28
DIVISION OF SUBJECT 15-7-3 DUCTS, POST-TENSIONING 8-17-13
DOCUMENTATION , O THER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-10 DURATION OF LOAD 7-2-8
DOORS 6-3-9 DYNAMIC BRAKING 16-3-13
Track 6-4-19 DYNAMIC LOADING 16-10-9
DRAIN HOLES 15-6-46 DYNAMOMETER OR TEST CARS, FIELD TESTING 16-2-19
DRAINAGE 1-1-25, 5-8-9, 8-3-14, 8-5-7, 8-16-14, 8-20-3,
8-27-9, 11-3-6, 12-3-10, 17-3-4, 18-2-2
Basin Data 1-3-3
Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9
During Placing of Concrete 8-11-7 E
and Erosion Control 1-1-62
Information Required 8-28-4
of Pockets 15-1-42 EARTH
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9 Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe through Fills 1-4-76
DRAINS 8-11-6 EARTHQUAKE
DRAWINGS 33-7-11, 33-7-17, 33-7-21 Forces 15-1-33
Information on 8-3-15 ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS 15-1-43
DRIFT OR TRAFFIC PINS 15-4-5 ECCENTRICITY
DRILLED SHAFT 8-24-4 of Loads 8-4-3
DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATIONS 8-24-1 ECONOMIC ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Bells or Underreams 8-24-10 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, RAILWAY LOCATION 16-1-2
Casing 8-24-10 ECONOMICS
Concrete 8-24-9 of Detectors 16-5-11
Connection between Supported Structure and Drilled Energy Conservation and Audits 6-5-4
Shaft 8-24-7 of Plant, Equipment and Operations 16-i
Construction 8-24-9 of Various Types of Culverts 1-4-8
Contractor Qualifications 8-24-9 ECONOMY, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2
Design 8-24-5 EDGE DISTANCE OF FASTENERS 15-1-58
Design Loads 8-24-3 EFFECTIVE BEARING AREA OF RIVETS AND PINS 15-1-42
Dewatering 8-24-10 EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF FASTENERS 15-1-42
Field Survey 8-24-5 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH 8-17-16
General 8-24-2, 8-24-5 EFFECTIVENESS AND APPLICATIONS
Group Action of Drilled Shafts 8-24-7 Specifications for Snow Fences 1-6-24
Information Required 8-24-5 EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES 17-7-3
Inspection 8-24-11 EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATION AND CUSTOMERS
Material 8-24-9 17-7-3
Placing Concrete 8-24-11 ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS 8-17-40
Placing Steel 8-24-11 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS 15-10-17, 15-11-12
Purpose and Necessity 8-24-2 Certification 15-11-16
Reinforcing Steel 8-24-9 Design 15-10-18
Scope 8-24-2 External Steel Load Plates 15-11-13
Shaft Excavation 8-24-9 Installation 15-11-16
Sockets 8-24-10 Marking 15-11-14
Steel Casing Material 8-24-9 Materials 15-10-18, 15-11-12
Subsurface Investigation 8-24-5 Scope 15-10-17
Tolerances 8-24-10 Test Criteria 15-11-15
DRILLING 4-2-19 Tolerances 15-11-13
DRIP/CLEAN-UP AREA 6-12-5 ELASTOMERIC BRIDGE BEARINGS
Acceptance Criteria 15-11-14

Index
ELECTRIC BRAKING 16-3-9 ELEVATING TANKS

ELECTRIC LAMP CHARACTERISTICS 33-10-19 Sand Facility 6-6-9
ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER SUPPLY ELEVATION OF CURVES 5-3-11
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-21 ELEVATIONS AND SPEEDS FOR CURVES 5-3-11
ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 16-2-16, 16-3-4 ELEVATORS 6-2-16
ELECTRIC TRACTION 33-5-3 EMBANKMENT 1-3-60
ELECTRIC TRACTION CHARACTERISTICS 12-2-19 EMBANKMENT. SEE MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
ELECTRIC TRACTION POWER 17-6-16 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED TENDON 8-17-49
ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-3 EMERGENCY INSPECTIONS 15-7-24
ELECTRICAL 6-1-14 EMERGENCY OPERATION 15-6-15
Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-8 EMPLOYEE CIRCULATION CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS CABINETS 27-2-43 CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-5
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 33-8-2 EMPTY GONDOLA, HOPPER AND FLAT CARS 16-2-10
E LECTRICAL C HARACTERISTICS OF R UNNING RAIL 33-12-22 END BEARINGS
ELECTRICAL CLEANING SOLVENT 6-4-19 Piles 8-4-5
ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES (AIR CLEARANCES) 33-2-3 Splices 8-2-32
ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS, ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT END CONNECTIONS
6-2-16 of Floor Members 15-1-57
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 33-1-3 END FLOORBEAMS 15-1-56
ELECTRICAL EFFECTS 33-5-3 END LIFTING DEVICES FOR SWING SPANS 15-6-108
ELECTRICAL ENERGY UTILIZATION 33-i END SPLITTING CONTROL DEVICES
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 6-2-16 For Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-30
ELECTRICAL MACHINE REPAIR AREA 6-9-7 END TIES 15-6-18
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, CONCTRETE TIES 30-4-26 END TREATMENT 1-4-74
ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS, PASSENGER RAIL ENERGY CONSERVATION AND AUDITS 6-5-1
(COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings
SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-11 and Shop Facilities 6-5-5
ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION TYPE 33-12-9 Boiler Optimization 6-5-5
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 27-2-31 Microcomputer Applications 6-5-5
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 14-6-13, 27-2-43 Optimizing Electrical Demand 6-5-5
1
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-18 Small Scale Cogenerational Systems 6-5-5
ELECTRIFICATION FEEDING AND SECTIONALIZING Utility Monitoring and Reporting Operations 6-5-5
ARRANGEMENTS 33-4-16 Appendix A 6-5-14
ELECTRIFICATION PARAMETERS 33-12-5 Appendix B 6-5-15
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS Audit Survey Instrumentation 6-5-8
33-12-7 Boiler Test Kit 6-5-10
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM LOAD 33-6-3 Measuring Electrical Systems 6-5-8
General 33-6-3 Measuring Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
3
Traction Power Demand 33-6-3 (HVAC) 6-5-10
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM SELECTION 33-6-15 Measuring Railway Building and Facility Shop Losses 6-5-8
Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System Design Portable Electronic Thermometer 6-5-9
33-6-17 Psychrometer 6-5-9
Electrification Voltage 33-6-16 Scope 6-5-8
Electromagnetic Interference 33-6-16 Surface Pyrometer 6-5-9
Substation Spacing 33-6-16 Temperature Measuring Systems 6-5-9
System Configuration 33-6-15 Elements of Energy Conservation Program 6-5-3 4
Utility Power Availability 33-6-16 General 6-5-3
Voltage Rise Along the Return System 33-6-17 Foreword 6-5-2
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS AND POWER SUPPLY 33-12-1 Introduction 6-5-2
ELECTRIFICATION VOLTAGE 33-6-16 Justification of Program 6-5-12
ELECTRIFICATION, OVERHEAD, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS Life-cycle Costing 6-5-12
28-1-8 Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program 6-5-7
ELECTRODES 5-5-26 Auditor Qualifications 6-5-7
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE 33-6-16 Record Collection 6-5-7
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND COMPATIBILITY Strategies and Economics 6-5-4
33-12-28 Economics 6-5-4
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT ROOM 6-9-8 Strategy 6-5-4
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE DESIGN, INDUSTRIAL & Types of Audits 6-5-6
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-5 Categories 6-5-6
ELEMENTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM 6-5-3 Cost/Opportunities 6-5-6
ELEVATED CONSTRUCTION 33-12-28 Definition 6-5-6
ELEVATED PLATFORMS 6-4-14 ENERGY DISSIPATION 8-23-21
ELEVATED STRUCTURES, ACCOUNT 7 16-12-7 ENERGY EFFICIENCY 6-2-16
ELEVATING PIPE ENGINE 27-2-5
Sand Facility 6-6-9

Index
ENGINE AND POWER TRAIN 27-2-26 ERECTION (CONT)

ENGINE REBUILD AREA 6-9-6 Company Equipment 15-4-9
ENGINE SHOPS 12-4-31, 17-4-4 Deck 15-4-8
ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-1 Delivery of Materials 15-4-3
ENGINEERED POLYMER COMPOSITE (EPC) TIES 30-5-7 Drawings or Special Provisions to Govern 15-4-3
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCT (EWP) TIES 30-5-9 Drift or Traffic Pins 15-4-5
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS, DESIGNING FOR 7-2-55 Erection Procedure 15-4-4
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 7-1-4 Establishment of Lines and Elevations 15-4-4
ENGINEERING ANALYSIS (TRENDS, DERAILMENT Substructure Constructed by Company 15-4-4
ANALYSIS, ETC.) 2-3-12 Substructure Constructed by Contractor 15-4-4
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS 4-3-32, 4-3-38 Falsework 15-4-5
ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE 14-4-54 Field Assembly of Members 15-4-6
ENVIRONMENTAL 11-3-6, 12-3-11 Field Cleaning and Painting 15-4-8
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Field Connections Using Pins 15-4-7
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3 Field Inspection 15-4-7
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 11-3-4, 12-3-6, Field Welding 15-4-7
15-8-35, 17-3-3, 33-6-22 Fitting-Up of Field Connections 15-4-6
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT Handling and Storing Materials 15-4-4
CAR REPAIR SHOPS 6-3-11 High Strength Bolted Field Connections 15-4-7
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA 12-2-9, 17-2-3 Interference with Traffic 15-4-9
ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AND RECORDS 18-1-6 Laws and Permits 15-4-10
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING Misfits 15-4-7
For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-5 Patents 15-4-10
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 6-16-8 Plans 15-4-3
E NVIRONMENTAL P ROVISIONS , YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-3 Steel Structure Fabricated by Contractor 15-4-3
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 12-4-29, 17-4-4 Steel Structure Supplied by Company 15-4-3
ENVIRONMENTAL, RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND Plant 15-4-3
CONSIDERATIONS 17-3-4 Reinforcement of Members 15-4-5
EPDM (ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENE-MONOMERS) 8-29-14 Removal of Old Structure and Falsework, and
EPOXY 8-14-6
Cleanup 15-4-8
EQUALIZERS 15-6-46
Risk 15-4-9
EQUATED MILEAGE PARAMETERS 16-11-1
Riveted Field Connections 15-4-6
Examples 16-11-5
Work Train Service 15-4-9
Introduction 16-11-2
Introduction
Definition 16-11-2
Definitions of Terms 15-4-2
Purpose 16-11-2
General 15-4-2
Tables 16-11-3
Work to Be Done 15-4-3
Track Component, Track Geometry and Traffic
of Machinery 15-6-105
Loading 16-11-3
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-21
Track Type and Track Components 16-11-3
Procedure 15-4-4
Traffic Loading 16-11-3
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9
EQUIPMENT 27-1-19
Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-18
Concrete 8-1-7
of Trunnion Bearings and Counterweight Sheave
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-2
Bearings 15-6-106
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-14
of Wire Ropes 15-6-107
Diagrams 28-2-1
ERECTION LOADS 8-26-13
General 28-2-2
Reinforcement Details 8-26-42
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-4
ESCALATORS/ELEVATORS 6-8-19
Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-6
ESTABLISHMENT OF LINES AND ELEVATIONS 15-4-4
Roadway Construction and Maintenance 16-10-20
ESTIMATING 16-9-12
Selection for Vegetation Control 1-9-10
ESTIMATING CONTRACTION SCOUR 1-3-31
Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19
ESTIMATING LOCAL PIER SCOUR 1-3-43
EQUIPMENT CAPABILITY REQUIREMENTS 17-2-4
ETS SYSTEM 33-12-25
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 33-6-23
EVALUATING LOCAL SCOUR AT ABUTMENTS 1-3-49
EQUIPMENT OPERATOR TRAINING
EVALUATION
Methods 27-1-22
of Bridge 15-8-31
Program Requirements 27-1-23
of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage 8-14-4
Retraining and Recertification 27-1-24
Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing
EQUIPMENT OPERATOR TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components
27-1-22 4-4-69
EQUIPMENT, MISCELLANEOUS, ACCOUNT 58 16-12-21 of Results of a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-14
ERECTION 15-4-1, 15-6-105, 8-17-50 EVALUATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS 33-10-28
General EVALUATIVE TESTS FOR TIE SYSTEMS 30-2-1
Allowable Stresses During Erection 15-4-5 Ability to Resist 30-2-8
Bearings and Anchorage 15-4-4 Bending 30-2-3

Index
EVALUATIVE TESTS FOR TIE SYSTEMS (CONT)

Fastener 30-2-11
F
Test 2: Rail/Plate Area Compression 30-2-7
Test 6: Wear/Abrasion 30-2-17 FABRIC
Test 7: Fastener Electrical Impedance Test 30-2-19 Membranes 8-29-14
Test 8: Single Tie Lateral Push 30-2-20 FABRICATION 8-1-25, 7-2-127
Tie Pad 30-2-10 Culverts 1-4-10, 1-4-20, 1-4-26, 1-4-28, 1-4-83
Tie Performance Test Descriptions 30-2-3 Materials - Reinforcing Steel 8-17-54
EXAMINATION OF PERSONNEL Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-17
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-67 Steel Structures 15-3-1
EXCAVATION 1-8-4
General 15-3-3
Treatment of Bottom 8-3-15
Abutting Joints 15-3-8
EXCESS DIMENSION LOADS 28-3-10 Dimensional Tolerances for Structural Members 15-3-4
Measuring, Field Handbook 28-3-48 Facing Floorbeams, Stringers, and Girders 15-3-7
Reporting Measurements 28-3-49 Fit of Stiffeners 15-3-7
EXCESSIVE LOADING 8-19-11 Fitting of Base and Cap Plates 15-3-8
EXCESSIVE LOADS, REPORT INFORMATION 28-3-11 Flame Cutting 15-3-3
EXECUTING A VEGETATION CONTROL PROGRAM 1-9-11 Flexural Member Web Plates, Riveted and Bolted
EXECUTION OF WORK 1-5-10, 1-5-21, 1-5-28 Construction 15-3-7
EXHAUST SYSTEM 27-2-27 Lacing Bars 15-3-7
EXISTING BRIDGES 9-1-30, 15-7-1 Material Orders and Shipping Statements 15-3-3
General 15-7-2 Notice of Beginning Work 15-3-3
Classification 15-7-2 Pin Clearances 15-3-8
Division of Subject 15-7-3 Pins and Rollers 15-3-8
Form of Presentation 15-7-4 Planning Sheared Edges 15-3-7
Rating of Bridges 15-7-3 Quality of Workmanship 15-3-3
Rating of Equipment 15-7-3 Storage of Material 15-3-3
Inspection 15-7-22 Straightening Material 15-3-3
Bridge Inspection Procedure 15-7-22 Surfaces of Bearing Plates and Pedestals 15-3-8
1
Emergency Inspections 15-7-24 Inspection 15-3-20
General 15-7-22 Facilities for Inspection 15-3-20
Inspection Sketches for Identification of Members High Strength Bolted Joints 15-3-20
15-7-26 Inspector Authority 15-3-20
Periodic Inspections 15-7-23 Rejection 15-3-20
Conditions to Report 15-7-24 Welded Work 15-3-20
Special Inspections 15-7-24 Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-3-9
Maintenance 15-7-28 Alignment of Finished Holes 15-3-15 3
General 15-7-28 Fitting for Shop Riveting or Bolting 15-3-15
Maintenance of Structural Elements 15-7-28 High Strength Bolts, Nuts and Washers 15-3-10
Maintenance Painting 15-7-28 Installation of High Strength Bolts 15-3-10
Rating 15-7-13 Match Marking 15-3-15
Action to be Taken 15-7-21 Preparation of Holes for Field Fasteners 15-3-13
General 15-7-13 Preparation of Holes for Shop Fasteners 15-3-12
Inspection 15-7-13 Quantity of Field Fasteners 15-3-12
Loads and Forces 15-7-14 Reaming and Drilling 4
Stresses 15-7-16 After Assembly 15-3-15
Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting 15-7-5 Templates for 15-3-14
Floor Systems 15-7-10 Through Templates 15-3-14
General 15-7-5 Rivets and Riveting 15-3-9
Other Structures 15-7-12 Size and Workmanship of Holes 15-3-12
Plate Girders or Rolled Beams 15-7-8 Testing and Documentation of ASTM A325 and
Trusses 15-7-10 A490 Bolts 15-3-15
EXPANSION 15-1-14, 6-2-3 Shipment and Pay Weight 15-3-21
and Contraction 8-17-14 Advance Material 15-3-22
EXPANSION JOINTS 8-11-5 Marking, Packaging and Loading 15-3-21
Rail 15-8-15 Pay Weight 15-3-22
EXPENDITURES, AUTHORITY FOR 16-12-23 Shop Painting 15-3-19
EXPLANATION OF CONTENTS OF ICC ACCOUNT LISTINGS Machined Surfaces 15-3-19
16-12-4 Structural Steel 15-3-19
EXPLORATION AND TESTING 1-1-3 Welded Construction 15-3-18
EXPLORATION METHODS 8-22-5 Flange-To-Web Welds of Flexural Members
EXTERIOR 15-3-19
Finishes 6-3-8 General 15-3-18
Materials 6-2-12 Preparation of Material for Welding 15-3-18

Index
FABRICATION (CONT) FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN MAKING ELECTRIFICATION

Tack Welds 15-3-19 ECONOMIC STUDIES (CONT)
Welder and Welding Operator Qualifications 15-3-19 Freight Traffic 33-1-3
FACILITIES Passenger Trains 33-1-3
for Inspection 15-3-20 Traffic Projection 33-1-3
for Testing 15-6-75 Train Schedules 33-1-4
Unloading and Loading 14-4-52 Train Size and Speed 33-1-3
FACILITIES AND STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS 11-4-1, FACTORS TO CONSIDER, MEASUREMENT FREQUENCY
12-4-1, 17-4-1 PRACTICES FOR TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING
Bridges and Drainage Structures 11-4-2, 12-4-36, VEHICLES 2-4-1
17-4-4 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PREVENTIVE RAIL GRINDING
Crash Walls 11-4-2, 12-4-89, 17-4-4 4-4-85
Direct Fixation 12-4-98 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS 8-22-3
General Information 11-4-1, 12-4-3, 17-4-3 FALSEWORK 15-4-5
Multi-Modal Facilities 11-4-2, 12-4-7, 17-4-3 FALSEWORK SYSTEMS
Passenger Facilities 11-4-1, 12-4-3, 17-4-3 Construction 8-28-19
Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97 Design of 8-28-14
Tunnels 11-4-2, 12-4-89, 17-4-4 Removing 8-28-19
Yards and Shops 11-4-2, 12-4-11, 17-4-4 Review and Approval of 8-28-14
FACILITY DESIGN FACTORS 14-4-20 Special Conditions 8-28-18
FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-3, 17-7-5 FARE COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY 12-2-16, 17-2-5
Cleaning 17-7-5 FASTENER 30-2-11
General 17-7-5 Test 5A: Fastener Uplift 30-2-11
Snow and Ice Removal 17-7-5 Test 5B: Fastener Longitudinal Restraint 30-2-13
FACILITY SIZE 6-16-4 Test 5C: Fastener Repeated Load 30-2-14
FACILITY TYPES, TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER Test 5D: Fastener Lateral Load Restraint 30-2-15
THAN BULK) 14-4-77 Test 5E: Fastener Assembly Rotation 30-2-16
FACILITY TYPES AND EQUIPMENT 14-4-15 FASTENER INSERTS
FACING FLOORBEAMS, STRINGERS, AND GIRDERS 15-3-7 Construction of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11
FACTOR OF SAFETY 8-10-12, 27-1-13 FASTENER PROFILE 5-9-3
Variability 7-2-10 FASTENER REQUIREMENTS 30-1-11
FACTOR OF SAFETY, VARIABILITY 7-2-10 General 30-1-9
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN MAKING ELECTRIFICATION FASTENERS 15-8-30
ECONOMIC STUDIES 33-1-1 in Indirect Splices 15-1-59
Annual Operating Expenses 33-1-6 for Timber Trestles, Specifications 7-1-22
Fuel and Energy 33-1-7 Material 7-1-22
General 33-1-6 Types of Fasteners 7-1-23
OCS/Third Rail Maintenance 33-1-7 Types of Rail Fasteners for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-26
Signal and Communications Maintenance 33-1-8 FASTENINGS 30-1-9
Substations and Transmission Line Maintenance 33-1-8 Fastener Requirements 30-1-11
Taxes 33-1-8 Fastener Requirements - General 30-1-9
Train Crew Wages 33-1-7 General 30-1-9
Vehicle Maintenance 33-1-7 Introduction 30-1-9
Capital Equipment Costs 33-1-4 FASTENINGS AND OTM 18-2-4
Clearance Modification 33-1-6 FATIGUE 15-1-24, 15-1-67, 15-6-18
Communications 33-1-6 Stress Limit for Reinforcement 8-2-64
Miscellaneous Power 33-1-6 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS 8-26-34
Motive Power Maintenance Facilities 33-1-4 Bonded Nonprestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34
Motive Power Units 33-1-4 Prestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34
Power Distribution Systems 33-1-5 FEDERAL INCOME TAX 16-14-2
Power Generating Facilities 33-1-5 FELT, MEMBRANES 8-29-14
Power Transfer 33-1-5 FENCES 1-6-1
Signal Modification 33-1-6 Methods of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21
Substations 33-1-5 Definitions and Terminology 1-6-21
General Justification and Scope 1-6-21
Basic Procedure 33-1-2 References 1-6-21
Data 33-1-3 Specifications for Cleari
ng and Mowing Vegetation 1-6-23
Electrical Distribution Systems 33-1-3 Specifications for Placement of Bungalows and Other
Objective 33-1-2 Structure 1-6-23
System Operation 33-1-2 Specifications for Roadbed Geometry 1-6-22
Intangible Benefits and Liabilities 33-1-9 Temporary Control Measure 1-6-23
General 33-1-9 Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10
Maintenance of Way Changes 33-1-8 Classes 1-6-10
General 33-1-8 Finish 1-6-10
Traffic 33-1-3

Index
FENCES (CONT) FINISH (CONT)

Inspection 1-6-13 Materials 17-4-3
Material 1-6-10 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-12
Special Fabrication for End,
Corner, and Gate Posts 1-6-11 and Permissible Variation in Dimensions 5-1-4
Special Fabrication for Line Posts 1-6-11 Rubbed 8-1-49
Weights and Shapes 1-6-11 Sidewalk 8-1-49
Workmanship 1-6-10 Unformed Surface 8-1-49
Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6 FINISHES, DECORATIVE 8-1-53
Manfacturer 1-6-7 FINISHING 5-5-28
Materials 1-6-6 FIRE
Proportioning and Mixing 1-6-7 Alarms
Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13 Systems 7-3-41
Erection 1-6-18 Barriers 7-3-42
General 1-6-13 and Life Safety 6-2-17
Material 1-6-17 Prevention
Specifications for Snow Fences 1-6-24 and Planning 14-1-6
Effectiveness and Applications 1-6-24 in Yards 14-1-3
Structural Fences 1-6-24 Protection 6-2-17
Tree and Shrub Plantings 1-6-39 Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-5
Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-23
Delivery 1-6-6 Rolling Stock 14-1-5
Design 1-6-5 in Yards 14-1-4
Inspection 1-6-6 Yards and Terminals 14-1-3
Manufacture 1-6-5 Types of 15-8-29
Material 1-6-4 FIRE PROTECTION
Physical Requirements 1-6-4 In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6
Preservative Treatment 1-6-6 FIRE-RETARDANT COATING FOR CREOSOTED WOOD
Stock Guards 1-6-20 Application Requirements and Instructions 7-1-14
General 1-6-20 General Product Requirements 7-1-13
FENCES, SNOWSHEDS, AND SIGNS, ACCOUNT 13 16-12-9 Specifications for 7-1-13
1
FENDER FLEXIBILITY 8-23-22 FIREWALLS 6-3-9
FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) 8-14-6 FIRST AID ROOM 6-9-11
FIELD ASSEMBLY OF MEMBERS 15-4-6 FIT OF STIFFENERS 15-3-7
FIELD CALIBRATION OF TRACK SCALE TEST WEIGHT FITS AND SURFACE FINISHES 15-6-33
CARS 4-4 FITTING FOR SHOP RIVETING OR BOLTING 15-3-15
FIELD CLEANING AND PAINTING 15-4-8 FITTING OF BASE AND CAP PLATES 15-3-8
FIELD CONDITIONS 8-3-14 FITTING-UP OF FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-6
FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-1-44 FIXED FACILITIES 6-16-3
3
Using Pins 15-4-7 FIXED OBJECTS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
FIELD HANDBOOK, MEASURING EXCESS DIMENSION FLAKING 4-4-58
LOAD 28-3-48 FLAME CUTTING 15-3-3
FIELD INSPECTION FLAMMABLE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
and Acceptance of Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6
and Pipe-arches 1-4-16 FLAMMABLE MATERIAL
Erection of Steel Structures 15-4-7 Storage 6-9-11
Vegetation Control 1-9-14 FLANGE BEARING WHEELS 12-3-10 4
FIELD, RAIL FLAW IDENTIFICATION 4-4-3 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT 8-17-45
Scope 4-4-3 FLANGE SPLICES 15-1-53
FIELD SIDE GUARD OR SPACER TIMBERS 7-3-45 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS 8-17-16
FIELD SURVEYS FLANGE WIDTH 8-17-16
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-3 FLANGED SECTIONS 15-1-52, 8-17-27
and Records 8-28-4 FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION OF PLATE GIRDERS 15-1-53
Retaining Walls and Abutments 8-5-3 FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 15-3-19
Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-4 FLANGEWAY WIDTH AND DEPTH 5-8-11
FIELD TESTS 8-1-35 FLAT CLASSIFICATION YARDS DESIGN 14-2-25
FIELD WELDING 15-4-7 FLAT YARD
FILE SPACE 6-2-7 Design Factors 14-2-27
FILLET WELDING 15-1-60 FLEXIBILITY OF ANCHORAGE 8-20-13
FILLING OF FORMS 8-11-6 FLEXIBLE SHEET PILE BULKHEADS 8-20-1
FILLS 1-1-20 Cantilever Bulkheads 8-20-15
FINAL CONDITION 8-25-6 Scope 8-20-15
FINAL PLANS AND WORK PREPARATION 25 Commentary 8-20-17, 8-21-20
FINISH 1-6-10, 4-3-18, 4-3-25, 4-3-30, 5-2-4, 5-10-3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-8 8-20-6
Formed Surface 8-1-48 Active Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge Loads 8-20-6

Index
FLEXIBLE SHEET PILE BULKHEADS (CONT) FOREWORD

Active Earth Pressure Due to Unbalanced Water Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13
Pressure 8-20-9 Instructions for Inspection of Timber Trestle Railway
Active Earth Pressure Due to Weight of Backfill 8-20-6 Bridges 7-3-13
Passive Earth Pressure 8-20-9 Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-41
Reduction of Weight in Passive Wedge Due to Upward Steel Structures, Miscellaneous 15-8-1
Seepage 8-20-9 FORKED ENDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 15-1-63
Design of Anchored Bulkheads 8-20-11 FORM COATING AND RELEASE 8-1-24
Allowable Stresses 8-20-15 FORM FACTOR 7-2-10
Anchor Pull 8-20-13 FORMS 8-1-23, 8-11-6
Anchorages 8-20-13 Program 16-9-5
Connections 8-20-13 FORMULA, COMBINED CENTER OF GRAVITY 28-3-54
Depth of Embedment 8-20-11 FOUNDATIONS
Flexibility of Anchorage 8-20-13 Character of 8-5-4
Maximum Moment 8-20-11 Conditions 1-4-7
General 8-20-2 Drilled Shaft 8-24-1
Scope 8-20-2 Investigations 8-22-2
Types 8-20-2 Piles 7-3-11
Information Required 8-20-3 Spread Footing 8-3-1
Character of Backfill 8-20-3 FOUNDATIONS, PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 8-21-3, 8-21-23
Drainage 8-20-3 FOUR-WHEEL CARS 16-2-10
Field Surveys and Records 8-20-3 FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBER
Loads 8-20-3 Scope 15-9-28
Soil Investigation 8-20-3 FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS 15-1-60, 15-1-65
Notations 8-20-16 Definitions 15-1-65
Stability 8-20-10 Design and Review Responsibilities 15-1-65
Calculations 8-20-10 Notch Toughness of Steel in Fracture Critical Members 15-1-65
FLEXURAL MEMBERS Scope 15-1-65
Composite Concrete 8-2-35 Special Welding Requirements 15-1-65
Distribution of Reinforcement 8-2-19 FRACTURE TEST 5-7-3
Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-20 FRAME AND SUSPENSION 27-2-25
Maximum Reinforcement 8-2-49 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS 27-2-6
Minimum Reinforcement 8-2-19 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES, AND BEARINGS 27-2-19
Web Plates, Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-3-7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION 8-17-15
FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT FRAMING 7-3-10
Distribution 8-2-64 Systems 6-2-10
FLEXURAL STRENGTH 8-17-26 of Timber 7-3-4
of Prestressed Monoblock Ties 30-4-19 FREIGHT
of Two-Block Ties 30-4-22 Delivery and Transfer 14-3-1
FLEXURE 8-2-40, 8-2-49 FREIGHT OPERATIONS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
FLEXURE REQUIREMENT, RAIL 30-1-8 FREIGHT TERMINALS, SPECIALIZED 14-4-1
FLOATING EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 56 16-12-20 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities
FLOORBEAMS AND FLOORBEAM HANGERS 15-1-57 14-4-31
FLOORS 8-11-2, 6-3-5, 6-4-19 Automobile Loading/Unloading 14-4-31
Coverings and Finishes 6-2-12 Containerized Shipping 14-4-38
Members and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-56 Military Vehicles 14-4-38
Systems 15-7-10, 6-2-10 Security 14-4-39
FLOW CONDITIONS 1-4-30 Truck Chassis Loading/Unloading 14-4-37
FLY ASH AS AN ADMIXTURE TO CONCRETE 8-1-53 Bulk-fluids 14-4-49
FOOTINGS Buildings 14-4-53
At Varying Levels 8-3-14 Commodity Storage 14-4-53
Combined 8-3-15 Environment and Maintenance 14-4-54
Depth of Base 8-3-7 Introduction 14-4-49
On Non-Homogeneous Deposits 8-3-11 Security 14-4-54
On Soils with Cohesion and Friction 8-3-12 Site Selection 14-4-50
Shallow Terminal Configuration 14-4-55
On Granular Material 8-3-8 Unloading and Loading Facilities 14-4-52
On Saturated Clay 8-3-10 Bulk-Solid 14-4-43
Sizing 8-3-7 Design of Bulk Granular Solids Terminals 14-4-45
Stresses 8-3-14 Grain Elevators 14-4-43
Unsaturated Silts and Clays 8-3-11 Design of Intermodal Facilities 14-4-13
With Eccentric Loads 8-3-12 Design Factors 14-4-20
FORCE ACCOUNT PROJECT ESTIMATES 16-7-4 Facility Types and Equipment 14-4-15
FORCES, LOADS AND 8-19-4, 8-19-9 Introduction 14-4-13
Merchandise Terminal 14-4-59

Index
FREIGHT TERMINALS, SPECIALIZED (CONT) FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS (CONT)

Produce Terminals 14-4-59 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair
Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75 and Servicing Facilities 6-13-3
Waterfront 14-4-3 System Design 33-6-20
General 14-4-3 Yards and Shops 12-4-26, 17-4-4
FREIGHT TRAFFIC 33-1-3 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MATERIALS
FREIGHT YARDS AND FREIGHT TERMINALS 14-2-1 MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 6-7-3
Flat Classification Yards Design 14-2-25 FUNCTIONS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-2
Design Factors 14-2-27 FURNITURE 6-2-14
General 14-2-25
Gradients 14-2-26
Hump Classification Yard Design 14-2-7 G
Continuous Car Speed Control 14-2-12
General 14-2-7
GAGE 5-5-22, 11-3-15, 12-3-13, 17-3-4
Hybrid Car Speed Control System 14-2-14
GAGE LIMITS 17-7-4
Intermittent Car Speed Control 14-2-10
GAINS AND LOSSES 16-14-5
Objective 14-2-14
GAS TURBINE-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 16-3-16
Introduction 14-2-3
GEAR TEETH 15-6-40
General 14-2-3
GEARS AND PINIONS 15-6-102
Terminal Design Considerations for Run Through Trains
GENERAL 1-1-3, 1-3-5, 8-16-2, 15-7-2, 14-4-63, 27-1-1
14-2-29
AC Electrification System Configuration 33-6-5
Characteristics of Run Through Trains 14-2-29
Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62
Design Features 14-2-31 Aggregates 8-1-9
Design Objectives 14-2-30 Allowances for Horizontal Movements, Passenger Cars 28-3-3
Run Through Train Operation 14-2-30 Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation
Yard Facility Functions 14-2-30 Saddles 8-26-34
Track Arrangement 14-2-4 Annual Operating Expenses 33-1-6
General 14-2-4 Assembly and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70
Yard Components 14-2-4 ASTM Designations 8-29-8 1
Classification Yard 14-2-4 Authority for Expenditures 16-12-23
Departure Yard 14-2-5 Ballast 16-10-12
Local Yard 14-2-6 Bar Codes and their Application for Roadway Work
Miscellaneous Yard Tracks and Facilities 14-2-6 Equipment 27-1-18
Receiving Yard 14-2-4 Applications 27-1-21
Repair Yard 14-2-6 Bar Code Format 27-1-20
Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) 14-2-33 Benefits of Bar Codes 27-1-18
Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives Equipment 27-1-19
14-2-33 Introduction 27-1-18
3
General Yard Design or Redesign 14-2-34 Manufacturers Requirements for Parts Books 27-1-21
Isolation of RCL Operations 14-2-35 Bridge Construction and Maintenance 16-10-21
Lighting 14-2-35 Bridges, New 9-1-17
Walkways 14-2-35 Building Arrangement 6-4-13
FREIGHT-TRAIN CARS, ACCOUNT 53 16-12-18 Building Codes 6-3-4
FREQUENCY OF MEASUREMENT, RAIL WEAR Building Construction and Maintenance 16-10-22
PARAMETERS 2-2-39 Building Systems 6-8-16
FREQUENCY OF TESTING 4-3-57 Calculating Rail Profile Quality Index (RPQI) 2-2-39 4
FRICTION Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
Piles 8-4-5 Capital Expenditure or Operating Expense 16-12-22
FRICTION MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS 4-4-79 Cement 8-1-8
FROG SHOP 14-7-5 Cementitious Materials, Other 8-1-9
FRP COMPOSITES 8-14-6 Clearances 17-3-3
FUEL AND ENERGY 33-1-7 Commentary, Pile Foundations 8-4-17
FUEL CONSUMPTION 16-2-16 Commentary, Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-65
FUEL OPERATED LIFT TRUCKS Communications 6-4-22
In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Timbers in Open and
FUEL STATIONS, ACCOUNT 19 16-12-10 Ballasted-Deck Trestles 7-2-80
FUEL TANK 27-2-7, 27-2-27 Compilation of Various Track Ge ometry Parameters and Related
FUELING STATIONS 14-5-5 Elements, Used When Describing Track Geometry 2-1-4
FUNCTION 5-7-2 Conclusions, Selection and Maintenance of Roofing
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS Systems 6-14-13
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4 Concrete Admixtures 8-1-20
Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-4 Concrete, Curing 8-1-48
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-7 Considerations, Concrete Ties 30-4-4
Passenger Facilities Considerations, Ties 30-1-1

Index
GENERAL (CONT) GENERAL (CONT)

Construction 1-1-33 General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way
Construction of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir Equipment (Including Rail Gear Equipment) 27-1-4
Areas 1-3-34 General 27-1-4
Construction, Waterproofing 8-29-20 General Considerations, Vehicle Considerations 17-5-2
Control 16-9-15 General Information Associated with Wire Rope as Used
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-11, 17-2-4 on Roadway Work Equipment 27-1-6
Corridor Identification 12-2-10 Abrasion Versus Flexibility 27-1-14
Corridor Implementation 12-2-25 Cause of Failures 27-1-13
Corridor Implementation Considerations 17-2-5 Classification of Wire Rope 27-1-9
Crib Walls 8-6-2 Construction 27-1-7
Culvert Rehabilitation 1-4-78 Diameter 27-1-6
Data Collection 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Factor of Safety 27-1-13
Definitions of Rail Surface Conditions 2-1-2 General 27-1-6
Definitions, Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2 Grades of Wire Rope 27-1-12
Depositing Concrete 8-1-38 Introduction 27-1-6
Depositing Concrete Under Water 8-1-42 Lubrication of Wire Rope 27-1-13
Depreciation Accounting 16-12-23 References and Sources of Additional Information 27-1-15
Description of a Generic Track Geometry Measuring Types of Strand Construction 27-1-8
Vehicle 2-2-2 Wire Rope Connections 27-1-15
Design 1-1-12 Wire Rope Lays 27-1-11
Design Considerations 17-5-3 General Specification for In-Track Rail Welding Using
Design Criteria, Vehicle Cosiderations 17-5-3 Electric Flash Butt (EFB) Welding 4-3-45
Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-3
Design Criteria, Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-12 Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-6
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3 Handling of Traffic 16-10-27
Design Loads, Segmental Bridges 8-26-12 Heating and Ventilating 6-4-20
Design of Crib Walls 8-6-2 High Strength Concrete 8-1-52, 8-1-59
Design, Cantilever Poles 8-12-3 Hump Classification Yard Design 14-2-7
Design, Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-4 ICC Primary Accounts 16-12-5
Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Identification of Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5
Retaining Walls 8-5-11 Illumination 33-10-2
Details of Design, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-79 Illustrations, Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive
Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11 Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities
Drainage Basin Data 1-3-3 6-13-11
Earth Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe Through Fills 1-4-76 Increasing Clearances in Existing Tunnels 1-8-7
Economics of Detectors 16-5-11 Inspection 15-7-21
Electric Lighting and Power Supply 6-4-21 Inspection and Classification of Secondhand Rail for
Electric Locomotives 16-3-4 Welding 4-3-53
Electrical Requirements, Passenger Rail Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3
(Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Inspection Pits 14-5-6
Servicing Facilities 6-13-11 Instructions for Inspection of Timber Trestle Railway
Electrification System Load 33-6-3 Bridges 7-3-13
Elements of Energy Conservation Program 6-5-3 Insulation for Track Tools Standard Specifications
Equipment Diagrams 28-2-2 5-6-18
Estimating 16-9-12 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities 33-1-9
Evaluation Measurements and Tests 33-10-28 Introduction 15-4-2, 33-3-2
Facility Maintenance Operations 17-7-5 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 16-14-6
Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Joint Facilities 16-12-24
Studies 33-1-2 Legal Clearance Requirements 28-3-19
Fastenings 30-1-9 Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-2
Federal Income Tax 16-14-2 Load Factors 8-26-17
Fixed Obstructions 28-1-2 Loads and Forces 8-19-4
Flat Classification Yards Design 14-2-25 Location of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-10
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-2 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of
Commentary 8-20-17 Roadway Machines 27-2-56
Flexural Strength, Segmental Bridges 8-26-24 Locomotive Facilities 14-5-2
Formed Surface Finish 8-1-51 Locomotive Sanding Facilities 6-6-2
Forms 8-1-23 Machine and Material Handling 6-9-9
Forms, Railway Tunnel Lining 8-11-6 Maintenance 15-7-28
Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-3 Maintenance Philosophy 17-7-3
Functions, Organization 16-8-2 Maintenance of Way Changes 33-1-8
Gage 5-5-22 Material, Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5

Index
GENERAL (CONT)
GENERAL (CONT) Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations 11-3-5,
Means of Protecting Roadbed and Bridges from 12-3-9, 17-3-4
Washouts and Floods 1-3-32 Right of Way Maintenance 17-7-3
Measurement and Payment 1-2-15 Roadway Completion Reports 16-12-24
Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes - Electric Roadway Construction and Maintenance 16-10-20
Traction 33-7-4 Rules for Rating Existing Concrete Bridges 8-19-2
Methods of Analysis, Segmental Bridges 8-26-8 Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-2-117
Mixing, Concrete 8-1-37 Sales and Use Tax 16-14-7
Mortar and Grout 8-17-52 Sampling and Testing 1-2-14
Multi-modal Interfaces 17-2-5 Segmental Bridges 8-26-4
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-17 Slurry Wall Construction 8-25-2
National Transportation Agency of Canada System of Construction 8-25-10
Accounts 16-12-25 Design 8-25-3
Natural Waterways 1-3-3 Special Considerations, Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-7
Organization 16-8-6 For Engineered Polymer Composite (EPC) Ties 30-5-7
For Engineered Wood Product (EWP) Ties 30-5-9
Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9
Specification for In-Track Rail Welding Using Electric
Other Workshop Areas
Flash Butt (EFB) Welding Equipment 4-3-43
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
Specification for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82
Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-5
Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds 33-7-8
Passenger Facilities 17-4-3 Specifications for Corrugated Structural Aluminum
Passenger Train Yards 14-6-8 Alloy Plate Pipe, Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26
Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Specifications for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe,
Surfaces 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-24
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-4
Physical and Mechanical Properties, Engineered Specifications for Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5
Composite Ties 30-5-4 Specifications for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe
Pile Foundations 8-4-2 and Pipe-arches for Culverts and Storm Drains, and
Pile Types 8-4-9 Underdrains 1-4-10 1
Planning, Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-4, 17-2-3 Specifications for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-3
Plans for Drive Spikes 5-10-5
Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13
Plans for Track Tools 5-6-23
Specifications for Structural Lumber 7-1-3
Primers 8-29-13
Specifications for Timber Crib Walls 8-6-6
Production and Handling 1-2-13
Standard Specification for Corrugated Aluminum Alloy
Property Asset Ledgers 16-12-25
Pipe 1-4-17
Proportioning, Concrete 8-1-31
State Income Tax 16-14-5
Proposals and General Requirements 15-6-5
Propulsion System Maintenance Operations 17-7-5 Station Environment 14-6-3 3
Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages 8-26-37 Stock Guards 1-6-20
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9 Stores 14-7-2
Rail Anchor Patterns Number of Rail Anchors to Resist Strategies and Techniques, Industrial & Systems
Rail Creepage 5-5-18 Engineering 16-6-4
Rating 15-7-13 Structures Maintenance Operations 17-7-4
Rationale and Scope of Work, Vegetation Control 1-9-2 Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-19
Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Suggested Method for Charting All Obstructions 28-3-9
Overhead Electrification 33-2-2 Suggested Method, Presenting Published Clearances 28-3-8 4
System Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway
Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel System Studies 33-6-18
Temperature Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18
Equipment 27-1-3
Temporary Structures for Construction 8-28-2
General 27-1-3
Terminal Planning 14-6-2
Recommended Practices for Rail Anchor Application and
Terms, Pier Protection Systems 8-23-2
Maintenance 5-7-5
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control 4-4-77 Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in Ties for Turnouts 30-4-45
CWR 4-4-74 Track Arrangement 14-2-4
Records 8-22-8 Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19
Regional Transportation Interfaces, Interface with Track Maintenance Limits 17-7-3
Other Transportation Modes 12-2-19 Track Maintenance Operations 17-7-4
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-2 Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-6, 12-3-11,
Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-5 17-3-4
Reinforcement, Concrete 8-1-17 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-8
Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting 15-7-5 Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC
Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-54 Electrification Systems 33-6-3
Requirements and Material, Segmental Bridges 8-26-4 Purpose 33-6-3
Requirements, Shear and Torsion 8-26-25 Scope 33-6-3

Index
GENERAL (CONT) GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT)

Training 16-8-9 Maintenance of Way Considerations 11-7-1, 17-7-3
Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion
Unformed Surface Finish 8-1-52 Considerations 11-6-1, 17-6-1
Unit of Property, Definition of 16-12-5 Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-2, 12-3-2, 17-3-3
Unloading Pits 15-8-17 Use of Chapter 12 12-1-2
Water, Concrete 8-1-17 Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-1
Waterfront 14-4-3 GENERAL INFORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH WIRE ROPE
Wayside Lubrication of Rail on Curves 5-5-25 AS USED ON ROADWAY WORK EQUIPMENT 27-1-6
Welded Construction 15-3-18 GENERAL AND INTRODUCTION
Yards and Shops 12-4-11, 17-4-4 Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2
GENERAL ANALYSIS GENERAL INTRODUCTION 33-4-8
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-14 GENERAL OUTLINE, FIXED OBSTRUCTIONS 28-1-3
GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF GENERAL PRACTICES, WATERPROOFING 8-29-12
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT (INCLUDING Design 8-29-12
RAIL GEAR EQUIPMENT) 27-1-4 Types 8-29-13
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A RAIL JOINT 4-3-4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES, WATERPROOFING 8-29-4
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Purpose 8-29-4
Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-4, 6-2-6 Scope 8-29-4
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-7 GENERAL PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-2 Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood 7-1-13
for Functional Requirements for Passenger Rail GENERAL PROVISIONS
(Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Workmanship for Construction of Pile and Framed
Servicing Facilities 6-13-3 Trestles 7-3-3
Main Line Fueling 14-5-8 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
for Railway Building Design 6-1-10 All Timber Piles 7-1-10
Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5 Design, Steel Structures 15-1-7
Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive Elastic Fasteners 5-9-3
Shop 6-13-7 and Materials 8-17-4
Temporary Structures, Wood Railway Bridges and Design Loads 8-17-4
Trestles 7-2-146 Scope 8-17-4
Ties 30-1-1 Prestressed Concrete 8-17-4
Fastenings 30-1-9 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Flammable
Influence of Cross Ties on Track Stiffness and Track Substances 1-5-3
Transitions 30-1-12 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Non-Flammable
Introduction 30-1-3 Substances 1-5-22
Lateral Loads 30-1-7 Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the
Load Environment 30-1-3 Railway Right-of-Way 1-5-10
Longitudinal Load 30-1-8 GENERAL SCOPE, SPRING WASHERS 4-3-29
Rail 30-1-8 GENERAL WASHING SYSTEM 6-4-18
Vertical Loads 30-1-4 GENERAL YARD DESIGN OR REDESIGN 14-2-34
Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-2 GENERAL ZONE, DEISIGN OF 8-17-35
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, OBSERVATION GENERAL ZONE AND LOCAL ZONE 8-17-35
TOWERS 6-10-3 GENERALITIES, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-1
GENERAL CRITERIA , LOCATION OF D EFECT D ETECTORS 16-5-5 Air Rights 14-1-2
GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND OBJECTIVES 17-6-2 Automatic Car Identification (ACI) System 14-1-2
GENERAL DESCRIPTION, VEHCLE CONSIDERATIONS Environmental Provisions 14-1-3
17-5-4, 17-5-9 Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-3
GENERAL DESIGN, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-18 Building Fire Protection 14-1-4
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-8 Fire Prevention and Planning 14-1-6
GENERAL DETAILING, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-45 Introduction 14-1-3
GENERAL ENGINEERING 18-1-1 Rolling Stock Fire Protection 14-1-5
GENERAL FABRICATION 8-17-49 Summary 14-1-6
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN Joint Yards and Terminals 14-1-2
Steel Structures 15-8-3 Agreement 14-1-2
Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-11 Analyses 14-1-2
GENERAL INFORMATION Economy 14-1-2
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1, 17-2-3 Security Requirements 14-1-3
Environmental 11-2-1 Fire Protection 14-1-3
Design Considerations for Defect Detectors 16-5-8 GEOCOMPOSITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS FOR
Facilities and Structural Considerations 11-4-1, 12-4-3, 17-4-3 RAILROAD APPLICATIONS 1-10-18
High Speed Rail Systems 17-1-1 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA 12-2-10, 17-2-3
Introduction GEOMETRY
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1 of Anchorage Zone 8-17-34
Rail Transit 12-1-2

Index
GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS 8-22-9 GEOTECHNICAL SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (CONT)

GEOSYNTHETICS 1-10-1 Planning an Exploration Program 8-22-3
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Introduction 8-22-2
Use 1-10-24 Scope 8-22-2
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements Miscellaneous 8-22-9
1-10-26 Backfilling Bore Holes 8-22-10
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-27 Cleaning Site 8-22-10
Description 1-10-24 Geophysical Explorations 8-22-9
Material Requirements 1-10-25 In-Situ Testing of Soil 8-22-10
Measurement and Payment 1-10-27 Records 8-22-7
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-26 Core Borings 8-22-9
Geocomposite Drainage System Specifications for Dry Sample Borings 8-22-8
Railroad Applications 1-10-20 General 8-22-8
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements Scope 8-22-7
1-10-21 Sampling 8-22-6
Geotextile Overwrap 1-10-21 Dry Samples 8-22-6
Introduction 1-10-20 Rock Cores 8-22-7
Material Requirements 1-10-20 GEOTEXTILE SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD TRACK
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-21 SEPARATION/STABILIZATION APPLICATIONS 1-10-2
Measurement and Payment 1-10-22 GEOTEXTILE OVERWRAP 1-10-19
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-21 GEOTEXTILE SPECIFICATIONS
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Track for Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-8
Separation/Stabilization Applications 1-10-2 for Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-13
Compliance, Inspection, and Sampling Requirements 1-10-8 GLOSSARY 5-G-1, 33-G-1
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-8 Clearances 28-G-1
Introduction 1-10-2 Concrete Structures and Foundations 8-G-1
Material Requirements 1-10-4 Roadway and Ballast 1-G-1
Measurement and Payment 1-10-9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-G-1
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-7 Ties 30-G-1
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Drainage Timber Structures 7-G-1
1
Applications 1-10-9 Track 4-G-1
Compliance, Inspection, and Sampling Requirements Track Measuring System 2-G-1
1-10-13 GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-14 Design Values for Glulam 7-2-55
Introduction 1-10-9 Glulam, Engineered Wood Products 7-1-4
Material Requirements 1-10-10 GLULAM
Measurement and Payment 1-10-14 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber 7-2-55
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-13 Structural Glued Laminated Timber 7-1-4
3
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Erosion Control GOUND MOTION LEVELS 9-1-8
Applications 1-10-14 GRADATIONS 1-2-12
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements GRADE CLASSIFICATION 5-6-15
1-10-18 GRADE RESISTANCE 16-2-8
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-19 GRADES OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-12
Introduction 1-10-14 GRADIENTS
Material Requirements 1-10-15 Flat Yard Design 14-2-26
Measurement and Payment 1-10-19 GRADING 4
Packing nnd Identification Requirements 1-10-18 Account 3 16-12-5
GEOTECHNICAL FABRIC Drainage, Site Preparation 14-7-9
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9 Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-6
GEOTECHNICAL STUDY 33-6-20 GRAIN ELEVATOR PITS AND SIMILAR UNDERGROUND
GEOTECHNICAL SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 8-22-1 STRUCTURES 8-29-7
Classification 8-22-2 GRAIN ELEVATORS 14-4-43
Failure Investigations 8-22-3 GRAVITY LOADING LINES, SAND FACILITY 6-6-9
Foudation Investigations 8-22-2 GRINDING CYCLES FOR PREVENTIVE GRINDING 4-4-90
Determination of Groundwater Level 8-22-6 GRINDING EQUIPMENT 5-10-9
Exploration Methods 8-22-5 GRINDING FROGS, TRACK CROSSING AND SWITCH
Core Borings in Rock 8-22-5 POINTS 5-10-10
Dry Sample Borings 8-22-5 GRINDING PRACTICE 5-10-9
Test Pits 8-22-5 GRINDING RAIL END SURFACE WELDS 5-10-10
General 8-22-3 GRINDING STOCK RAILS 5-10-10
Depth of Borings 8-22-4 GRINDING WELDED ENGINE BURNS AND THERMITE BUTT
Equipment 8-22-4 WELDS 5-10-10
Number and Location of Borings 8-22-4 GRIP OF RIVETS 15-1-57
Permits 8-22-4 GRMS QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES, DAILY 2-2-15

Index
GROOVES IN JOURNALS AND LININGS 15-6-103 HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTES (CONT)
GROUNDING 11-3-22, 17-3-6 Track Roadway Considerations 17-3-1
GORUNDING/STRAY CURRENT 12-3-24 Vehicle Considerations 17-5-1
GROUNDING AND BONDING 33-12-21 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-7
GROUNDWATER LEVEL, DETERMINATION OF 8-22-6 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS 15-3-10
GROUT HIGH STRENGTH STEELS 15-8-30
For Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11 HIGH VOLTAGE SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES 33-12-17
GUARANTEE 33-7-10 HIGH-SPEED PASSENGER TRAINS 16-2-10
GUARD RAILS HIGHWAY
and Guard Timbers Bridges 8-2-6
Combined Use 7-3-46 HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS 18-2-4
Use of 7-3-45 HIGHWAY REVENUE EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 55 16-12-19
GUIDANCE ON REHABILITATION OF TRACK AND HIGHWAY/RAILWAY GRADE CROSSINGS 5-8-1
ROADWAY COMPONENTS 19 Crossing Surface Material Selection and Installation 5-8-11
GUIDELINES, POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION Crossing Surface Materials 5-8-11
GUIDELINES 9-2-2 Flangeway Width and Depth 5-8-11
GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED STEEL Width of Crossing 5-8-11
RAILWAY BRIDGES 15-8-28 General and Introduction 5-8-2
GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION OR Definitions 5-8-2
RECONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY/RAILWAY AT-GRADE Scope 5-8-2
CROSSINGS 5-8-2 Guidelines for the Design, Construction or
GUIDELINES FOR THE REHABILITATION OR Reconstruction of Highway/Railway At-Grade
MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY/RAILWAY AT-GRADE Crossings 5-8-3
CROSSINGS 5-8-7 Design-General 5-8-3
GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS 6-3-8 Railway Design and Geometrics 5-8-6
Roadway Design and Geometrics 5-8-4
Guidelines for the Rehabilitation or Maintenance of
H Highway/Railway At-Grade Crossings 5-8-7
Roadway Approa ch Rehabilitation and Maintenance 5-8-7
HAMMERS, TYPES 7-3-7 Track and Crossing Surface Rehabilitation and
HAND BRAKES AND FOOT BRAKES 15-6-100 Maintenance 5-8-8
HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING CONTINUOUS WELDED License or Easement Applications (Highway - Street -
RAIL 5-5-7 Roadways 5-8-11
H ANDLING OF TIES FROM THE TREE INTO THE T RACK 30-3-23 General 5-8-13
HANDLING OF TRAFFIC 16-10-27 Procedure 5-8-11
HANDLING, STORING AND SURFACE CONDITION OF Purpose 5-8-11
REINFORCEMENT 8-17-54 Location of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-8
HARDWOOD STRUCTURAL TIMBERS, GRADING RULES 7-1-6 General 5-8-10
HARMONIC DISTORTION AND SYSTEM RESONANCE STUDY
General Design Criteria 5-8-12
33-6-19
Limited Access Highways 5-8-13
HARMONICS 33-12-23
Physically Restricted Areas 5-8-13
HAZARD DETECTION AND SURVEILLANCE 17-6-9
Traffic Impact Studies 5-8-11
HEAD
The Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-8
Check 4-4-57
Ballast 5-8-9
HEADING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK BOLTS
Drainage 5-8-9
AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-25
General 5-8-8
HEADWALLS 1-4-68
Geotechnical Fabric 5-8-9
HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK BOLTS AND
Lining and Surfacing Track 5-8-10
CARBON-STEEL NUTS, SPECIFICATION FOR 4-3-19
Rail 5-8-10
HEATING 6-3-7, 6-4-21
Removing and Replacing Track 5-8-10
and Seizing 15-6-30
Subgrade 5-8-9
and Ventilating 6-4-20
Tie Plates, Spikes, Anchors 5-8-10
HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING 6-1-14,
Ties 5-8-10
6-2-15, 6-8-17
HIGHWAY STRUCTURES OVER RAILROADS 28-1-8
HEAVY REPAIRS 6-3-7
HISTORIC BUILDINGS 6-8-14
HEIGHT AND CHARACTER OF EMBANKMENT 1-4-7
HISTORY OF THE ROOFING PROBLEM 6-14-2
HIGH (PRIMARY) VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND
HOISTS 6-3-10
DISCONNECT SWITCHES 33-6-23
HOOKS, STANDARD 8-2-17
HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS 17-i
HOPPER TYPE SCALES 6-1
Corridor Planning Considerations 17-2-1
General 6-2
Facilities and Structural Considerations 17-4-1
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 17-3-6
Introduction 17-1-1
HORIZONTAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS 17-7-4
Maintenance of Way Considerations 17-7-1
HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY 11-3-15, 12-3-19
Considerations 17-6-1 HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT CLEARANCE ALLOWANCES,
PASSENGER CARS 28-3-3

Index
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF PASSENGER CARS, ILLUSTRATIONS OF SHELLS AND RELATED GAGE CORNER
CLEARANCE ALLOWANCES 28-3-3 DEVELOPMENTS (CONT)
HORIZONTAL SHEAR 7-2-71 Shelly Spots 4-4-58
HORIZONTAL TRACK GEOMETRY 2-1-4 IMPACT FACTORS, VERTICAL LOADS 30-1-5
HORSEPOWER 16-3-2 IMPACT LOAD 7-2-118, 8-19-4, 15-1-20, 15-1-70,
HOSE REELS 6-3-10 15-6-18, 15-9-10
HOUSEKEEPING 7-3-41, 4-3 IMPACT PROPERTIES 5-2-3
HOUSES 15-6-7 IMPEDANCE BOND FAILURE MODES FOR SIGNALS 33-5-5
for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment, IMPEDANCE BOND FUNCTIONS 33-5-5
Electrical Equipment and Signal Devices 15-6-15 IMPERIAL UNITS 8-16-10
HUBS 15-6-43, 15-6-102 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES 17-2-5
HUMP CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN (FULL AUTOMATIC and Plan 12-2-20
CONTROL) 14-2-7 IMPREGNATION 7-3-41
HUMP YARD, OBJECTIVE 14-2-14 IMPROVEMENT, PUBIC 16-7-1
HVAC SYSTEMS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS IN PLACE INSTALLATION OF CONCRETE INVERT 1-4-81
6-11-5 INCLINED BEARINGS 15-1-64
HYDRAULIC AND HYDROLOGIC CONCERNS 12-4-41 INCREASES TO ALLOWABLE STRESSES TO TEMPORARY
HYDRAULIC COMPUTATIONS 1-4-34 STRUCTURES 7-2-146
HYDRAULIC DESIGN INCREASING CLEARANCES IN EXISTING TUNNELS 1-8-7
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 INDEX OF CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL MANUAL
HYDRAULIC REPAIR 6-9-7 MATERIAL 5-5-16
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 27-2-8, 27-2-27 INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING, RAILWAY
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 15-6-53, 27-2-40 APPLICATIONS 16-6-1
and Components 15-6-32 Organization Issues 16-6-2
HYDRAULICS OF CULVERTS 1-4-29 Overview 16-6-2
HYDROGEN ELIMINATION 4-2-14 Project Design and Mangement 16-6-3
Project Management with Cross-Functional Team 16-6-3
Recommended Design Steps for Effective Results 16-6-3
I Strategies and Techniques 16-6-4
Elements of Effective Design 16-6-5 1
ICC PRIMARY ACCOUNTS 16-12-5 General 16-6-4
IDENTIFICATION 5-7-4, 33-7-13, 33-7-19 Operations Research 16-6-7
IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY 12-2-13, 17-2-5 Performance Measures 16-6-9
Communications Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5 Production Planning and Control 16-6-12
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Summary of Railway Applications 16-6-17
Electric Traction Characteristics 12-2-19 INDUSTRIAL TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7
Fare Collection Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5 INFLUENCE OF CROSS TIES ON TRACK STIFFNESS AND
General 12-2-13, 17-2-5 TRACK TRANSITIONS 30-1-12 3
Propulsion Technology 12-2-15, 17-2-5 Definition of Vertical Track Stiffness 30-1-12
Route Technical Constraints 12-2-17 Track Transition Problems 30-1-12
Safety and Security Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5 Track Transition Remedies and Practices 30-1-13
Signal Technology 12-2-15, 17-2-5 INFORMATION REQUIRED, SPREAD FOOTING
Stations and Facilities 12-2-17, 17-2-5 FOUNDATIONS 8-3-4
Track Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5 INFORMATION REQUIRED, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR
Vehicle Technology 17-2-5 CONSTRUCTION 8-28-4
Vehicle Technology Types 12-2-14 Drainage 8-28-4 4
ILLUMINATION 33-10-2 Field Surveys and Records 8-28-4
Evaluation Measurements and Tests 33-10-27 Loads 8-28-4
General 33-10-27 Soil Investigation 8-28-4
Illumination 33-10-2 Soil Properties 8-28-5
General 33-10-2 INITIAL AND ANNUAL COSTS INCURRED 16-5-12
Lamps 33-10-19 INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING 27-2-35
Electric Lamp Characteristics 33-10-19 INQUIRY OR PURCHASE ORDER 7-1-7
Lighting of Fixed Properties 33-10-8 IN-SITU TESTING OF SOIL 8-22-10
Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting 33-10-15 INSPECTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES 18-3-39
Maintenance 33-10-15 INSPECTING MASONRY BRIDGES 18-3-37
Outdoor Area Lighting - Floodlighting in Railroad INSPECTING TIMBER BRIDGES 18-3-38
Yards 33-10-8 INSPECTION 1-2-14, 1-2-25, 4-3-18, 4-3-32, 4-3-38,
ILLUSTRATIONS, PASSENGER RAIL 5-1-5, 5-2-4, 5-6-14, 5-7-4, 5-10-4, 8-19-3, 8-21-2,
(COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND 8-25-13, 15-3-20, 15-7-13, 15-7-22, 33-7-14,
SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-11 33-7-20, 33-7-27, 16-8-2
ILLUSTRATIONS OF SHELLS AND RELATED GAGE CORNER Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32
DEVELOPMENTS 4-4-57 and Classification of Secondhand Rail for Welding 4-3-53
Flaking 4-4-58 of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-1
Head Check 4-4-57

Index
INSPECTION (CONT) INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES 12-2-8, 17-2-3

Conducting an 6-15-3 INSTRUCTIONS
of Continuous Welded Rail in Track 5-5-13 for Inspection of Timber Trestle Railway Bridges 7-3-13
General 8-21-2 for Measuring Excess Dimension Loads 28-3-49
High Strength Bolted Joints 15-3-20 INSULATION 27-2-26
Methods 16-8-4 of Track 15-6-15
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38 for Track Tools Standard Specifications 5-6-18
Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-26 INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY 33-6-20
of Pile Driving 8-4-16 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS AND LIABILITIES 33-1-9
Purpose of 18-3-36 INTEGRATION OF DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS 16-5-11
of Railway Buildings 6-15-1, 6-15-2 INTERCITY PASSENGER STATIONS 6-8-7
Conducting an Inspection 6-15-3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS 17-5-2
Inspection Reports 6-15-5 INTERFERENCE WITH TRAFFIC 15-4-9
Inspections 6-15-3 INTERIOR CONDITION/MACROETCH STANDARDS 4-2-15
Inspectors 6-15-2 INTERIOR DIMENSIONS 8-11-2
Organization and Inspection Preparation 6-15-2 Design, Tunnels 1-8-2
Reporting 18-3-36 INTERIOR, FINISH 6-3-8, 6-8-16
Reports 6-15-5 INTERLOCKING 15-6-15
Sketch for Identification of Members 15-7-24 INTERLOCKING SYSTEM 17-6-7
Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-13 INTERMODAL FACILITY
Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-6 Design of 14-4-13
Structural Protection 8-21-5 INTERMODAL STATIONS 6-8-14
and Tests INTERNAL COMBUSTION 15-6-77
Waterproofing 8-29-20 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS 8-14-13
of Timber Structures 7-3-1 INTRODUCTION 5-9-2, 15-10-3, 18-1-2, 33-8-2, 16-4-2
of Timber Trestle Railway Bridges, Instructions 7-3-13 Accounting 16-12-4
Welded Work 15-3-20 Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-2-117 Bridge and Drainage Structures 12-4-36
INSPECTION AND REJECTION 33-7-10 Bulk-fluids 14-4-49
INSPECTION CHECK LIST 18-2-12 Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
INSPECTION DOORS 8-11-6 Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1
INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Concrete Structures, Repair and Rehabilitation 8-14-3
General 17-7-3 Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and
Signals 17-7-3 Aprons and Requisites Therefore 1-4-68
Structures 17-7-3 Construction, Bridge Bearings 15-11-1
Track 17-7-3 Contact Wire Ampacity 33-4-21
Traction Power 17-7-3 Damproofing 8-29-28
INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES Defect Detector Systems, Economics and Location 16-5-2
General 8-21-1 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-2
INSPECTION OVERVIEW 18-3-10 Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2
INSPECTION PITS 14-5-6 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3
INSPECTION PLAN 36 Design of Intermodal Facilities 14-4-13
INSPECTION PROCEDURES 18-2-11 Direct Fixation 12-4-98
Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic Economics and Location of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2
Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-69 Energy Conservation and Audits 6-5-2
INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF Equated Mileage Parameters 16-11-2
CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL 4-3-51 Fastenings 30-1-9
INSPECTIONS 6-15-3 Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-3
Results of 18-3-36 Flexural Strength 8-17-26
INSPECTOR AUTHORITY 15-3-20 Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-3
INSPECTORS, RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-15-2 General Considerations, Engineered Composite Ties
INSTALLATION 30-5-2
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2 General Considerations, Ties 30-1-3
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates General Information, Rail Transit 12-1-2
1-4-90 Geocomposite Drainage System Specifications for
of High Strength Bolts 15-3-10 Railroad Applications 1-10-18
of Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-2
Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-16 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Track
Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-28 Separation/Stabilization Applications 1-10-2
of Piles 8-4-14 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Drainage
of Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-4 Applications 1-10-8
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-12 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Erosion Control
INSTALLATION VERIFICATION TESTING 33-6-29 Applications 1-10-13

Index
INTRODUCTION (CONT) JOINING OF RAIL (CONT)

Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel Railway Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32
Bridges 15-8-28 Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated
High Speed Rail Systems 17-1-1 Rail Joints 4-3-38
Hydraulics of Culverts 1-4-29 Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars,
Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-1 Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise
Locomotive Sanding Facilities 6-6-2 Joint Bars 4-3-15
Notes on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-6 Specifications for Spring Washers 4-3-29
Observation Towers 6-10-2 JOINT
Organization 16-8-2 Expansion, in Walls 8-1-28
Planning, Budgeting and Control 16-15-2 JOINT BARS
Program Development 16-9-2 and Assemblies 4-3-5
Programming Work 16-9-2 Quenched Carbon-Steel, Microalloyed, and Forged
Public Improvement Costs and Benefits 16-7-1 Compromise 4-3-15
Rail Transit 12-1-1 JOINT BEAMS, PERMANENT 8-25-9
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail JOINT FACILITIES 16-12-24
Testing 4-4-60 JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Recommended Practices for Measuring Rail Wear 12-2-12, 17-2-4
Parameters 2-2-38 JOINT RAILROAD/TRANSIT OPERATION 12-4-36
Recommended Practices for Using, Redressing, Sharpening JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2
and Replacing Handles in Track Tools 5-6-57 JOINTED TRACK AND WHERE TEMPERATURE EXPANSION
Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication IS PROVIDED 5-5-19
Facilities 14-7-4 JOINTING, TYPES OF 8-1-28
Safety/Security, Rail Transit 12-1-3 JOINTS
Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97 Construction 8-1-29, 8-1-44, 8-1-46
Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-1-3 Construction of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11
Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems 6-14-2 Contraction 8-1-29
Taxes 16-14-2 Expansion 8-1-28
Tunnels 16-10-23 Watertight Construction 8-1-30
INVENTORY 9-2-22 JOURNAL BEARINGS 15-6-36
1
INVENTORY OF PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT 16-15-6 JOURNALS 15-6-101
INVERTS AND APRONS 1-4-70
INVESTMENT TAX CREDIT (ITC) 16-14-6
IRS SUBMISSIONS 16-14-5 K
ISOLATION OF RCL OPERATIONS 14-2-35
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING AND USING KEYS
TQIS 2-3-16 and Keyways for Machinery Parts 15-6-43
KEYS AND KEYWAYS 15-6-102 3
J KEYS FOR TRUNNIONS 15-6-44
KNOTS
JACKING OPERATION 6-4-15 and Holes 7-2-6
JACKING SYSTEMS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT 6-3-9
JIB CRANES 6-3-10 L
JOINING OF RAIL 4-3-1
Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
LABORATORY QUALIFYING TESTS 5-9-3 4
Application Procedures 4-3-32
Introduction 4-3-31 LABORATORY TESTING
Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Of Fasteners for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-17
Welded or Brazed Applications 4-3-31 LACING
General Characteristics of a Rail Joint 4-3-4 Bars 15-3-7
General Specification for In-Track Rail Welding Using and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and
Electric Flash Butt (EFB) Welding Equipment 4-3-43 Compression Members 15-1-48
Inspection and Classification of Secondhand Rail for LADDER TRACK YARDS WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL
Welding 4-3-53 14-2-28
Joint Bars and Assemblies 4-3-5 LADLE ANALYSIS 4-3-20, 5-2-2
Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts 4-3-13 LAITANCE 8-11-7
Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail Removing 8-1-43
4-3-49 LAMPS 33-10-19
Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts LAND AVAILABILITY 12-2-13, 12-2-14, 17-2-4
and Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19 LAND FOR TRANSPORTATION PURPOSES, ACCOUNT 2
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash 16-12-5
Butt Welding of Rail 4-3-46 LANDSCAPING
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-4
Welding of Rail 4-3-55 Passenger Facilities 17-4-3

Index
LANDSCAPING (CONT) LINING RAILWAY TUNNELS (CONT)

Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair Design 8-11-2
and Servicing Facilities 6-13-3 Conduit and Inserts 8-11-6
Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3 Construction and Expansion Joints 8-11-5
LAP SPLICES 8-2-31 Drains 8-11-6
LATERAL BRACING 15-1-61 Floors 8-11-2
L ATERAL D ISPLACEMENTS AND S UPERELEVATION 33-2-10 Interior Dimensions 8-11-2
LATERAL FORCES 7-2-53 Preliminary Data 8-11-2
For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-53 Refuge Niches 8-11-6
Other 7-2-119 Sidewalls and Arch 8-11-3
LATERAL FORCES FROM EQUIPMENT 15-1-20 Forms 8-11-6
LATERAL LOADS 30-1-7 Filling 8-11-6
Distribution 30-1-7 General 8-11-6
Environmental 30-1-7 Inspection Doors 8-11-6
LATERAL RAIL RESTRAINT 30-4-26 Removal 8-11-6
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT 8-2-21 General 8-11-2
LATERAL STREAM 1-3-23 Scope 8-11-2
LATERAL SUPPORT 8-4-6 LINING AND SURFACING TRACK 5-8-10
LAWS AND PERMITS 15-4-10 LININGS 15-6-36, 15-6-102
LAY 15-6-72 LIVE 8-16-9
LAYING LIVE LOAD 7-2-51, 7-2-118, 8-16-20, 8-19-4, 15-1-17,
and Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6 15-6-18
Procedure for Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) on For the Design of Temporary Structures 7-2-146
Existing Track 5-5-8 For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-51
Rail 5-5-4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY 8-19-2
LAYOVER YARDS 12-4-34, 17-4-4 LOAD COMBINATIONS 8-19-9
LEAD AGENCIES, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-16 LOAD DISTRIBUTION 30-1-5
LEGAL CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS 28-3-19 LOAD ENVIRONMENT 30-1-3
LEGENDS FOR ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4 LOAD FACTOR
LENGTH 4-2 Design 8-2-48
Determination, Pile 8-4-6 LOAD FACTORS 8-26-17, 8-17-18
Steel Rails 4-2-19 LOAD GAUGE 33-2-10
LEVEL TANGENT TRACK 16-2-3 LOADING 1-2-13, 4-2-24
LICENSE OR EASEMENT APPLICATIONS (HIGHWAY – Combination 8-2-15
STREET – ROADWAYS) 5-8-14 Live and Dead 1-4-7
LIFE CYCLE COSTS 6-5-12 Tests 8-4-8
LIFE SAFETY 6-2-17 LOADING CONDITIONS
LIFT TRUCKS For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-6
In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6 LOADS 1-4-58, 8-3-4, 8-4-2, 8-4-17, 8-5-3, 8-10-4,
LIGHT DENSITY AND SHORT LINE RAILWAYS 18-i 8-20-3, 15-8-17, 15-8-27
LIGHTING and Forces 7-2-51
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4 Column 8-3-16
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-18 Combined Axial and Bending 7-2-70
Electricial Equipment 6-2-16 Computing Curve Offsets on 28-3-18
For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-5 Eccentric
and Power 6-3-8 In One Direction 8-3-12
Sand Facility 6-6-10 In Two Directions 8-3-13, 8-3-14
Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) Eccentricity 8-4-3
14-2-35 Exclusive of Earth Pressure 8-5-4
LIGHTING OF FIXED PROPERTIES 33-10-8 and Forces 7-2-118, 8-19-4, 8-19-9, 15-1-13, 15-7-14
LIMITED ACCESS HIGHWAYS, PARALLEL RAILWAYS AND Information Required 8-28-4
HIGHWAYS 5-8-13 On Piles 8-4-3
LIMITING TEST VALUES 1-2-11 Other 8-19-4
LINE and Stresses 15-8-4
Bearing Load 15-6-31 LOADS AND FORCES
LINING For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-51
Tunnels 1-8-6 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES
LINING RAILWAY TUNNELS 8-11-1 For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-51
Concrete 8-11-7 LOCAL SCOUR 1-3-22
Consolidation 8-11-7 LOCAL ZONE, DESIGN OF 8-17-43
Drainage During Placing 8-11-7 LOCAL ZONE, AND GENERAL ZONE 8-17-35
Laitance and Bonding 8-11-7 LOCALIZED REPAIRS 1-4-79
Order of Placing 8-11-7
Shotcrete 8-11-7
Specification 8-11-7

Index
LOCATION 4-2 LOCOMOTIVE FACILITIES (CONT)

of Defect Detectors 16-5-5 Fueling Stations 14-5-5
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2 Sanding 14-5-5
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Site Selection 14-5-3
Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-3 Track Layout 14-5-3
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3 LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE 33-1-7
of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-10 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANICAL INTERACTION WITH THE
Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair CATENARY 33-8-9
and Servicing Facilities 6-13-1 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-10
Railway 16-1-1 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS -
Roadway Signs 1-7-2 COMBINED COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP 6-13-8
Sand Facility 6-6-10 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP AND/OR COACH SHOP, STRUCTURAL
Site Considerations 6-2-3 REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9
LOCATION OF METERING EQUIPMENT 33-6-28 LOCOMOTIVES 16-4-2
LOCKER AND TOILET FACILITIES 6-4-16 Account 52 16-12-18
LOCKER ROOM 6-9-10 Capacity 16-3-3
LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING MAINTENANCE OF Classification 16-3-4
ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56 Deicing 6-4-19
Definitions 27-2-56 Diesel 16-2-19
General 27-2-56 Diesel-Electric 16-3-11
Procedures 27-2-58 Electric 16-2-16, 16-3-4
Requirements 27-2-57 Gas Turbine-Electric 16-3-16
LOCOMOTIVE ELECTRIC INTERACTION WITH THE Progression Systems 6-4-15
CATENARY 33-8-2 Toilet Servicing 6-4-19
LOCOMOTIVE FACILITIES 14-5-1, 33-1-4 Washing 6-4-18
Buildings 14-5-3 LONG-TERM ELEVATION STREAMBED CHANGES
Design Considerations 14-5-4 (AGGRADATION AND DEGRADATION) 1-3-21
Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric 14-5-7 LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS 8-26-12
Shop Building and Appurtenances 14-5-7 LONGITUDINAL FORCE 7-2-119, 15-9-12, 15-1-21,
General 14-5-2 15-9-44
1
Buildings 14-5-3 LONGITUDINAL FORCES 8-19-1
Design Considerations 14-5-4 LONGITUDINAL LOAD 30-1-8
Miscellaneous Facilities 14-5-4 Distribution 30-1-8
Requirements 14-5-2 Environment 30-1-8
Site Selection 14-5-3 LONGITUDINAL RAIL RESTRAINT 5-9-5, 30-4-26
Track Layout 14-5-3 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT 8-2-21
Inspection Pits 14-5-6 LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS 15-1-70
General 14-5-6 LONGITUDINAL THRUST 15-6-40 3
Main Line Fueling 14-5-8 LONGITUDINAL VERTICAL TRACK GEOMETRY 2-1-6
Common Design Considerations 14-5-10 LONG-TERM PLANNING 16-15-6
General Considerations 14-5-8 LOSS OF PRESTRESS 8-17-21
Types of Fueling Facilities 14-5-9 LOW HEAT INPUT 5-5-26
Requirements 14-5-2 LUBRICANTS AND/OR FRICTION MODIFIERS 4-4-80
Sanding 6-6-1 LUBRICATING OIL
Introduction 6-6-2 Drainage 6-4-17
General 6-6-2 Supply 6-4-17 4
Sanding Facility 6-6-7 LUBRICATION 15-6-38, 15-6-107
Air Loading 6-6-10 Rail 16-2-8
Air Pressure 6-6-9 of Wire Ropes During Fabrication 15-6-72
Capacity 6-6-7 LUBRICATION OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-13
Dryers 6-6-8 LUMBER AND TIMBER, STRUCTURAL GRADES AND
Elevating Pipe 6-6-9 METHOD OF DERIVATION 7-1-8
Elevating Tanks 6-6-9 LUMBER INDUSTRY ABBREVIATIONS 7-1-3
Gravity Loading Lines 6-6-9 LUNCH ROOM 6-9-10, 6-11-4
Lighting 6-6-10
Location 6-6-10
Nozzles 6-6-10 M
Platform 6-6-10
Sand Cocks 6-6-9
MACHINE AND MATERIAL HANDLING, CENTRALIZED
Storage and Service Tanks 6-6-7 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS 6-9-9
Track 6-6-10 MACHINE MAINTENANCE AREA, CENTRALIZED
Transfer from Storage to Servicing Tanks 6-6-8 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS 6-9-4
Unloading 6-6-8 MACHINE MOLDING 15-6-102
Servicing Facilities 14-5-5 MACHINE SHOP 6-9-7

Index
MACHINERY 15-6-36 MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES FOR

Design 15-6-22 PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE 6-13-1
and Hydraulic Design 15-6-6 Electrical Requirements 6-13-11
and Hydraulic Drawings 15-6-6 Functional Requirements 6-13-3
Losses 15-6-21 Illustrations 6-13-11
Manufacture 15-6-101 Maintenance and Repair Areas 6-13-6
Parts 15-6-28 Mechanical Requirements 6-13-9
Resistances 15-6-20 Site Considerations 6-13-2
Supports 15-6-22 Special Equipment 6-13-9
MACHINES 15-6-76 Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5
MACHINES AREA, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CENTRALIZED Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS Shop 6-13-7
Large 6-9-4 Structural Requirements 6-13-9
Medium 6-9-4 MAINTENANCE OF TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-3-1
Small 6-9-4 MAINTENANCE OF WAY CHANGES 33-1-8
MACRO SITE SELECTION 6-16-2 MAINTENANCE OF WAY CONSIDERATIONS 11-7-1, 17-7-1
MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES, TYPES OF 6-16-3 Facility Maintenance Operations 11-7-3, 17-7-5
MAINTENANCE 1-1-48, 15-7-28, 33-10-15, 16-8-4 General Information 11-7-1, 17-7-3
of Bridges with Continuous Welded Rail 15-8-16 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 11-7-2, 17-7-3
of Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) in Track 5-5-14 Maintenance Philosophy 11-7-2, 17-7-3
of Earth Slopes 1-1-58 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations 11-7-3, 17-7-5
Painting 15-7-28 Right of Way Maintenance 11-7-2, 17-7-3
Philosophy 17-3-4, 17-4-4 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations
Practices 1-2-15 11-7-3, 17-7-4
of Roadbed 1-1-48 Structures Maintenance Operations 11-7-2, 17-7-4
of Rock Slopes 1-1-56 Track Maintenance Limits 11-7-2, 17-7-3
of Structural Elements 15-7-28 Track Maintenance Operations 11-7-2, 17-7-4
Tunnels 16-10-23 MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT 17-7-3
MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY 11-3-13, 11-7-2, 12-3-13, MAINTENANCE OF WAY SHOPS 12-4-34, 17-4-4
12-4-18, 17-7-3 MAINTENANCE OF WAY WORK EQUIPMENT 27-i
Effects on Adjacent Land Uses 17-7-3 M AINTENANCE OF WAY - W ORK E QUIPMENT B ULLETIN 27-2-21
Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers 17-7-3 MAINTENANCE, PLANNED 16-8-2
General 17-7-3 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY 1-7-2
Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs 17-7-3 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ANNUAL EXPENSE BUDGET
Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions 17-7-3 16-15-10
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES THAT CAN ADVERSELY MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY CAPITAL BUDGET 16-15-8
EFFECT CLEARANCES 28-3-67 MAJOR BRIDGE COMPONENTS 18-3-31
MAINTENANCE OF RAIL 4-4-1 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS 18-3-30
Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends 4-4-95 MANHOLES 8-10-3
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-4 MANPOWER OPERATION 15-6-76
Illustrations of Shells and Related Gage Corner MANUFACTURE 4-2-3, 4-3-15, 5-1-2, 5-6-14, 5-10-2,
Developments 4-4-58 8-6-4, 8-6-5, 33-7-8
Rail Grinding Best Practices 4-4-82 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection Welding of Rail 4-3-55
System 4-4-71 Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars,
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise
Testing 4-4-61 Joint Bars 4-3-15
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-5
4-4-95 MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION 4-2
Friction Measurement Systems 4-4-99 MANUFACTURE OF CALIBRATION RAILS 4-4-64
General 4-4-95 MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST UNITS 8-16-15
Lubricants and/or Friction Modifiers 4-4-100 MANUFACTURE OF RAIL 4-2-1
Measuring Friction Control Effectiveness 4-4-96 Specifications for Steel Rails 4-2-3
Scope 4-4-95 MANUFACTURER 15-6-71
Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-7
M ANUFACTURERS R EQUIREMENTS FOR PARTS B OOKS 27-1-21
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF
4-4-68 CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL 4-3-49
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing MAPS
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track 4-4-65 Base Acceleration Coefficient 9-1-11
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in MARINE PROTECTION 12-4-42
CWR 4-4-80 MARKING 4-3-25, 4-3-38, 4-3-42, 5-1-5, 5-2-4, 5-10-4,
Reconditioning Rail Ends 4-4-95 33-7-15, 33-7-21, 33-7-27
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS 4-3 Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-14
and Stamping 4-3-18

Index
MARKING, PACKAGING AND LOADING 15-3-21 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR LUMBER, PILES, GLUED
MARKINGS 4-2-24 LAMINATED TIMBER AND FASTENERS (CONT)
MASONRY 15-1-41 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-25
Structures, Inspection of 8-21-1 MATERIAL WELDABILITY 15-1-60
MATCH MARKING 15-3-15 MATERIAL YARDS 12-4-35, 17-4-4
MATERIAL 1-4-10, 1-4-18, 1-4-24, 1-4-27, 1-4-83, MATERIALS 1-2-9, 8-16-4, 15-1-8
4-3-29, 5-6-13, 7-2-124, 15-6-13, 27-2-24 Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2 Concrete 8-2-16, 8-17-10
Concrete Ties 30-4-9 for Dampproofing 8-29-28
Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3 Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-13
Handling Platform 6-4-16 Driving Timber Piles 7-3-6
Handling, Timber Piles 7-3-6 Elastomeric Bearings 15-11-12
Requirements and Fabrication 8-17-49
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for For Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-7
Railroad Use 1-10-25 and General Requirements 8-17-4
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-10 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-15 High Strength Concrete 8-1-52, 8-1-59
Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-4 for Machinery and Similar Parts 15-6-16
System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-20 Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-10-29, 15-11-17
Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10 Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-39
Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-17 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement 8-17-11
Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-28 Penetrating Water Repellent 8-1-51
Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP 33-7-12, 33-7-17, Prestressing Tendons 8-17-10
33-7-24 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14, 15-11-9
MATERIAL INVENTORY RECORDS 18-1-7 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-3
MATERIAL ORDERS AND SHIPPING STATEMENTS 15-3-3 Reinforcing Steel 8-17-53
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS 1-10-4, 1-10-10, 1-10-15, General 8-17-53
1-10-20, 1-10-25 Rigid Ducts 8-17-12 1
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR LUMBER, PILES, GLUED Roadway Signs 1-7-4
LAMINATED TIMBER AND FASTENERS 7-1-1 Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6
American Softwood Lumber Standards PS 20-70 7-1-3 Storage of, Concrete 8-1-22
Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-6 Subgrade 8-27-7
General 7-1-6 Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-11
Lumber Industry Abbreviations 7-1-3 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AREA 6-9-10
Nomenclature of Commercial Domestic Hardwoods and MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
Softwoods 7-1-3 Design Criteria for 6-7-1
Ordering Structural Lumber 7-1-7 Environmental Planning for 6-7-5
3
Inquiry or Purchase Order 7-1-7 Exterior Storage 6-7-6
Specifications and Recommended Practice for Overhead Fire Protection 6-7-6
and Other Highway Bridges (1960 and 1962) 7-1-13 Flammable and Hazardous Materials 6-7-6
Specifications for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-4 Fuel Operated Lift Trucks 6-7-6
Structural Glued Laminated Timber - Glulam 7-1-4 Functional Requirements 6-7-3
Specifications for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Lighting 6-7-5
Wood 7-1-13 Office, Welfare and Building Services 6-7-5
Application Requirements and Instructions 7-1-14 Site Considerations 6-7-2 4
General Product Requirements 7-1-13 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILTIES
Scope 7-1-13 Battery-Charging Area 6-7-6
Testing 7-1-15 MATERIALS AND MIXING, MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52
Specifications for Structural Lumber 7-1-3 MATERIALS NOT INCLUDED IN THIS RECOMMENDED
General 7-1-3 PRACTICE, OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-10
Specifications for Timber Piles 7-1-8 MATERIALS QUALITY CONTROL 8-25-9
Classification of Piles 7-1-8 MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
General Provisions 7-1-8 8-1-1
General Requirement for All Piles 7-1-10 Aggregates 8-1-9
Inquiries and Purchase Orders 7-1-12 Fine Aggregates 8-1-10
Special Requirements for First-Class Piles 7-1-11 General 8-1-9
Special Requirements for Second-Class Piles 7-1-12 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural
Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles 7-1-22 Concrete 8-1-14
Material 7-1-22 Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate 8-1-12
Types of Fasteners 7-1-23 Cement 8-1-7
Use of Protective Coatings for Steel Fasteners and General 8-1-7
Timber Bridges 7-1-24 Quality, Sampling and Testing 8-1-9
Structural Grades of Lumber and Timber and Method of Specifications 8-1-7
Their Derivation 7-1-8 Commentary 8-1-55

Index
MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
(CONT) (CONT)
Aggregates 8-1-55 Continuous Work 8-1-42
Concrete Admixtures 8-1-57 General 8-1-41
Fly Ash as an Admixture to Concrete 8-1-57 Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive
Curing 8-1-48 Concrete 8-1-42
Membrane Curing 8-1-50 Methods of Depositing 8-1-42
High Strength Concrete 8-1-59 Mixing 8-1-37
Concrete Mixture Proportions 8-1-61 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42
General 8-1-59 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42
Materials 8-1-59 Removing Laitance 8-1-43
Penetrating Water Repellant Treatment of Concrete Soundings 8-1-43
Surfaces Standard Specifications 8-1-41
Application 8-1-59 Details of Reinforcement 8-1-25
Environmental Requirements 8-1-58 Fabrication 8-1-25
Quality Assurance 8-1-59 Placing of Reinforcement 8-1-26
Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 8-1-28
Surfaces 8-1-58 Future Bonding 8-1-28
General 8-1-58 Provisions for Seismic Loading 8-1-25
Surface Preparation 8-1-58 Spacing of Reinforcement 8-1-27
Reinforcement 8-1-55 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement 8-1-25
Bending and Straightening 8-1-56 Formed Surface Finish 8-1-51
Repairs and Anchorage Using Expoxy Materials 8-1-59 General 8-1-51
Concrete Admixtures 8-1-20 Rubbed Finish 8-1-52
General 8-1-20 Forms 8-1-23
Types of Admixtures 8-1-20 Construction 8-1-23
Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water 8-1-45 Design 8-1-21
Concrete for Moderate Exposure 8-1-45 Form Coating and Release 8-1-24
Concrete for Severe Exposure 8-1-45 General 8-1-23
Concrete for Very Severe Exposure 8-1-45 Moldings 8-1-24
Condition of Exposure 8-1-45 Removal 8-1-24
Construction Joints 8-1-46 Safety 8-1-21
Minimum Cover 8-1-46 Temporary Openings 8-1-24
Placement of Concrete 8-1-46 General 8-1-6
Concrete in Sea Water 8-1-44 Acceptability 8-1-7
Concrete 8-1-44 ASTM - International 8-1-7
Construction Joints 8-1-44 Defective Materials 8-1-7
Depositing in Sea Water 8-1-44 Equipment 8-1-7
Minimum Cover 8-1-44 Purpose 8-1-6
Protecting Concrete in Sea Water 8-1-44 Scope 8-1-6
Concrete Jointing 8-1-28 Selection of Materials 8-1-7
Construction Joints 8-1-29 Terms 8-1-6
Contraction Joints 8-1-29 Test of Materials 8-1-7
Expansion Joint in Walls 8-1-28 High Strength Concrete 8-1-52
Expansion Joints 8-1-28 Concrete Mixture Proportions 8-1-53
Scope 8-1-28 General 8-1-52
Types of Jointing 8-1-28 Materials 8-1-52
Watertight Construction Joints 8-1-30 Mixing 8-1-37
Curing 8-1-48 Bonding 8-1-40
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-51 Chuting 8-1-38
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Compacting 8-1-39
Blast-Furnace Slag 8-1-51 Continuous Depositing 8-1-40
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-51 Delivery 8-1-37
General 8-1-48 Depositing Concrete 8-1-38
Hot Weather Curing 8-1-49 General 8-1-37
Membrane Curing 8-1-50 Handling and Placing 8-1-37
Steam Curing 8-1-50 Pheumatic Placing (Shotcreting) 8-1-38
Wet Curing 8-1-49 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42
Decorative Finishes 8-1-53 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42
Depositing Concrete Under Water 8-1-42 Placing Cyclopean Concrete 8-1-42
Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms 8-1-42 Placing Rubble Concrete 8-1-42
Capacity of Plant 8-1-41 Pumping Concrete 8-1-38
Cement 8-1-41 Ready-Mixed Concrete 8-1-37
Coarse Aggregates 8-1-41 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
Concrete Seals 8-1-44 8-1-38

Index
MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS MEASUREMENT (CONT)

(CONT) of Materials
Sitemixed Concrete 8-1-37 Cement 8-1-31
Temperature 8-1-40 and Payment 1-2-15, 1-2-25
Water Gain 8-1-41 Cellular Confinement System Specifications for
Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9 Railroad Use 1-10-27
Acceptability 8-1-9 Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-14
Documentation 8-1-10 Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-19
General 8-1-9 Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-9
Materials Not Included in This Recommended System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-22
Practice 8-1-10 MEASUREMENT FREQUENCY PRACTICES FOR TRACK
Specifications 8-1-9 GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLES 2-4-1
Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Common Industry Practice 2-4-2
Surfaces 8-1-50 Railroads 2-4-2
Application 8-1-50 Summary 2-4-3
Deliver, Storage and Handling 8-1-52 Transit Systems 2-4-3
Environmental Requirements 8-1-50 Yards, Terminals and Sidings 2-4-2
General 8-1-50 Factors to Consider 2-4-1
Materials 8-1-51 MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY, RAIL WEAR
Quality Assurance 8-1-51 PARAMETERS 2-2-39
Surface Preparation 8-1-50 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 1-10-22
Proportioning 8-1-31 MEASURING AGAINST THE PERFORMANCE GUIDELINES 4-4-62
Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete 8-1-33 MEASURING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 6-5-8
Compression Tests 8-1-35 MEASURING EXCESS DIMENSION LOADS
Field Tests 8-1-35 Field Handbook 28-3-48
General 8-1-31 Instructions 28-3-49
Measurement of Materials 8-1-31 MEASURING FRICTION CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS 4-4-77
Slump 8-1-35 MEASURING HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING (HVAC) 6-5-10
Special Provisions When Using Cementitious
Materials Other Than Portland Cement 8-1-34 MEASURING RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS, RECOMMENDED 1
Strength of Concrete Mixtures 8-1-33 PRACTICES FOR 2-2-38
Water-Cementitious Material Ratio 8-1-31 Accuracy & Calibration 2-2-39
Workability 8-1-35 Distance Between Rail Wear Measurements 2-2-39
Reinforcement 8-1-17 Frequency of Measurement 2-2-39
Bending and Straightening 8-1-20 Introduction 2-2-38
General 8-1-17 Measurement Methodology 2-2-39
Specifications 8-1-18 MEASURING RAILWAY BUILDING AND FACILITY SHOP
Welding 8-1-17 LOSSES 6-5-8 3
Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-52 MEASURING RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES, METHODS
Storage of Materials 8-1-22 28-3-28
Aggregates 8-1-22 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE 8-2-29
Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS 8-2-31
8-1-19 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ENGINEERED
Reinforcement 8-1-23 COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4
Unformed Surface Finish 8-1-52 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RAILS 4-2-4
General 8-1-52 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS, HEAT-TREATED CARBON 4
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-53 STEEL TRACK BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated 4-3-20
Blast-Furnace Slag 8-1-52 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS, PASSENGER RAIL
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-52 (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
Sidewalk Finish 8-1-52 SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-9
Water 8-1-17 MECHANICAL STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF SPRING
General 8-1-17 WASHERS 4-3-29
Mortar Strength Tests 8-1-17 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 14-6-13, 17-4-3
MAXIMUM MOMENT 8-20-11 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-17
MAXIMUM NO-LOAD SUBSTATION VOLTAGE 33-3-2 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND SPECIALIZED
MAXIMUM PRESTRESSING STEEL 8-17-28 EQUIPMENT 6-3-7
MAXIMUM RATING 8-19-2 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENT 8-7-1
MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-2-49 Definitions 8-7-2
MAXIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2 General 8-7-2
MEANS OF PROTECTING ROADBED AND BRIDGES FROM MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENTS
WASHOUTS AND FLOODS 1-3-32 Construction 8-7-3
MEASUREMENT Design of 8-7-2
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90 Special Considerations 8-7-2
Frequency of 2-2-39 MEDIUM (SECONDARY) VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR 33-6-25

Index
MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN AXIAL TENSION OR MICRO SITE SELECTION 6-16-2

COMPRESSION 15-1-46 MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS 6-5-5
MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN BENDING 15-1-50 MILEAGE PARAMETERS, EQUATED 16-11-1
Composite Steel and Concrete Spans 15-1-56 MILITARY VEHICLES 14-4-38
Flange Sections 15-1-51 MILL OR SHOP INSPECTION 1-4-16
Flange Splices 15-1-53 MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER 8-2-17
Flange-To-Web Connection of Plate Girders 15-1-52 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER 8-2-18, 8-17-12
Proportioning Girders and Beams 15-1-50 MINIMUM PIPE STRENGTH 8-10-12
Rigid Frame Structures 15-1-60 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT 8-17-29
Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 15-1-53 MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 8-2-20
Thickness of Web Plates 15-1-51 MINIMUM SPACING OF FASTENERS 15-1-58
Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and MINIMUM TANGENT LENGTHS REQUIRED BETWEEN
Longitudinal) 15-1-54 REVERSE CURVES FOR YARD OPERATIONS 5-3-14
Web Splices 15-1-53 MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2
MEMBRANES 8-29-14, 8-29-21 MISCELLANEOUS 27-2-14
Protection 8-29-17 Considerations, Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-9
MERCHANDISE TERMINAL 14-4-59 Facilities 14-5-4
METAL GAGE SIDE GUARD RAILS 7-3-45 Plans for Drive Spikes 5-10-5
METAL PROTECTION 7-3-41 General 5-10-5
METAL TO METAL CONTACT STRIKING TOOLS 5-6-5 Power 33-1-6
METAL TO METAL CONTACT STRUCK TOOLS 5-6-6 Rail 4-5-1
METALS, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4 Rail Information 4-5-1
METERIALS Recommended Practice for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6
Stabilized Subbase for Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-7 Abrasive Wheel Mounting 5-10-8
METHOD OF CALCULATING AMPACITY 33-4-21 Cross Grinding Rail Ends 5-10-10
METHOD OF DETERMINING RAIL BOND SIZES – ELECTRIC General 5-10-4
TRACTION 33-7-4 General Safety 5-10-6
METHOD OF SLOW BEND TEST, APPENDIX 1 4-3-42 Grinding Equipment 5-10-9
METHOD OF TESTING 4-3-29 Grinding Frogs, Track Crossing and Switch Points
METHODOLOGY, PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 16-9-3 5-10-10
METHODS 1-3-6 Grinding Practice 5-10-9
of Analysis 16-9-6 Grinding Rail End Surface Welds 5-10-10
of Application, Dampproofing 8-29-29 Grinding Stock Rails 5-10-10
of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21 Grinding Welded Engine Burns and Thermite Butt
for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Tool Welds 5-10-10
Striking Faces 5-6-54 Operation 5-10-8
for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Tool Struck Rail Cutting 5-10-11
Faces 5-6-55 Scope 5-10-6
of Extending Rail Life 16-10-8 Storage 5-10-7
of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-41 Wheel Markings 5-10-7
of Increasing Stability 8-25-6 Specifications for Steel Drive Spikes 5-10-2
of Joining and Laying Rail 16-10-7 Bending Properties 5-10-3
of Measuring Railway Line Clearances 28-3-28 Chemical Composition 5-10-2
of Opening Snow Blockades 1-1-64 Finish 5-10-3
and Procedures, Clearances 28-3-1 Inspection 5-10-4
of Rehabilitation 1-4-78 Manufacture 5-10-2
of Shortening of Eyebars to Equalize the Stress 15-8-9, Marking 5-10-4
15-9-55 Number of Tests 5-10-3
of Tamping 5-5-23 Permissible Variations in Dimensions 5-10-3
of Testing 4-3-29 Process 5-10-2
Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19 Rejection 5-10-4
of Unloading and Distributing Ballast 1-2-15, 16-10-14 Retests 5-10-3
METHODS OF ANALYSIS, SEGMENTAL BRIDGES 8-26-8 Scope 5-10-2
METRIC UNITS 8-16-11 Supplementary Requirement 5-10-4
METRICATION M-1 Tensile Properties 5-10-3
Conversion M-3 Track 5-10-1
Introduction to SI Units M-2 MISFITS 15-4-7
Metric Measurement Units M-2 MISMANUFACTURE 7-2-8
Numerals M-3 MIXED PASSENGER TRANSIT AND FREIGHT 11-3-2,
Prefixes for SI Unit Multiples M-2 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Quantity Symbols vs. Unit Symbols M-4 MIXING
References M-4 Concrete 8-1-37
SI Writing Style M-3 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN 8-3-14
Significant Digits M-3 MODIFICATION TO SERVICE - PROVEN TECHNOLOGY 17-5-2
MODIFICATIONS TO CLEARANCES REPORTING 28-3-57

Index
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY 8-2-34 MOVABLE BRIDGES (CONT)

MOISTURE CONTENT 7-2-8 Set Screws 15-6-45
MOLDINGS 8-1-24 Shaft Couplings 15-6-40
MONITORING RESULTS 16-9-15 Shafts 15-6-39
MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-49
General 8-17-52 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-46
Materials and Mixing 8-17-52 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-50
Placing and Curing 8-17-52 Speed Reducers 15-6-37
MORTAR STRENGTH Springs 15-6-46
Tests 8-1-17 Step Bearings 15-6-36
MOTIVE POWER, TYPES 16-3-2 Strength of Gear Teeth 15-6-41
MOTIVE POWER MAINTENANCE FACILITIES 33-1-4 Tapped Holes 15-6-45
MOTIVE POWER UNITS 33-1-4 Worm Gearing 15-6-43
MOTOR CAR REPAIR 6-9-6 General Features of Design 15-6-13
MOTOR CONTROL APPARATUS OVERLOAD RELAYS 27-2-44 Aligning and Locking 15-6-14
MOVABLE BRIDGES 15-6-1 Counterweights 15-6-14
Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures Emergency Operation 15-6-15
15-6-28 Houses for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment,
Bearing 15-6-29 Electrical Equipment and Signal Devices 15-6-15
Bolts in Tension 15-6-32 Insulation of Track 15-6-15
Heating and Seizing 15-6-30 Interlocking 15-6-15
Hydraulic Systems and Components 15-6-32 Material 15-6-13
Line Bearing Load 15-6-31 Materials for Machinery and Similar Parts 15-6-16
Machinery Parts 15-6-28 Rail Ends 15-6-17
Shafts 15-6-31 Stairways, Walks, and Elevators 15-6-16
Structural Parts 15-6-28 Standby Power 15-6-15
Erection 15-6-105 Types of Bridges 15-6-14
Bridge Operator 15-6-109 Loads, Forces and Stresses 15-6-18
Channel Lights 15-6-108 Anchorage 15-6-23
Counterweights 15-6-107 Brakes, and Machinery Design for Braking Forces 15-6-21 1
End Lifting Devices for Swing Spans 15-6-108 End Ties 15-6-18
Erection of Machinery 15-6-105 Fatigue 15-6-18
Erection of Trunnion Bearings and Counterweight Impact Load 15-6-18
Sheave Bearings 15-6-106 Live Load 15-6-18
Erection of Wire Ropes 15-6-107 Machinery Design 15-6-22
Lubrication 15-6-107 Machinery Losses 15-6-21
Painting 15-6-107 Machinery Resistances 15-6-20
Protection of Parts 15-6-106 Machinery Supports 15-6-22 3
Testing 15-6-108 Power Requirements and Machinery Design 15-6-19
General Details 15-6-33 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-24
Air Buffers 15-6-34 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-23
Anti-Friction Bearings 15-6-37 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-25
Bolts and Nuts 15-6-44 Wind Load and Ice Load 15-6-18
Collars 15-6-40 Power Equipment 15-6-76
Compressed Air Devices 15-6-46 Air Brakes 15-6-99
Concrete 15-6-35 Audible Navigation Signals 15-6-100 4
Conterweights 15-6-35 Brakes for Span Operation 15-6-99
Covers 15-6-46 Electric 15-6-78
Drain Holes 15-6-46 Hand Brakes and Foot Brakes 15-6-100
Equalizers 15-6-46 Internal Combustion 15-6-77
Fits and Surface Finishes 15-6-33 Machines 15-6-76
Gear Teeth 15-6-40 Manpower Operation 15-6-76
Hubs 15-6-43 Power Operation 15-6-76
Hydraulic Systems 15-6-53 Proposals and General Requirements 15-6-5
Journal Bearings 15-6-36 Abbreviations 15-6-5
Keys and Keyways for Machinery Parts 15-6-43 Classification of Bridge Work 15-6-9
Keys for Trunnions 15-6-44 Communication 15-6-8
Linings 15-6-36 General 15-6-5
Longitudinal Thrust 15-6-40 Guarantees 15-6-13
Lubrication 15-6-38 Houses 15-6-7
Machinery in General 15-6-36 Machinery and Hydraulic Design 15-6-6
Rail End Connections 15-6-34 Machinery and Hydraulic Drawings 15-6-6
Roller Bearings for Heavy Loads 15-6-36 Optional Requirements 15-6-13
Safety Devices 15-6-46 Parts Included in Glasses 15-6-10
Screw Gearing and Cams 15-6-43

Index
MOVABLE BRIDGES (CONT) MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES (CONT)

Signals and Interlocking 15-6-7 Parking 12-4-10
Time of Opening 15-6-6 Passenger Information/Signage 12-4-11
Warning Lights 15-6-7 Regulatory Requirements 17-4-4
Weight and Center of Gravity 15-6-7 Safety/Security 17-4-4
Wiring Diagrams, Operator’s Instructions, Electrical, Site Considerations 17-4-4
Hydraulic and Mechanical Data Booklets, and Utility Considerations 17-4-4
Lubrication Charts 15-6-8 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES 17-2-4, 17-2-5
Wrenches 15-6-8 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1, 12-2-12
Wire Ropes and Sockets 15-6-71 General 17-2-5
Construction 15-6-72 Rural Stations 17-2-5
Diameter of Rope 15-6-71 Special Use Stations 17-2-5
Facilites for Testing 15-6-75 Suburban Stations 17-2-5
Lay 15-6-72 Types of Interfaces 17-2-5
Lubrication During Fabrication 15-6-72 Urban Stations 17-2-5
Manufacturer 15-6-71 MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES 12-4-7
Operating Ropes 15-6-76 MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARINGS 15-9-56, 15-10-29,
Prestretching 15-6-75 15-11-17
Rejection 15-6-74 MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARINGS FOR BRIDGES 15-11-16
Rope Length 15-6-75 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) TERMINALS 14-4-63
Shipping 15-6-76
Sockets 15-6-75 N
Splices 15-6-72
Ultimate Strength 15-6-74
NAMEPLATES 15-1-15
Wire - Physical Properties 15-6-72
NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION AGENCY OF CANADA
Workmanship 15-6-101
SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS 16-12-25
Air Buffers 15-6-103
NATURAL WATERWAYS 1-3-1
Assembling Machinery in Frames 15-6-103
Basic Concepts and Definitions of Scour 1-3-20
Assembling Machinery on Structural Supports 15-6-103
Balancing of Gears 15-6-103 Contraction Scour 1-3-22
Bearings 15-6-102 Lateral Stream Migration 1-3-23
Bevel Gears 15-6-102 Local Scour 1-3-22
Bolts and Holes 15-6-103 Long-term Elevation Streambed Changes
Couplings 15-6-102 (Aggradation and Degradation) 1-3-21
Gears and Pinions 15-6-102 References for Section 3.4 1-3-24
Grooves in Journals and Linings 15-6-103 Scour 1-3-20
Hubs 15-6-102 Total Scour 1-3-24
Journals 15-6-101 Calculating Scour 1-3-25
Keys and Keyways 15-6-102 Estimating Contraction Scour 1-3-31
Linings 15-6-102 Estimating Local Pier Scour 1-3-43
Machine Molding 15-6-102 Evaluating Local Scour at Abutments 1-3-49
Machinery Manufacture in General 15-6-101 Predicting Aggradation and Degradation 1-3-25
Racks 15-6-101 Predicting Lateral Migration 1-3-28
Shafts 15-6-101 References for Section 3.5 1-3-59
Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-104 Total Scour Calculation Problem 1-3-53
Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-103 Capacity of Waterway Openings 1-3-5
Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-105 General 1-3-5
Worms and Worm Wheels 15-6-102 Methods 1-3-6
MOVABLE OBJECTS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3 Summary 1-3-16
MOVEMENT, RESISTANCE TO 16-2-3 Construction of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir
MSW RAIL HAUL EQUIPMENT 14-4-63 Areas 1-3-34
MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES 11-4-2, 12-4-7, 17-4-3 Determination of Wave Heights 1-3-34
Amenities 12-4-11 Construction of Embankment and Roadbed 1-3-40
Baggage 12-4-11 Construction of Embankment Protection 1-3-41
Car Shops 17-4-4 Drainage Basin Data 1-3-3
Circulation 12-4-10 General 1-3-3
Engine Shops 17-4-4 General 1-3-3
Environmental Requirements 17-4-4 Importance 1-3-3
Functional Requirements 12-4-10, 17-4-4 Scope 1-3-3
General 12-4-7, 17-4-4 Means of Protecting Roadbed and Bridges from
Layover Yards 17-4-4 Washouts and Floods 1-3-32
Maintenance Philosophy 17-4-4 Bridges 1-3-33
Maintenance of Way Shops 17-4-4 General 1-3-32
Material Yards 17-4-4 Roadway 1-3-32
Protecting Roadway and Bridges From Scour 1-3-60

Index
NATURAL WATERWAYS (CONT) OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS 27-2-4

Bridges 1-3-61 OPERATIONS
Countermeasure Design Guidance 1-3-78 Centers 11-6-1, 17-6-2
Countermeasure Selection 1-3-62 and Cost Estimates 17-2-6
Embankment 1-3-60 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility
Negative Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24 6-12-2
NDT LEVEL III OR PROGRAM ADMINISTRATOR Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
REQUIREMENTS 4-4-66 Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-3
NEGATIVE RETURN CIRCUIT 33-12-21 Simulations 12-2-20, 17-2-6
NET SECTION 15-1-43 OPERATIONS RESEARCH, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
NOISE EXPOSURE 27-2-39 ENGINEERING 16-6-7
NOMENCLATURE 1-2-4 OPERATIONS, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 16-10-1
of Commercial Domestic Hardwoods and Softwoods OPERATOR TRAINING METHODS
7-1-3 Background 27-1-22
NOMINAL OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2 OPTIMIZING ELECTRICAL DEMAND 6-5-5
NON-COMPLIANCE 27-2-39 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT 27-2-16, 27-2-21
NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT 8-17-11, 8-17-29 OPTIONAL REQUIREMENTS 15-6-13
NON-SHRINK GROUTS 8-14-6 ORDER OF PLACING 8-11-7
NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIR 8-14-18 ORDERING STRUCTURAL LUMBER 7-1-7
NON-TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CIRCUMSTANCES 33-5-10 ORGANIZATION 16-8-1
NORMAL AND CONTINGENCY OPERATION, AC Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 33-6-5 Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-3
NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL 17-7-4, 17-7-5 Functions 16-8-2
NORMAL RATING 8-19-2 Construction 16-8-2
NOTATIONS 5-3-4, 8-19-9 General 16-8-2
Concrete 8-2-7 Inspection 16-8-2
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-5 Planned Maintenance 16-8-2
NOTCH TOUGHNESS OF STEEL IN FRACTURE CRITICAL Repair 16-8-2
MEMBERS 15-9-32 Introduction 16-8-2
NOTCHED BEAMS, WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES 7-2-80 Methods 16-8-3
1
NOTCHES 7-2-10 Construction 16-8-3
NOTES General 16-8-3
on Recommended Practices 7-3-15 Inspection 16-8-4
on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-6 Maintenance 16-8-4
NOTICE OF BEGINNING WORK 15-3-3 Repair 16-8-5
NOTICE TO ENGINEER 15-1-7 Organization 16-8-6
NOZZLES Bridges 16-8-7
Sand Facility 6-6-10 General 16-8-6 3
NUMBER AND LOCATION OF BORINGS 8-22-4 Structures 16-8-8
NUMBER OF TESTS 4-3-17, 5-1-4, 5-2-3, 5-10-3 Track 16-8-6
Training 16-8-9
O Consultants and Contractors 16-8-9
Gang Members and Other Staff 16-8-9
General 16-8-9
OBJECTIVE 33-1-2
Inspectors 16-8-9
OBSTRUCTIONS, CHARTING, SUGGESTED METHODS 28-3-9
OCS/THIRD RAIL MAINTENANCE 33-1-7 Supervisors 16-8-9 4
OFFICE, WELFARE AND BUILDING SERVICES FOR ORGANIZATION OF BID DOCUMENTS, RAILWAY
MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 6-7-5 BUILDINGS 6-1-4
Bidding Requirements 6-1-3
OFFICES 6-4-16, 6-9-9, 6-11-6 Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-5
Space 6-2-7 Contract Forms 6-1-3
OPEN DECK BRIDGE TIES 15-1-15 General Conditions 6-1-4
OPEN DECK BRIDGES 5-5-21 Recommended Format 6-1-3
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS Special Conditions 6-1-4
Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11 Technical Specifications 6-1-4
Electric Locomotives 16-3-5 ORGANIZATION AND INSPECTION PREPARATION 6-15-2
OPERATING LIMITATIONS, UNLOADING PITS 15-8-17 ORGANIZATION ISSUES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
OPERATING ROPES 15-6-76 ENGINERING 16-6-2
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION OF RAILROAD ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Cost Estimating 12-2-20 PROGRAM 6-5-7
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 ORIGINAL RIGHT-OF-WAY GRANT INSTRUMENTS 18-1-3
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS 18-1-3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-9
OPERATION, RAILWAY 16-4-1 Acceptability 8-1-9
OPERATIONAL CONCERNS 12-4-42 Documentation 8-1-10
General 8-1-9

Index
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (CONT) PARTITIONS 6-2-11

Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice 8-1-10 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS 27-2-37
Specifications 8-1-9 PARTS INCLUDED IN GLASSES 15-6-10
OTHER FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE, SEISMIC PASSENGER CARS, HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT CLEARANCE
DESIGN FOR RAILWAY STRUCTURES 9-1-32, 9-2-23 ALLOWANCES 28-3-3
Buildings and Support Facilities 9-1-34, 9-2-23 PASSENGER COMFORT 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Culverts 9-1-33 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE 12-2-12, 17-2-4
Rail Transit 9-1-35 PASSENGER FACILITIES 11-4-1, 14-6-1, 12-4-3, 17-4-3
Retaining Walls 9-1-33 Activities 14-6-7
Scope 9-1-32 Amenities 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Track and Roadbed 9-1-32, 9-2-23 Finish Materials 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Tunnels and Track Protection Sheds 9-1-34 Functional Requirements 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Utilities, Signal and Communication Facilities 9-1-34 General 12-4-3, 17-4-3
OTHER RIGHT-OF-WAY EXPENDITURES, ACCOUNT 4 Landscaping 12-4-7, 17-4-3
16-12-6 Mechanical Systems 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OTHER SCALES 8-1 Passenger Information/Signage 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Other Scales Passenger Train Yards 14-6-8
Capacity and Size 8-2 Activities 14-6-12
Definition 8-1 General 14-6-8
General 8-1 Site 14-6-9
Records 8-2 Regulatory Requirements 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Test Weights 8-2 Safety/Security 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Testing and Tolerances 8-2 Site 14-6-4
OTM AND FASTENINGS 18-2-4 Site Considerations 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING – FLOODLIGHTING IN Station Environment 14-6-3
RAILROAD YARDS 33-10-8 Activities 14-6-7
OUTLINE, GENERAL, FIXED OBSTRUCTIONS 28-1-3 General 14-6-3
OUTSTANDING ELEMENTS IN COMPRESSION 15-1-47 Site 14-6-4
OVERALL CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-13 Structural Systems 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-8 Terminal Planning 14-6-2
OVERHEAD STRUCTURES 6-16-6 General 14-6-2
OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY CONDITIONS 33-4-24 Utilities 14-6-13
OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY RATINGS 33-4-24 Electrical Systems 14-6-13
OVERVIEW, RAILWAY APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL & Mechanical Systems 14-6-13
SYSTEMS ENGIEERING 16-6-2 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE 17-4-3
OVERVIEW DISPLAYS 6-11-3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
OXYGEN/NATURAL GAS/PROPANE SYSTEMS 6-4-19 PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE,
REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-1
P Electrical Requirements 6-13-11
Functional Requirements 6-13-3
PACKAGING AND HANDLING 4-3-38, 4-3-42 Illustrations 6-13-11
Mechanical Requirements 6-13-9
PACKAGING, HANDLING AND STORAGE Site Considerations 6-13-2
Of Bridge Bearings 15-11-3 Special Equipment 6-13-9
PACKAGING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5
BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-26 Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive
PACKING 4-3-30, 33-7-10, 33-7-20, 33-7-27 Shop 6-13-7
PACKING AND IDENTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS Structural Requirements 6-13-9
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 14-6-8
Railroad Use 1-10-26 Activities 14-6-12
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-13 Site 14-6-9
PACKING AND IDENTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS PASSENGER TRAINS 33-1-3
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-18 PASSENGER TRAINS, HIGH SPEED 16-2-10
Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-7 PASSENGER-TRAIN CARS, ACCOUNT 54 16-12-19
System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-21 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE 8-20-9
PAINT 27-2-15, 27-2-21, 27-2-36 PATENTED DEVICES 15-1-7
PAINT SHOP 6-9-5 PATENTS 15-4-10
PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS 6-13-9 PAY WEIGHT 15-3-22
PAINT SYSTEMS 15-8-35 PAYMENT
PAINTING 15-6-107 Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
of Existing Steel Railway Bridges 15-8-32 PEDESTRIAN SUBWAYS 8-29-6
PANTOGRAPH BASICS 33-8-9 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT
PAPER, ANTI-BONDING 8-29-20 Application 8-1-50, 8-1-59
PARKING 6-2-3, 6-3-3, 6-13-3 Deliver, Storage and Handling 8-1-52

Index
PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT (CONT) PIER PROTECTION (CONT)

Environmental Requirements 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Materials 8-23-18
Materials 8-1-51 Pile Driving 8-23-20
Quality Assurance 8-1-51, 8-1-59 Design 8-23-4
Surface Preparation 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Design Loads 8-23-4
Treatment of Concrete Surfaces 8-1-50, 8-1-58 General 8-23-4
PERCUSSION TOOLS 5-6-5 Suggested Design Procedure 8-23-7
PERFORATED PIPE DRAINS 1-4-100 General 8-23-2
Applications 1-4-100 Purpose 8-23-2
Construction Requirements 1-4-102 Scope 8-23-2
General 1-4-100 Special Considerations 8-23-2
Hydraulic Design 1-4-101 Permits 8-23-4
Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-104 Types of Construction 8-23-3
Materials 1-4-100 Vessel 8-23-2
Operation and Maintenance 1-4-104 Waterway 8-23-2
Related Filter Materials 1-4-101 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE 8-5-12
Safety Provisions 1-4-104 PIER SHAFTS 8-5-12
Structural Design 1-4-102 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS 8-5-13
PERFORMANCE, DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, VEHICLE PILE AND PILE BENTS 8-21-3
CONSIDERATIONS 17-5-4 PILE DRIVING 7-3-4
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 9-1-19 Tests 8-4-8
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA, RAIL SUPPORT 16-10-9 PILE FOUNDATIONS 8-4-1
PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE FOR REGULAR TESTING 4-4-60 Allowable Load on Piles 8-4-5
PERFORMANCE MEASURES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS End Bearing Piles 8-4-5
ENGINEERING 16-6-9 Friction Piles 8-4-5
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS, ENGINEERED Lateral Support 8-4-6
COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-5 Pile Driving and Loading Tests 8-4-8
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Pile Length Determination 8-4-6
Data Base 16-9-15 Subsurface Investigation 8-4-5
PERFORMANCE, TRAIN 16-2-1 Commentary 8-4-17
1
PERIODIC INSPECTIONS 15-7-23 Allowable Load on Piles 8-4-18
PERMANENT JOINT BEAMS 8-25-9 Design 8-4-17
PERMANENT SET 4-3-30 Loads 8-4-17
PERMISSIBLE STRESS Batter Piles 8-4-18
Bearing 8-2-63 On Piles 8-4-17
Shear 8-2-56 Scour 8-4-18
PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS IN DIMENSIONS 5-2-3, 5-10-3 General 8-4-17
PERMITS 15-1-7 Scope 8-4-17
3
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-4 Inspection of Pile Driving 8-4-19
Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Installation of Piles 8-4-19
Streams 8-23-4 Pile Types 8-4-18
PERSONNEL Design 8-4-2
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing Batter Piles 8-4-4
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components Eccentricity of Loads 8-4-3
4-4-67 Loads 8-4-2
PHASE UNBALANCE STUDY 33-6-19 Loads on Piles 8-4-3 4
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS 1-2-10 Scour 8-4-5
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, ENGINEERED Spacing of Piles 8-4-4
COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4 Uplift on Piles 8-4-3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS 33-7-9 General 8-4-2
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS 5-6-14 Scope 8-4-2
For Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-25 Inspection of Pile Driving 8-4-16
Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4 Installation of Piles 8-4-14
PHYSICALLY RESTRICTED AREAS 5-8-13 Augered Cast-In-Place Piles 8-4-16
PIER PROTECTION 8-2-6 Driven Piles 8-4-14
Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams 8-23-1 Pile Types 8-4-9
Commentary 8-23-21 Augered Cast-In-Place 8-4-13
Energy Dissipation 8-23-21 Cast-In-Place Concrete 8-4-11
Fender Flexibility 8-23-22 General 8-4-9
Sources of Information 8-23-22 Precast Concrete 8-4-11
Construction 8-23-17 Steel 8-4-10
Fabrication of Structural Steel 8-23-20 Timber 8-4-9
Framing of Timber 8-23-20 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION 8-4-6
General 8-23-17 PILE RECORD 7-3-11
Handling and Storage of Materials 8-23-20

Index
PILE TYPES 8-4-9 PIPELINES (CONT)

PILES Execution of Work 1-5-28
Allowable Load on 8-4-5 General Requirements 1-5-22
Augered Cast-In-Place 8-4-13, 8-4-16 Scope 1-5-22
Batter 8-4-4 Steel Casing Pipe 1-5-24
Cast-In-Place Concrete 8-4-11 Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the
Driven 8-4-14 Railway Right-of-Way 1-5-10
End Bearing 8-4-5 Approval of Plans 1-5-21
Foundation 7-3-11 Carrier Pipe 1-5-12
Friction 8-4-5 Commentary 1-5-21
Inspection of Driving 8-4-16 Construction 1-5-20
Installation of 8-4-14 Execution of Work 1-5-21
Loads on 8-4-3 General Requirements 1-5-11
and Post Footings 7-2-12 Scope 1-5-10
Precast Concrete 8-4-11 PIPING SYSTEMS 6-16-7
Spacing 8-4-4 PIT, CONCRETE 15-8-26
Steel 8-4-10 PITCH AND GAGE OF FASTENERS 15-1-57
Timber 8-4-9 PITCH AND GUM POCKETS, SEAMS AND STREAKS 7-2-7
Uplift on 8-4-3 PITS
PIN CLEARANCES 15-3-8 Equipment and Related Facilities 6-4-14
PINS 15-1-62 Unloading 15-8-17
PINS AND PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS 15-1-62 PLACE OF TESTS 4-3-31
PINS AND ROLLERS 15-3-8 PLACEMENT
PIPE 8-10-3 of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware 8-17-50
Arches 1-4-63 of Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Culvert Design 1-4-58 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH 8-1-42
Installation 8-10-13 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME 8-1-42
Manholes and Pipe Tunnels 8-29-6 PLACING AND CURING, MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52
Minimum Strength 8-10-12 PLACING AND FASTENING 8-17-54
Strength 8-10-12 PLANNED MAINTENANCE 16-8-2
PIPELINES 1-5-1 PLANNING 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Specifications for Fiber Optic "Route" Construction on Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Railroad Right of Way 1-5-31 Economic Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Abbreviations 1-5-44 Environmental Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Appendix 1-5-45 an Exploration Program 8-22-3
Construction 1-5-36 General 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Definitions 1-5-41 Institutional Issues 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Design 1-5-32 and Quality Control of Rail Grinding 4-4-92
Documentation 1-5-39 Safety 12-2-7
Maintenance 1-5-40 Safety/Security 17-2-3
Planning 1-5-31 Social Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Scope 1-5-31 User Needs 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Specifications for Overhead Pipelines Crossings 1-5-28 PLANNING SHEARED EDGES 15-3-7
General Conditions 1-5-28 PLANNING, BUDGETING AND CONTROL 16-15-1
General Design Requirements 1-5-29 Annual Budget 16-15-8
Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-31 Develop Maintenance of Way Annual Expense Budget
Scope 1-5-28 16-15-10
Structural Elements 1-5-29 Development of the Maintenance-of-Way Capital
Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Flammable Budget 16-15-8
Substances 1-5-3 Objectives 16-15-8
Approval of Plans 1-5-9 Purpose 16-15-8
Casing Pipe 1-5-6 Scope 16-15-8
Construction 1-5-8 Authorization Process 16-15-14
Execution of Work 1-5-10 Departmental Responsibilities 16-15-14
General Requirements 1-5-3 Objectives 16-15-14
Plastic Carrier Pipe Conveying Non Liquid Plan/Budget Documentation 16-15-15
Flammable Substances 1-5-6 Project Documentation 16-15-15
Scope 1-5-3 Purpose 16-15-14
Steel Carrier Pipe 1-5-5 Scope 16-15-14
Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Non-Flammable Control Functions 16-15-16
Substances 1-5-22 Capital Performance Reviews (Post Audit) 16-15-17
Approval of Plans 1-5-27 Impact on Operating Budget 16-15-17
Carrier Pipe 1-5-23 Objectives 16-15-16
Construction 1-5-26 Purpose 16-15-16

Index
PLANNING, BUDGETING AND CONTROL (CONT) POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS

Responsibilities 16-15-16 8-17-13, 8-17-46
Scope 16-15-16 POST-TENSIONING DUCTS 8-17-13
Variance Analysis 16-15-17 POST-TENSIONING FORCE 8-26-17
Introduction 16-15-2 POWER 16-3-1
Scope 16-15-2 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-19
Long-Term Planning 16-15-6 Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11
Departmental Responsibilities 16-15-6 General 16-3-11
Comparison with Former Plans 16-15-8 Operating Characteristics 16-3-11
Inventory of Property and Equipment 16-15-6 Dynamic Braking 16-3-13
Objectives 16-15-6 Horsepower Ratings 16-3-11
Project Submissions 16-15-7 Electric Locomotives 16-3-4
Purpose 16-15-6 Electric Braking 16-3-9
Scope 16-15-6 General 16-3-4
Permanent Data Base 16-15-18 Operating Characteristics 16-3-5
Departmental Responsibility 16-15-18 General 16-3-2
Implementation 16-15-19 Adhesion 16-3-3
Objectives 16-15-18 Horsepower 16-3-2
Purpose 16-15-18 Locomotive Capacity 16-3-3
Scope 16-15-18 Locomotive Classification 16-3-4
Strategic Planning 16-15-3 Motive Power, Types 16-3-2
Corporate 16-15-3 Tractive Effort 16-3-3
Engineering 16-15-5 Other Types 16-3-16
Financial 16-15-5 Gas Turbine-Electric 16-3-16
Marketing 16-15-4 Self-Propelled Rail Cars 16-3-16
PLANS 15-4-3 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 33-1-5
for Drive Spikes 5-10-5 POWER EQUIPMENT 15-6-76
Erection, Steel Structure Fabricated by Contractor 15-4-3 POWER AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPATIBILITY
Erection, Steel Structure Supplied by Company 15-4-3 STUDY 33-6-18
for Track Tools 5-6-23 POWER GENERATING FACILITIES 33-1-5
1
PLANS FOR TRACK TOOLS 5-6-23 POWER OPERATION 15-6-76
PLANS, SPECIFICATIONS AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 16-7-5 POWER PLANTS, ACCOUNT 29 16-12-14
PLANT 15-4-3 POWER REQUIREMENTS AND MACHINERY DESIGN
PLASTIC CARRIER PIPE CONVEYING NON LIQUID 15-6-19
FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES 1-5-6 POWER SUPPLY AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-12-1
PLATE GIRDERS OR ROLLED BEAMS 15-7-8 Electric Traction Systems Considerations 33-12-3
PLATFORM, SAND FACILITY 6-6-10 Adopted Electrification System AC or DC 33-12-5
PLATFORM DESIGN CRITERIA 6-16-4 Electrification Parameters 33-12-5
3
PLATFORMS 6-8-20 Operational Requirements 33-12-5
Access 6-8-21 Systems Selection and Design 33-12-3
Dimensions 6-8-21 Vehicle Propulsion Types and Performance 33-12-4
General 6-8-20 Electrification System Design Characteristics 33-12-7
Lighting 6-8-22 Electrical Characteristics of Running Rail 33-12-22
PLATFORMS, WALKWAYS AND ROADWAYS 8-29-7 Grounding and Bonding 33-12-21
PLUMBING 6-2-16 Harmonics 33-12-23
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-17 High Voltage Sub-transmission Lines 33-12-17 4
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM 27-2-9, 27-2-33 Negative Return Circuit 33-12-21
POLES Protection and Remote Control/Monitoring 33-12-18
Cantilever 8-12-1 Stray Current Control 33-12-22
POLLUTION Type of Distribution System – Overhead Contact
Air 6-4-22 System or Contact Rail 33-12-10
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-22 Type of Substation 33-12-9
Noise 6-4-22 Introduction 33-12-2
Water 6-4-22 Approach to These Guidelines 33-12-2
POLYETHER URETHANE DISC BEARINGS 15-9-55, References to Other Applicable Chapters 33-12-2
15-10-8 Scope and Definition of Electrification Systems 33-12-3
POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA 12-2-9, 17-2-3 Special Considerations 33-12-27
PORTABLE ELECTRONIC THERMOMETER 6-5-9 Compatibility with Train Control 33-12-27
PORTAL AND SWAY BRACING 15-1-61 Corrosion Control and Protection 33-12-27
PORTLAND CEMENT Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility 33-12-28
Concrete 8-29-17 Elevated Construction 33-12-28
POSITIVE MOMENT Street Level Running Considerations (LRT) 33-12-27
Reinforcement 8-2-24 Testing and Analysis 33-12-28
POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION GUIDELINES 9-1-4 Maintainability and Reliability 33-12-28
POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-34 Safety 33-12-28

Index
POWER SUPPLY AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS (CONT) PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (CONT)

Safety Certification Considerations 33-12-28 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer 8-17-45
Start-up and Testing 33-12-28 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
System Integration and Interface Management 33-12-28 Development of Prestressing Strand 8-17-14
Traction Power Equipment 33-12-23 Minimum Concrete Cover 8-17-12
ETS System 33-12-25 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers 8-17-13
Supervisory (Central) Control Interface 33-12-23 Post-Tensioning Ducts 8-17-13
POWER SUPPLY AND ELECTRIFICATION Protection for Debonded Prestressing Tendon 8-17-13
SYSTEMSTRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT 33-12-23 Protection for Prestressing Tendons 8-17-13
POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT 33-4-4 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
POWER TRANSFER 33-1-5 Tendon Anchorage Zones 8-17-13
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS, ACCOUNT 31 16-12-14 Deflections 8-17-17
POWER-PLANT MACHINERY, ACCOUNT 45 16-12-17 Diaphragms 8-17-17
PRACTICES 5-5-22 Ductility Limits 8-17-28
PRE-ASSEMBLY AND SHIPPING, MULTI-ROTATIONAL Maximum Prestressing Steel 8-17-28
BEARINGS 15-11-21 Minimum Reinforcement 8-17-29
PRECAST CONCRETE PILES 8-4-11 Effective Flange Width 8-17-16
PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH WIDE Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top
TOP FLANGES 8-17-16 Flanges 8-17-16
PRECAST SLABS FOR BRIDGE DECKS OR FLOORS 8-29-6 Expansion and Contraction 8-17-14
PRECAUTIONS 5-5-28 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders 8-17-16
in Unstable Soils 1-4-77 Flexural Strength 8-17-26
Vegetation Control 1-9-13 Flanged Sections 8-17-27
PREDICTING AGGRADATION AND DEGRADATION 1-3-25 Introduction 8-17-26
PREDICTING LATERAL MIGRATION 1-3-28 Rectangular Sections 8-17-26
PRELIMINARY DATA 8-11-2 Steel Stress 8-17-27
PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING FOR PUBLIC Frams and Continuous Construction 8-17-15
IMPROVEMENTS 16-7-3 General Analysis 8-17-14
PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION 1-1-3 General Design 8-17-18
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION Basic Assumptions 8-17-18
Design, Tunnels 1-8-2 Composite Flexural Members 8-17-18
PREPARATION Design Theory and General Considerations 8-17-18
of Defective Areas 5-5-27 General Detailing 8-17-45
of Foundation 1-4-71 Cover ans Spacing of Reinforcement 8-17-45
of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Embedment of Prestresses Tendon 8-17-49
Existing Steel Railway Bridges 15-8-32 Flange Reinforcement 8-17-45
of Subgrade 8-10-12 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers 8-17-46
of Surfaces for Dampproofing 8-29-29 General Fabrication 8-17-49
of Track 5-5-3 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force
Prior to Unloading Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6 8-17-53
of Worn Areas 5-5-27 Contractor’s Drawings 8-17-49
PREPARATION FOR AN INSPECTION 18-2-10 Curing 8-17-50
PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR FIELD FASTENERS 15-3-13 Erection 8-17-50
PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR SHOP FASTENERS 15-3-12 General 8-17-49
PREPARATION OF MATERIAL FOR WELDING 15-3-18 Materials and Fabrication 8-17-49
PREPARING A VEGETATION CONTROL PROGRAM 1-9-2 Placement of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware
PRE-REVENUE OPERATION TESTING 33-6-30 8-17-50
PRESENT PRACTICE 5-5-6 Storage and Handling 8-17-50
PRESENTING PUBLISHED CLEARANCES, SUGGESTED General Requirements and Materials 8-17-4
METHOD 28-3-8 Design Loads 8-17-4
PRESERVATION Scope 8-17-4
of Track Fixtures 5-5-24 Load Factors 8-17-18
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF BRIDGE TIES 7-1-29 Required Strength 8-17-18
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT, SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD Loss of Prestress 8-17-21
FENCE POST 1-6-6 Prestress Losses 8-17-21
PRESERVING EXISTING CLEARANCE DURING Materials 8-17-10
MAINTENANCE WORK 28-3-67 Concrete 8-17-10
PRESTRESS LOSSES 8-17-21 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-1 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement 8-17-11
Allowable Stresses 8-17-19 Prestressing Tendons 8-17-10
Concrete 8-17-19 Rigid Ducts 8-17-12
Prestressing Tendons 8-17-19 Materials - Reinforcing Steel 8-17-53
Application of Loads 8-17-53 Bar Lists and Bending Diagrams 8-17-54
Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle 8-17-56 Fabrication 8-17-54
General 8-17-53

Index
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (CONT) PROGRAMMING WORK 16-9-1

Handling, Storing and Surface Condition of Control 16-9-15
Reinforcement 8-17-54 General 16-9-15
Placing and Fastening 8-17-54 Monitoring Results 16-9-15
Splicing of Bars 8-17-54 Performance Standards Data Base 16-9-15
Mortar and Grout 8-17-52 Economics 16-9-5
General 8-17-52 General Considerations 16-9-6
Materials and Mixing 8-17-52 Introduction 16-9-5
Placing and Curing 8-17-52 Methods of Analysis 16-9-6
Non-Prestresses Reinforcement 8-17-29 Service Life 16-9-6
Notations 8-17-5 Estimating 16-9-12
Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones 8-17-34 General 16-9-12
Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Unit Cost 16-9-12
Anchorage Zones 8-17-39 Introduction 16-9-2
Approximate Methods 8-17-40 Program Development 16-9-2
Design of the General Zone 8-17-35 General Considerations 16-9-2
Design of the Local Zone 8-17-43 Introduction 16-9-2
Elastic Stress Analysis 8-17-40 Methodology 16-9-3
General zone and Local Zone 8-17-35 Program Forms 16-9-5
Geometry of Anchorage Zone 8-17-34 PROGRESS REPORTS, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-11
Pretensioned Anchorage Zones 8-17-45 PROHIBITED TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS 15-1-59
Shear 8-17-30 PROJECT COMPLETION AND BILLING 16-7-7
General 8-17-30 PROJECT DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT, INDUSTRIAL &
Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-3
Members 8-17-33 PROJECT MANAGEMENT WITH CROSS-FUNCTIONAL
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete 8-17-30 TEAM, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-3
Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement PROPER USAGE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FROGS 5-4-7
8-17-32 PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL, ENGINEERED
Span Length 8-17-14 COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4 1
Terms 8-17-8 PROPERTIES OF AREMA RAIL GRADES 4-2-7
PRESTRESSING STRAND PROPERTY ASSET LEDGERS 16-12-25
Development of 8-17-14 PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS 1-2-10
PRESTRESSING TENDONS 8-17-12 PROPERTY TAX (AD VALOREM) 16-14-6
Allowable Stresses 8-17-19 PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS 12-2-13, 17-2-4
Debonded, Protection for 8-17-13 PROPORTION OF TESTS 4-3-30
Materials 8-17-10 PROPORTIONING
Protection for 8-17-13 Concrete 8-1-31
PRESTRETCHING 15-6-75 and Mixing, Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-7
3
PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-45 PROPORTIONING GIRDERS AND BEAMS 15-1-51
PRIMER 8-29-13, 8-29-21 PROPORTIONING OF TRUSS WEB MEMBERS 15-1-36
General 8-29-13 PROPOSALS 15-1-6
PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF PROPOSALS AND DRAWINGS 15-1-6
CONCRETE STRUCTURES 8-14-5 PROPOSALS AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 15-6-5
PROCEDURE 5-8-15 PROPULSION SYSTEM 11-3-4, 11-6-2, 12-3-6, 17-3-3, 17-6-16
PROCEDURES, LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING Electric Traction Power 17-6-16
MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56 PROPULSION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 4
PROCEDURES, SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY 11-7-3, 17-7-5
ASSURANCE OF ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF General 17-7-5
RAIL 4-3-47 Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-5
PRODUCE TERMINALS 14-4-59 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-5
PRODUCT TESTING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5
TRACK BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-21 PROTECTING ROADWAY AND BRIDGES FROM SCOUR 1-3-60
Bridges 1-3-61
PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 1-2-13, 1-2-24
Countermeasure Design Guidance 1-3-78
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL 16-6-12
Countermeasure Selection 1-3-62
PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL, ENGINEERED
COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-10 Embankment 1-3-60
PROTECTION AND REMOTE CONTROL/MONITORING 33-12-18
PROFILES PROTECTION FOR DEBONDED PRESTRESSING TENDONS
Velocity 16-2-12 8-17-13
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 16-9-2 PROTECTION FOR PRESTRESSING TENDONS 8-17-13
PROGRAM FORMS 16-9-5 PROTECTION OF PARTS 15-6-106
PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS 17-7-3 PROTECTION OF PIPE AGAINST PERCOLATION, PIPING
PROGRAM RAIL 4-5-1 AND SCOUR 1-4-77
PROGRAMMED TRACK MAINTENANCE 2-3-9 PROTECTION OF PIPE CULVERT FROM CONSTRUCTION
LOADS 1-4-74

Index
PROTECTION WORK 7-3-11 QUALITY ASSURANCE/ASSESSMENT OF MAINTENANCE

PROTECTION, METAL 7-3-41 PRACTICES (AUDIT) 2-3-11
PROTECTIVE COVER, MEMBRANE 8-29-26 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL 33-6-29
PROTECTIVE DEVICE COORDINATION STUDY 33-6-20 QUALITY ASSURANCE OF THERMITE WELDING OF RAIL,
PROVISION FOR EXPANSION, GENERAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR 4-2-72
REQUIREMENTS, STEEL STRUCTURES 15-1-14 QUALITY CONTROL, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES
PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND 30-5-10
ANCHORAGES 8-26-37 QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS 4-3-44
PSYCHROMETER 6-5-9 QUALITY OF WORKMANSHIP 15-3-3
PTFE BEARING SURFACE 15-10-8, 15-11-9 QUALITY, SAMPLING AND TESTING
PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACES 15-10-14, 15-11-9 Cement 8-1-9
Design 15-10-15 QUANTITATIVE CONSIDERATIONS, VEGETATION CONTROL
Erection 15-11-11 1-9-5
Fabrication 15-11-10 QUANTITY OF FIELD FASTENERS 15-3-12
General 15-11-9 QUENCHED CARBON-STEEL JOINT BARS, MICROALLOYED
Materials 15-10-15, 15-11-9 JOINT BARS, AND FORGED COMPROMISE JOINT
Scope 15-10-14 BARS, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 4-3-15
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENT AGREEMENTS 16-7-5
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENT COSTS AND BENEFITS 16-7-1
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS 16-7-1 R
Cost and Benefit Analysis 16-7-6
Costs and Benefits 16-7-6
RACKS 15-6-101
Force Account Project Estimates 16-7-4
RADIATOR WATER RECLAIM SYSTEM 6-4-18
Introduction 16-7-1
RAIL 4-i, 5-8-10, 18-2-4, 30-1-8
Plans, Specifications and Special Provisions 16-7-5
Anchorage of 15-8-13
Preliminary Engineering for Public Improvements 16-7-3
Project Completion and Billing 16-7-7 Anchors 5-7-1
Public Improvement Agreements 16-7-5 Recommended Practices for Rail Anchor Application
Public Improvement Project Development 16-7-2 and Maintenance 5-7-5
Public Private Partnerships 16-7-2 General 5-7-5
PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 16-7-2 Specifications for Rail Anchors 5-7-2
PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS, DESIGN 7-2-5 Acceptance 5-7-4
PUBLISHED CLEARANCES, SUGGESTED METHOD OF Bagging 5-7-4
PRESENTING 28-3-8 Bearing Area 5-7-2
PUMP PITS FOR SUBWAYS AND BASEMENTS 8-29-6 Design 5-7-2
PURCHASER’S ORDER REQUIREMENTS 33-7-14, 33-7-20, Dimensions 5-7-3
33-7-26 Fracture Test 5-7-3
PURPOSE Function 5-7-2
Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines Identification 5-7-4
27-2-62 Inspection 5-7-4
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5 Retests and Rejection 5-7-3
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection Scope 5-7-2
System 4-4-64 Shipping Tag 5-7-4
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing Slip Test 5-7-2
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-65 Tagging 5-7-4
Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Workmanship 5-7-4
Connections 33-7-21 Commentaries 4-6-1
Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-Head Bonds Construction and Maintenance 16-10-3
and Track Connectors 33-7-17 Cutting 5-10-11
Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-Bonds and Design of Rail 4-1-1
Extended Bonds 33-7-11 Recommended Rail Sections 4-1-1
Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts 4-3-13
Electrification Systems 33-6-3 End Connections 15-6-34
Waterproofing 8-29-4 Ends 15-6-17
PURPOSE OF INSPECTION 18-3-36 Expansion Joints 15-8-15
PYROMETER, SURFACE 6-5-9 Rail Grades, AREMA, Properties of 4-2-7
Head
Q Profile 2-1-4
Joining of Rail 4-3-1
Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
QUALIFICATION TEST FACILITY 5-9-3 Application Procedures 4-3-32
QUALIFICATION TESTING 4-3-34, 4-3-40 Introduction 4-3-31
QUALIFICATIONS Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing in Welded or Brazed Applications 4-3-31
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-65
General Characteristics of a Rail Joint 4-3-4

Index
RAIL BONDING (CONT)

RAIL (CONT) Conductors 33-7-24
General Specification for In-Track Rail Welding Using Design 33-7-24
Electric Flash Butt (EFB) Welding Equipment 4-3-43 Drawings 33-7-21
Inspection and Classification of Secondhand Rail for Inspection 33-7-27
Welding 4-3-53 Marking 33-7-27
Joint Bars and Assemblies 4-3-5 Material and Workmanship 33-7-24
Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolt 4-3-13 Packing 33-7-27
Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-26
Rail 4-3-49 Purpose 33-7-21
Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Resistance of Installed Connections 33-7-26
Bolts and Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19 Tender 33-7-21
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Tests 33-7-27
Electric-Flash Butt Welding of Rail 4-3-1 Warranty 33-7-27
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Specification for Rail-Head Pin-Type Bonds and Track
Welding of Rail 4-3-55 Connectors 33-7-15
Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32 Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds
Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated 33-7-8
Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38 General 33-7-8
Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Guarantee 33-7-10
Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise Inspection and Rejection 33-7-10
Joint Bars 4-3-15 Manufacture 33-7-8
Specifications for Spring Washers 4-3-29 Packing 33-7-10
Joints 5-5-24 Physical Properties and Tests 33-7-9
Lubrication 16-2-8 Standard Dimensions 33-7-9
Maintenance of Rail 4-4-1 Terms 33-7-8
Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends 4-4-76 Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-Head Bonds
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-3 and Track Connectors 33-7-17
Illustrations of Shells and Related Gage Corner Attaching Metal 33-7-19
Developments 4-4-57 Conductors 33-7-18
1
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Design 33-7-18
Detection System 4-4-64 Drawings 33-7-17
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Identification 33-7-19
Rail Testing 4-4-60 Inspection 33-7-20
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Marking 33-7-21
Control 4-4-77 Material and Workmanship 33-7-17
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in Packing 33-7-20
CWR 4-4-74 Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-20
3
Reconditioning Rail Ends 4-4-76 Purpose 33-7-17
Manufacture of Rail 4-2-1 Resistance of Installed Bonds 33-7-19
Specifications for Steel Rails 4-2-3 Tender 33-7-17
Methods of Extending Life 16-10-8 Terminals (Sleeve or Other Device Supplied by
Methods of Joining and Laying 16-10-7 Manufacturer) 33-7-19
Miscellaneous 4-5-1 Tests 33-7-20
Rail Information 4-5-1 Warranty 33-7-21
Number of Rail Anchors to Resist Rail Creepage 5-5-18 Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-Bonds and 4
and Other Track Material, Except Joints 5-5-24 Extended Bonds 33-7-11
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Alternates 33-7-12
Testing 4-4-60 Conductors 33-7-12
Introduction 4-4-60 Design 33-7-12
Measuring Against the Performance Guidelines 4-4-62
Performance Guideline for Regular Testing 4-4-60 Drawings 33-7-11
Verification of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63 Identification 33-7-13
Selection Criteria 16-10-3 Inspection 33-7-14
Support 16-10-9 Marking 33-7-15
as Supporting Beams 15-8-25 Material and Workmanship 33-7-12
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-10 Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-14
Wear Terminology 2-1-3 Purpose 33-7-11
RAIL BONDING 33-7-1 Resistance of Installed Bonds 33-7-13
Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes - Electric Tender 33-7-12
Traction 33-7-4 Terminals 33-7-13
General 33-7-4 Tests 33-7-14
Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Warranty 33-7-15
Connections 33-7-21
Attaching Metal 33-7-26

Index
RAIL-BOUND MANGANESE STEEL FROGS 5-4-7

RAIL BONDS, APPLICATION 4-3-31 RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-4-1
Application Procedures 4-3-32 Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts 33-4-3
Introduction 4-3-31 Catenary Support Options 33-4-3
Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Distribution System 33-4-5
Welded or Brazed Applications 4-3-31 Power Supply Equipment 33-4-4
RAIL CARS, SELF-PROPELLED 16-3-16 Sectionalization Equipment 33-4-7
RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA 12-2-12 Support Equipment 33-4-5
RAIL CROSSINGS AND TURNOUTS 18-2-4 Catenary System Design Criteria 33-4-8
RAIL DEFECT INFORMATION 4-5-2 Catenary Pole Criteria 33-4-12
RAIL END AND PREPARATION REQUIREMENTS 4-3-43 Catenary Pole Footings/Seatings 33-4-14
RAIL FASTENERS Clearance Criteria 33-4-10
Types for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-15 Climatic Conditions 33-4-8
RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS Construction Tolerances 33-4-11
For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-14 Contact Wire Deflections 33-4-11
RAIL GRADES, PROPERTIES OF 4-2-7 Contact Wire Gradients 33-4-12
RAIL GRINDING BEST PRACTICE 4-4-82 General Introduction 33-4-8
Continuous Improvement 4-4-92 Contact Wire Ampacity 33-4-21
Factors That Influence Preventive Rail Grinding 4-4-85 Introduction 33-4-21
Grinding Cycles for Preventive Grinding 4-4-90 Method of Calculating Ampacity 33-4-21
Planning and Quality Control of Rail Grinding 4-4-92 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Conditions 33-4-24
Preventive Grinding Metal Removal Rates 4-4-89 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Ratings 33-4-24
Rail Grinding Definition 4-4-82 Sample Calculation 33-4-23
Reason for Rail Grinding 4-4-82 Table of Continuous Ampacity Ratings 33-4-24
Scope 4-4-82 Uniform Rating Parameters 33-4-23
Surface Finish Tolerances 4-4-91 Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements
What is Best Practice Rail Grinding? 4-4-83 33-4-16
RAIL GRINDING DEFINITION 4-4-82 Recommendations 33-4-17
RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 27-2-45 Scope 33-4-16
RAIL INFORMATION 4-5-1 Terms 33-4-16
Program Rail 4-5-1 RAILS AND OTHER TRACK MATERIAL, ACCOUNT 9
Rail Defect Information 4-5-2 16-12-8
Rail Wear Information 4-5-2 RAILSEAT ABRASION REPAIR 30-4-56
Program Rail 4-5-1 RAILWAY APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
Use of Rail Information 4-5-2 ENGINEERING 16-6-1
RAIL JOINTS 30-1-8 RAILWAY BRIDGES, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-4
RAIL MOUNTED DETECTOR EQUIPMENT 16-5-9 RAILWAY BRIDGES, TIMBER, TYPICAL PLANS 7-3-21
RAIL PROFILE QUALITY INDEX DEFINITIONS 2-1-11 RAILWAY BUILDINGS, SPECIFICATIONS AND GENERAL
RAIL REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS DESIGN CRITERIA 6-1-1
WELDED RAIL 4-3-49 Design Criteria 6-1-13
RAIL RESTRAINT Electrical 6-1-14
Lateral 30-4-26 Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning 6-1-14
Longitudinal 30-4-26 Materials 6-1-13
RAIL SEAT ABRASION 30-4-9 Overall Considerations 6-1-13
RAIL SYSTEM INVESTMENT ANALYSIS Special Considerations 6-1-13
Financial Analysis of Investment Projects from the Structural Considerations 6-1-13
Individual Corporate Perspective, Report No. General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-8
DOT-P-10-78-34, May 1978 16-B-2 General Considerations for Railway Building Design
RAIL TRANSIT 12-i, 9-1-35 6-1-10
Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-1 Scope 6-1-8
Facilities and Structural Considerations 12-4-1 Site Considerations 6-1-8
Introduction 12-1-1 Site Work 6-1-9
Maintenance of Way Considerations 12-7-1 Utilities 6-1-10
Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Warning 6-1-8
Considerations 12-6-1 Organization of Bid Documents 6-1-4
Track and Roadway Considerations 12-3-1 Bidding Requirements 6-1-4
Vehicle Considerations 12-5-1 Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-6
RAIL WEAR INFORMATION 4-5-2 Contract Forms 6-1-4
RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS, RECOMMENDED PRACTICES General Conditions 6-1-5
FOR MEASURING Recommended Format 6-1-4
Accuracy & Calibration 2-2-39 Special Conditions 6-1-5
Distance Between Rail Wear Measurements 2-2-39 Technical Specifications 6-1-5
Frequency of Measurement 2-2-39 RAILWAY DESIGN AND GEOMETRICS 5-8-6
Introduction 2-2-38
Measurement Methodology 2-2-38

Index
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION RAILWAY TRACK SCALES (CONT)

Use of Imdepance Bonds with Alternating Current Foreign Material and Precipitation 2-20
Railway Electrification Exclusion 2-20
Non-Typical Impedance Bond Circumstances 33-5-10 Interchangeability 2-15
RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES, METHODS OF MEASURING Introduction 2-5
28-3-28 Lever Fulcrum Stands 2-12
RAILWAY LOCATION 16-1-1 Anchor Bolt Holes 2-13
Basic Economic Considerations 16-1-2 Bases for Lever Stands 2-13
Location 16-1-2 Finish of Tops of Stands 2-13
Choice of Design and Alignment 16-1-14 Proportions 2-12
RAILWAY OPERATION 16-4-1, 16-4-20 Qualities of Materials 2-12
Introduction 16-4-2 Tie Bars 2-13
Automatic Equipment Identification 16-4-3 Lighting 2-20
Car Distribution 16-4-2 Pit 2-20
Communications 16-4-15 Scale House and Surrounding Area 2-20
Defect Detection 16-4-16 Location and Elevation 2-20
Dispatching 16-4-10 Elevation 2-20
Economics of Train Management 16-4-13 Location 2-20
Emergency Communications 16-4-16 Shelf Levers and Weighbeam 2-20
Essential Communications 16-4-16 Loops and Connections 2-13
Freight Train Length 16-4-5 Design 2-13
Line Capacity 16-4-17 Length 2-13
Locomotives 16-4-2 Locknuts 2-13
New Technologies 16-4-16 Material 2-13
On-Board Communications 16-4-16 Vertical Adjustment 2-13
Terminals 16-4-20 Nose Irons 2-12
Train Consist 16-4-4 Design 2-12
Train Management 16-4-10 Marking of Position 2-12
Train Movement Systems 16-4-12 Retaining Device 2-12 1
Trains 16-4-4 Screws and Bolts 2-12
Work Order Systems 16-4-3 Pivots and Bearings 2-10
RAILWAY SIDE TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7 Design and Manufacture 2-10
RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES Design of Bearings 2-11
AND VISIBILITY GUIDELINE FOR NEW ON-TRACK Finish of Bearing Steels 2-11
MACHINERY 27-2-57 Fulcrum Distances 2-11
Definitions 27-2-57 Interchangeability of Bearing Steels 2-11
RAILWAY TRACK SCALES Material 2-10
Location, Maintenance, Operation and Testing 1-1 Mounting 2-10
3
Manufacture and Installation 2-1 Position 2-11
Anti-Friction Points and Plates 2-14 Support for Projecting Pivots 2-11
Clearances 2-14 Plans 2-7
Material and Design 2-14 Assembly Plans 2-7
Approach Rails 2-18 Drawings 2-7
Alignment 2-18 Materials 2-7
Anti-Creep Provisions 2-18 Protection from Corrosion 2-18
Approach Weighrails - Joints 2-18 Surface Treatment 2-18 4
Weight of Rails 2-19 Scale Levers 2-9
Capacities and Sizes 2-6 Leveling Lugs 2-10
Rated Sectional Capacity 2-6 Marking of Levers 2-10
Checks 2-14 Nose Iron Guides 2-10
Design 2-14 Permanency of Adjustment 2-10
Number, Type and Kind 2-14 Quality of Materials 2-9
Position 2-14 Truss Rods 2-10
Strength 2-14 Scale Weighbridges 2-15
Clearances 2-14 Bracing 2-17
Dead Rails and Dead Rail Beams 2-19 Diagonal Bracing 2-17
Dead Rails - When Required 2-19 Fabrication and Assembly 2-18
Elevation 2-19 Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 2-17
Transverse Beams Supporting Dead Rails 2-19 Transverse Bracing 2-17
Weight of Rails 2-19 Type of Girders 2-15
Deck 2-19 Weighbridge Bearings 2-15
Clearance 2-19 Weighrail Pedestals 2-17
Construction 2-19 Weighrails 2-18
Type 2-19 Weighbeams and Accessories 2-7

Index
RAILWAY TRACK SCALES (CONT) RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL

Balance Ball 2-9 BRIDGES (CONT)
Beam Fulcrum Stand 2-9 Dead Loads 8-26-13
Design 2-7 Erection Loads 8-26-13
Factory Adjustment of Notches 2-9 General 8-26-12
Fractional Poises on Registering Weighbeams 2-8 Post-Tensioning Force 8-26-17
Identification of Parts 2-8 Thermal Effects 8-26-13
Poise 2-8 Duct Details 8-26-38
Poise Bearings 2-8 Duct Area 8-26-38
Printing Level 2-8 Duct Confinement Reinforcement 8-26-40
Ratio 2-8 Duct Size, Clearance and Detailing 8-26-39
Receptacle for Weigh Ticket 2-8 Duct Supports 8-26-39
Trig Loop 2-9 Material Thickness 8-26-38
Type Figures 2-8 Minimum Radius of Curvature 8-26-38
Weighbeam Support 2-9 Fatigue Stress Limits 8-26-34
RAILWAY TUNNELS Fatigue Stress Limits for Bonded Nonprestressed
Double Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-6 Reinforcement 8-26-34
Lining 8-11-1 Fatigue Stress Limits for Prestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34
Single-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-5 Flexural Strength 8-26-24
RATE STRUCTURE NEGOTIATION 33-6-29 Center of Gravity Correction for Strand Tendons 8-26-24
RATING 8-19-2, 15-7-13 General 8-26-24
of Bridges 15-7-3 Strain Compatibility 8-26-24
of Equipment 15-7-3 General Requirements and Material 8-26-4
Formulas 8-19-9 Concrete 8-26-8
RATING EXISTING BRIDGES General 8-26-4
Concrete 8-19-1 Notations 8-26-4
RATIONALE AND SCOPE OF WORK, VEGETATION Terms 8-26-7
CONTROL 1-9-2 Inspection Access 8-26-42
REACTIONS 15-1-68 Load Factors 8-26-17
REAMING AND DRILLING Construction Load Combinations, Stresses and
After Assembly 15-3-15 Stability 8-26-19
Through Templates 15-3-14 General 8-26-17
REASON FOR RAIL GRINDING 4-4-82 Service Load Combinations 8-26-17
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, TRAIN RESISTANCE 16-2-5 Strength Reduction Factors 8-26-18
RECLAMATION, TRACK MATERIAL 16-10-18 Methods of Analysis 8-26-8
RECOMMENDATIONS 33-4-17, 33-5-4 Effective Flange Width 8-26-8
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES General 8-26-8
Allowable Stresses 8-26-22 Longitudinal Analysis 8-26-12
Prestressed Concrete 8-26-22 Strut-and-Tie-Models 8-26-8
Prestressing Steel 8-26-22 Transverse Analysis 8-26-11
Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Prestress Losses 8-26-23
Saddles 8-26-34 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages 8-26-37
Anchorages Bearing Reaction Force 8-26-36 Bridges with Internal Ducts 8-26-37
Anchorages in Diaphragms 8-26-36 Dead Load or Defection Adjustment 8-26-38
Anchorages in Special Blisters 8-26-36 General 8-26-37
Deviation Saddles 8-26-37 Shear and Torsion 8-26-25
Forces and Reinforcement in General Anchorage Design for Plane Section Type Regions 8-26-28
Zones 8-26-35 Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Corbels and Brackets
General 8-26-34 8-26-32
Reinforcement 8-26-35 General Requirements 8-26-25
Reinforcement Detailing 8-26-35 Scope 8-26-25
Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details Shear Transfer at Interfaces 8-26-33
8-26-42 Strut-and-Tie Truss Model Design for Either Beam
Length of Top Flange Cantilever 8-26-43 Type or Discontinuity Regions 8-26-30
Minimum Flange Thickness 8-26-42 Two-Way Punching Shear 8-26-33
Minimum Web Thickness 8-26-42 RECOMMENDED CALIBRATION RAILS FOR FLAW
Overall Cross Section Dimensions 8-26-43 DETECTION SYSTEMS 4-4-64
Commentary 8-26-43 Calibration Rails 4-4-64
Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing 8-26-42 Manufacture of Calibration Rails 4-4-64
Cover and Spacing 8-26-42 Purpose 4-4-64
Reinforcement Details for Erection Loads 8-26-42 RECOMMENDED CLEARANCE SPECIFICATION TO PROVIDE
Connection of Secondary Beams 8-26-41 FOR OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION 33-2-2
Couplers 8-26-40 RECOMMENDED COLORS FOR PAINTING MOTOR CARS,
Design Loads 8-26-12 ROADWAY MACHINES, WORK EQUIPMENT AND RAIL
Creep and Shrinkage 8-26-14 GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT 27-1-3

Index
RECOMMENDED DESIGN STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE RESULTS, RECOMMENDED QUALIFICATIONS FOR OPERATOR
INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-3 PERFORMING ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR
RECOMMENDED FORMAT, ORGANIZATION OF BID TRACK COMPONENTS 4-4-65
DOCUMENTS 6-1-4 Examination of Personnel 4-4-67
RECOMMENDED LIMITS OF WEAR FOR TOOLS TO BE NDT Level III or Program Administrator Requirements 4-4-66
RECLAIMED 5-6-17 Personnel 4-4-67
RECOMMENDED MAINTENANCE PLANNING USE OF GAGE Purpose 4-4-65
RESTRAINT MEASUREMENT SYSTEM DATA 2-2-16 Qualifications 4-4-65
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE RECOMMENDED RAIL SECTIONS 4-1-1
FOR RAIL TESTING 4-4-60 RECOMMENDED RECORD MAINTENANCE 4-4-70
Introduction 4-4-60 RECOMMENDED REPAIR OF DEFECTIVE OR BROKEN RAIL
Measuring Against the Performance Guidelines 4-4-62 IN CWR 4-2-74
Performance Guideline for Regular Testing 4-4-60 General 4-2-74
Verification of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63 Scope 4-2-74
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES 33-3-1
Calculating Rail Profile Quality Index (RPQI) 2-2-39 Definitions 33-3-2
Calculation Methodology 2-2-39 Contingency Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
General 2-2-39 Maximum No-Load Substation Voltage 33-3-2
Conditions for Gage Restraint Measurement 2-2-5 Maximum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
for Design of Wood Culverts 7-2-121 Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
for Development and Use of Track Quality Indices (TQI) Nominal Operating Voltage 33-3-2
Generated from TGMV Data 2-3-15 Design Criteria 33-3-2
Issues to be Considered When Selecting and Using Introduction 33-3-1
TQIs 2-3-16 General 33-3-1
Summary of Common TQI Descriptions and Typical Recommended Voltages for New Construction 33-3-3
Usages 2-3-24 RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION
Summary of TQI Advantages and Disadvantages 33-3-3
2-3-26 RECONDITIONING RAIL ENDS 4-4-76
Summary of Track Segmentation RECORD COLLECTION 6-5-7
Advantages/Disadvantages 2-3-23 RECORD, PILE 7-3-11 1
Summary of Track Segmentation Description and RECORDS 8-20-3, 8-22-7, 8-2
Typical Usage 2-3-21 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS 8-17-26
Track Quality Index (TQI) 2-3-15 REDRESSING OF TOOLS 5-6-58
Typical Uses of Track Quality Indices (TQIs) 2-3-15 REFERENCES IN 2002 AREMA COMMUNICATIONS & SIGNALS
for the Manufacture of Two-Piece Steel Doweled MANUAL OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICE, VOLUME 2,
PART 5 DEFECT DETECTION SYSTEMS 16-5-14
Laminated Cross Ties (TPSDLC) 30-3-107 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.4 1-3-24
for Measuring Rail Wear Parameters 2-2-38
for Rail Anchor Application and Maintenance 5-7-5
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.5 1-3-59 3
REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL
for Switch Point and Stock Rail Changeout 5-5-28 INFORMATION 27-1-15
for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6 REFLECTORIZED MATERIALS, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4
for Using, Redressing, Sharpening and Replacing REFUGE NICHES 8-11-6
Handles in Track Tools 5-6-57 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES 12-2-19
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR SIMPLE STRESS REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS 11-3-4, 11-3-5, 11-3-11,
LAMINATED DECK PANELS 7-2-124 12-3-6, 12-3-8, 12-3-13, 12-4-26, 17-3-3, 17-3-4,
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR RAIL/WHEEL FRICTION
CONTROL 4-4-77
17-4-3, 17-4-4, 17-7-4 4
REHEARING 4-3-19
Friction Measurement Systems 4-4-79 REHEAT TREATMENT 4-3-24, 4-3-30
General 4-4-77 REINFORCED CONCRETE
Lubricants and/or Friction Modifiers 4-4-80 Box Culverts
Measuring Friction Control Effectiveness 4-4-77 Design Principles
Scope 4-4-77 Live Load 8-16-20
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SHIPPING, HANDLING, Culvert Pipe 8-10-1
APPLICATION AND USE 30-4-44 Design 8-10-4
RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES FOR OPERATOR Alternate Design Procedure 8-10-12
PERFORMING ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR Bedding Factors 8-10-6
TRACK COMPONENTS 4-4-68 Factor of Safety 8-10-12
Calibration of Test Equipment 4-4-69 General 8-10-4
Evaluation 4-4-69 Loads 8-10-4
Inspection Procedures 4-4-69 Minimum Pipe Strength 8-10-12
Recommended Procedures 4-4-68 Pipe Strength 8-10-12
Recommended Record Maintenance 4-4-70 References 8-10-4
Reports 4-4-69 General 8-10-2
Ultrasonic Test (UT) Written Procedure Requirements Definitions 8-10-2
4-4-68
Scope 8-10-2

Index
REINFORCED CONCRETE (CONT) REINFORCED CONCRETE (CONT)

Installation 8-10-12 General 8-2-23
Backfill and Embankment 8-10-14 Negative Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24
Pipe Installation 8-10-13 Positive Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24
Preparation of Subgrade 8-10-12 Special Members 8-2-25
Materials 8-10-3 Mechanical Anchorage 8-2-29
Acid Resistant Coatings 8-10-4 Splices of Reinforcement 8-2-31
Manholes 8-10-3 Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-31
Pipe 8-10-3 Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-32
Rubber Gaskets 8-10-4 End Bearing Splices 8-2-32
Design 8-2-1 Lap Splices 8-2-31
Analysis and Design 8-2-33 Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Analysis Methods 8-2-33 Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections 8-2-31
Bearings 8-2-35 General 8-2-5
Box-Girder Construction 8-2-37 Buildings 8-2-6
Composite Concrete Flexural Members 8-2-35 Design Methods 8-2-5
Computation of Deflections 8-2-34 Highway Bridges 8-2-6
Expansion and Contraction 8-2-33 Pier Protection 8-2-6
General 8-2-33 Scope 8-2-5
Modulus of Elasticity 8-2-34 Skewed Concrete Bridges 8-2-6
Shrinkage Coefficient 8-2-34 Load Factor Design 8-2-48
Span Length 8-2-34 Compression Members With or Without Flexure 8-2-52
Stiffness 8-2-34 Biaxial Loading 8-2-53
T-Girder Construction 8-2-36 General Requirements 8-2-52
Thermal Coefficient 8-2-34 Strengths 8-2-52
Design Methods 8-2-38 Control of Deflections 8-2-65
Commentary 8-2-65, 8-14-25 General 8-2-65
General 8-2-65 Superstructure Depth Limitations 8-2-65
Pier Protection 8-2-65 Design Assumptions 8-2-49
Details of Reinforcement 8-2-17 Strength Design 8-2-49
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 8-2-18 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement 8-2-64
Concrete Cover for Bar Bundles 8-2-19 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement 8-2-64
Concrete Cover for Corrosive and Marine Flexure 8-2-49
Environments 8-2-19 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members
Corrosion Protection 8-2-19 8-2-49
Minimum Concrete Cover 8-2-18 Other Cross Sections 8-2-51
Hooks and Bends 8-2-17 Rectangular Sections With Compression
Minimum Bend Diameter 8-2-17 Reinforcement 8-2-51
Standard Hooks 8-2-17 Rectangular Sections With Tension
Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members Reinforcement Only 8-2-50
8-2-21 T-and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement
Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-21 Only 8-2-50
Longitudinal Reinforcement 8-2-21 Permissible Bearing Stress 8-2-63
Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members 8-2-19 Serviceability Requirements 8-2-63
Distribution of Reinforcement 8-2-19 Application 8-2-63
Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-20 Service Load Stresses 8-2-63
Shear Reinforcement 8-2-20 Shear 8-2-56
Minimum 8-2-20 Horizontal Design for Composite Concrete
Spacing 8-2-21 Flexural Members 8-2-60
Types 8-2-21 Reinforcement Design 8-2-58
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement 8-2-23 Shear-Friction 8-2-58
Spacing of Reinforcement 8-2-18
Special Provisions
Development and Splices of Reinforcement 8-2-23
Brackets and Corbels 8-2-62
Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement 8-2-29
Slabs and Footings 8-2-61
Development
Strength 8-2-56
Standard Hooks in Tension 8-2-27
Stress, Permissible 8-2-56
Welded Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-28
Slenderness Effects in Compression Members
Deformed Wire Fabric 8-2-28
8-2-54
Smooth Wire Fabric 8-2-29
Approximate Evaluation 8-2-54
Development Length
General Requirements 8-2-54
Bundled Bars 8-2-26
Strength Requirements 8-2-48
Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension
Design Strength 8-2-48
8-2-25
Required Strength 8-2-48
Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-26
Materials 8-2-16
Development Requirements 8-2-23

Index
REINFORCED CONCRETE (CONT) REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE 27-2-37

Concrete 8-2-16 REPAIR, STRENGTHENING AND RETROFITTING 15-7-5
Reinforcement 8-2-16 REPEATED LOAD TEST 5-9-6
Notations, Definitions and Design Loads 8-2-7 REPLACEMENT AND CLEANING, BALLAST 16-10-14
Design Loads 8-2-11 REPLACEMENT OF BALLAST AND IN TRACK CLEANING 1-2-15
Loading Combination 8-2-15 REPLACING HANDLES 5-6-60
Service Load Design 8-2-38 REPORT INFORMATION, EXCESSIVE LOADS 28-3-11
Allowable Service Load Stresses 8-2-38 REPORTING
Compression Members With or Without Flexure Additions or Modifications to Clearances 28-3-57
8-2-40 Measurements, Excess Dimension Loads 28-3-49
Concrete 8-2-38 REPORTING OF DEFECTS 8-21-2
Flexure 8-2-40 REPORTS, INSPECTION 6-15-5
Reinforcement 8-2-39 Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing
Shear 8-2-41 Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-69
Design of Shear Reinforcement 8-2-43 REQUIRED STRENGTH 8-17-18
Horizontal Shear Design for Concrete REQUIREMENTS OF THE SIGNAL AND ELECTRIFICATION
Flexural Members 8-2-45 SYSTEMS 33-5-2
Permissible Stress 8-2-41 REQUIREMENTS, CLEARANCE, LEGAL 28-3-19
Shear-Friction 8-2-43 REQUIREMENTS, DIMENSIONAL, ENGINEERED
Special Provisions COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4
Brackets and Corbels 8-2-47 REQUIREMENTS, PERFORMANCE, ENGINEERED
Slabs and Footings 8-2-46 COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-5
Stress 8-2-41 REQUIREMENTS, LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING
General Requirements 8-2-38 MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56
REINFORCEMENT 8-1-23, 8-1-55, 8-3-14 REQUIREMENTS, SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY
Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation ASSURANCE OF ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF
Saddles 8-26-35 RAIL 4-3-46
Concrete 8-1-17, 8-2-16 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN
Concrete Protection for 8-1-28, 8-2-18 CONCRETE 8-1-38
Construction for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-10 RESERVE OIL 14-7-3 1
Detailing, Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and RESISTANCE
Deviation Saddles 8-26-35 Against Sliding 8-5-6
Details of 8-1-25 Curve 16-2-7
of Members 15-4-5 Grade 16-2-8
Negative Moment 8-2-24 to Movement 16-2-3
Placing of 8-1-26 Starting 16-2-7
Positive Moment 8-2-24 Wind 16-2-8
Segmental Bridges 8-26-8 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS 33-7-13, 33-7-19 3
Spacing of 8-1-27 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED CONNECTIONS 33-7-26
Splices 8-14-21 RESPONSIBILITY, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR
Surface Conditions of 8-1-25 CONSTRUCTION 8-28-2
REINFORCING PLATES AT PIN HOLES 15-1-62 RETAINING WALLS 8-21-4, 8-21-23, 9-1-33, 12-4-44
REINFORCING STEEL 8-19-6 RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS 8-5-1
REJECTION 4-3-18 Commentary 8-5-13
RELATED FILTER MATERIALS Computation of Applied Forces 8-5-5
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Backfill Pressure 8-5-6 4
RELAY RACKS AND COMPUTER EQUIPMENT 6-11-4 Loads Exclusive of Earth Pressure 8-5-5
RELIABILITY 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3, 27-2-18 Definitions 8-5-2
RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS 17-7-3 Scour 8-2-3
RELINING MATERIALS 1-4-79 Types 8-5-2
REMODELING/EXPANSION, PASSENGER RAIL Design of Backfill 8-5-8
(COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND Compaction 8-5-8
SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-3 Drainage 8-5-8
REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL), YARD DESIGN Designing Bridges to Resist Scour
14-2-33 Design Coniderations 8-5-9
REMOVAL OF FORMS 8-1-24, 8-11-6 Design Philosophy and Concepts 8-5-9
REMOVAL OF OLD STRUCTURE AND FALSEWORK, AND Design Procedure 8-5-9
CLEANUP 15-4-8 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and
REMOVING AND REPLACING TRACK 5-8-10 Retaining Walls 8-5-11
REPAIR 16-8-2, 16-8-5 Cantilever Walls 8-5-11
Methods for Prestressed Members 8-14-22 Counterfort and Buttress Walls 8-5-11
and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures 8-14-1 General 8-5-11
and Replacement Criteria for Switch Points and Stock Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers 8-5-12
Rails (for Main Line Operations) 5-5-30 Bearings and Anchorage 8-5-13
Caissons 8-5-13

Index
RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS (CONT) ROADWAY (CONT)

Pier Shafts 8-5-12 Classification 1-7-2
Pier Spacing, Orientation and Type 8-5-12 Location 1-7-2
Piers in Navigable Streams 8-5-13 Maintenance-of-Way 1-7-2
Information Required 8-5-4 Transportation 1-7-2
Character of Foundation 8-5-5 Design 1-7-4
Controlling Dimensions 8-5-4 Dimensions 1-7-4
Field Survey 8-5-4 Legends 1-7-4
Loads 8-5-4 Placement 1-7-4
Subsurface Exploration 8-5-3 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Type of Backfill 8-5-4 Shapes 1-7-4
Stability Computation 8-5-7 Materials 1-7-4
Point of Intersection of Resultant Force and Base 8-5-7 Concrete 1-7-4
Resistance Against Sliding 8-5-7 Metals 1-7-4
Settlement and Tilting 8-5-8 Reflectorized Materials 1-7-4
Soil Pressure 8-5-8 Wood 1-7-4
RETESTS 4-3-17, 5-1-4, 5-2-3, 5-10-3 ROADWAY APPROACH REHABILITATION AND
and Rejection 5-7-3 MAINTENANCE 5-8-7
RETIRED FACILITIES 9-1-35 ROADWAY COMPLETION REPORTS 16-12-24
REVETMENTS 1-3-29 ROADWAY DESIGN AND GEOMETRICS 5-8-4
REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS 8-3-7 ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-1
RIDE QUALITY 17-7-4 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines
RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS 27-2-62
12-3-9, 17-3-4 General 27-2-62
At Grade Crossings 11-3-6, 12-3-1017-3-4 Purpose 27-2-62
Drainage 11-3-6, 12-3-10, 17-3-4 Scope 27-2-62
Environmental 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications 27-2-40
General 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-4 Electrical Systems 27-2-43
Third Party Occupancy 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 Electrical Apparatus Cabinets 27-2-43
Vegetation Control 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 General 27-2-43
RIGHT OF WAY MAINTENANCE 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Introduction 27-2-43
General 17-7-3 Motor Control Apparatus Overload Relays 27-2-44
Maintenance of Way Equipment 17-7-3 Hydraulic Systems 27-2-40
RIGID DUCTS 8-17-12 General 27-2-41
RIGID FRAME STRUCTURES 15-1-60 Introduction 27-2-40
RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION 15-1-57, 15-9-33 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of
RIVETED FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-6 Roadway Machines 27-2-56
RIVETS Definitions 27-2-56
and Riveting 15-3-9 General 27-2-56
ROADBED 1-1-1 Procedures 27-2-58
Construction 1-1-38 Requirements 27-2-57
Contract Documents 1-1-38 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility
General 1-1-38 Guideline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-57
Design 1-1-12 Definitions 27-2-57
Cuts 1-1-13 Specifications for On-Track Roadway Machines 27-2-23
Drainage 1-1-25 Additional Specifications 27-2-38
Fills 1-1-20 Body or Cab Top 27-2-34
General 1-1-12 Brakes 27-2-24
Exploration and Testing 1-1-3 Clearance and Safety 27-2-35
Maintenance 1-1-48 Controls 27-2-34
Drainage and Erosion Control 1-1-62 Delivery 27-2-39
Maintenance of Earth Slopes 1-1-58 Electrical System 27-2-31
Maintenance of Roadbed 1-1-48 Engine and Power Train 27-2-26
Maintenance of Rock Slopes 1-1-56 Exhaust System 27-2-27
Methods of Opening Snow Blockades 1-1-64 Fuel Tank 27-2-27
Widening of Cuts 1-1-60 General 27-2-23
ROADWAY 1-3-32, 16-10-20 Hydraulic System 27-2-27
and Ballast 1-i Initial Preparation and Servicing 27-2-35
Buildings, Account 17 16-12-9 Insulation 27-2-26
Machines, Account 37 16-12-15 Material 27-2-24
Material Reclamation Noise Exposure 27-2-39
and Fabrication Facilities, Design of 14-7-4 Non-Compliance 27-2-39
Plant 14-7-4 Paint 27-2-36
Signs 1-7-1 Pneumatic System 27-2-33
Repair Parts and Service 27-2-37

Index
ROADWAY MACHINES (CONT) ROLLING STOCK 11-5-2, 17-5-9

Shipping 27-2-37 Brakes 17-5-10
Travel Speed 27-2-34 Car Body Exterior 17-5-11
Wheels, Axles and Bearings Car Body Interior and Environment 17-5-11
Frame and Suspension 27-2-25 Crashworthiness 17-5-11
Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment 27-2-45 Current Collection and Primary Power System 17-5-10
Additional Options 27-2-54 General Description 17-5-9
Brakes 27-2-46 Train Control and Communication Systems 17-5-11
Clearance and Safety 27-2-52 Trucks and Suspension 17-5-10
Controls 27-2-52 ROLLING STOCK DETECTORS 16-5-2, 16-5-9
Delivery 27-2-55 Site Considerations 16-5-6
Electrical System 27-2-50 ROLLING STOCK REQUIREMENTS 12-2-13
General 27-2-45 ROOF COATING SYSTEMS, LIQUID 6-14-10
Hydraulic System 27-2-47 ROOFING
Initial Preparation and Servicing 27-2-53 Built-up 6-14-3
Insulation 27-2-47 Characteristic Comparison 6-14-10
Material 27-2-46 Inspection and Maintenance of Built-up 6-14-5
Mounting of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to Vehicle Problems, Built-up 6-14-3
27-2-55 Solutions, Built-up 6-14-4
Non-Compliance 27-2-56 Systems 6-14-9
Paint 27-2-53 Metal 6-14-10
Parts and Instruction Books 27-2-54 Single Ply 6-14-9
Pneumatic System 27-2-51 ROOFING SYSTEMS, SELECTION AND MAINTENANCE 6-14-1
Repair Parts and Service 27-2-54 Built-up Roofing 6-14-3
Setup and Alignment 27-2-55 Hot Asphalt and Coal Tar Pitch Roofs 6-14-3
Shipping 27-2-54 Inspection and Maintenance 6-14-5
Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-47 Problems 6-14-3
Specifications for Railway Push Cars 27-2-18 Solutions 6-14-4
Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-19 Conclusions 6-14-13
1
General Description 27-2-18 Introduction 6-14-2
Miscellaneous 27-2-20 History of the Roofing Problem 6-14-2
Operational Requirements 27-2-18 Roofing Systems 6-14-9
Optional Equipment 27-2-21 Liquid Roof Coating Systems 6-14-10
Paint 27-2-21 Metal Roofing Systems 6-14-10
Standard Equipment 27-2-20 Single Ply Roofing Systems 6-14-9
Stenciling 27-2-21 ROOFS 6-3-5
Suspension 27-2-20 Hot Asphalt and Coal Tar Pitch 6-14-3 3
Specifications for Track Motor Cars 27-2-4 ROOM FINISHES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-6
Brake Systems 27-2-10 ROPE LENGTH 15-6-75
Cab 27-2-11 ROTATIONAL RESTRAINT 5-9-8
Engine 27-2-5 ROUND SECTIONS 7-2-79
Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-6 ROUTE IDENTIFICATION 12-2-12
Fuel Tank 27-2-7 ROUTE TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS 12-2-17
General 27-2-17 RUBBER GASKETS 8-10-4
General Description 27-2-4 RUBBERIZED ASPHALT 4
Hydraulic System 27-2-8 with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane
Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin 8-29-16
27-2-21 RULES 4-2
Miscellaneous 27-2-14 for Rating Existing Bridges
Operational Requirements 27-2-4 Wood 7-2-117
Optional Equipment 27-2-16 for Rating Existing Wood Trestles 7-2-117
Paint 27-2-15 RULES FOR THE MANUFACTURE, INSTALLATION,
Pneumatic System 27-2-9 LOCATION, OPERATION AND TESTING OF RAILWAY
Reliability 27-2-18 MASTER TRACK SCALE 4-1
Standard Equipment 27-2-13 Rules 4-2
Stenciling 27-2-16 Field Calibration of Track Scale Test Weight Cars 4-4
Suspension 27-2-7 Housekeeping 4-3
Travel Speed and Performance 27-2-11 Length 4-2
ROCK Location 4-2
Cores 8-22-7 Maintenance and Repairs 4-3
ROCKERS OR ROLLERS 15-1-64 Manufacture and Installation 4-2
ROLLER BEARINGS FOR HEAVY LOADS 15-6-36 Scale Pit 4-2
Testing and Calibration 4-3

Index
RUN THROUGH TRAIN SCOPE (CONT)

Characteristics of 14-2-29 General, Pile Foundations 8-4-2
Design Objectives 14-2-30 General, Spring Washers 4-3-29
Facility, Design Features 14-2-31 General, Temporary Structures for Construction 8-28-2
Operation 14-2-30 General Requirements and Materials, Prestressed
RUNNING RAIL, UNSUPPORTED 15-8-25 Concrete 8-17-4
RURAL STATIONS 17-2-5 General Specification for In-Track Rail Welding Using
Electric Flash Butt (EFB) Welding Equipment 4-3-43
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-2
S Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5
SAFETY 1-4-77 Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-9-56, 15-10-29
Devices 15-6-46 Natural Waterways 1-3-3
Factors 8-3-8 Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38
Forms 8-1-21 Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-32, 9-2-23
Planning, Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-7 Prestressed Concrete 8-17-4
Provisions 1-4-75 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14
Roadway Signs 1-7-3 Rail Grinding Best Practice 4-4-82
SAFETY CERTIFICATION CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-28 Rail Information 4-5-1
SAFETY PROVISIONS Recommended Practice for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control 4-4-77
SAFETY/SECURITY Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock Rail
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-13 Changeout 5-5-28
Introduction Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1 CWR 4-4-74
Rail Transit 12-1-1 Records 8-22-7
Safety 12-1-3 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-2
Security 12-1-3 Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-5
System Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-4 Rules for Rating Existing Concrete Bridges 8-19-2
Track and Roadbed Considerations 11-3-15 Safe Movement of Excess Dimension Loads on Foreign
Track and Roadway 12-3-13 Trackage/Joint Tracks 28-3-62
Yards and Shops 12-4-31 Shear and Torsion 8-26-25
SAFETY/SECURITY, HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS 17-1-1, Slurry Wall Construction 8-25-2
17-2-3, 17-2-5, 17-3-3, 17-3-4, 17-4-3, 17-4-4, 17-7-3 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash
SAFETY/SECURITY TECHNOLOGY 12-2-16, 17-2-5 Butt Welding of Rail 4-3-46
SAFETY AND SYSTEM ASSURANCE 17-5-6 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite
SALES AND USE TAX 16-14-7 Welding of Rail 4-2-72
SAMPLE CALCULATION 33-4-23 Specifications
SAMPLING 5-9-3, 8-22-6 for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32
and Testing 1-2-14 for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail 4-3-49
SAND COCKS, SAND FACILITY 6-6-9 for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood 7-1-13
SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-7, 14-5-5 for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and
SCALE PIT 4-2 Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19
SCALE PITS AND OTHER SIMILAR STRUCTURES BELOW for Laying Rail 5-5-3
GRADE 8-29-7 for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38
SCHEDULING OF WORK, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-6 for Pipelines
SCOPE 1-2-9, 8-19-2, 8-14-25 Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-3
Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62 Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-22
Accounting 16-12-4 for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt
Audit Survey Instrumentation 6-5-8 Welding of Rail 4-3-55
Ballast, Concrete Ties 30-4-45 for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail
Bridges, New 9-1-17 4-3-55
Cantilever Bulkheads 8-20-15 for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2 Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint Bars
Concrete Jointing 8-1-28 4-3-15
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates for Rail Anchors 5-7-2
1-4-90 for Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2
Crib Walls 8-6-2 for Steel Drive Spikes 5-10-2
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3 for Steel Rails 4-2-3
Driving Timber Piles 7-3-6 for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2
Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements for Track Construction 5-4-1
33-4-16 for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-3 Right-of-Way 1-5-10
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-2 Specifications for Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32
General, Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-8 String Lining of Curves by the Chord Method 5-3-6

Index
SCOPE (CONT) SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY STRUCTURES (CONT)

Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines 9-1-4
Electrification Systems 33-6-3 Structure Response 9-1-21
Unloading Pits 15-8-17 SEISMIC LOADING, PROVISIONS FOR 8-1-25
Waterproofing 8-29-4 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR 12-2-11, 17-2-4
Welding of Manganese Steel Castings in Special SELF-PROPELLED RAIL CARS 16-3-16
Trackwork 5-5-26 SEPARATION, RECOVERY OR DISPOSAL OF OIL 6-3-8
Workmanship for Construction of Pile and Framed SERVICE
Trestles 7-3-3 Facilities, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities
SCOPE AND PURPOSE 6-4-17
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2 Life 16-9-6
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Load
Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-2 Design 8-2-38
SCOUR 1-3-20, 8-4-5 Stresses 8-2-63
SCREW GEARING AND CAMS 15-6-43 Allowable 8-2-38
SEALING 15-1-45 Spaces 6-11-4
Compounds for Joints and Edges 8-29-20 SERVICE CONDITIONS 33-6-22
SEAM STRENGTH SERVICE EQUIPMENT (SUPPORT AREA) 6-12-6
of Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65 SERVICE AND LINE CHANGES 2-3-13
SECONDARY STRESSES 15-1-36 SERVICE LOAD COMBINATIONS 8-26-17
SECTION AT PIN HOLES 15-1-62 SERVICEABILITY, SHIPPING, HANDLING, APPLICATION
SECTION OF RAILS 4-2-12 AND USE, CONCRETE TIES 30-4-48
SECTIONALIZATION EQUIPMENT 33-4-7 SERVICES PROVIDED, MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES 6-16-4
SECURITY 14-4-54 SERVICING FACILITIES 14-5-5
Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities SET SCREWS 15-6-45
14-4-39 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING 8-5-7
Requirements, Yards and Terminals 14-1-3 SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL 17-7-4, 17-7-5
SEGMENTAL BRIDGES SEWERS 6-3-8
Design Loads 8-26-12 SHAFT COUPLINGS 15-6-40
Effective Flange Width 8-26-8 SHAFTS 15-6-31, 15-6-39, 15-6-101
1
Flexural Strength 8-26-24 SHAPES 1-4-14
Prestress Losses 8-26-23 Class I and Class II 1-4-23
SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN Roadway Signs 1-7-4
General Requirements and Material 8-26-4 SHARED RIGHT OF WAY 12-2-13, 17-2-4
SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE SHARED TRACKAGE 12-2-13, 17-2-4
DESIGN OF 8-26-1 SHARPENING OF TOOLS 5-6-59
SEGMENTAL GIRDER GUIDEWAYS 12-4-97 SHEAR 8-2-41, 8-2-56, 8-17-30
Design 12-4-97 General 8-17-30 3
Introduction 12-4-97 Horizontal 7-2-71, 8-17-33
SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY STRUCTURES 9-i, 9-1-1 Horizontal Design for Composite Concrete Flexural
Analysis Procedures 9-1-23 Members 8-2-60
Basic Concepts and Nomenclature Reinforcement 8-2-20
Base Acceleration Coefficient Maps 9-1-11 Anchorage 8-2-29
Detailing Provisions 9-1-25, 9-2-18 Spacing 8-2-21
Existing Bridges 9-1-30, 9-2-22 Types 8-2-21
Assessment and Retrofit 9-1-30 Reinforcement Design 8-2-43, 8-2-58 4
History 9-1-30, 9-2-22 Special Provisions
Inventory 9-1-30, 9-2-22 Brackets and Corbels 8-2-62
Scope 9-1-30 Slabs and Footings 8-2-61
General Requirements 9-1-7 Strength 8-2-56, 8-17-30, 8-17-32
Ground Motion Levels 9-1-8 Stress 8-2-41
Introduction 9-1-3 Permissible 8-2-41
New Bridges 9-1-17, 9-2-8 Stress, Permissible 8-2-56
General 9-1-17 SHEAR AND TORSION 8-26-25
Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-32, 9-2-23 Design for Plane Section Type Regions 8-26-28
Buildings and Support Facilities 9-1-34, 9-2-23 SHEAR TRANSFER AT INTERFACES 8-26-33
Culverts 9-1-33 SHEAR, HORIZONTAL 7-2-71
Rail Transit 9-1-35 SHEAR, TWO-WAY PUNCHING 8-26-33
Retaining Walls 9-1-33 SHEAR-FRICTION 8-2-43, 8-2-58
Scope 9-1-32 SHEARING STRESS 7-2-71
Track and Roadbed 9-1-32, 9-2-23 SHELLY SPOTS 4-4-58
Tunnels and Track Protection Sheds 9-1-34, 9-2-23 SHIPMENT
Utilities, Signal and Communication Facilities 9-1-34 Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-27
Performance Criteris 9-1-19 SHIPMENT AND PAY WEIGHT 15-3-21

Index
SHIPPING 15-6-76, 27-2-37 SIGNALS, COMMUNICATIONS, AND PROPULSION

Tag 5-7-4 CONSIDERATIONS 17-6-1
SHOES AND PEDESTALS 15-1-63 Communication Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-16
SHOP BUILDING AND APPURTENANCES 14-5-7 General Information 11-6-1, 17-6-2
SHOP DRAWINGS 15-1-6 Operations Centers 11-6-1, 17-6-2
For Construction of Bridge Bearings 15-11-2 Propulsion Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-16
SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE 6-9-6 Signals Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-2
SHOP MACHINERY, ACCOUNT 44 16-12-16 SIGNALS, INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING 17-7-3
SHOP PAINTING 15-3-19 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS, ACCOUNT 27 16-12-13
of Machined Surfaces 15-3-19 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 15-6-7
of Structural Steel 15-3-19 SIGNALS SYSTEMS 17-6-2
SHOPS AND ENGINEHOUSES, ACCOUNT 20 16-12-11 Automatic Train Control (ATC) System 17-6-4
SHORING SYSTEMS, DESIGN OF 8-28-5 Communications 17-6-7
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY 33-6-20 Control System - Propulsion System Electromagnetic
SHORT SINGLE - SPAN ARCHES AND BOX CULVERTS Compatibility 17-6-7
8-29-6 General Definitions and Objective 17-6-2
SHOTCRETE 8-11-7 Hazard Detection and Surveillance 17-6-9
SHOTCRETING 8-1-38 Interlocking System 17-6-7
SHOULDER REPLACEMENT OR REPAIR 30-4-55 SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE, REQUIREMENTS WHEN
SHRINKAGE COEFFICIENT 8-2-34 USING 8-1-38
SI METRICATION M-1 SINGLE-TRACK RAILWAY TUNNELS, CLEARANCE
Conversion M-3 DIAGRAMS 28-1-5
Introduction to SI Units M-2 SITE
Metric Measurement Units M-2 Considerations
Numerals M-3 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-13
Prefixes for SI Unit Multiples M-2 Design Criteria for Observation Towers 6-10-2
Quantity Symbols vs. Unit Symbols M-4 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3
References M-4 Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3
SI Writing Style M-3 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance,
Significant Digits M-3 Repair and Servicing Facilities 6-13-1
SIDE TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7 Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2
SIDEWALLS AND ARCH 8-11-3 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-4
SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE 33-1-8 Selection, Material Reclamation and Fabrication
SIGNAL COMPATIBILITY WITH ALTERNATING CURRENT Facilities 14-7-8
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION 33-5-1 Work 6-1-9
Discussion 33-5-3 SITE CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-8, 12-4-35, 17-4-4
Electrical Effects 33-5-3 For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-2
Recommendations 33-5-4 Passenger Facilities 17-4-3
Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems 33-5-2 Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-6
Electric Traction 33-5-3 Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-7
Signals 33-5-2 SITE CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC
Scope 33-5-2 CENTERS 6-11-2
Use of Imdepance Bonds with Alternating Current SITE SELECTION 14-4-63
Railway Electrification 33-5-5 SITE SELECTION
Bond Description 33-5-5 Of Rail/Water Facilities 14-4-3
Imdepance Bond Functions 33-5-5 SIZE
Impedance Bond Failure Modes for Electric Traction Facility 6-16-4
33-5-6 and Length of Pipe 1-4-76
Impedance Bond Failure Modes for Signals 33-5-5 Space Requirements 6-3-5
Signal Track Circuit Assumptions 33-5-5 and Workmanship of Holes 15-3-12
Typical Impedance Bond Configurations 33-5-6 SIZES OF FASTENERS IN ANGLES 15-1-58
SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS 11-3-22, 12-3-23, 17-3-6 SIZING FOOTINGS 8-3-7
SIGNAL MODIFICATION 33-1-6 SKEW BRIDGES 15-1-15
SIGNAL POWER GENERATING SYSTEM 33-6-27 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES 8-2-6
SIGNAL SYSTEMS 11-3-4, 11-6-2, 12-3-6, 17-3-3 SLAB TRACK. SEE ALSO CONCRETE SLAB TRACK
SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5 SLABS AND BEAMS 8-21-4, 8-21-24
SIGNAL TRACK CIRCUIT ASSUMPTIONS 33-5-5 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS
SIGNALS 33-5-2 Approximate Evauation 8-2-54
SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE In Compression Members 8-2-54
OPERATIONS 11-7-3, 17-7-4 SLENDERNESS RATIO 15-1-42
General 17-7-4 SLIP TEST 5-7-2
Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 SLOPE OF GRAIN 7-2-7
Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4 SLUMP 8-1-35
Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4
SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS PLANS AND RECORDS 18-1-6

Index
SLURRY 8-25-7 SPACING OF TRUSSES, GIRDERS, AND STRINGERS 15-1-12

Material 8-25-11 SPANS
SLURRY WALL CONSTRUCTION 8-25-1 Length 8-2-34, 8-17-14
Construction 8-25-10 Required 1-4-6
General 8-25-10 SPECIAL AREAS, SPACE REQUIREMENTS 6-3-6
Inspection 8-25-13 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Slurry Material 8-25-11 Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-7
Trench Excavation 8-25-10 For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-17
Wall 8-25-12 For Design Criteria of Railway Buildings 6-1-13
Design 8-25-3 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 33-6-27
Construction Phase 8-25-3 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT, PASSENGER RAIL
Final Condition 8-25-6 (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
General 8-25-3 SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-9
Methods of Increasing Stability 8-25-6 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN
Qualifications 8-25-3 CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-5
Subsurface Investigation 8-25-3 SPECIAL FABRICATION FOR END, CORNER, AND GATE
General 8-25-2 POSTS 1-6-11
Purpose 8-25-2 SPECIAL FABRICATION FOR LINE POSTS 1-6-11
References 8-25-3 SPECIAL FEATURES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
Scope 8-25-2 OBSERVATION TOWERS 6-10-5
Materials 8-25-7 SPECIAL INSPECTIONS 15-7-23
Additives 8-25-8 SPECIAL MEMBERS 8-2-25
Backfill 8-25-8 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Bentonite 8-25-7 for Bascule Bridges 15-6-24, 15-6-49, 15-6-104
Cement 8-25-8 struction of Tunnels 1-8-3
Permanent Joint Beams 8-25-9 for Swing Bridges 15-6-23, 15-6-46, 15-6-103
Precast Panels 8-25-9 for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-25, 15-6-50, 15-6-105
Quality Control 8-25-9 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BASCULE BRIDGES 15-6-104
Slurry 8-25-7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS 1
Tremie Concrete 8-25-9 MATERIALS OTHER THAN PORTLAND CEMENT 8-1-34
Water 8-25-8 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
SMALL SCALE COGENERATIONAL SYSTEM 6-5-5 Coach Shop 6-13-5
SMOKING AREA 6-11-4 Combined Coach Locomotive Shop 6-13-7
SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC 8-2-29 Support Areas 6-9-9
SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL 17-7-5 for Timber Piles
SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3 First-Class 7-1-11
SOCKETS 15-6-75 Second-Class 7-1-12
SOIL SPECIAL ROOM ALLOWANCE 6-2-8
3
Investigation 8-20-3, 8-28-4 SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS 12-3-27
Pressure 8-5-6 SPECIAL USE STATIONS 17-2-5
Properties 8-28-5 SPECIFIC APPLICATION, WATERPROOFING 8-29-5
SOLID MANGANESE STEEL FROGS 5-4-8 SPECIFICATION FOR COPPER THERMITE WELDED
SOLID SAWN TIMBER TIES 30-3-1 ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS 33-7-21
Handling of Ties from the Tree into the Track 30-3-23 SPECIFICATION FOR FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS
Recommended Practices for the Manufacture of WELDED RAIL 4-3-49
Two-Piece Steel Doweled Laminated Cross Ties SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF 4
(TPSDLC) 30-3-107 ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-46
Specifications for Timber Industrial Grade Cross Ties 30-3-111 SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF
Specifications for Treatment 30-3-63 THERMITE WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-55
Substitute Timber Ties 30-3-21 SPECIFICATION FOR RAIL-HEAD PIN-TYPE BONDS AND
Tie Tests and the Economics of Service Life 30-3-17 TRACK CONNECTORS 33-7-15
Timber Cross Ties 30-3-5 SPECIFICATION FOR STUD TERMINAL COPPER RAIL
Timber Switch Ties 30-3-14 BONDS 33-7-8
Wood Preserving 30-3-32 SPECIFICATION FOR THERMITE TYPE WELDED RAIL-HEAD
SOUND CONTROL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BONDS AND TRACK CONNECTORS 33-7-17
OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-14 SPECIFICATION FOR TRACK TOOLS
SOUNDINGS 8-1-43 General 5-6-4
SPACE REQUIRED FOR AISLES 6-2-8 SPECIFICATION FOR WELDED TYPE RAIL HEAD U-BONDS
SPACE REQUIREMENTS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR AND EXTENDED BONDS 33-7-11
REPAIR SHOPS 6-3-5 SPECIFICATIONS
SPACING for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track Tools 5-6-13
Concrete Reinforcement 8-2-18 for Bituminous Coated Galvanized Steel Pipe and Pipe
of Piles 8-4-4 Arches 1-4-17
of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12 for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32
of Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12

Index
SPECIFICATIONS (CONT) SPECIFICATIONS (CONT)

Acceptance 4-3-37 Qualification Testing (Only) 4-3-40
Dimensional Tolerance 4-3-34 Scope 4-3-38
Engineering Drawings 4-3-32 Workmanship 4-3-39
Inspection 4-3-32 Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9
Marking 4-3-38 for Overhead Pipelines Crossings 1-5-26
Materials 4-3-32 General Conditions 1-5-27
Packaging and Handling 4-3-38 General Design Requirements 1-5-27
Qualification Testing 4-3-34 Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-29
Scope 4-3-32 Scope 1-5-26
Workmanship 4-3-33 Structural Elements 1-5-27
Cement 8-1-7 for Pipelines
Cementitious Materials, Other 8-1-9 Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-3
for Clearing and Mowing Vegetation 1-6-23 Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-22
for Coated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Arches 1-4-17 for Placement of Bungalows and Other Structures 1-6-23
for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6 for Placement of Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 1-4-9
for Corrugated Structural Aluminum Alloy Plate Pipe, for Polymeric Coated Corrugated Galvanized Steel Pipe
Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26 or Pipe Arches 1-4-17
for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe, Pipe-arches, for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Pipe-arches for
and Arches 1-4-24 Culverts and Storm Drains, and Underdrains 1-4-10
for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-4 for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding
for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail 4-3-49 of Rail 4-3-46
Inspection Requirements 4-3-51 Procedures 4-3-47
Manufacturing Requirements 4-3-49 Requirements 4-3-46
Rail Requirements 4-3-49 Scope 4-3-46
Scope 4-3-49 for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint
for Fiber Optic "Route" Construction on Railroad Right of Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint Bars 4-3-15
Way 1-5-29 Bending Properties 4-3-16
Abbreviations 1-5-42 Chemical Composition 4-3-15
Appendix 1-5-43 Finish 4-3-18
Construction 1-5-35 Inspection 4-3-18
Definitions 1-5-39 Manufacture 4-3-15
Design 1-5-30 Marking and Stamping 4-3-18
Documentation 1-5-37 Number of Tests 4-3-17
Maintenance 1-5-39 Rehearing 4-3-19
Planning 1-5-29 Rejection 4-3-18
Scope 1-5-29 Retests 4-3-17
for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood 7-1-13 Scope 4-3-15
for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Tensile Properties 4-3-16
Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19 Test Specimens 4-3-17
Check Analysis 4-3-20 Workmanship 4-3-18
Chemical Composition 4-3-19 for Rail Anchors 5-7-2
Finish 4-3-25 Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in
Heading 4-3-25 CWR 4-4-74
Ladle Analysis 4-3-20 General 4-4-74
Marking 4-3-25 Scope 4-4-74
Mechanical Requirements 4-3-20 for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-3
Packaging 4-3-26 Reinforcement, Concrete 8-1-18
Product Testing 4-3-21 for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13
Re-Heat Treatment 4-3-24 for Roadbed Geometry 1-6-22
Scope 4-3-19 for Snow Fences 1-6-24
Threads and Thread Fit 4-3-25 for Soft-steel Track Spikes 5-2-2
Tolerances 4-3-24 for Spring Washers 4-3-29
for Laying Rail 5-5-3 Access to Works 4-3-31
for Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5 Branding 4-3-31
for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10 Defect Found After Delivery 4-3-31
for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38 Finish 4-3-30
Acceptance 4-3-42 General Scope 4-3-29
Appendix 1 - Method of Slow Bend Test 4-3-42 Material 4-3-29
Engineering Drawings 4-3-38 Mechanical Strength and Ductility 4-3-29
Inspection 4-3-38 Method of Testing 4-3-29
Marking 4-3-42 Packing 4-3-30
Materials 4-3-39 Permanent Set 4-3-30
Packaging and Handling 4-3-42 Place of Tests 4-3-31

Index
SPECIFICATIONS (CONT) SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 7-1-25

Proportion of Tests 4-3-30 Dapping or Sizing Bridge Ties 7-1-27
Reheat Treatment 4-3-30 Delivery 7-1-27
Uniformity of Stock 4-3-30 Design 7-1-25
for Steel Drive Spikes 5-10-2 End Splitting Control Devices 7-1-30
for Steel Rails 4-2-3 Inspection 7-1-26
Acceptance 4-2-23 Installation of Ties 7-1-28
Appendix 1 4-2-26 Material 7-1-25
Appendix 2 4-2-26 Physical requirements 7-1-25
Appendix 3 4-2-26 Preservative Treatment of Ties 7-1-29
Branding and Stamping 4-2-13 Shipment 7-1-27
Chemical Composition 4-2-4 Spike or Bolt Holes 7-1-29
Drilling 4-2-19 Tie Branding 7-1-29
Hydrogen Elimination 4-2-14 Tie Plugs 7-1-29
Interior Condition/Macroetch Standards 4-2-15 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRACK MOTOR CARS 27-2-4
Length 4-2-19 SPECIMEN LIMITS 5-6-7
Loading 4-2-24 SPEED REDUCERS 15-6-37
Manufacture 4-2-3 SPEED-TIME-DISTANCE RELATIONS 16-2-10
Markings 4-2-24 SPEEDS 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Mechanical Properties 4-2-4 SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH LEVEL TURNOUTS 5-3-13
Rail Grades 4-2-7 SPHERICAL BEARINGS 15-10-33
Scope 4-2-3 SPIKE OR BOLT HOLES 7-1-29
Section 4-2-12 SPIRAL CURVE 5-3-3
Supplementary Requirements 4-2-24 SPIRALS 5-3-2
Surface Classification 4-2-18 SPLICES 15-6-72
Ultrasonic Testing 4-2-14 Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-32
Workmanship 4-2-20 Deformed Bars in Tension 8-2-31
for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2 Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-31
for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82 End Bearing 8-2-32 1
for Structural Lumber 7-1-3 in Flexural Members 15-1-72
Thermite Welding, Specification for the Quality of Reinforcement 8-2-31
Assurance of 4-2-72 Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Frequency of Testing 4-2-74 Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Manuafacture 4-2-72 SPLICING OF BARS 8-17-54
Scope 4-2-72 SPOT MAINTENANCE AND OPERATONAL SAFETY
Weld Integrity Requirements 4-2-72 ASSURANCE 2-3-2
Weld Integrity Test Procedures 4-2-73 SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATIONS 8-3-1
for Tie Plugs and Synthetic Tie Plugging Materials 30-3-9 Combined Footings 8-3-15
3
for Timber Crib Walls 8-6-6 Allowable Soil Pressures 8-3-15
for Timber Industrial Grade Cross Ties 30-3-111 Column Loads 8-3-16
for Timber Piles 7-1-8 Sizing 8-3-16
for Track Construction 5-4-1 Uses and Types 8-3-15
for Track Tools 5-6-4 Definitions 8-3-2
for Treatment 30-3-63 Classification 8-3-2
for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway General 8-3-2
Right-of-Way 1-5-10 Depth of Base of Footings 8-3-7 4
for Wood Fence Posts 1-6-4 Revision 8-3-7
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ON-TRACK ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-23 Selection of Tentative Depths 8-3-7
SPECIFICATIONS FOR OVERHEAD PIPELINES CROSSINGS 1-5-28 Field Conditions 8-3-14
General Conditions 1-5-28 Drainage 8-3-14
General Design Requirements 1-5-29 Footings at Varying Levels 8-3-14
Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-31 Information on Drawings 8-3-15
Scope 1-5-28 Modification of Design 8-3-14
Structural Elements 1-5-29 Reinforcement 8-3-14
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT Stresses 8-3-15
27-2-45 Treatment of Bottom of Excavation 8-3-15
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY PUSH CARS 27-2-18 Footing Stresses 8-3-14
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF Loads Eccentric in Two Directions 8-3-14
LOW PROFILE, PITLESS, AND INSTRUMENTED Footings With Eccentric Loads 8-3-12
RAILWAY TRACK SCALES 3-1 In One Direction 8-3-12
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF In Two Directions 8-3-13
LOW PROFILE, PITLESS, AND INSTRUMENTED Sizing 8-3-13
RAILWAY TRACK SCALES Information Required 8-3-4
General 3-2 Character of Subsurface Materials 8-3-5

Index
SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATIONS (CONT) STEEL (CONT)

Controlling Dimensions 8-3-4 Evaluation of Bridge 15-8-31
Field Survey 8-3-4 Fasteners 15-8-30
Loads 8-3-4 High Strength Steels 15-8-30
Sizing of Footings 8-3-7 Introduction 15-8-28
Definitions 8-3-7 References 15-8-32
Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits 8-3-11 Temperature Effects 15-8-29
Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction 8-3-12 Types of Fires 15-8-29
Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays 8-3-11 Method of Shortening of Eyebars to Equalize the
Safety Factors 8-3-8 Stress 15-8-9
Shallow Footings on Granular Material 8-3-8 General 15-8-9
Shallow Footings on Saturated Clay 8-3-10 Turntables 15-8-3
SPRING-RAIL FROGS 5-4-7 Basic Allowable Stresses and Deflections 15-8-6
SPRINGS 15-6-46 General Details 15-8-6
STABILITY 8-20-10, 8-28-5 General Features of Design 15-8-3
Calculations 8-20-10 Loads and Stresses 15-8-4
Computation 8-5-6 Unloading Pits 15-8-17
of Spans and Towers 15-1-23 Applicant’s Responsibilities 15-8-26
STAFF AND ADMINISTRATION FACILITIES 6-13-5 Concrete Pit 15-8-26
STAIRWAYS, WALKS, AND ELEVATORS 15-6-16 Construction Drawings 15-8-26
STAKING SPIRALS General 15-8-17
by Deflections 5-3-5 Loads 15-8-17
by Offsets 5-3-6 Operating Limitations 15-8-17
STAMPING AND MARKING 4-3-18 Rail as Supporting Beams 15-8-25
STANDARD DIMENSIONS 33-7-9 Scope and Purpose 15-8-17
STANDARD EQUIPMENT 27-2-13, 27-2-20 Structural Supporting Beams 15-8-25
STANDARD HOOKS 8-2-17 Unsupported Running Rail 15-8-25
Development in Tension 8-2-27 Walkways and Handrails on Bridges 15-8-27
STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR CORRUGATED ALUMINUM Clearanceas and Minimum Dimensions 15-8-27
ALLOY PIPE 1-4-17 Loads 15-8-27
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, DEPOSITING CONCRETE Locations 15-8-27
UNDER WATER 8-1-42 Materials 15-8-28
STANDARDS, CODES, AND REGULATIONS 33-6-22 STEEL BEARING COMPONENTS 15-10-8
STANDBY POWER 15-6-15 STEEL CARRIER PIPE 1-5-5, 1-5-24
STARTING RESISTANCE 16-2-7 STEEL RAILS
STATE FRANCHISE TAXES 16-14-7 Length 4-2-19
STATE INCOME TAX 16-14-5 STEEL SPECIFICATIONS 2-15
STATION AND OFFICE BUILDINGS, ACCOUNT 16 16-12-9 STEEL STRESS 8-17-27
STATION AND PLATFORM 6-8-22, 6-4-13 STEEL STRUCTURE FABRICATED BY CONTRACTOR 15-4-3
STATION ENVIRONMENT 14-6-3 STEEL STRUCTURE SUPPLIED BY COMPANY 15-4-3
STATIONS AND FACILITIES 12-2-17, 17-2-5 STEEL, PRESTRESSING 8-26-22
STAY PLATES 15-1-47 STENCILING 27-2-16, 27-2-21
STEEL STEP BEARINGS 15-6-36
Bridges, Anchorage of Decks and Rails on 15-8-13 STIFFENERS
Bridges, Cleaning and Coating 15-8-32 at Points of Bearing 15-1-54
Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop 6-9-8 STIFFNESS 8-2-34
High Strength 15-8-30 STOCK GUARDS 1-6-20
Inner Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 15-1-15 STORAGE 5-10-7, 14-7-3
Piles 8-4-10 Facilities 14-7-10
Structures 15-i, 15-8-1 and Handling 8-17-50
Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13 of Material 15-3-3
Anchorage of Decks to Bridge Spans 15-8-13 and Service Tanks, Sanding Facility 6-6-7
Open Deck Bridges 15-8-13 Warehouses, Account 22 16-12-11
Anchorage of Rail 15-8-13 STORAGE SPACES 6-2-8
Foreword 15-8-13 STORAGE, EXTERIOR, IN MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Maintenance of Bridges with Continuous Welded FACILITIES 6-7-6
Rail 15-8-16 STORE ROOM 6-4-16
Rail Expansion Joints 15-8-15 STORES 14-7-2
Commentary 15-9-1 Buildings and Structures 14-7-2
Welding Index 15-9-48 Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-6
Foreword 15-8-1 Types of 14-7-2
Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel STRAIGHTENING MATERIAL 15-3-3
Railway Bridges 15-8-28 STRAIN COMPATIBILITY 8-26-24
Conclusion 15-8-32

Index
STRATEGIES AND ECONOMICS, ENERGY CONSERVATION STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS TO THE DESIGN OF ANCHARAGE
AND AUDITS 6-5-4 ZONES, APPLICATION OF 8-17-39
STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS STRUT-AND-TIE TRUSS MODEL DESIGN FOR EITHER
ENGINEERING 16-6-4 BEAM TYPE OR DISCONTINUITY REGIONS 8-26-30
STRAY CURRENT CONTROL 33-12-22 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS 8-26-8
STRAY CURRENT EFFECTS 12-4-44 SUB-BALLAST
STREET LEVEL RUNNING CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-27 and Ballast 18-2-2
STRENGTH DESIGN 8-2-49 Specifications 1-2-19
STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH 15-6-41 SUBBASE
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS 8-26-18 Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9
STRESS TRANSFER, CONCRETE STRENGTH AT 8-17-45 For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-23
STRESS GRADED LUMBER, ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES SUBGRADE
FOR 7-2-60 Construction for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-10
STRESSES 5-5-27, 8-3-15, 15-7-16 Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9
Allowable for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-60 Track Components and Design 18-2-2
Axial and Bending Loads 7-2-70 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9
Basic 7-2-6 SUBMITTALS 5-9-3
Bearing 7-2-61 SUBSTATION SPACING 33-6-16
Bearing at Angle to Grain 7-2-69 SUBSTATIONS 33-1-5
Bearing on Bolts 7-2-72 SUBSTATIONS AND TRANSMISSION LINE MAINTENANCE 33-1-8
Combined 7-2-119 SUBSTITUTE TIMBER TIES 30-3-21
Compression Allowable for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-60 SUBSTRUCTURE
Computation of 8-19-3 Introduction 1-2-4
Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-2-117 Constructed by Company 15-4-4
Footing 8-3-14 Constructed by Contractor 15-4-4
Horizontal Shear 7-2-71 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 8-4-5, 8-25-3
Shearing 7-2-71 SUBSURFACE MATERIALS, CHARACTER 8-3-5
Unit 7-2-119 SUBURBAN STATIONS 17-2-5
Working 7-2-6 SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS 12-2-12, 17-2-4
Working Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-60 SUMMARY 1
STRING LINING OF CURVES BY THE CHORD METHOD 5-3-6 Capacity of Waterway Openings 1-3-16
STRINGERS 7-2-12 Common TQI Descriptions and Typical Usage 2-3-24
STRUCTURAL DESIGN Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-12
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Economics and Location of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-14
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-13 Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-6
STRUCTURAL FENCES 1-6-24 Of Railway Applications, Industrial & Systems
STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER - GLULAM 7-1-4 Engineering 16-6-17
STRUCTURAL GRADES OF LUMBER AND TIMBER AND Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-26 3
METHOD OF THEIR DERIVATION 7-1-8 TQI Advantages and Disadvantages 2-3-26
STRUCTURAL LUMBER, ORDERING 7-1-7 Track Segmentation Advantages/Disadvantages 2-3-23
Inquiry or Purchase Order 7-1-7 Track Segmentation Description and Typical Usages
STRUCTURAL LUMBER, SPECIFICATIONS 7-1-3 2-3-21
STRUCTURAL PARTS 15-6-28 SUPERELEVATION DEFICIENCY 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS 6-3-5 SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS 8-2-65
Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-10 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair (SCADA) 33-6-27 4
and Servicing Facilities 6-13-9 SUPERVISORY OFFICES 6-11-4
STRUCTURAL STEEL SUPPLEMENTARY REQUIREMENTS, STEEL RAILS 4-2-24
Rivets, Bolts and Pins 15-1-37 SUPPORT
STRUCTURAL STEEL, BOLTS AND PINS 15-10-7 Beams, Structural 15-8-25
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTING BEAMS 15-8-25 Lateral 8-4-6
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 6-3-5, 17-4-3 Rail 16-10-9
STRUCTURAL TYPES OF BUILDING SYSTEMS 6-8-17 Systems, Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4
STRUCTURE RESPONSE 9-1-21 SUPPORT AREAS
STRUCTURE SERVICEABILITY CRITERIA 12-4-40 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
STRUCTURES 14-7-10, 16-8-8 Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-9
Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3 SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 33-4-5
Miscellaneous, Account 35 16-12-15 SURFACE
Temporary 8-28-1 Classification 4-2-18
STRUCTURES MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-2, 17-7-4 Finish Tolerances, Rail Grinding 4-4-91
General 17-7-4 Preparation, Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel
Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Railway Bridges 15-8-33
Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4 Preparation, Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive
Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Resins 8-1-54

Index
SURFACE (CONT)
Repairs Using Polymer Concretes and Polymer Portland
T
Cement Concretes 8-14-12
TABLE OF CONTINUOUS AMPACITY RATINGS 33-4-24
Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials 8-14-6
TABLES, EQUATED MILEAGE PARAMETERS 16-11-3
SURFACES OF BEARING PLATES AND PEDESTALS 15-3-8
TACK WELDS 15-3-19
SURVEY OF EXISTING STRUCTURES 1-4-78
TAGGING 5-7-4
SUSPENSION 27-2-7, 27-2-20
TAMPING 5-5-23
SWITCH TIES AND CROSSTIES 18-2-4
Tools 5-5-23
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION, ELECTRIFICATION 33-6-15
TANGENT TRACK, LEVEL 16-2-3
SYSTEM DESIGN 33-6-20
TAPPED HOLES 15-6-45
Environmental Considerations 33-6-22
TAXES 33-1-8, 16-14-1
Equipment Design 33-6-23
Federal Income Tax 16-14-2
Functional Requirements 33-6-20
Depreciation Groupings 16-14-2
High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect
Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) 16-14-3
Switches 33-6-23
Class Life Asset Depreciation Range System (ADR)
Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear 33-6-25
16-14-3
Service Conditions 33-6-22
Class Life System 16-14-3
Signal Power Generating System 33-6-27
Guideline Depreciation 16-14-3
Special Equipment 33-6-27
Original 1942 Submission 16-14-2
Standards, Codes, and Regulations 33-6-21
Section 94 (Technical Correction as of 1956)
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System
(SCADA) 33-6-27
16-14-2
Tax Reform Act of 1986 16-14-4
System Protection 33-6-26
Gains and Losses 16-14-5
Traction Power Transformers 33-6-24
General 16-14-2
SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
IRS Submissions 16-14-5
Environmental 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
Retention of Documents 16-14-5
Flange Bearing Wheels 12-3-10
Introduction 16-14-2
General 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
Scope 16-14-2
Mixed Passenger Transit and Freight 11-3-2, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Passenger Comfort 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 16-14-6
Propulsion System 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3 General 16-14-6
Regulatory Requirements 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3 Property Tax (Ad Valorem) 16-14-6
Reliability 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3 Assessment 16-14-7
Safety/Security 11-3-2, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 Non-Operating Property 16-14-7
Signal Systems 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3 Operating Property 16-14-7
Speeds 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 Reporting 16-14-6
Superelevation Deficiency 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 Sales and Use Tax 16-14-7
Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-2 General 16-14-7
Vehicle/Track Interaction 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 State Franchise Taxes 16-14-7
SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND INTERFACE MANAGEMENT State Income Tax 16-14-5
33-12-28 General 16-14-5
SYSTEM OPERATION 33-1-2 TECHNICAL NOTES 33-2-14
SYSTEM PROTECTION 33-6-26 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 5-6-18
SYSTEM QUALIFICATION AND CALIBRATION PROCEDURE TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS 6-1-5
2-2-9 TELEVISION, CLOSED CIRCUIT 6-8-20
SYSTEM STUDIES 33-6-18 TEMPERATURE
Arc-Flash Hazard Study 33-6-20 of Dampproofing 8-29-29
Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study 33-6-20 Effects 15-8-29
Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18
33-6-18 Measuring Systems 6-5-9
General 33-6-18 Reinforcement 8-2-23
Geotechnical Study 33-6-20 TEMPLATES FOR REAMING AND DRILLING 15-3-14
Harmonic Distortion and System Resonsance Study TEMPORARY CONTROL MEASURES 1-6-23
33-6-19 TEMPORARY OPENINGS, WALL FORMS 8-1-24
Insulation Coordination Study 33-6-20 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES, RAILWAY BRIDGES AND
Phase Unbalance Study 33-6-19 TRESTLES 7-2-146
Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR CONSTRUCTION 8-28-1
33-6-18 Commentary 8-28-20
Protective Device Coordination Study 33-6-20 Computation of Lateral Forces 8-28-5
Short Circuit Study 33-6-20 Design of Falsework Systems 8-28-14
Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study Design of Shoring Systems 8-28-5
33-6-18 General 8-28-2
Voltage Flicker Study 33-6-19 Information Required 8-28-4
SYSTEM-WIDE INTEGRATION TESTING 33-6-30 Stability 8-28-5
Types of 8-28-3

Index
TENDER 33-7-12, 33-7-17, 33-7-21 THEFT AND VANDALISM, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-3
TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-13 THERMAL COEFFICIENT 8-2-34
TENSILE PROPERTIES, QUENCHED CARBON-STEEL JOINT THERMAL EFFECTS 8-26-13
BARS, MICROALLOYED JOINT BARS, AND FORGED THERMITE WELDING, SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE QUALITY
COMPROMISE JOINT BARS 4-3-16 ASSURANCE OF 4-2-72
TENSION MEMBERS THICKNESS
Effective Area, Fatigue 15-1-50, 15-9-29 of Material 15-1-42
Effective Net Area, Strength 15-1-48, 15-9-29 of Web Plates 15-1-52
TENTATIVE DEPTHS, SELECTION 8-3-7 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4
TERMINAL CONFIGURATION 14-4-55 THIRD-RAIL CLEARANCE DIAGRAM 33-2-2
TERMINAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RUN THROUGH THREADS AND THREAD FIT 4-3-25
TRAINS 14-2-29 TIE BRANDING 7-1-29
TERMINAL MAINTENANCE TIE DIMENSIONS, CONFIGURATION AND WEIGHT 30-4-16
Of Waterfront Facilities 14-4-12 TIE IDENTIFICATION AND RECORDS 30-5-12
TERMINALS 33-7-13 TIE PAD 30-2-10
Planning 14-6-2 Test 4A: Tie Pad Test 30-2-10
TERMINALS (SLEEVE OR OTHER DEVICE SUPPLIED BY Test 4B: Tie Pad Attenuation Test 30-2-10
MANUFACTURER) 33-7-19 TIE PERFORMANCE TEST DESCRIPTIONS 30-2-3
TERMS 8-24-3, 33-4-16, 33-7-8 TIE PLATES 5-1-1
Concrete 8-2-10 Design of Tie Plate for Use with Area Rail Sections 5-1-7
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-6 Specifications for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2
Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Bending Properties 5-1-3
Streams 8-23-2 Chemical Composition 5-1-3
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-8 Composition 5-1-3
Waterproofing 8-29-8 Finish and Permissible Variation in Dimensions 5-1-4
TEST 1A: BENDING - RAILSEAT POSITIVE 30-2-3 Inspection 5-1-5
TEST 1B: BENDING - RAILSEAT NEGATIVE 30-2-4 Manufacture 5-1-2
TEST 1C: BENDING - CENTER NEGATIVE 30-2-5 Marking 5-1-5
TEST 1D: FLEXURAL FATIGUE 30-2-7 Number of Tests 5-1-4
TEST 2: RAIL/PLATE AREA COMPRESSION 30-2-1 Rejection 5-1-5
1
TEST 3B: SPIKE LATERAL RESTRAINT 30-2-9 Retests 5-1-4
TEST 4A: TIE PAD TEST 30-2-10 Scope 5-1-2
TEST 4B: TIE PAD ATTENUATION TEST 30-2-10 Test Specimens 5-1-4
TEST 5A: FASTENER UPLIFT 30-2-11 TIE PLATES, SPIKES, ANCHORS 5-8-10
TEST 5B: FASTENER LONGITUDINAL RESTRAINT 30-2-13 TIE PLUGS 7-1-29
TEST 5C: FASTENER REPEATED LOAD 30-2-14 TIE SPACING 30-1-4
TEST 5D: FASTENER LATERAL LOAD RESTRAINT 30-2-15 TIE TESTS AND THE ECONOMICS OF SERVICE LIFE
TEST 5E: FASTENER ASSEMBLY ROTATION 30-2-16 30-3-17 3
TEST 6: WEAR/ABRASION 30-2-17 TIES 5-8-10, 30-i, 7-2-12
TEST 7: FASTENER ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE TEST 30-2-19 Account 8 16-12-7
TEST 8: SINGLE TIE LATERAL PUSH 30-2-20 Concrete 30-4-1
TEST BAY 6-9-8 Concrete, and Resistance to Movement 16-2-9
TEST CONFIGURATION 5-9-3 General Considerations 30-1-1
TEST CRITERIA Solid Sawn Timber Ties 30-3-1
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-15 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-10
TEST OF MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 TIES FOR GRADE CROSSING PANELS 30-4-53 4
TEST PITS 8-22-5 TIES FOR TURNOUTS 30-4-45
TEST SEQUENCE 5-9-4 TILTING, SETTLEMENT AND 8-5-7
TEST SPECIMENS 4-3-17, 5-1-4 TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 15-1-41
TEST WEIGHTS 8-2 TIMBER BRIDGE TIES. SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR
TESTING 1-2-24, 15-6-108 TIMBER CROSS TIES 30-3-5
and Documentation of ASTM A325 and A490 Bolts 15-3-15 TIMBER FRAMING 7-3-4
Frequency of 4-2-74 TIMBER PILE TRESTLES, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP
of Monoblock Ties 30-4-26 AND/OR SILL FOR 8-17-56
of Two-Block Ties 30-4-39 TIMBER PILES 8-4-9
TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE 15-11-19 Driving 7-3-6
TESTING AND CALIBRATION 4-3 Selection and Preparation 7-3-6
TESTING AND TOLERANCES 8-2 Specifications for 7-1-8
TESTING, FIRE-RETARDANT COATING FOR CREOSOTED Classification of Piles 7-1-8
WOOD 7-1-15 General Provisions 7-1-8
TESTS 33-7-14, 33-7-20, 33-7-27 General Requirements for All Piles 7-1-10
Driving Timber Piles 7-3-6 Inquiries and Purchase Orders 7-1-12
Dynamometer or Test Cars, Field Testing 16-2-19 Special Requirements
T-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION 8-2-36 First-Class Piles 7-1-11
Second-Class Piles 7-1-12

Index
TIMBER RAILWAY BRIDGES, TYPICAL PLANS 7-3-21 TOTAL SCOUR 1-3-24

TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-i TOTAL SCOUR CALCULATION PROBLEM 1-3-53
Construction, Maintenance and Inspection 7-3-1 TOWERS 6-10-6
Driving Timber Piles 7-3-6 Construction 6-10-3
Driving 7-3-7 Furnishings 6-10-6
Foundation Piles 7-3-11 Roof Overhang 6-10-5
Framing 7-3-10 Size 6-10-5
Handling of Material 7-3-6 TPC 16-2-14
Materials 7-3-6 TRACK 5-i
Pile Record 7-3-11 Arrangement, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-4
Protection Work 7-3-11 Construction 5-4-1
Scope 7-3-6 Proper Usage of the Various Type of Frogs 5-4-7
Selection and Preparation of Piles 7-3-6 Rail-Bound Manganese Steel Frogs 5-4-7
Tests 7-3-6 Solid Manganese Steel Frogs 5-4-8
Types of Hammers 7-3-7 Spring-Rail Frogs 5-4-7
Instructions for Inspection of Timber Trestle Railway Specifications 5-4-1
Bridges 7-3-13 Appendix 1 - Where Track is Constructed with
Details of Inspection 7-3-13 Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-4-6
Foreword 7-3-13 Appendix II - Minimum Specifications for
General 7-3-13 Industrial Track Construction 5-4-6
Notes on Recommended Practices 7-3-15 Scope 5-4-1
Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-41 Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19
Coatings 7-3-41 Design 14-7-10
Fire Alarm Systems 7-3-41 Geometry
Fire Barriers 7-3-42 Horizontal 2-1-4
Foreword 7-3-41 Longitudinal Vertical 2-1-6
Housekeeping 7-3-41 in the Track Plane 2-1-8
Impregnation 7-3-41 in the Transverse Vertical Plane 2-1-7
Metal Protection 7-3-41 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3
Typical Plans for Timber Railway Bridges 7-3-21 Level Tangent 16-2-3
General Notes 7-3-21 Maintenance 5-5-1
Plans 7-3-21 Gage 5-5-22
Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 7-3-45 General 5-5-22
Combined Use of Guard Timbers and Guard Rails 7-3-46 Laying and Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6
Field Side Guard or Spacer Timbers 7-3-45 Construction of a New Line of Railroad with
Metal Gage Side Guard Rails 7-3-45 Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-5-12
Workmanship for Construction of Pile and Framed Handling and Transporting Continuous Welded
Trestles 7-3-3 Rail 5-5-7
Framing of Timber 7-3-4 Index of Continuous Welded Rail Manual Material
General Provisions 7-3-3 5-5-16
Handling and Storage of Material 7-3-4 Inspection of Continuous Welded Rail in Track 5-5-13
Pile Driving 7-3-4 Laying Procedure for Continuous Welded Rail
Scope 7-3-3 (CWR) on Existing Track 5-5-8
TIMBER SWITCH TIES 30-3-14 Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) in
TIMBER TRESTLE RAILWAY BRIDGES, INSTRUCTIONS FOR Track 5-5-14
INSPECTION 7-3-13 Preparation of Track Prior to Unloading
TIMBER TRESTLES, SPECIFICATIONS OF FASTENERS Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6
7-1-22 Present Practice 5-5-6
Material 7-1-22 Transposing Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)
Types of Fasteners 7-1-23 5-5-16
TIMBER, GLUED LAMINATED, DESIGN VALUES FOR Preservation of Track Fixtures 5-5-24
GLULAM 7-2-55 Rail and Other Track Material, Except Joints 5-5-24
TIME Rail Joints 5-5-24
of Opening 15-6-6 Rail Anchor Patterns Number of Rail Anchors to
TOFC/COFC TERMINALS, ACCOUNT 25 16-12-12 Resist Rail Creepage 5-5-18
TOILET FACILITIES 6-9-10 Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-5-19
TOLERANCES 4-3-24 General 5-5-18
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-13 Jointed Track and Where Temperature Expansion
TOLERANCES IN THE CATENARY SYSTEM AND POSITION is Provided 5-5-19
OF TRACK 33-2-13 Open-Deck Bridges 5-5-21
TOOL DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE 5-6-57 Turnouts 5-5-21
TOOL ROOM 6-9-10 Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock
TOOLS REQUIRED 5-3-7 Rail Changeout 5-5-28
TOPOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS DETERMINING ANGLE, General Information 5-5-31
GRADIENT, AND LENGTH OF STRUCTURE 1-4-7 Scope 5-5-28

Index
TRACK (CONT) TRACK (CONT)

Underlying Conditions Which May Cause Distance Between Rail Wear Measurements
Premature Wear Degradation or Improper Fit 2-2-39
of Switch Points and Stock Rails 5-5-29 Frequency of Measurement 2-2-39
Specifications for Laying Rail 5-5-3 Introduction 2-2-38
Completion of Work 5-5-5 Measurement Methodology 2-2-39
Laying 5-5-4 Organization 16-8-6
Preparation of Track 5-5-3 Quality
Scope 5-5-3 and Resistance to Movement 16-2-9
Unloading 5-5-3 Sand Facility 6-6-10
Tamping 5-5-23 Substructure
Methods 5-5-23 Design 1-2-5
Tools 5-5-23 TRACK AND CROSSING SURFACE REHABILITATION AND
Temperature Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18 MAINTENANCE 5-8-8
General 5-5-18 TRACK MAINTENANCE LIMITS 11-7-2, 17-7-3
Track Bolt Tension Practice 5-5-21 Component Wear Limits 17-7-4
Practices 5-5-22 Gage Limits 17-7-4
Purpose 5-5-21 General 17-7-3
Wayside Lubrication of Rail on Curves 5-5-25 Horizontal Deviation and Variations 17-7-4
General 5-5-25 Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4
Welding of Manganese Steel Castings in Special Ride Quality 17-7-4
Trackwork 5-5-26 Vertical Deviations and Variations 17-7-4
Electrodes 5-5-26 TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-2, 17-7-4
Finishing 5-5-28 General 17-7-4
Low Heat Input 5-5-26 Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4
Precautions 5-5-28 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4
Preparation TRACK QUALITY INDEX (TQI) 2-3-15
of Defective Areas 5-5-27 TRACK RENEWAL (CAPITAL PLANNING) 2-3-10
of Worn Areas 5-5-27 TRACK AND ROADBED 9-1-32, 9-2-2
Scope 5-5-26 TRACK AND ROADWAY 12-3-11 1
Stresses 5-5-27 Gage 12-3-13
Welding Methods 5-5-26 General 12-3-11
Material, Other 16-10-15 Grounding/Stray Current 12-3-24
Measuring Horizontal Geometry 12-3-19
System 2-i Maintenance Philosophy 12-3-13
Vehicles 2-2-1 Regulatory Requirements 12-3-13
Description of a Generic Track Geometry Safety/Security 12-3-13
Measuring Vehicle 2-2-2 Signal Considerations 12-3-23 3
General 2-2-2 Special Trackwork Components 12-3-27
Means to Identify and Locate Track Geometry Track Structure 12-3-13
Priority Defects Detected by a Track Geometry Turnouts and Special Trackwork 12-3-25
Measuring Vehicle 2-2-18 Vertical Geometry 12-3-22
Description of the Measured Geometry TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS 11-3-1, 11-3-6,
Parameters 2-2-26 12-3-1, 17-3-1, 17-3-4
Description of the Priority Defect Report 2-2-27 Clearances 11-3-5, 12-3-7, 17-3-3
Description of a Strip Chart 2-2-19 Gage 11-3-15, 17-3-4 4
Recommended Practice for Calculating Rail Profile General Information 11-3-2, 12-3-2, 17-3-3, 17-3-4
Quality Index (RPQI) 2-2-39 Grounding 11-3-22, 17-3-6
Calculation Methodology 2-2-39 Horizontal Alignment 17-3-6
General 2-2-39 Horizontal Geometry 11-3-15
Recommended Practice Conditions for Gage Maintenance Philosophy 11-3-13, 17-3-4
Restraint Measurement 2-2-5 Regulatory Requirements 11-3-11, 17-3-4
Background 2-2-5 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations 11-3-5,
Considerations for Performing Lateral 12-3-9, 17-3-4
Restraint Measurements 2-2-5 Safety/Security 11-3-15, 17-3-4
Daily GRMS Quality Assurance Procedures Signal Considerations 11-3-22, 17-3-6
2-2-15 Systems Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
Recommended Maintenance Planning Use of Gage Track and Roadway 12-3-11
Restraint Measurement System Data 2-2-16 Track Structure 11-3-15, 17-3-4
System Qualification and Calibration Procedure 2-2-9 Turnout & Special Trackwork 11-3-22, 17-3-6
Terms 2-2-8 Vertical Geometry 11-3-2017-3-6
Recommended Practice for Measuring Rail Wear TRACK AND ROADWAY REHABILITATION 18-2-16
Parameters 2-2-38 TRACK BOLTS
Accuracy & Calibration 2-2-39 Tension Practice 5-5-21

Index
TRACK COMPONENTS AND DESIGN 18-2-10 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR RAILROAD
TRACK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 18-2-10 AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-6-1
TRACK MODULUS AND RESISTANCE TO MOVEMENT 16-2-9 AC Electrification System Configuration 33-6-5
TRACK QUALITY INDEX 2-1-4 General 33-6-5
TRACK SPIKES 5-2-1 Normal and Contigency Operation 33-6-14
Design of Track Cut Spike 5-2-5 Traction Power Distribution System 33-6-7
Specifications for Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2 Traction Power Return System 33-6-14
Bending Properties 5-2-3 Traction Power Supply System 33-6-6
Chemical Composition 5-2-2 Construction 33-6-29
Finish 5-2-4 Installation Verification Testing 33-6-29
Impact Properties 5-2-3 Pre-Revenue Operation Testing 33-6-30
Inspection 5-2-4 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 33-6-29
Ladle Analysis 5-2-2 System-Wide Integration Testing 33-6-30
Marking 5-2-4 Electrification System Load 33-6-3
Number of Tests 5-2-3 General 33-6-3
Permissible Variations in Dimensions 5-2-3 Traction Power Demand 33-6-3
Process 5-2-2 Electrification System Selection 33-6-15
Rejection 5-2-4 Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System
Retests 5-2-3 Design 33-6-17
Scope 5-2-2 Electrification Voltage 33-6-16
Tensile Properties 5-2-3 Electromagnetic Interference 33-6-16
TRACK STRUCTURE 11-3-15, 12-3-13, 17-3-6 Substation Spacing 33-6-16
TRACK STRUCTURE AS CROSSING FOUNDATION 5-8-8 System Configuration 33-6-15
TRACK TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5 Utility Power Availability 33-6-16
TRACK TOOLS, SPECIFICATIONS AND PLANS 5-6-1 Voltage Rise Along the Return System 33-6-17
Contour Blending of Corners 5-6-56 General 33-6-3
General 5-6-18 Purpose 33-6-3
Inspection and Shipment 5-6-22 Scope 33-6-3
Inspection and Use 5-6-22 System Design 33-6-20
Technical Requirements 5-6-18 Environmental Considerations 33-6-22
Method for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Equipment Design 33-6-23
Tool Striking Faces 5-6-54 Functional Requirements 33-6-20
3/4" Stock and Over 5-6-55 High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and
Plans for Track Tools 5-6-23 Disconnect Switches 33-6-23
General 5-6-23 Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear 33-6-25
Recommended Practices for Using, Redressing, Sharpening Service Conditions 33-6-22
and Replacing Handles in Track Tools 5-6-57 Signal Power Generating System 33-6-27
Introduction 5-6-57 Special Equipment 33-6-27
Redressing of Tools 5-6-58 Standards, Codes, and Regulations 33-6-21
Replacing Handles 5-6-60 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System
Sharpening of Tools 5-6-59 (SCADA) 33-6-27
Tool Design and Manufacture 5-6-57 System Protection 33-6-26
Specification for Track Tools 5-6-4 Traction Power Transformers 33-6-24
Specifications for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track System Studies 33-6-18
Tools 5-6-13, 5-6-17 Arc-Flash Hazard Study 33-6-20
Delivery 5-6-15 Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study 33-6-20
Design 5-6-14 Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study
Grade Classification 5-6-15 33-6-18
Inspection 5-6-14 General 33-6-18
Manufacture 5-6-14 Geotechnical Study 33-6-20
Material 5-6-13 Harmonic Distortion and System Resonsance Study
33-6-19
Physical Requirements 5-6-14 Insulation Coordination Study 33-6-20
Types of Blemishes and Defects 5-6-15 Phase Unbalance Study 33-6-19
Use Classification 5-6-17 Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study 33-6-18
TRACK TRANSITION PROBLEM 30-1-12 Protective Device Coordination Study 33-6-20
TRACK TRANSITION REMEDIES AND PRACTICES 30-1-13 Short Circuit Study 33-6-20
TRACKAGE, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR REPAIR Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study 33-6-18
SHOPS 6-3-4 Voltage Flicker Study 33-6-19
TRACKS, INDUSTRIAL, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7 Utility Metering 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER 17-7-3 Billing Concepts 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER DEMAND 33-6-3 Location of Metering Equipment 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 33-6-7 Rate Structure Negotiation 33-6-29
TRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT 33-12-23 Typical Rate Structure 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER RETURN SYSTEM 33-6-14 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM 33-6-6
TRACTION POWER TRANSFORMERS 33-6-24

Index
TRACTIVE EFFORT 16-3-3 TREE AND SHRUB PLANTINGS 1-6-39

TRAFFIC 33-1-3 TREMIE
Handling 16-10-27 Concrete 8-25-9
TRAFFIC IMPACT STUDIES 5-8-11 TRENCH EXCAVATION 8-25-10
TRAFFIC PROJECTION 33-1-3 TRESTLES, PILE AND FRAMED, WORKMANSHIP FOR
TRAFFIC SOURCES AND CORRIDOR DEFINITION 12-2-12 CONSTRUCTION 7-3-3
TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS 6-13-3 TRUCK CHASSIS LOADING/UNLOADING 14-4-37
TRAIN CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 17-5-11 TRUCK REPAIRS AND OVERHAUL 6-4-16
TRAIN CREW WAGES 33-1-7 TRUCKS AND SUSPENSION 17-5-10
TRAIN INFORMATION SYSTEMS 6-8-19 TRUSSES 15-7-10
TRAIN OPERATION SIMULATION AND LOAD-FLOW STUDY Composite 7-2-120
33-6-18 TUCKPOINTING 8-14-12
TRAIN SCHEDULES 33-1-4 TUNNELS 1-8-1, 11-4-2, 12-4-89, 17-4-4
TRAIN SIZE AND SPEED 33-1-3 Construction 1-8-3, 12-4-96
TRAIN SYSTEMS Excavation 1-8-4
Information 6-8-19 Special Provisions 1-8-3
TRAINING 16-8-9 Construction and Maintenance 16-10-23
TRAINS Design 1-8-2, 12-4-89
High-Speed Passenger 16-2-10 Interior Dimensions 1-8-2
Performance 16-2-1 Preliminary Investigation 1-8-2
Fuel Consumption 16-2-16 Functional Analysis 12-4-89
Diesel Locomotives 16-2-19 Increasing Clearances In Existing Tunnel 1-8-7
Electric Locomotives 16-2-16 Increasing Clearances in Existing Tunnels
Resistance to Movement 16-2-3 General 1-8-7
Articulated Cars 16-2-9 Introduction 12-4-89
Concrete Ties 16-2-9 Lining 1-8-6
Curve Resistance and Radial Trucks 16-2-7 Maintenance 12-4-97
Davis Formula 16-2-4 Measurement and Payment 1-8-6
Empty Cars 16-2-10 Railway 1
Four-Wheel Cars 16-2-10 Double-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-6
Grade Resistance 16-2-8 Lining 8-11-1
High-Speed Passenger Trains 16-2-10 Single-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-5
Level Tangent Track 16-2-3 and Resistance to Movement 16-2-8
Other Factors 16-2-10 Scope 1-8-2
Rail Lubrication 16-2-8 and Subways, Account 5 16-12-6
Recent Developments 16-2-5 Ventilation 1-8-6
Starting Resistance 16-2-7 TUNNELS AND TRACK PROTECTING SHEDS 9-1-34, 9-2-23
Track Modulus 16-2-9 TURNOUTS 5-5-21
3
Track Quality 16-2-9 and Rail Crossings 18-2-4
Tunnels 16-2-8 and Special Trackwork 11-3-22, 12-3-25, 17-3-6
Wind Resistance 16-2-8 and Track Panel Fabrication Facility 14-7-7
Train Performance Calculations 16-2-10 TURNTABLES 15-8-3
Dynamometer or Test Cars, Field Testing 16-2-19 TYPE OF BACKFILL 8-5-4
Speed-Time-Distance Relations 16-2-10 TYPES
Using a Computer 16-2-14 of Blemishes and Defects 5-6-15
Velocity Profiles 16-2-12 of Bridges 15-6-14 4
TRANSFER FROM STORAGE TO SERVICING TANKS of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2
Sand Facility 6-6-8 of Energy Audits 6-5-6
TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE of Fasteners for Timber Trestles 7-1-23
ROCK OR SOIL BEARING STRATA 8-24-5 of Fires 15-8-29
TRANSIT SYSTEM LOADS 12-4-36 of Flexible Bulkheads 8-20-2
TRANSITION AREAS of Fueling Facilities 14-5-9
For concrete Slab Track 8-27-17 of Hammers 7-3-7
TRANSITION OF THICKNESS OR WIDTHS IN WELDED BUTT of Interfaces 17-2-5
JOINTS 15-1-59 of Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-3
TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER THAN BULK) 14-4-75 of Motive Power 16-3-2
TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA 12-2-11, 17-2-3 of Pipe Suitable for Jacking 1-4-76
TRANSPORTATION, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-2 of Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3
TRANSPOSING CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL (CWR) 5-5-16 of Retaining Walls and Abutments 8-5-2
TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS 8-26-11 of Waterproofing 8-29-13
TRAVEL SPEED 27-2-34 TYPES OF BRIDGES 15-1-12
TRAVEL SPEED AND PERFORMANCE 27-2-11 TYPES OF INTERFACES 12-2-23
TREATMENT TYPES OF STRAND CONSTRUCTION 27-1-8
of Bottom of Excavation 8-3-15 TYPES OF TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS 33-8-2

Index
TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENT, WASHING FACILITY 6-12-3 USE CLASSIFICATION 5-6-17

TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENTS 6-9-11 USE OF GUARD RAILS AND TIMBERS 7-3-45
TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CONFIGURATIONS 33-5-6 USE OF IMPEDANCE BONDS WITH ALTERNATING
TYPICAL PLANS CURRENT RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION 33-5-5
for Timber Railway Bridges 7-3-21 USE OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS FOR STEEL FASTENERS
TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURE, UTILITY METERING 33-6-28 AND TIMBER BRIDGES 7-1-24
TYPICAL STATION INTERFACES 12-2-19 USE OF RAIL INFORMATION 4-5-2
TYPICAL TRACK DIAGRAM AND GRADIENT PROFILE LADDER USED OIL FILTERS 6-4-17
TRACK YARD WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL 14-2-29 USER NEEDS 12-2-5, 17-2-3
TYPICAL USES OF DATA COLLECTED BY TRACK USES AND TYPES, COMBINED FOOTINGS 8-3-15
MEASURING VEHICLES 2-3-1, 2-3-2 UTILITIES 6-1-11, 12-4-44
Claims 2-3-14 UTILITIES, PASSENGER FACILITIES 14-6-13
Engineering Analysis (Trends, Derailment Analysis, UTILITIES, SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATION FACILITIES 9-1-34
Etc.) 2-3-13 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS 12-4-35, 17-4-4
Programmed Track Maintenance 2-3-10 UTILITY METERING 33-6-28
Quality Assurance/Assessment of Maintenance Practices Billing Concepts 33-6-28
(Audit) 2-3-12 Location of Metering Equipment 33-6-28
Recommended Practice for Development and Use of Rate Structure Negotiation 33-6-29
Track Quality Indices (TQI) Generated from TGMV Typical Rate Structure 33-6-28
Data 2-3-15 UTILITY MONITORING AND REPORTING OPERATIONS
Issues to be Considered When Selecting and Using 6-5-5
TQIs 2-3-16 UTILITY POWER AVAILABILITY 33-6-16
Summary of Common TQI Descriptions and Typical
Usages 2-3-24
Summary of TQI Advantages and Disadvantages 2-3-26 V
Summary of Track Segmentation
Advantages/Disadvantages 2-3-23 VARIOUS TRACK GEOMETRY PARAMETERS AND RELATED
Summary of Track Segmentation Description and ELEMENTS, USED WHEN DESCRIBING TRACK
Typical Usage 2-3-21 GEOMETRY, COMPILATION 2-1-4
Track Quality Index (TQI) 2-3-15 VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-1, 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4
Typical Uses of Track Quality Indices (TQIs) 2-3-15 Evaluating Results of a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-14
Service and Line Changes 2-3-14 Economic Analysis 1-9-15
Spot Maintenance and Operational Safety Assurance 2-3-2 Executing a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-11
Track Renewal (Capital Planning) 2-3-11 Precautions 1-9-13
TYPICAL USES OF TRACK QUALITY INDICES (TQIS) Progress Reports 1-9-11
2-3-15 Techniques of Chemical Control 1-9-12
Preparing a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-2
U Chemical Control-Selection of Herbicides 1-9-7
Degree of Control 1-9-4
ULTIMATE STRENGTH 15-6-74 Equipment Selection 1-9-10
ULTRASONIC TESTING 4-2-14 Quantitative Considerations 1-9-5
ULTRASONIC TEST (UT) WRITTEN PROCEDURE Scheduling of Work 1-9-6
REQUIREMENTS 4-4-68 Vegetation Control Methods 1-9-2
UNDERLYING CONDITIONS WHICH MAY CAUSE Rationale and Scope of Work 1-9-2
PREMATURE WEAR, DEGRADATION OR IMPROPER FIT Commentary 1-9-19
OF SWITCH POINTS AND STOCK RAILS 5-5-29 General 1-9-2
UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS 8-21-3, 8-21-23 Lead Agencies 1-9-16
UNIFORM RATING PARAMETERS 33-4-23 VEHICLE CONSIDERATIONS 11-5-1, 17-5-1
UNIFORMITY OF STOCK 4-3-30 Design Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-3
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD TO TOP OF BOX 8-16-8 General Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-2
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY 6-11-5, 33-12-25 General Information 11-5-1, 17-5-1
UNIT COST 16-9-12 Rolling Stock 11-5-2, 17-5-9
UNIT OF PROPERTY, DEFINITION OF 16-12-5 VEHICLE SCALES 5-1
UNIT STRESSES 7-2-119 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY 17-2-5
UNLOADING 5-5-3 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY TYPES 12-2-14
Sanding Facility 6-6-8 VEHICLE/TRACK INTERACTION 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
UNLOADING PITS 15-8-17 VELOCITY PROFILES 16-2-12
UNSUPPORTED RUNNING RAIL 15-8-25 VENTILATING 6-4-20
UPLIFT VENTILATION 6-3-8
Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-70 Tunnels 1-8-6
on Piles 8-4-3 VERIFICATION
Test 5-9-4 of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63
UPS AND BATTERY ROOM 6-11-6 VERTICAL CLEARANCE 33-2-12
URBAN STATIONS 17-2-5 VERTICAL CURVES 5-3-15
USE OF CHAPTER 12 12-1-2 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS 17-7-4

Index
VERTICAL GEOMETRY 11-3-20, 12-3-22, 17-3-6 WATERPROOFING (CONT)

VERTICAL LOADS 30-1-4 ASTM D1187 8-29-10
Ballast and Ballast Pressure 30-1-6 ASTM D1190 8-29-11
Ballast and Subgrade 30-1-5 ASTM D1227 8-29-11
Cross Tie Dimensions 30-1-5 ASTM D1327 8-29-11
Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3 ASTM D1668 8-29-11
Impact Factors 30-1-5 ASTM D2178 8-29-11
Load Distribution 30-1-5 ASTM D2823 8-29-11
Tie Spacing 30-1-4 ASTM D3515 8-29-12
VOLTAGE FLICKER STUDY 33-6-19 ASTM D4215 8-29-12
VOLTAGE RISE ALONG THE RETURN SYSTEM 33-6-17 ASTM D4479 8-29-12
ASTM D4586 8-29-12
W ASTM D6134 8-29-12
General 8-29-87
Construction 8-29-20
WALKWAYS
General 8-29-20
and Handrails on Bridges 15-8-27
Membrane 8-29-21
Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL)
Primer 8-29-21
14-2-35
Protective Cover 8-29-26
WALL AND CEILING FINISHES 6-2-12
Dampproofing 8-29-5
WALLS 6-3-9
General Practices 8-29-12
Cantilever 8-5-8
Design 8-29-12
Construction 8-25-12
Types 8-29-13
Counterfort and Buttress 8-5-8
General Principles 8-29-4
and Floors of Buildings, Waterproofing 8-29-7
Purpose 8-29-4
and Roof 6-4-19
Scope 8-29-4
WANE 7-2-7
Inspection and Tests 8-29-20
WARNING LIGHTS 15-6-7
Introduction to Damproofing 8-29-28
WARP, CUP, BOW 7-2-7
Damproofing Scope 8-29-28 1
WARRANTY 33-7-15, 33-7-21, 33-7-27
Materials for Damproofing 8-29-28
WASH BAY 6-9-8
Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coating 8-29-29
WASHER BUILDING 6-12-5
Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings 8-29-29
WASHING FACILITY, LOCOMOTIVE 6-12-3
Asphalt 8-29-28
WASHING SYSTEM 6-12-3
Asphalt Primer 8-29-28
WATER 8-25-8
Coal-Tar Pitch 8-29-28
Concrete 8-1-17
Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28
Containers 8-29-6
Creosote Primer 8-29-28
Gain 8-1-41
Emulsified Asphalt Coatings 8-29-28
3
Stations, Account 18 16-12-10
Emulsified Asphalt Protective Coatings 8-29-28
Supply Systems (Raw and Treated) 6-4-18
Inspection and Tests 8-29-29
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL RATIO 8-1-31
Woven Cotton Fabrics 8-29-28
WATERFRONT 14-4-3
Membrane Protection 8-29-17
WATERFRONT FACILITIES
Asphalt Plank 8-29-17
Commodity Specific Considerations 14-4-6
Asphaltic Panels 8-29-17
General Design 14-4-5
Portland Cement Concrete 8-29-17
Site Selection 14-4-3
Membranes 8-29-14 4
Terminal Maintenance 14-4-12
Adhesive 8-29-15
WATERPROOFING 8-29-1
Asphalt for Mopping 8-29-14
Application of Damproofing 8-29-29
Butyl Gum Tape 8-29-15
Method of Application 8-29-29
Butyl Rubber or EPDM 8-29-14
Preparation of Surfaces 8-29-29
Cement 8-29-15
Temperature 8-29-29
Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping 8-29-14
Anti-Bonding Paper 8-29-20
Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane 8-29-16
Applicable ASTM Designations 8-29-8
Fabric 8-29-14
ASTM D41 8-29-8
Felt 8-29-14
ASTM D43 8-29-8
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed
ASTM D173 8-29-8
Board Membrane 8-29-16
ASTM D226 8-29-8
Primers 8-29-13
ASTM D227 8-29-9
General 8-29-13
ASTM D312 8-29-9
Primer 8-29-13
ASTM D449 8-29-9
Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane
ASTM D450 8-29-10
Protection 8-29-20
ASTM D517 8-29-10
Specific Application 8-29-5
ASTM D692 8-29-10
Abutments and Retaining Walls 8-29-5
ASTM D946 8-29-10

Index
WATERPROOFING (CONT) WIRING DIAGRAMS, OPERATOR’S INSTRUCTIONS,

Arches - Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with ELECTRICAL, HYDRAULIC AND MECHANICAL DATA
Spandrel Fill 8-29-6 BOOKLETS, AND LUBRICATION CHARTS 15-6-8
Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge Decks or Floors 8-29-6 WIRING SPACES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-5
Grain Elevator Pits and Similar Underground WITH 5-3-15
Structures 8-29-7 WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
Pedestrian Subways 8-29-6 Methods of Fireproofing 7-3-41
Pipe Manholes and Pipe Tunnels 8-29-6 Rules for Rating Existing 7-2-117
Platforms, Walkways and Roadways 8-29-7 WOOD CULVERTS, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
Precast Slabs for Bridge Decks and Floors 8-29-6 DESIGN 7-2-121
Pump Pits for Subways and Basements 8-29-6 WOOD HIGHWAY BRIDGES, SPECIFICATIONS AND
Scale Pits and Other Similar Structures Below Grade 8-29-7 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR 7-1-13
Short Single - Span Arches and Box Culverts 8-29-6 WOOD HIGHWAY BRIDGES, SPECIFICATIONS AND
Walls and Floors of Buildings 8-29-7 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR OVERHEAD AND
Water Containers 8-29-6 OTHER 7-1-13
Terms 8-29-8 WOOD PRESERVING 30-3-32
Waterproofing 8-29-4 WOOD PRODUCTS, ENGINEERED, DESIGNING FOR 7-2-55
WAYSIDE CONDITION DETECTORS 16-5-4, 16-5-10 WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES. SEE ALSO
Site Considerations 16-5-7 DESIGN OF
WAYSIDE LUBRICATION OF RAIL ON CURVES 5-5-25 WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES, DESIGN 7-2-1
WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-1 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber 7-2-60
Background 33-9-1 Bearing 7-2-61
Current Practice 33-9-1 Bearing at Angle to Grain 7-2-69
Design Factors to be Considered 33-9-2 Bearing on Bolts 7-2-72
WEB SPLICES 15-1-54 Combined Axial and Bending Loads 7-2-70
WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY 15-6-7 Compression Parallel to Grain or Centrally Loaded
WEIGHTS AND SHAPES 1-6-11 Columns 7-2-60
WELD INTEGRITY - PREVENTING MARTENSITE FORMATION Connectors 7-2-79
IN WELDED OR BRAZED APPLICATIONS 4-3-31 Horizontal Shear 7-2-71
WELD INTEGRITY REQUIREMENTS 4-3-55 Round Sections 7-2-79
WELD INTEGRITY TEST PROCEDURES 4-3-56 Shearing Stress 7-2-71
WELD METAL 15-1-41 Working Unit Stresses 7-2-60
WELD PARAMETER AND PROCESS REQUIREMENTS 4-3-43 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Timbers in Open and
WELDED ATTACHMENTS 15-1-60 Ballasted-Deck Trestles 7-2-80
WELDED CLOSED BOX MEMBERS 15-1-45 General 7-2-80
WELDED CONSTRUCTION 15-1-59, 15-3-18 Design of Public Work Projects 7-2-5
WELDED SPLICES 8-2-31 General 7-2-5
WELDED WIRE FABRIC, DEVELOPMENT IN TENSION 8-2-28 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-55
WELDER AND WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATIONS 15-3-19 Details of Design 7-2-79
WELDING 8-1-17, 15-1-11 Bolted Connections 7-2-79
Index 15-9-48 General 7-2-79
of Manganese Steel Castings in Special Trackwork Net Section 7-2-79
5-5-26 Notched Beams 7-2-80
Methods 5-5-26 General Features of Design 7-2-11
WHARVES AND DOCKS, ACCOUNT 23 16-12-11 Bents 7-2-12
WHAT IS BEST PRACTICE RAIL GRINDING? 4-4-83 Clearances 7-2-11
WIDENING OF CUTS 1-1-60 Materials 7-2-11
WIDTH Piles and Post Footings 7-2-12
of Crossing 5-8-11 Stringers 7-2-12
WIND FORCE ON LOADED BRIDGE 15-1-20 Ties 7-2-12
WIND FORCE ON UNLOADED BRIDGE 15-1-20 Loads, Forces and Stresses 7-2-51
WIND FORCES Centrifugal Force 7-2-52
and Ice Load 15-6-18 Dead Load 7-2-51
WIND RESISTANCE 16-2-8 Live Load 7-2-51
WIDTH OF CROSSING 5-8-11 Loads and Forces 7-2-51
WINDOWS AND SKYLIGHTS 6-3-9 Other Lateral Forces 7-2-53
WINGWALLS 1-4-69 Notes on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-6
WIRE Basic Stress 7-2-6
Physical Properties 15-6-72 Checks, Splits, Shakes 7-2-7
WIRE ROPE CONNECTIONS 27-1-15 Decay 7-2-8
WIRE ROPE LAYS 27-1-11 Deflection, Permanent Set 7-2-10
WIRE ROPES Density 7-2-7
and Sockets 15-6-71 Duration of Load 7-2-8
Factor of Safety, Variability 7-2-10
Form Factor 7-2-10

Index
WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES, DESIGN (CONT) and Facilities, Miscellaneous 14-2-6

Introduction 7-2-6
Knots and Holes 7-2-6 YARD DESIGN FOR REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES
Mismanufacture 7-2-8 (RCL) 14-2-33
Moisture Content 7-2-8 Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives 14-2-33
Notches 7-2-10 General Yard Design or Redesign 14-2-34
Pitch and Gum Pockets, Seams and Streaks 7-2-7 Isolation of RCL Operations 14-2-35
Slope of Grain 7-2-7 Lighting 14-2-35
Temperature, Heat 7-2-9 Walkways 14-2-35
Wane 7-2-7 YARD AND TERMINAL FACILITIES, OTHER 14-7-1
Warp, Cup, Bow 7-2-7 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and
Recommended Practice for Design of Wood Culverts Fabrication Facilities 14-7-4
7-2-121 Bridge Fabrication Shop 14-7-6
Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles Frog Shop 14-7-5
7-2-117 Grading, Drainage, Site Preparation 14-7-9
Action To Be Taken 7-2-120 Introduction 14-7-4
Carrying Capacity 7-2-117 Roadway Material Reclamation Plant 14-7-4
Centrifugal Force 7-2-118 Site Selection 14-7-8
Classification 7-2-117 Storage Facilities 14-7-10
Combined Stresses 7-2-119 Structures 14-7-10
Composite Trusses 7-2-120 Track Design 14-7-10
Computation of Stresses 7-2-117 Turnout and Track Panel Fabrication Facility 14-7-7
Dead Load 7-2-118 Storage 14-7-3
General 7-2-117 Lumber and Timber Yards 14-7-3
Impact 7-2-118 Material Yards 14-7-3
Inspection 7-2-117 Reserve Oil 14-7-3
Live Load 7-2-118 Stores 14-7-2
Loads and Forces 7-2-118 Buildings and Structures 14-7-2
Longitudinal Force 7-2-119 General 14-7-2 1
Other Lateral Forces 7-2-119 Types 14-7-2
Unit Stresses 7-2-119 YARDS
Working Stresses 7-2-6 Lumber and Timber 14-7-3
WOOD, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4 Material 14-7-3
WORK EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 57 16-12-20 and Terminals 14-i
WORK SEQUENCE CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA YARDS AND SHOPS 11-4-2, 12-4-11
FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-4 Car Shops 12-4-31
WORK TRAIN SERVICE 15-4-9 Engine Shops 12-4-31
WORK, PROGRAMMING 16-9-1 Environmental Requirements 12-4-29
3
WORKABILITY, CONCRETE 8-1-35 Functional Requirements 12-4-26
WORKING STRESSES 7-2-6 General 12-4-11
WORKING UNIT STRESSES, STRESS GRADED LUMBER Layover Yards 12-4-34
7-2-60 Maintenance Philosophy 12-4-18
WORKMANSHIP 1-4-16, 1-6-10, 4-2-20, 4-3-18, 5-7-4, Maintenance-of-Way Shops 12-4-34
15-6-101 Material Yards 12-4-35
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-33 Regulatory Requirements 12-4-26
for Construction of Pile and Framed Trestles 7-3-3 Safety/Security 12-4-31 4
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-39 Site Considerations 12-4-35
WORM GEARING 15-6-43 Utility Considerations 12-4-35
WORMS AND WORM WHEELS 15-6-102
WOVEN COTTON FABRICS 8-29-28
WRENCHES 15-6-8 Z
Y ZONING DATA 12-2-9, 17-2-3
YARD
Classification 14-2-4
Components 14-2-4
Departure 14-2-5
Facility Functions 14-2-30
Local 14-2-6
Receiving 14-2-4
Repair 14-2-6
Tracks

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2009

Manual for Railway Engineering

Infrastructure and Passenger

Chapter 6 Buildings and Support Facilities

Chapter 12 Rail Transit

Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals

Chapter 17 High Speed Rail Systems

Chapter 18 Light Density and Short Line Railways

Chapter 27 Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment

Chapter 33 Electrical Energy Utilization

General Subject Index

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved

ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version

ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

COMMUTER, TRANSIT AND

Part/Section Description Page

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.0 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association i

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

Part/Section Description Page

2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

2.8 Corridor Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv

© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

2.0 CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

2.3 DATA COLLECTION

2.3.2 Demographic Data

2.3.3 Attitude Surveys

2.3.3.1 Stakeholder Surveys

The attitude surveys and observations must answer a number of questions:

© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

b. Is there resistance to transportation system changes? If so, what are they?

2.3.3.2 Stated Preference Surveys

c. What is the population's perceived value of their time?

d. What modes are acceptable?

2.3.4 Zoning Data

2.3.4.1 Existing and Future Land Use

a. Adjacent land uses.

b. Recent trends in land use density and land use classification.

c. Apparent reasons for change.

d. Probable life cycles of present and future land use developments.

2.3.4.2 Available Land for Facilities

© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

2.3.5 Environmental Data

Environmental investigations can include:

d. Floodplains/Beach & Shorelines

h. Hazardous substances (site cleanup)

j. Public nuisances (noise, lighting, odor, vibration)

k. Public convenience (transit times, detours, delays, accessibility)

l. Rerouting of utilities and traffic

n. Construction limits (duration, time of day, work sites)

p. Impact on commercial establishments

q. Impact on property values

r. Presence or absence of at-grade highway crossings

© 2009, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data