FT 1001

Dr. Thilan U. Hewage

Department of Mathematics

for
The Faculty of Technology

University of Colombo
• If a natural phenomenon can be couched in
mathematical terms, then mathematical manipulation
will often yield results that also correspond to
observable reality but may not have even been
suspected up to that point.

• Does this remarkable property of mathematics

continue to hold in the untidy field that we have
claimed for Environmental Science, and have we any
right to expect that it should? Well, at a certain
disciplinary level it certainly does. An example will
show how this occurs.
Simple theories and complex models
Predicting the spread of smoke or gas from a chimney stack, or some other
industrial source, is an element of many environmental impact assessments.
The mathematics of the way the smoke-plume spreads were first worked out by
the Cambridge physicist G.I.Taylor in 1921.

Taylor's theory predicted three things:

1.
close to the chimney the smoke-plume spreads quite rapidly, in proportion to the
distance from the chimney;
2.
further downstream it spreads more slowly, as the square root of distance in fact;
and
3.
the average concentration, or probability of encountering a puff of smoke as one
moves across the plume, follows a Gaussian (bell-shaped) curve
• G.I.Taylor's theory illustrates very well three characteristics
of predictive theories applied to the environment:
• First of all, it deals with statistical measures, not
instantaneous values of wind speed or smoke
concentration but the average levels of fluctuation. Now
the use of statistical techniques tends to smooth the
irregular real-world phenomena into something that can be
more easily handled by other mathematics.
• Secondly, the theory predicts only the probability of the
occurrence of smoke at a particular place. Predicting the
probability of an event rather than its exact appearance is
the nature of environmental science.
• Finally, the theory was derived by writing differential
equations. These describe relationships between the rates-
of-change of particular properties, in this case of statistical
measures and probabilities. Then one solves the equations
to obtain predictions that can be tested against
experimental observations.
• The equations of atmospheric and ocean
movement have been known for many
decades. However we can not solve them
analytically, as G.I.Taylor did for the smoke-
plume. Instead we use digital computers to
approximate their solution.
• Now here is another aspect to the problem.
Even using the fastest computers available, to
solve these equations we must divide the
world into a set of `grid-boxes'. The
predictions we get are averages of properties
within these boxes.
• In the figure 2 we can see the relatively coarse
way that Australia is represented in the ``state of
the art'' CSIRO 9-level climate model. Resorting to
solving the equations digitally brings two new
elements into play:
• techniques of numerical analysis are used to
ensure that the solution is accurate, at least to
the resolution of the grid-boxes; and
• any important process that occurs on a finer scale
than the grid-boxes must be parameterized; that
is, represented in terms of grid-box averages.
There are many such important processes; for
example cloud formation, convection and rainfall.
• The situation becomes even murkier when we
come to processes that are not well understood.
For example, evaporation of water from
vegetation and the assimilation of Carbon Dioxide
are key processes, since water vapour and CO2
are the two principal Greenhouse gases.
• Obviously we would like to know how the earth's
vegetation will react to changing climate and
include it in our predictions as well. At present
our knowledge is insufficient even to write the
necessary differential equations. Instead we use
crude correlations with a limited set of
experiments on plants and ecosystems grown
with artificially raised CO2 levels.
• maths.mq.edu.au
• Definition:
• The non-empty set R of objects which satisfies the
following ten axioms is called the set of
• Real Numbers.
• A1: Ǝ two operations called addition “ + “ and
multiplication “x” such that for every pair of real numbers
x and y the sum x + y and the product x y are real
numbers uniquely determined by x and y satisfying the
next nine axioms.

• A2: x + y = y + x and x y = x y (Commutative Laws)

• A3: x + (y + z) = ( x + y) + z and x (y z) = ( x y) z
(Associative Laws)

• A4: x (y + z) = x y + x z (Distributive Law)

• A5: Ǝ 0 ϵ R such that x + 0 = x for all x ϵ R: 0,
“zero”, is called the “additive identity”
• Ǝ 1 ϵ R such that x x 1 = x for all x ϵ R: 1 ,
“one”, is called the “multiplicative identity”

• A6: For any x ϵ R, Ǝ y ϵ R such that x + y =

0. Then y , denoted by “ – x” is called the
• “additive inverse” of x (negative x ).

• A7: For any x ≠0 ϵ R, Ǝ y ϵ R such that x y =

1. Then y , denoted by “ 1/x” is called the
• “multiplicative inverse” of x (reciprocal of x
).
• A8: For any x , y, zϵ R, exactly one of the
relations x = y, x < y or x > y holds.
• If x < y then for every z ϵ R x + z < y +
z
• If x > 0 and y > 0 then xy > 0

• A9: If x > y and y > z then x > z

•
• End 05/17/2018
• Properties:
• i) A real number x is called positive if x > 0 and
negative if x < 0 .
• The set of all positive real numbers is denoted by R+
• The set of all negative real numbers is denoted by R-

• For real numbers a, b, c and d

ii) a is negative if and only if -a is positive. ( a ϵ R- ⬌

-a ϵ R+ )

• iii) a < b ⬌ b-a ϵ R+

• iv) a < b and c < d ⇒ a + c < b + d

v) a < b and c ϵ R+ ⇒ a c < b c

vi) a < b and c ϵ R- ⇒ a c > b c

• b-a ϵ R+ and -c ϵ R+ ⇒ ac-bc ϵ R+

vii)a < b and b < c ⇒ a < b < c

• viii) 0 < a < b and 0 < c < d then a c

< bd
• a ≤ b ⇒ a < b or a = b
• Intervals: If a, bϵ R, such that a < b then:

i) The open interval from a to b denoted by (a, b) is

the set of all real numbers x such that a < x < b

ii) The closed interval from a to b denoted by [a, b] is

the set of all real numbers x such that a ≤ x ≤ b

iii) The half-open interval on the left from a to b

denoted by (a, b] is the set of all real numbers x
such that
• a < x≤ b
• The half-open interval on the right from a to b
denoted
• by [a, b) is the set of all real numbers x such that
• a≤ x< b
iv) Infinite Intervals:
• (a, ∞) is the set of all real numbers x such that a <
x
• open
• [a, ∞) is the set of all real numbers x such that a ≤ x
• Closed
• (- ∞, 𝐛) is the set of all real numbers x such that x <
b
• Open
• (- ∞, 𝐛] is the set of all real numbers x such that x ≤
b
• Closed

• (- ∞, ∞) is the set of all real numbers open / closed

• Closed : Contains all of its endpoints.
• Open: Contains none of its endpoints.
• Definition 5: If n, d ϵ Z and n = cd for
some c ϵ Z then
• d is a divisor of n and n is a multiple of d.
• d | n ( d divides n)

• Definition 6: If n ϵ Z and n > 1 such that

any positive divisors of n are 1 and n then
n is called a “Prime”.

• If n > 1 and n is not a prime then n is

called a composite.
• 1 is neither prime nor composite.
• Theorem 2: Every integer n > 1 is either a
prime or a product of primes.

• Proof: Result is true for n = 2.

• Assume that the result is true for every

integer k such that
• 1 < k < n.
• If n is not a prime then Ǝ d such that 1 < d <
n and d | n
• ⇒ n = cd where 1 < c < n , 1 < d < n
• But then the result is true for both c and d
and therefore n is a product of primes.
• Theorem 3: Every pair of integers a and b has a
common divisor d of the form d = ax + by where x, y
ϵ Z.
• Moreover every common divisor of a and b divides
this d.
• ( Greatest Common Divisor - GCD )
• Proof: Use induction on n = a+b
• Assume that 0 < a , 0 < b and also b ≤ a.
• Suppose that the theorem is proved for 1, 2,…, n-1
• If b = 0, then let x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore d = a
• If b ≥ 1 then we apply induction to a = (a-b) + b
• a = (a-b) + b = (a+b) – b = n – b ≤ n – 1
• ⇒ there is a common divisor d of (a-b) and b such
that
• d = (a-b) x + by
• This d also divides a since a = (a-b) + b
• ⇒ d | a and d | b and d = (a-b)x + by = ax +
b(y-x)
• Every other common divisor of a and b will
divide d since d is a linear combination of a
and b.

• If a < 0 and b < 0 then the above proof

works for –a > 0 and -b > 0 and therefore
there is a common divisor d such that
• d | -a and d | -b with d = (-a) x + (-b)y
• ⇒ -d | a and -d | b and -d = ax + by
• Hence the result.
• Definition 7: If the greatest common divisor (GCD)
• of a, b ϵ Z is 1 then a and b are said to be
• “relatively prime”. (a,b) = 1

• Theorem 4: For a, b, c and p ϵ Z :

i) If a | bc and (a,b) = 1 then a | c
• ( 1 = ax + by ⇒ c = cax + cby ⇒ a | c since a |cax
and a |cby)

ii) If a prime p| ab then p| a or p| b

• ( Suppose p| ab and p ł a, Let d = (p,a), then
either d = 1 or d = p. d ≠ p since p ł a. ⇒ d = 1 ⇒
p| b
• iii) In general If a prime 𝒑 | 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 … 𝒂𝒌 then
𝒑 | 𝒂𝒊 for at least one 1≤ i ≤ k
• Theorem 5: Unique Factorization Theorem
• Every integer n > 1 can be represented as a product of
prime factors in only one way apart from the order of
the factors.

• Proof: Use induction on n. Result is true for n = 2.

• Assume that the result is true for all integers 1 < k < n.
• If n is prime then the result is true. If n is a
composite then
• Suppose that n = 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 … 𝒑𝒓 = 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒒𝒔 with
primes 𝒑𝒊 s and 𝒒𝒋 s. ⇒ 𝒑𝟏 |𝒒𝒋 for some j. Let j = 1
then 𝒑𝟏 = 𝒒𝟏 .
• ⇒ 1 < n/ 𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 … 𝒑𝒓 = 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒒𝒔 < n and therefore
the result is true for n/ 𝒑𝟏 . ⇒ The result is true for n.
• Definition 8: Numbers that can be written as a/b where
• a, b ϵ Z and b ≠ 0 are called “ Rational Numbers”, denoted by Q.

• Definition 9: Real numbers that are not rational are called “Irrational
Numbers”.
• 2 is irrational.

• Proof: Assume that 2 is rational and 2 = a / b where a, b ϵ Z and (a,b)

= 1.
• Then 2𝑏2 = 𝑎2 ⇒ 2 | 𝑎 2 ⇒ 2 | a
• ⇒ a = 2k for some integer k
• ⇒ 𝑎 2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2𝑏2 ⇒ 2𝑘 2 = 𝑏2 ⇒ 2 | 𝒃2 ⇒ 2 | b
• ⇒ (a,b) ≥ 2 > 1 This contradicts the assumption (a,b) = 1.
• ⇒ 2 cannot be rational.
• ⇒ 2 is irrational.

• If p is a prime number then 𝑝 is irrational.

• Theorem 6: If n > 0 ϵ Z such that n is not a perfect square then 𝑛 is

irrational.
Absolute Value of a real number
• Properties of |x| for x ϵ R:

i) |x| < a iff -a < x < a where a > 0

ii) |x| ≤ a iff -a ≤ x ≤ a where a > 0
iii) |x| > a iff a < x or x < -a where a > 0
iv) |x| ≥ a iff a ≤ x or x ≤ -a where a > 0

• Proof i): Suppose a > 0

• |x| < a ⇒ -a < x < a
• ( if x ≥ 0 then |x| = x ⇒ x < a ⇒ 0 ≤ x < a ⇒ -a < 0 ≤ x
<a
• If x < 0 then |x| = -x ⇒ -x < a ⇒ -a < x < 0 ⇒ -a < x <
0<a)
• -a < x < a ⇒ |x| < a
• ( If x ≥ 0 then |x| = x ⇒ |x| < a
• If x < 0 then |x| = -x and -a < x ⇒ -x < a ⇒ |x| < a )
• Square root of a is the unique non-negative
number x s.t.
• The square of x is equal to a.

• 𝑎2 = 𝑎
• Theorem 7: For any two real numbers a and b:
i) | ab | = | a | | b |
• ( 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 =
𝑎 |𝑏| )

𝑎 |𝑎|
• ii) = ;𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏 |𝑏|

iii) | a + b | ≤ | a | + | b | ( Triangular Inequality)

• (-| a | ≤ a ≤ | a | , -| b| ≤ b ≤ | b|
• ⇒ -( | a | + | b | ) ≤ a + b ≤ ( | a | + | b | ) )
Theorem 8: For any two real numbers a and b:
i) | a – b | ≤ | a | + | b |

( | a – b | = | a + (-b) | ≤ | a | + | -b | = | a | + |
b| )

ii) | a | - | b | ≤ | a – b |

( | a | = | (a-b) + b | ≤ | a – b | + | b | )

iii) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 +. . +| 𝑥𝑛 |
• Solving Linear Equations

• 1. −2 𝑥 − 1 + 3 = 1

• 2. -2x + 7 = 25

• Solving Inequalities

• 3. 𝑥 + 2 ≤ 4
• Solve the equation: −2 𝑥 − 𝟏 + 3 = 1

• −2 𝑥 − 𝟏 = -2

• 𝑥−𝟏 = 1

• 𝑥 − 𝟏 = -1 or
𝑥−𝟏 = 1

• X=0 or
x= 2
• Equations:
i) 2 + 3x = 5x + 8

𝑥
ii) = 4 ; 𝑥 ≠ 3
𝑥−3

iii) (x + 3)(x + 4) = 0

iv) | 3x + 2 | = 5
Quadratic Equations:
1. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
3. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
4. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
5. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
6. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 11 = 0
• Systems of Equations:

1. x + y = 8
x–y = 2
( Substitution Method & Elimination Method )

2. 3x – 2y = 5
x + 5y = 22/3
• 3. x – y = 7
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 169
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 10
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −2
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
Solve the system:

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 13
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities

1. X > -5
y <3

2. x + y < 8
x–y > 2
 Vectors

1. Lists of Numbers
An ordered array of numbers
(2, 3, -1, 8)

2.Entities with a Magnitude and

a Direction
 𝑅2 = 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅}

𝑅3 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅}

𝑅𝑛 = 𝑎1, 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛}
Definition 1: The set of all n-tuples of real numbers,
denoted by 𝑅𝑛 is called n-space. A particular
n-tuple in 𝑅𝑛 , say a = 𝑎1, 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 is called a point
or a vector.

Definition 2: When discussing the space 𝑅𝑛 , an

element from 𝑅 is called a scalar.
Definition 3: Two vectors u, v are said to be
equal if they have the same number of elements
and the corresponding elements are equal.
( Two vectors u, v in 𝑅𝑛 are said to be equal if
their corresponding elements are equal. )

Definition 4: The Zero Vector in 𝑅𝑛 is the vector

whose elements are all zeros.
Theorem 1: For any vectors u , v , and w in 𝑅𝑛 and any scalars λ and μ in R
• Example-1:
• U = (2, 3, -4) and V=(3, -1, -2)
• Find 2U – 3V
Definition 6: If vectors u, v are in 𝑅𝑛 such that
u = k v for some non-zero scalar k in R then u is
called a multiple of v. ( u would be in the same
or opposite direction as v depending on
whether k > 0 or k < 0 )
Geometric representation of Vector Addition
Definition 7:
• Example-2:
• U = (1, -2, 3) and V=(4,5, -1) W=(2,7,4)
• Find the dot-products
Theorem 2: For any vectors u , v , and w in 𝑅𝑛 and any scalars λ
and μ in R

Theorem 3: For any non-zero vectors u , v in 𝑅𝑛 with θ being

the angle between u and v:
Theorem 4: For any vector u in 𝑅𝑛 and a scalar λ:

Theorem 5: For any vector v in 𝑅𝑛 :

Theorem 6: For any vectors u , v in 𝑅𝑛 : 𝒖 ∙ 𝒗 ≤ 𝒖 𝒗
(Cauchy – Schwarz Inequality)(discriminant of 𝑡𝒖 + 𝒗 ^2)

Theorem 7: For any vectors u , v in 𝑅𝑛 : 𝒖 + 𝒗 ≤ 𝒖 + 𝒗

(Triangular Inequality)

Definition 8: The distance between the vectors u, v in 𝑅𝑛 ,

denoted by d(u, v), is given by: d(u, v) = 𝒖 − 𝒗
 −7 0
1. u = (1, -2, 3) , v = (5, 0, 2) , x = 1 , y = 8
2 3
Compute: 4 𝑢 ∙ 𝑥 + 6[ 𝑣 ∙ 3𝑥 − 𝑦 ]

𝑥1
2. If x = 𝑥 , a = (-1, 4) , b = (2, -7), 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 = 1 and
2
b∙ 𝑥 = 2. Find 𝑥1 and 𝑥2

3. u = (-1, 2, 1, 0), v = (0, 1, 3, -1), w = (-2, 3, 0, 5) Find:

𝑢+𝑣
i) 3(u-v)+w ii)
𝑢+𝑣
Definition 9: The projection of a vector u on to a non-zero vector
v in 𝑅𝑛 , is the vector ,denoted by proj(u, v), defined by:
𝑢∙𝑣 𝑢∙𝑣
proj(u, v) = ∙ 𝑣 = ∙𝑣
𝑣 2 𝑣∙𝑣
Example: u = (1, -2, 3) , v = (2, 4, 5) Find proj(u, v).

Definition 10: The unit vectors i and j in 𝑅2 are defined by:

i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1).
The unit vectors i , j and k in 𝑅3 are defined by:
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).
The unit vectors i1 , i2 , ....., in in 𝑅𝑛 are defined by:
i1 = (1, 0,…, 0), i2 = (0, 1, 0,…,0), .….. in = (0, …,0, 1).
Example: The vector u = (1, -2, 3) in 𝑅3 can be written as:
u = 1 i - 2 j + 3k
The vector v = (2, 4, 5) in 𝑅3 can be written as:
v = 2 i + 4 j + 5k
Then u + v = 3 i + 2 j + 8k, u . V = (2)(1) + (-2)(4) + (3)(5) = 9
Definition 11: The “Cross Product” of the vectors
u = (u1, u2, u3)and v = (v1, v2, v3) in 𝑅3 , denoted u⨂v
(or by u x v ), is a vector defined by:
u⨂v = ((u2 v3 – u3 v2 ), (u3 v1 – u1 v3 ), (u1 v2 – u2 v1 ))
Example: i) u = 1 i - 2 j + 3k , v = 2 i + 4 j + 5k
u⨂v = -22 i + 1 j + 8k

ii) i⨂j = k
 a=(a1, a2, a3), b=(b1, b2, b3)

𝑎 × 𝑏 = (𝑎2𝑏3 − 𝑎3𝑏2, 𝑎3𝑏1 − 𝑏3𝑎1,

𝑎1𝑏2 − 𝑏1𝑎2)
𝑎 × 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 . (𝑎 × 𝑏)

2 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑎 2 𝑏 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)
2
2
(𝑎. 𝑏)
= 𝑎 𝑏 2 (1 − 2 2
)
𝑎 𝑏

= 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32 𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + 𝑏32 −

(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 )2
Where
Example: If a = (2, 1, -1) and b = (-3, 4, 1)
Show that a⨂b = (5, 1, 11) and b⨂ a = (-5, -1, -11).

Theorem 8: For vectors u, v and w in 𝑅3 :

i) u⨂v = - v⨂u
ii) u . (v⨂w) = det(u, v, w)
iii) u . (v⨂w) = (u⨂v) . w
iv) u⨂v is orthogonal to both u and v.
v) (ca)⨂b = a⨂(cb) = c (a⨂b)
vi) u⨂(v + w ) = u⨂v + u⨂w
vii) u⨂(v ⨂w ) = v (u.w) – w (u.v)
 Matrices
• A Matrix “A” over a field K is a rectangular array of scalars
from K

A=

The m horizontal n-tuples are called the rows of A, and the

n vertical m-tuples, its columns. Note that the element aij,
called the ij-entry, appear in the ith row and the jth column.
Dimension of the matrix A is “mxn” (m by n)
A matrix with only one column is called a column vector.

A matrix whose entries are all zero is called a zero matrix

(null matrix) and denoted by 0.

Two matrices are equal if they both are of the same

dimension and corresponding elements are equal.

A matrix with the same number of columns as rows is called

a “ Square Matrix “.
Let A and B be two matrices of the same size. The sum
of A and B is written as A + B and obtained by adding
corresponding elements from A and B.

The product of a scalar k and a matrix A, written kA or

Ak, is the matrix obtained by multiplying each element
of A by k.
Solve for x and /or y:

−3 5 0 −2 −3 11
i) −3 =
25 −2 𝑥 4 15 −14

ii)
Here, we define -A = (-1)A and A - B = A + (-B). Note that -A is the
negative of the matrix A.

Properties:
• Let A, B, and C be matrices of same size and let k and l be
scalars. Then

• (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
• A+B=B+A
• A+0=0+A=A
• A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0
• k(A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + l)A = kA + lA
• (kl)A = k(lA)
• lA = A
 Matrix Multiplication

Suppose A and B are two matrices such that the

number of columns of A is equal to number of rows
of B. Say matrix A is an m×p matrix and matrix B is a
p×n matrix. Then the product of A and B is the m×n
matrix whose ij-entry is obtained by multiplying the
elements of the ith row of A by the corresponding
elements of the jth column of B and then adding
them.
It is important to note that if the number of
columns of A is not equal to the number of rows of
B, then the product AB is not defined.
C = AB

09/11/2014
Arranging the matrices as
follows will make the
multiplication by hand a bit
easier:
• Properties:

• Let A, B, and C be matrices and let k be a scalar. Then

• (AB)C = A(BC)
• A(B+C) = AB + AC
• (B+C)A = BA + CA
• k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)

Transpose
The transpose of a matrix A is obtained by writing the rows of A, in
order, as columns and denoted by AT. In other words, if A = (Aij), then B
= (bij) is the transpose of A if
bij = aji for all i and j.

A= AT =
Properties:

Let A and B be matrices and let k be a scalar.

Then:
i) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇
ii) 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 = 𝐴
iii) 𝑘𝐴 𝑇 = 𝑘 𝐴𝑇
iv) 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇
 Trace of a Matrix

Trace of a n-square matrix A, written “tr(A)”, is the sum

Of its diagonal elements.
𝑛

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 → 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑖
𝑖=1
Properties:
i) tr(A + B) = tr(a) + tr(B)
ii) tr(kA) = k tr(A)
iii) tr(𝐴𝑇 ) = tr(A)
iv) tr(AB) = tr(BA) (even if AB ≠ BA )
Verify the property tr (AB) = tr (BA).
1 2 3 2 −5 1
𝐴 = −4 −4 −4 𝐵= 0 3 −2
5 6 7 1 2 −4

5 7 −15
𝐴𝐵 = −12 0 20 tr(AB) = - 30
17 7 −35

27 30 33
𝐵𝐴 = −22 −24 −26 tr(BA) = - 30
−27 −30 −33
Definition: (Identity Matrix)

The Identity Matrix (Unit Matrix) of order “n”, denoted

by “In “ or “ I” is the n-square matrix with 1’s on the
diagonal and 0’s elsewhere.
1 0 0
Example: 𝐼3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
For any n-square matrix “A”: IA=AI=A

More generally, for a matrix B of order mxn:

Im B = B I n = B
For any scalar “k”, the matrix “kI” is called the
“Scalar Matrix k”.
(kI)A = k(IA) = kA

For an n-square matrix “A” over a field “K”:

A2 = A . A
An+1 = A . An = An . A
A0 = In
 1 2
Example: Suppose 𝐴 = find f(A) and g(A) if
3 −4
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10

Definition: A square matrix “A” is said to be invertible

(Nonsingular) if there exists a matrix “B” such that
AB = I = BA
“B” is called the “Inverse of A” and is denoted by “A-1”

Theorem: If “A” and “B” are invertible matrices of order

n then “AB” is also invertible and (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 . 𝐴−1
 𝑎 𝑏
Inverse of the 2x2 matrix 𝐴 = is given by
𝑐 𝑑
−1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴 =
𝐴 −𝑐 𝑎

where the determinant 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐

Example: Find the inverse of the matrices

2 3 1 3
𝐴= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 =
4 5 2 6
Special types of square matrices:
i) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is “Diagonal” if its
non-diagonal entries are zeros.

ii) Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is “Upper

Triangular” or simply “Triangular” if all its entries
below the main diagonal are zeros.

iii) Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is “Lower

Triangular” or simply “Triangular” if all its entries
above the main diagonal are zeros.
iv) Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Matrices:
A square matrix “A” is symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 and is
skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴

v) Orthogonal Matrices: An invertible square matrix “A”

is orthogonal if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴−1 .

vi) Normal Matrices: A square matrix “A” is normal if it

commutes with its transpose. 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 A
If “A” is symmetric or Skew symmetric then “A” is
normal.
If “A” is orthogonal then “A” is normal.
 Systems of Linear Equations
Definition:

𝐴 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏 −−−−−−→ ①
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑖′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

A solution to the linear equation ① will be a set of values 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , … , 𝑘𝑛

such that 𝑎1 𝑘1 + 𝑎2 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝑛 = 𝑏

A system of linear equations is a list of linear equations with the same

unknowns.
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21. 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2.
.. ..
. .
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
The system is called :
i) Homogeneous if all 𝑏𝑖 ’s are zeros.

ii) Consistent if it has one or more solutions.

iii) Inconsistent if it has no solutions.

The matrix A =

is called the coefficient matrix.

 𝑎11 .. 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1
The matrix M = . . . . is called the
𝑎𝑚1 .. 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚

Augmented matrix.

Two systems of linear equations are said to be

equivalent if they have the same solutions.

Two systems are equivalent if each equation in one

system is a linear combination of the equations in the
other system.
Examples:

i) 2x – 5y = 11 ii) 2x – 3y = 8 iii) 2x – 3y = 8
3x + 4y = 5 -6x + 9y = 6 -4x + 6y = -16
X = 3, y = -1
Infinitely many
No Solution solutions
𝐴 ≠0 𝐴 =0
𝐴 =0
Solve the system of equations:
Example iv):

2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 10 1

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −2 2

2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 3

Exact Method: Elimination of Variables

Matrix Representation : A X = B
2 −1 5 𝑥 10
A= 1 1 −3 X= 𝑦 B = −2
2 4 1 𝑧 1
Gaussian Elimination:

Z = 1, y = -1, x = 2
Gauss – Jordan Method:
A square system AX = B of linear equations has a
unique solution if and only if the matrix A is invertible.
Then the solution is given by 𝐴−1 B .

2 −1 5
Lets find the inverse of A= 1 1 −3 using row
2 4 1

operations and then 𝐴−1 B from the Example iv).

A system AX = B of linear equations has a solution if
and only if B is a linear combination of the column
vectors of the coefficient matrix A.

Elementary Operations:
i) Interchanging two equations
ii) Replacing an equation by a non-zero multiple of
itself
iii) Replacing an equation by the sum of a multiple of
another equation and itself
Elementary Row Operations:
i) Interchanging two rows
ii) Replacing a row by a non-zero multiple of itself
iii) Replacing a row by the sum of a multiple of
another row and itself

Definition:

A matrix “A” is said to be row equivalent to the

matrix “B” , written A ~ B, if “B” can be obtained
from “A” by a sequence of elementary raw
operations.
iii) If A is a square matrix then the following are equivalent:

a) A is non singular. (invertible)

b) A is “row equivalent” to the identity matrix I.
c) A is a product of elementary matrices.
Example:
1 2 3
1)Find the inverse (if exists) of P= 1 3 6
2 6 13

1 2 −3
2)Find the inverse (if exists) of P = 2 5 −8
3 8 −13
Example: 1. Solve the following systems
a) Using Gaussian Elimination
b) Finding the inverse by row operations

i) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −4 ii) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 9𝑧 = −10 −3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −7
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 11 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 2
 Determinants

Each n-square matrix A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is assigned a special

scalar called the “Determinant of A” denoted by
𝑎11 . . 𝑎1𝑛
det(A) or |A| or . . . defined as follows:
𝑎𝑛1 . . 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Determinant of order 1 : |𝑎11 | = 𝑎11

𝑎11 𝑎12
Determinant of order 2 : 𝑎
21 𝑎22 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 - 𝑎12 𝑎21
Determinant of order 3:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎11
𝑎32 𝑎33 − 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎33
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎21 𝑎22
+ 𝑎13 𝑎
31 𝑎32

There are short-cuts to find the determinant of order 3

Example: Find the determinant of the following matrix.
2 1 0 
3 − 1 4 
 
 1 1 2 

Here is the easy way to arrive at that answer:

Step 1: Copy column 1 and 2 next to the matrix.

2 1 0  2 1
3 − 1 4  3 − 1
 
 1 1 2  1 1
Step 2: Beginning with 2, multiply the numbers on the diagonal (3
numbers only).
2 1 0  2 1
3 − 1 4  3 − 1 To that add the product of the 3
  numbers on the next diagonal.
 1 1 2  1 1

2(−1)2 + 1(4)(1) + 0(3)(1) = −4 + 4 + 0 = 0

And again, the product of the 3
numbers on the last diagonal.

Now beginning with the 1 in the upper right hand corner, we are
going to come back, multiplying the numbers on the diagonals.
We will also sum these and then subtract the answer from the
sum above.

2 1 0  2 1
3 − 1 4  3 − 1
 
1(3)(2) + 2(4)(1) + 0(−1)(1) = 6 + 8 + 0 = 14
 1 1 2  1 1

Now subtract: 0 - 14 = - 14
Example: Find the determinant of
1 2 3
A = 4 −2 3
0 5 −1

Definition:
The determinant of a n-square matrix A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is
the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the
elements of a row (or a column) by their respective
cofactors.
𝑛 𝑛

𝐴 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑖𝑗

𝑗=1 𝑖=1
Properties of Determinants:
i) 𝐴 = |𝐴𝑇 |
ii) If A has a row (or a column) of zeros then 𝐴 = 0
iii) If A has two identical rows (or columns) then 𝐴 = 0
iv) If A is triangular then 𝐴 = ς𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖𝑖 ; |I| = 1

Suppose B is a matrix obtained from A by an elementary

row (or column) operation.
v) If two rows (columns) interchanged then |B| = - |A|
vi) If a row (or a column) of A is multiplied by “k” then
|B| = k |A|
vii) If a multiple of a row (or a column) of A is added to
another row (or column) of A then |B| = |A|
viii) For any two n-square matrices A and B
|AB| = |A||B|
ix) Following statements are equivalent:
a) A is non-singular
b) AX = 0 has only the zero solution.
c) |A| ≠ 0
Example: Solve a system of two equations with two
variables using determinants.
𝑎11 𝑥 + 𝑎12 𝑦 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑦 = 𝑏2

𝑏1 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑏1
𝑏2 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑏2
𝑥= 𝑎11 𝑎12 and y= 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎22

Solve the system 4x – 3y = 15

2x + 5y = 1 using determinants.
(3, -1)
Cramer’s Rule for solving systems of equations:

Consider a system A X = B of n-linear equations in n-

unknowns.
Let 𝐴𝑗 be the matrix obtained from the matrix A by
replacing the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of A by the column vector B.

Let D = |A| and 𝐷𝑗 = | 𝐴𝑗 |

Then the system A X = B has a solution if and only if

𝐷𝑗
D ≠ 0 and the solution is given by 𝑥𝑗 =
𝐷
Example:
Solve the following systems using Cramer’s rule.
i) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 3

ii) 3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 𝑧 + 1
3𝑥 + 2𝑧 = 8 −5y
3𝑧 − 1 = 𝑥 − 2𝑦

i) D = 5, 𝐷1 = 20, 𝐷2= -10, 𝐷3= 15 ii) D = 22, 𝐷1 = 66, 𝐷2 = −22, 𝐷3 = 44

• Definition 10: The graph of an equation y =
f(x) in 𝑅2 is the set of all points (x, y) in 𝑅2
satisfying the equation.

• Definition 11: The distance “ d “ between the

two points ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and ( 𝑥𝟐 , 𝑦𝟐 ) is given by
:
• 𝑑 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
• And the midpoint is given by : ( ,
2 2
)
• Definition 12:
• A function from R to R denoted by 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, is
a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) in which no
two distinct ordered pairs have the same first
number. Y = f(x)
• The set of all possible x values is called the Domain
of the function. (Independent variable)
• The set of all possible y values is called the Range of
the function. (Dependent variable)

• Examples of Domain and Range:

• i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 5
(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4)(𝑥 2 −9)
• ii) 𝑦 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥−12)(𝑥+3)
−3 𝑥 ≤ −1
iii) 𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ 1 −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
4 2 < 𝑥
• Getting used to the notation:
• Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 Find
i) 𝑓 −𝟐

ii) 𝑓 2𝑥 2

iii)𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓 ℎ

iv) 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ

𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥)
v) ℎ
• Algebra of Functions:
• Given two functions 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 and g: 𝑅 → 𝑅
• (Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 , 𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥−1)

i) 𝑓±𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 ±𝑔 𝑥

ii) 𝑓 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
iii) 𝑔
𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑥)
; 𝑔 𝑥 ≠0

• iv) 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ) ; Composition of

𝑓 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝑔
• Example:
i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 +2 , find a function 𝑔 𝑥 =
𝒂𝑥 + 𝒃 such that 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5.

𝟎 𝑥 ≤𝟎
ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ𝟐𝒙 𝟎< 𝑥 ≤ 𝟏 and
𝟎 𝟏 < 𝑥

𝟏 𝑥 ≤𝟎
• g 𝑥 = ቐ𝒙/𝟐 𝟎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 < 𝑥

• Find 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔 𝑥 .
• Definition 13: A function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅:

i) Is an Even function if f( -x) = f(x)

ii) Is an Odd function if f(-x) = - f(x)

iii) Is a Constant function if f(x) = c for all x in the

domain.

iv) Is a Polynomial function of degree n if

• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ +
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
• where n is a non-negative integer and
𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
• v) Is the Identity function if f(x) = x for all x in the
domain
• Properties:

i) If 𝑓 and g are odd functions then 𝑓 + g and

𝑓 – g are odd.

1
ii) For any function 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓(−𝑥) is
2
even and
1
• 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(−𝑥) is odd.
2

• iii) Any real function 𝑓 𝑥 can be written as a

sum of an even function and an odd function.
• Definition 14: A function from R to R denoted by
𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, is one-to-one ( 1 – 1 ) if no two (or more)
distinct elements from the domain are matched with
the same element in the range.
• (No two (or more) distinct ordered pairs of the
function have the same second number. f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x1 = x2 )

• Definition 15: A function from R to R denoted by

𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, has an inverse iff f is one-to-one.

• Example:
i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 5

ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4
• Example:
i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 5

ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4
• Shifting of Graphs:
• 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ± ℎ ↔ ↑ ℎ 𝑜𝑟 ↓ ℎ

• 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ± ℎ ↔ ← ℎ 𝑜𝑟 → ℎ

• 𝑦 = −𝑓 𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 >

1 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑎 < 1
Exponential functions

Consider a function of the form 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 , where

a > 0.
Such a function is called an exponential function.
We can take three different cases, where a = 1, 0 < a
< 1 and a > 1.
If a = 1 then 𝑓 𝑥 = 1𝑥 = 1. So this just gives us the
constant function f(x) = 1.
What happens if a > 1?
To examine this case, take a numerical example.
Suppose that a = 2. 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥
• Logarithmic Function