© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.

org
Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

GEAR MATERIALS,
PROPERTIES, AND
MANUFACTURE
Edited by

J.R. Davis
Davis & Associates

ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Copyright © 2005
by
ASM International®
All rights reserved

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First printing, September 2005

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gear materials, properties, and manufacture / edited by J.R. Davis

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 0-87170-815-9
1. Gearing—Manufacture. I. Davis, J.R. (Joseph R.)

TJ184.G34715 2005
621.8⬘33—dc22 2005050105

SAN:204-7586

ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

 © 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Introduction to Gear Technology

Chapter 1 Basic Understanding of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Gear Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Types of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Proper Gear Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Basic Applied Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Gear Manufacturing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Through Hardening and Case Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chapter 2 Gear Tribology and Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Gear Tribology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Lubrication Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Classification of Gear Tooth Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Lubrication-Related Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Lubricant Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Oil Lubricant Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Selection of Gear Lubricant Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Application of Gear Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Case History: Failure of a 24-Unit Speed-Increaser Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Gear Materials
Chapter 3 Ferrous and Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Wrought Gear Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Surface-Hardening Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Through-Hardening Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Gear Steel Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Processing Characteristics of Gear Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bending Fatigue Strength of Carburized Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Other Properties of Interest for Carburized Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

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Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Other Ferrous Alloys for Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Chapter 4 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
General Characteristics of Plastic Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Classification of Plastics for Gear Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Metals versus Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Plastic Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Plastic Gear Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Gear Manufacture
Chapter 5 Machining, Grinding, and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Machining Processes for Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Selection of Machining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Cutter Material and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Speed and Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Comparison of Steels for Gear Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Milling and Hobbing Machines . . . . . . . . 113
Grinding of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Honing of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Lapping of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Superfinishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Chapter 6 Casting, Forming, and Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 7 Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Capabilities and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Gear Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Gear Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Gear Design and Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Gear Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Quality Control and Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Examples of P/M Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Heat Treatment of Gears

Chapter 8 Through Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Through-Hardening Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Through-Hardened Gear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Hardness Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Distortion of Through-Hardened Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Case History: Design and Manufacture of a Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Chapter 9 Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Gas Carburizing: Processing and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Quenching and Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

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Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Tempering of Carburized and Quenched Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Recarburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Cold Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Selection of Materials for Carburized Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Carbon Content and Case Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Core Hardness of Gear Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Problems Associated with Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Heat Treat Distortion of Carburized and Hardened Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Grinding Stock Allowance on Tooth Flanks to Compensate for Distortion . . . . 201
Shot Peening of Carburized and Hardened Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Applications and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Vacuum Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Chapter 10 Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

The Gas Nitriding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Controlled Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Ion Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Chapter 11 Carbonitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Applicable Steels and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Depth of Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Hardenability of Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Quenching and Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Chapter 12 Induction and Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Failure Analysis, Fatigue Life Prediction, and Mechanical Testing

Chapter 13 Gear Failure Modes and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Classification of Gear Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Fatigue Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Stress Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Causes of Gear Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Conducting the Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Examples of Gear Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Chapter 14 Fatigue and Life Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Gear Tooth Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Gear Tooth Surface Durability and Breakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Life Determined by Contact Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Life Determined by Bending Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Gear Tooth Failure by Breakage after Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Flaws and Gear Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Bores and Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

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Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Chapter 15 Mechanical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Common Modes of Gear Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Stress Calculations for Test Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Specimen Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Tests Simulating Gear Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Gear Power-Circulating (PC), or Four-Square, Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

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Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture (#05125G)

Preface

Gears, because of their unique contribution to the operation of so many machines and mechanical
devices, have received special attention from the technical community for more than two millennia.
New developments in gear technology, particularly from the materials point-of-view, have also been
covered in detail by ASM International for many years. Numerous forums, conference proceedings,
books, and articles have been devoted to the understanding of gear performance by examining gear
tribology, failure modes, the metallurgy of ferrous gear materials, heat treatment, gear manufactur-
ing methods, and testing. All of these important technical aspects of gear technology are brought
together in the present offering, Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture.
Chapter 1, “Basic Understanding of Gears,” discusses the various types of gears used, important
gear nomenclature, and applied stresses and strength requirements associated with gears. It also pro-
vides an overview of several important topics that are covered in greater detail in subsequent chap-
ters, namely, gear materials, gear manufacture, and heat treatment. Gear tribology and lubrication is
covered in Chapter 2. Lubrication-related failures (pitting, wear, and scuffing), elastohydrodynamic
lubrication, lubricant selection, and gear lubricant application are among the subjects described.
Chapters 3 and 4 describe both metallic (ferrous and nonferrous alloys) and plastic gear materials,
respectively. Emphasis in Chapter 3 has been placed on the properties of carburized steels, the mate-
rial of choice for high-performance power transmission gearing. The increasing use of plastics for
both motion-carrying and power transmission applications is covered in Chapter 4.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 address methods for manufacturing gears including metal removal processes
(machining, grinding, and finishing), casting, forming, and forging (including recent advances in
near-net shape forging of gears), and powder metallurgy processing. Injection molding, another
important method for the manufacture of plastic gears, is covered in Chapter 4.
The heat treatment of gears is reviewed in Chapters 8 through 12. Both through hardening and sur-
face hardening methods are reviewed. Again, emphasis has been placed on carburizing, the most
common heat treatment applied to gear steels. It should be noted that some of the material presented
in these chapters was adapted, with the kind permission of the author, from Heat Treatment of Gears:
A Practical Guide for Engineers, by A.K. Rakhit (ASM International, 2000). Dr. Rakhit’s book is an
excellent resource for those seeking a more in-depth reference guide to gear heat treatment.
Failure analysis, fatigue life prediction, and mechanical testing are examined in Chapters 13, 14,
and 15, respectively. In Chapter 13, “Gear Failure Modes and Analysis,” emphasis has been placed
on two of the most common types of gear failure—bending fatigue and contact fatigue. Bending
fatigue of carburized steels is also discussed in depth in Chapter 3.
In summary, this book is intended for gear metallurgists and materials specialists, manufacturing
engineers, lubrication technologists, and analysts concerned with gear failures who seek a better
understanding of gear performance and gear life. It supplements other gear texts that emphasize the
design, geometry, and theory of gears.
Joseph R. Davis
Davis & Associates
Chagrin Falls, Ohio
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