Kirkpatrick's levels of training criteria: Thirty years later

George M Alliger, Elizabeth A Janak

Kirkpatrick's model (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) of training evaluation criteria has had
widespread and enduring popularity. This model proposed four “levels” of training
evaluation criteria: reactions, learning, behavior, and results. Three problematic
assumptions of the model may be identified: (1) The levels are arranged in ascending
order of information provided. (2) The levels are causally linked. (3) The levels are
positively intercorrelated. This article examines the validity of these assumptions, the
frequency of each level in published evaluation studies, correlations from the literature in
regard to Assumptions 2 and 3, and implications for the researcher and training
manager.

Human resource training and development

Gary P Latham

Annual review of psychology 39 (1), 545-582, 1988

546 LATHAM this topic. Certainly this was an underlying theme of the chapters written by
Campbell (1971), Goldstein (1980), and Wexley (1984). What is puzzling about this theme
is that it is equally applicable to the practice of selection and placement, organization
behavior, specifically the exercise of leadership, and organization development.
Nevertheless, the intensity with which this theme pervades the previous chapters on
training and development is missing from the chapters dealing with these other content
domains. One explanation may lie in the number of practitioner-oriented magazines
devoted to the subject of training and development as opposed to selection or organization
behavior. These magazines were usually included in the literature searches conducted by
the previous authors of this chapter. There are also practitioner-oriented journals devoted
to the topic of organi zation development. Perhaps, then, a second explanation to this
puzzle is that the gap between the researchers and practitioners in the field of organization
development is relatively small compared to the gap between the psycholo gists who
conduct research on training, and the training practitioners who appear unfazed by this
research. A fertile field of study in any of the behavioral sciences is the diffusion of
scientific knowledge to the practitioner. Such research would broaden the scope of transfer
of training to transfer of learning that brings about a relatively permanent change in the
behavior of practitioners.

To break the theme of despair that underlies the preceding chapters on training and
development, the objectives of the present chapter were nar rowed, namely, to summarize
and integrate articles on training and develop ment published in scientific journals from
1983 through March of 1987, and to communicate the results in such a way that they will
affect the thinking, if not the behavior, of researchers. Restricting this review to scientific
journals allowed the omission of articles that often agitate researchers who read topics of
interest in lay magazines; the advantage of writing this chapter for col leagues is that it
provided motivation for reviewing the scientific literature without worrying about any lack of
impact on a lay audience. One conclusion of Campbell's (1971) chapter was the need to
focus on observable behavioral outcomes. A wish expressed in both Campbell's (1971)
and Goldstein's (1980) chapters was to break away from training fads. A need identified in
Campbell's (1971), Goldstein's (1980), and Wexley's (1984) chapters was to focus on
training theory. All three wishes have been fulfilled to various extents in the period between
1983 and 1987. What remains elusive is the ability of training research to bring about
relatively permanent changes in the behavior of the practitioner. The optimistic conclusion
from reading this trend line, however, is that theory and/or research will exist on this topic
before the next chapter on training and development is written. In addition to a tone of
optimism, the present chapter differs from its

Undulation training for development of hierarchical

fitness and improved firefighter job performance
Mark D Peterson, Daniel J Dodd, Brent A Alvar, Matthew R Rhea, Mike Favre

The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 22 (5), 1683-1695, 2008

Peterson, MD, Dodd, DJ, Alvar, BA, Rhea, MR, and Favre, M. Undulation training for
development of hierarchical fitness and improved firefighter job performance. J Strength
Cond Res 22 (5): 1683–1695, 2008—Firefighters routinely encounter physical demands
that contribute to countless musculoskeletal injuries. Seemingly, a progressive
prescription for fitness would offer superior protection against intrinsic job risks. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of two resistance training
interventions on fitness adaptations among …

Human resource training and development

Gary P Latham

Annual review of psychology 39 (1), 545-582, 1988

546 LATHAM this topic. Certainly this was an underlying theme of the chapters written by
Campbell (1971), Goldstein (1980), and Wexley (1984). What is puzzling about this theme
is that it is equally applicable to the practice of selection and placement, organization
behavior, specifically the exercise of leadership, and organization development.
Nevertheless, the intensity with which this theme pervades the previous chapters on
training and development is missing from the chapters dealing with these other content
domains. One explanation may lie in the number of practitioner-oriented magazines
devoted to the subject of training and development as opposed to selection or organization
behavior. These magazines were usually included in the literature searches conducted by
the previous authors of this chapter. There are also practitioner-oriented journals devoted
to the topic of organi zation development. Perhaps, then, a second explanation to this
puzzle is that the gap between the researchers and practitioners in the field of organization
development is relatively small compared to the gap between the psycholo gists who
conduct research on training, and the training practitioners who appear unfazed by this
research. A fertile field of study in any of the behavioral sciences is the diffusion of
scientific knowledge to the practitioner. Such research would broaden the scope of transfer
of training to transfer of learning that brings about a relatively permanent change in the
behavior of practitioners.

To break the theme of despair that underlies the preceding chapters on training and
development, the objectives of the present chapter were nar rowed, namely, to
summarize and integrate articles on training and develop ment published in scientific
journals from 1983 through March of 1987, and to communicate the results in such a
way that they will affect the thinking, if not the behavior, of researchers. Restricting this
review to scientific journals allowed the omission of articles that often agitate
researchers who read topics of interest in lay magazines; the advantage of writing this
chapter for col leagues is that it provided motivation for reviewing the scientific literature
without worrying about any lack of impact on a lay audience. One conclusion of
Campbell's (1971) chapter was the need to focus on observable behavioral outcomes. A
wish expressed in both Campbell's (1971) and Goldstein's (1980) chapters was to break
away from training fads. A need identified in Campbell's (1971), Goldstein's (1980), and
Wexley's (1984) chapters was to focus on training theory. All three wishes have been
fulfilled to various extents in the period between 1983 and 1987. What remains elusive is
the ability of training research to bring about relatively permanent changes in the
behavior of the practitioner. The optimistic conclusion from reading this trend line,
however, is that theory and/or research will exist on this topic before the next chapter on
training and development is written. In addition to a tone of optimism, the present
chapter differs from its

The science of training and development in

organizations: What matters in practice
Eduardo Salas, Scott I Tannenbaum, Kurt Kraiger, Kimberly A Smith-Jentsch

Psychological science in the public interest 13 (2), 74-101, 2012

Organizations in the United States alone spend billions on training each year. These
training and development activities allow organizations to adapt, compete, excel,
innovate, produce, be safe, improve service, and reach goals. Training has
successfully been used to reduce errors in such high-risk settings as emergency
rooms, aviation, and the military. However, training is also important in more
conventional organizations. These organizations understand that training helps them
to remain competitive by continually educating their workforce. They understand that
investing in their employees yields greater results. However, training is not as intuitive
as it may seem. There is a science of training that shows that there is a right way and
a wrong way to design, deliver, and implement a training program.

Undulation training for development of hierarchical

fitness and improved firefighter job performance
Mark D Peterson, Daniel J Dodd, Brent A Alvar, Matthew R Rhea, Mike Favre

The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 22 (5), 1683-1695, 2008

Peterson, MD, Dodd, DJ, Alvar, BA, Rhea, MR, and Favre, M. Undulation training for
development of hierarchical fitness and improved firefighter job performance. J
Strength Cond Res 22 (5): 1683–1695, 2008—Firefighters routinely encounter
physical demands that contribute to countless musculoskeletal injuries. Seemingly, a
progressive prescription for fitness would offer superior protection against intrinsic job
risks. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of two resistance
training interventions on fitness adaptations among …

Personnel training and development

John Paul Campbell

Annual review of psychology 22 (1), 565-602, 1971

This review was frustrating for at least two reasons. First, as the term is commonly
used, personnel training and development can include such diverse elements as
computer assisted instruction, encounter groups for executives and their wives, and
training in basic work habits for so-called hard core unemployables. It is an incredibly
wide spectrum and certain topics are given scant attention. At the one extreme are
very molecular studies of such things as acquisition and transfer problems in pursuit
rotor training and concept learning. These border on basic research in learning, more
properly belong in such a chapter, and will not be reviewed here. At the other extreme
are the existentially derived basic encounter experiences. We will discuss neither the
 psychology nor the organizational utility of shouting nasty things about one's spouse
in front of a group or having a sensitivity session sans clothing.

Second, this is the first review of its kind. Training and development previously have
been discussed as a subsection of" the psychology of men at work"(Hinrichs 104) or"
personnel management"(Porter 158). Thus, a question arises as to whether the
review should cover the past 2 years, 5 years, or hark back to antiquity itself (1940 or
thereabouts), As a result, the period of the review varies haphazardly with the
particular subtopic. The overall objective was to go back far enough to uncover
sufficient substance to describe the state of the art and document trends. In most
cases this meant going back 3 to 5 years. Beyond that, secondary sources were emн
ployed. Also, since there were nO previous chapters to serve as guides, the search
for the psychology in the field was especially difficult.

Benefits of training and development for individuals and

teams, organizations, and society
Herman Aguinis, Kurt Kraiger

Annual review of psychology 60, 451-474, 2009

This article provides a review of the training and development literature since the year
2000. We review the literature focusing on the benefits of training and development for
individuals and teams, organizations, and society. We adopt a multidisciplinary, multilevel,
and global perspective to demonstrate that training and development activities in work
organizations can produce important benefits for each of these stakeholders. We also
review the literature on needs assessment and pretraining states, training design and
delivery, training evaluation, and transfer of training to identify the conditions under which
the benefits of training and development are maximized. Finally, we identify research gaps
and offer directions for future research.
 Rater training for performance appraisal: A
quantitative review
David J Woehr, Allen I Huffcutt

Journal of occupational and organizational psychology 67 (3), 189-205, 1994

A substantial amount of research in the performance appraisal literature has focused

on rater training as a means of improving performance ratings. Unfortunately the
value of this research is somewhat equivocated by a lack of organization and
integration. The present study provides an integration and a quantitative review of the
rater training literature. A general framework for the evaluation of rater training is
presented in terms of four rating training strategies (rater error training, performance
dimension training, frame‐of‐reference training, and behavioural observation training)
and four dependent measures (halo, leniency, rating accuracy and observational
accuracy). Finally, a meta‐analytic review is presented to assess the effectiveness of
the rater training strategies across the four dependent measures.

Performance appraisal in the training needs analysis

process: a review and critique
Glenn R Herbert, Dennis Doverspike

Personnel Administration 19 (3), 253-270, 1990

Literature from the performance appraisal and needs analysis areas is reviewed to
ascertain whether a technology for utilizing performance appraisal as a needs analysis
technique has been sufficiently developed. A review of that literature is presented, a model
of the process by which performance appraisal information may be incorporated into needs
analysis is outlined, and suggestions and cautions concerning the use of performance
appraisal in that process are offered
 Performance appraisal and review systems: The
identification, measurement, and development of
performance in organizations
CE Schneir, S Carrol

Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1982

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM: It's Implication To Employee

Performance Appraisal and Review Systems: The Identification. Public
Personnel Administration and Labor Relations-Google Books Result
Performance Management And Execution.-The Clute Institute Observe that a
performance appraisal system is a management tool which can help motivate.
In the field review method, effort is made to synchronize different ratings.
identification of appraisal criteria, and policy for performance evaluation. This
helps develop an identity with and …

The State of Performance Appraisal: A Literature

Review.
Claudia Reinhardt

Human Resource Planning 8 (2), 1985

This review of the literature on performance appraisal was conducted using a variety of
journals published from 1980 through 1984. Authors of these articles range from
consultants with private human resource management firms to college faculty in
departments such as political science, English, and business. As the span of studies and
the diversify of organizations attest, many organizations—from Fortune 500 companies to
family-owned businesses and from private colleges to municipalities—are grappling with
the problem of how to appraise employees in a fair and equitable manner, while
maintaining the organization's vitality and productivity. Claudia Reinhardt is with the
American College Testing Program.

What we know about relationship between training and

firm performance: A review of literature
Nguyen Ngoc Thang, Dirk Buyens

7th International Conference on Ethics and Quality of Work-life for Sustainable

Development, Bangkok, Thailand, 2008
This paper review theory and empirical findings on the relationship between training and
firm performance. We describe the various important theoretical approaches and proposed
a framework for analyzing training and firm performance issues. Data from previous studies
is used to assess the effects of training on firm performance. The research results show
that training has positive and significant impact on firm performance. Finally, we identify the
limitations of these previous studies and directions for future research on this topic.

A study on efficacy of employee training: Review of

literature
Chidambaram Vijayabanu, Ramachandran Amudha

Business: Theory and Practice 13 (3), 275-282, 2012

The success of any organization depends on appropriate use of human assets available in
the organization. All other assets could only be supplementary to human assets. Towards
augmenting the human resources and to cope with changes–both internal and external, the
organization has to concentrate necessarily on developing the ability, wisdom and skills of
its workforce. For the development of human asset,‘training’becomes the base. Training is
a tool to attain individual, organizational needs related to the jobs undertaken and is also
intended to improve the work culture of the group involved in a group task. An ideal training
programme can be expected to change the attitude, skills and develop forward vision of the
participants towards the task. This paper summarizes the results of the literature review on
the effectiveness of training programmes of employees from diverse perspective.

Critical review of literature on workforce diversity

JE Agolla, H Ongori

Academic Journals, http://www. academicjournals. org/AJBM, 2007

Workforce diversity is a primary concern for most of the businesses. Today's

organisations need to recognise and manage the workforce diversity effectively. Many
articles have been written about this topic but there is specific definition of workforce
diversity. The main purpose of this article is to review the literature of workforce
diversity. What is workforce diversity? What are the benefits of workforce diversity in
organisations, what management can do to enhance workforce diversity in
organisations? What are the disadvantages of workforce diversity …
 That we know about employer-provided training: A
review of literature
John H Bishop

While the importance of on-the-job training is recognized by everyone, it is a

phenomenon that is very difficult to study. Most training is informal and hard to
measure and its effects on productivity are even more difficult to quantify. An elegant
theory explaining how the quantity of training is determined and who pays for and
benefits from it has been available for more than a third of a century (Becker 1962).
However, the absence of data on the key theoretical constructs of the theory--general
training, specific training, informal training and productivity growth--means that the
only predictions of the theory that have been tested relate to the effects of formal
training and tenure (interpreted as a proxy for informal training) on wage growth and
turnover. Until recently, definitive tests of the OJT theory were infeasible because the
large number of unobservables meant that any given phenomena had many
alternative explanations (Garen, 1988). New data sets with improved measures of
OJT are at last becoming available and consequently there has been a good deal of
progress recently in testing OJT theory. This paper provides a review of this work.