PRODUCTION, MODELING, AND EDUCATION
Hatching egg characteristics, chick quality, and broiler performance
at 2 breeder flock ages and from 3 egg weights1
A. M. Ulmer-Franco,* G. M. Fasenko,†2 and E. E. O’Dea Christopher*
*Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
T6G2P5; and †Department of Animal and Range Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces 88003-8003
ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to deter-
mine the effects of flock age and egg weight on hatching
egg characteristics, fertility, hatchability, salable chick
production, and broiler performance using a commer-
cial Cobb 500 broiler breeder flock. Hatching eggs from
the same breeder flock in 3 weight categories (light,
average, and heavy) were obtained from a commercial
hatchery when the birds were 29 and 59 wk of age.
One group of eggs per age and weight category was
selected to assess specific gravity and was broken open
to weigh egg components. Another group of eggs was
incubated for 21.5 d and incubation parameters were
measured. At hatching, all salable chicks were indi-
vidually weighed and placed in floor pens, where they
were grown out for 41 d. Daily mortality, weekly feed
consumption, and individual BW at 21 and 41 d were
recorded. Irrespective of flock age and egg weight, all
Key words: broiler breeder, flock age, egg weight, chick quality, broiler performance
INTRODUCTION
The study of factors that influence the production of
high-quality chicks is of great interest to hatching egg
producers in Canada because they are paid based on
the number of salable (not hatched) chicks produced.
The effects of flock age and egg size (egg weight) on
diverse production parameters have been studied (Wil-
son, 1991). However, in past research, these 2 factors
have always been linked together (e.g., egg weight as a
consequence of flock age; Wyatt et al., 1985). There is a
lack of research evaluating the separate effects of flock
age and egg weight on salable chick production.
The quality of hatching eggs is imperative because
eggs provide both physical protection and nutrition for
©2010 Poultry Science Association Inc.
Received August 15, 2009.
Accepted September 6, 2010.
1 The use of trade names in this publication does not imply endorse-
ment by the University of Alberta, New Mexico State University, or
the authors of the products mentioned or criticism of similar products
not mentioned.
2 Corresponding author: gfasenko@nmsu.edu
2735
eggs had a specific gravity lower than 1.080, the com-
mercial set value. Eggs from the young flock age had
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a smaller proportion of yolk and a greater proportion
of albumen. Age affected fertility, with a lower value
observed at 29 wk of age. Chicks from the flock at 59
wk hatched earlier than chicks from the flock at 29
wk, and light eggs hatched earlier than both average
and heavy eggs. Broilers from the 29-wk-old breeders
had a lower final BW than broilers from the 59-wk-old
breeders. The smaller proportion of yolk in eggs from
29-wk-old broiler breeders may be associated with the
low final BW observed in their offspring. This could
mean that chicks hatching from young broiler breed-
ers, which produce eggs with small yolks, may be at a
disadvantage when reared under the same conditions
as chicks produced by older broiler breeders whose eggs
have larger yolks.
2010 Poultry Science 89:2735–2742
doi:10.3382/ps.2009-00403
the growing embryo. Shell quality (shell thickness and
pore number) determines gas exchange and moisture
loss during incubation (Wangensteen et al., 1970–1971).
Poor shell quality has been associated with a higher
percentage of egg moisture loss during incubation (Reis
et al., 1997; Peebles et al., 2001) and low hatchabil-
ity (Narushin and Romanov, 2002). It is known that
as hens age, egg weight increases (Roque and Soares,
1994), shell thickness decreases (Peebles et al., 2000),
and the proportion of yolk increases at the expense of
albumen and eggshell (Suarez et al., 1997). The pro-
portions of components of the hatching egg are also af-
fected by egg size. Small eggs have a greater proportion
of yolk than large eggs from the same flock age (Vieira
and Moran, 1998). Because the yolk lipids supply more
than 90% of the energy required by the developing em-
bryo (Romanoff, 1960), a reduction in the proportion
of yolk could be a disadvantage for embryos developing
in eggs with small yolks.
The quality of the newly hatched chick is a major
factor in determining its livability, growth, and health.
Since the 1950s, a highly significant correlation between
2736 Ulmer-Franco et al.
egg weight and chick weight at hatching has been re-
ported (Wiley, 1950). Even though egg weight at set-
ting determines chick weight at hatching, controversy
exists concerning the accuracy of day-old chick weight
as a predictor of posthatch performance and market
BW. Some authors have found chick weight to be an
accurate predictor of final BW (Proudfoot and Hulan,
1981; Sklan et al., 2003), whereas for others, this has
not been the case (Gardiner, 1973; Shanawany, 1987).
Old breeder flocks produce a greater number of heavier
chicks as a result of increased egg weight (Suarez et
al., 1997; O’Dea et al., 2004). However, the percentage
of chicks with low quality scores was reported to be
higher in older (45-wk) than in younger (35-wk) flocks
(Tona et al., 2004). Poor chick quality, as reflected by
a high number of culled chicks, has been associated
with heavier than average egg weight for a particular
flock age (Kumpula and Fasenko, 2004; Lawrence et
al., 2004).
The objective of this research was to study the ef-
fects of flock age (young vs. old) and egg weight (light,
average, heavy) independently of each other and to
determine the effect of these factors on hatching egg
characteristics, fertility, hatchability, salable chick pro-
duction, and broiler performance in a commercial Cobb
500 broiler breeder flock. It was hypothesized that 1)
young hens would produce the highest number of sal-
able chicks, 2) heavier than average eggs at each flock
age would have the highest embryo mortality and the
highest percentage of culled chicks, and 3) lighter than
average eggs and eggs from the young flock age would
produce the smallest chicks, but these chicks would
reach the same BW at market age as those hatching
from older flock ages and heavier eggs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
All experimental procedures were approved by the
Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sci-
ences Animal Policy and Welfare Committee at the
University of Alberta, in accordance with the guide-
lines set forth by the Canadian Council on Animal Care
(1993).
Egg Collection
Hatching eggs produced by a commercial Cobb 500
broiler breeder flock were obtained from a commercial
hatchery, where they had been stored for 3 to 4 d at
18°C and 60 to 70% RH. Eggs from the same flock were
obtained at young (29 wk) and old (59 wk) ages (n
= 1,368 eggs/age). At each collection time, the aver-
age egg weight for that flock age was determined by
randomly selecting and weighing 72 eggs. Eggs were
weighed and classified in 3 weight ranges based on the
average egg weight: light (L), average (A), and heavy
(H). Eggs were categorized in the following way: the A
eggs were within ±1.5 g from the average egg weight,
the L eggs were 3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average,
and the H eggs were 3.0 to 6.0 g heavier than the aver-
age egg.
Egg Characteristics
For each flock age, 30 eggs were randomly selected for
each of the weight categories. Specific gravity (SG) was
assessed by the flotation method (Bennett, 1992). Eggs
were then weighed and broken open, and wet eggshell
and wet yolk weights were recorded. Albumen weight
was calculated by subtracting wet yolk and wet shell
weights from the total egg weight. The eggshells and
yolks were dried at 65°C for 3 d in a Despatch V Series
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Heat Processing Unit (Despatch Industries Inc., Min-
neapolis, MN) and the dry weights were determined.
Incubation and Hatching
At each flock age, settable eggs from each egg weight
category were randomly divided into replicate trays of
18 eggs (n = 21 trays/egg weight per age). Double-
yolked eggs, misshapen eggs, eggs with poor shell quali-
ty, and dirty eggs are not considered settable in Canada
(Fasenko et al., 2003). Each tray was placed, along with
1,134 additional eggs used for a parallel experiment,
within a 5,000-egg-capacity Jamesway single-stage set-
ter (Jamesway Incubator Company, Cambridge, On-
tario, Canada). The trays were randomly placed to ac-
count for possible environmental differences caused by
position in the incubator. All eggs were incubated for
18 d at a dry bulb temperature of 37.5 and a wet bulb
temperature of 29.4°C. At 7 d of incubation, all eggs
were removed from the incubator and candled. Any egg
not containing a viable embryo was removed and broken
open to assess fertility. If fertile, the day of embryonic
death was estimated. At 18 d of incubation, all eggs
were removed from the incubator, individually weighed,
and transferred to a 5,000-egg-capacity Jamesway
hatcher (Jamesway Incubator Company, Cambridge,
Ontario, Canada). The eggs were further incubated for
an additional 3.5 d at a dry bulb temperature of 35.2°C
and a wet bulb temperature of 29.4°C. At each flock
age, 1 tray of 18 eggs/egg size category was randomly
selected and the eggs were placed in pedigree hatch
baskets (dimensions = 8 × 8 cm) so that hatching time
could be assessed in individual eggs and the chick could
be traced back to the egg from which it hatched. These
eggs were checked for external pipping (beak of the
embryo through the shell) and hatching (chick free of
shell and the down dry) after 476, 484, 492, 500, 508,
and 516 h of incubation.
Hatchability and Salable Chick Production
After 21.5 d (516 h) of incubation, all hatched chicks
were counted and chick quality was visually assessed ac-
cording to commercial hatchery standards. Chicks that
had physical abnormalities, were weak, had unhealed
navels, or had red hocks were considered unsalable and
 FLOCK AGE, EGG WEIGHT, AND BROILER CHICK QUALITY
were culled. Hatchability was calculated based on sal-
able chicks only. All salable chicks were individually
weighed and neck tagged (Mark III Swiftack Tagging
Gun, Avery Dennison, Pasadena, CA). All unhatched
eggs were broken open to determine the approximate
day of embryonic death. Embryonic mortality was
grouped into 3 categories: early (1 to 7 d of incuba-
tion), mid (8 to 14 d of incubation), and late (15 to 21
d of incubation).
Broiler Performance
For each flock age, 2 groups of salable chicks per egg
weight category were randomly placed in floor pens (n
= 119 chicks per pen). Chicks from the same egg weight
category were grouped and reared together to prevent
competition for feed and resources between chicks of
different egg weights. Temperature, humidity, and ven-
tilation were strictly controlled in all pens to be the
same. Stocking density was 0.07 m2/bird. The broilers
were reared on wood shavings for 42 d with a photo-
period of 23 h of light and 1 h of darkness. Birds were
fed a crumbled starter diet (23.0% CP and 3,067 kcal of
ME/kg) from 1 to 14 d; a crumbled grower diet (20.2%
CP and 3,152 kcal of ME/kg) from 15 to 28; and a
crumbled finisher diet (19.0% CP and 3,196 kcal of
ME/kg) from 29 to 41 d. Feed and water were provided
ad libitum throughout the experiment. Daily mortal-
ity, weekly feed consumption, and individual BW at
21 and 41 d were recorded. Early, late, and overall feed
conversion ratio [FCR, g/g (g of BW gain/g of feed
consumed)] were determined.
Statistical Analysis
The experimental design was a 2 × 3 factorial ar-
rangement with age (29 and 59 wk of age) and egg
weight (L, A, and H) as main effects. The statistical
model for the ANOVA was as follows: Yijk = µ + Ai +
Wj + AiWj + εijk, where Yijk is the characteristic that
was measured, µ is the overall mean, Ai is the main
effect of flock age, Wj is the main effect of egg weight,
AiWj is the effect of the interaction between flock age
and egg weight, and εijk is the random error term.
The experimental unit differed according to the pa-
rameter that was measured. For hatching egg charac-
teristics, the experimental unit was each egg; for incu-
bation parameters, it was each tray of 18 eggs; and for
broiler performance, it was each pen of broilers. Body
weight was individually measured. All percentage data
were subjected to angular transformation to stabilize
variances (arcsine square root percentage transforma-
tion) before statistical analysis. All data were analyzed
using the MIXED model of SAS software (SAS In-
stitute, 2002–2003), with egg tray and broiler pen as
random factors. The probability level was set at P ≤
0.05. Where the model indicated significance, the least
squares means were separated using the pdiff procedure
2737
of SAS. Where the interaction effect was significant,
the effects of the main factors were not discussed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hatching Egg Characteristics
Flock Age. Eggs laid at 29 wk of age had smaller
wet and dry yolk percentages and greater albumen
proportion than those laid at 59 wk of age (Table 1).
These results agree with the findings of Suarez et al.
(1997). It is well known that the egg yolk provides the
nutrients for the developing embryo (Romanoff, 1960).
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Thus, the result that eggs from 29-wk-old hens had a
smaller proportion of dry yolk matter (and perhaps less
nutrient content as a percentage of the egg) may have
had a negative effect on the embryonic development
and posthatch performance of these chicks.
Egg Weight. Heavy eggs had a greater proportion of
albumen than A and L eggs (Table 1). Light eggs had a
greater proportion of wet yolk than H eggs, but A eggs
did not differ from L or H eggs in the proportions of
wet yolk. No differences were found in dry yolk weights
and in dry shell weights between egg sizes. These re-
sults agree with those of Vieira and Moran (1998), who
compared heavy and light eggs from 4 different strains.
It is known that the major component of the albumen
is water (approximately 88% of the total weight; Ahn
et al., 1997); thus, the difference in the proportion of
albumen observed between H vs. L and A eggs should
be considered when setting eggs for incubation to guar-
antee optimal moisture loss. The lack of difference in
dry yolk weights between egg sizes suggests that, in
terms of nutrient content of the yolk, egg size by itself
was not a determining factor.
Flock Age × Egg Weight Interaction. Egg weight
was significantly affected by the interaction of flock age
and egg size (Table 1). The differences in egg weight
were expected to be significant because eggs were pur-
posely selected according to weight. Because a posi-
tive correlation between flock age and egg weight has
been reported since the 1950s (Wiley, 1950; Tona et
al., 2004), it was not surprising to find that egg weight
increased with flock age. Shell quality, as estimated us-
ing SG, was significantly affected by the interaction of
flock age and egg size (Table 1). All treatment groups
had a SG lower than 1.080, which is the value that has
been reported as the minimum SG indicating good shell
quality (Bennett, 1992; Roque and Soares, 1994). The
fact that all treatment groups were below this mini-
mum industry standard may indicate that shells from
eggs of modern strains are different from shells from
eggs of strains from 15+ yr ago, when this threshold
value was proposed. These data suggest that values for
acceptable SG of eggs from modern strains may need
to be reevaluated. Regardless of size, eggs laid by the
old hens had greater SG than eggs laid by the young
hens. Light eggs from the young hens had the lowest
2738 Ulmer-Franco et al.
Table 1. Effects of 2 breeder flock ages, 3 egg weights, and their interaction on hatching egg characteristics in a commercial Cobb
500 broiler breeder flock
Egg Specific Albumen Wet yolk Dry yolk Dry shell
Item n1 weight (g) gravity weight (%) weight (%) weight (%) weight (%)

Flock age              
  29 wk 90 53.8b 1.069b 63.3a 27.8b 13.9b 8.8
  59 wk 90 71.3a 1.075a 58.5b 31.3a 16.7a 8.6
  SEM   0.1 0.001 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Egg weight2              
  Light (L) 60 58.3c 1.071b 60.5b 30.0a 15.6 8.6
  Average (A) 60 62.6b 1.073a 60.7b 29.7ab 15.3 8.8
  Heavy (H) 60 66.8a 1.072a 61.6a 29.1b 15.1 8.7
  SEM   0.1 0.001 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Age × egg weight              
  29 wk × L 30 49.8f 1.066c 63.0 28.5 14.4 8.5b
53.6e 1.071b 9.0a

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  29 wk × A 30 63.0 27.8 13.8
  29 wk × H 30 58.0d 1.070b 64.0 27.1 13.6 8.8b
  59 wk × L 30 66.8c 1.075a 58.0 31.5 16.7 8.7b
  59 wk × A 30 71.5b 1.076a 58.4 31.5 16.9 8.6b
  59 wk × H 30 75.6a 1.075a 59.2 31.0 16.5 8.5b
  SEM   0.1 0.001 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
a–fMeans within a column lacking a common superscript differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05).
1Number of experimental units; each experimental unit = 1 individual egg.
2L = light (3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average egg weight); A = average (±1.5 g from the average egg weight); H = heavy (3.0 to 6.0 g heavier
than the average egg weight).

SG. It was expected that SG values would be related to
shell percentage (i.e., that eggs with a high shell per-
centage would have a high SG); however, this was not
the case in this experiment. Dry shell percentage was
greater in A eggs laid by young hens than in all other
egg groups. Overall, these results question the accuracy
and reliability of SG as a method for determining shell
quality.
Fertility, Hatchability, and Salable
Chick Production
Flock Age. Fertility was significantly lower at 29
wk than at 59 wk of age (Table 2). Previous research
has reported a reduction in fertility as breeder flocks
age (Elibol et al., 2002; Zakaria et al., 2005). Because
feed and breeder management can influence fertility
and these parameters were not included in the experi-
mental design, comparison of results from the present
study with previous research may not be applicable.
Eggs laid by the young hens also had a greater percent-
age of weight loss at transfer than eggs from the old
hens. Flock age did not affect hatchability of fertile
eggs, embryonic death, or percentage of culled chicks at
hatching. The present results are different from those
reported by Tona et al. (2001). In a continuous study of
a Cobb broiler breeder flock (from 27 to 60 wk of age),
Tona et al. (2001) reported the highest total hatch-
ability and the lowest total embryo mortality at 40 wk
of age. The lowest hatchability and highest rates of
embryo mortality were observed toward the end of the
study at older flock ages (Tona et al., 2001). The au-
thors hypothesized that these results might have been
due to a combined effect of high embryonic heat pro-
duction and lower than optimal ventilation in the setter
because of increased egg size. In the present study, the
likelihood of reduced ventilation in the setter was low
because the number of eggs set at each flock age was
below the capacity of the setter and hatcher.
Egg Weight. The percentage of egg weight loss at
transfer decreased as egg size increased (Table 2). Be-
cause of the increased surface-to-volume ratio in L eggs
(inferred from egg size), it was not surprising to observe
that the L eggs lost the highest percentage of moisture.
These results could also be related back to the above-
mentioned finding that H eggs had a greater proportion
of albumen (and thus greater moisture content) than L
eggs. Late embryonic mortality increased as egg weight
increased. The highest late embryonic mortality in H vs.
L eggs is in agreement with that reported by Lawrence
et al. (2004). These authors analyzed the effect of egg
size on the hatchability of a 43-wk-old Cobb 500 flock
and reported low hatchability in eggs that were larger
than the average egg. This was a consequence of both
high late embryo mortality and culled chicks (Lawrence
et al., 2004). Fertility, hatchability of fertile eggs, early
and mid embryonic mortality, and percentage of culled
chicks at hatching were not affected by egg weight.
Flock Age and Egg Weight Interaction. The
only parameter affected by the interaction of egg flock
age and egg weight was percentage of culled chicks at
hatching (Table 2). The lowest number of culled chicks
was observed in the L and A eggs from the young flock
age (the smallest in egg weight). The number of culled
chicks from the H eggs at 59 wk (the largest in egg
weight) did not differ from any of the other egg groups.
Tona et al. (2004) reported a higher percentage of high-
quality chicks in young vs. old flocks. Even though Tona
et al. (2004) did not report percentage of culled chicks,
these 2 findings together support the concept that chick
quality should not be affected in chicks hatching from
young breeders (not even in the smallest chicks). These
 FLOCK AGE, EGG WEIGHT, AND BROILER CHICK QUALITY
birds would likely have the same strength and potential
of chicks hatching from older breeders and larger eggs.
External Pipping and Hatching Time
Flock Age. Chicks from the young flock pipped and
hatched later than chicks from the old flock (Table 3).
This agrees with the results of Hudson et al. (2004)
and Hamidu et al. (2007), who also reported delayed
hatching in chicks from 29-wk-old hens. This prolonged
incubation length could be related to the lower em-
bryonic metabolism in young vs. older flocks reported
by Hamidu et al. (2007). Hudson et al. (2004) showed
2739
prolonged posthatch holding time decreases chick BW
(Pinchasov and Noy, 1993; Sklan et al., 2000), and that
this early reduction in BW is still significant at 21 d
of age (Sklan et al., 2000). This should be taken into
account when determining the appropriate time to pull
the hatch and thus avoid dehydration of chicks from old
hens or removal of wet chicks from young hens.
Egg Weight. Chicks from L eggs pipped and hatched
earlier than chicks from A of H eggs. These results agree
with those reported by Wilson (1991) and Kumpula
and Fasenko (2004) and confirm earlier studies (Rahn
and Ar, 1974).
In summary, regardless of flock age, L eggs hatched

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that, after 480 h of incubation, only 10% of chicks from
29-wk-old breeders had hatched compared with 24.6%
of chicks from 41-wk-old breeders. In commercial op-
erations, chicks are usually removed from the hatcher
after 21 d of incubation (504 h) to allow for most of
the chicks to hatch and thus optimize the number of
salable chicks. However, because all chicks do not hatch
at the same time, the period of time between the hatch-
ing of the first and the last chick (the hatch window)
can last up to 48 h (Sklan et al., 2000). Consequently,
variation exists in the number of hours between hatch-
ing and placement of chicks on the farm (Vieira et al.,
2005). Under commercial conditions, where transporta-
tion to the farm could take several hours, a proportion
of the chicks will have their first access to feed 50 or
more hours after hatching. It has been reported that
earlier, but regardless of egg size, eggs produced at
the young flock age took longer to hatch. This means
that when setting eggs for incubation, both parameters
should be considered to minimize the hatch window
and thus produce a more uniform hatch. The effects of
the interaction on external pipping and hatching time
were not significant (P = 0.214 and 0.447 respectively;
data not shown).
Broiler Performance
Flock Age. Body weight at 21 d (early) and 41 d
(final) as well as early and overall BW gains were sig-
nificantly lower in chicks hatching at the young breeder
flock age than in chicks hatching at the older flock age
(Table 4). This could be related to the lowest feed con-

Table 2. Effects of 2 breeder flock ages, 3 egg weights, and their interaction on fertility, hatchability, egg weight loss, embryonic
mortality, and culled chicks in a commercial Cobb 500 broiler breeder flock
Fertility2 Weight loss3 Hatch of fertile4 Early dead5 Mid dead6 Late dead7 Culls8
Item n1 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Flock age                
  29 wk 63 76.7b 12.8a 88.0 4.8 0.6 5.2 1.2
  59 wk 63 94.4a 11.9b 87.0 4.0 0.8 4.6 2.0
  SEM   1.0 0.1 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.4
Egg weight9                
  Light (L) 42 84.2 12.7a 88.3 5.6 0.6 2.8c 1.3
  Average (A) 42 85.1 12.3b 89.9 3.0 0.8 4.8b 1.2
  Heavy (H) 42 87.5 11.9c 84.3 4.6 0.8 7.0a 2.4
  SEM   1.2 0.1 1.4 0.8 0.4 0.9 0.4
Age × egg weight                
  29 wk × L 21 74.4 13.1 90.2 6.2 0.5 2.4 0.3b
  29 wk × A 21 75.7 12.7 90.7 3.5 1.1 4.6 0.3b
  29 wk × H 21 80.2 12.3 83.1 4.8 0.3 8.7 3.2a
  59 wk × L 21 94.0 12.3 86.3 5.1 0.7 3.2 2.3a
  59 wk × A 21 94.4 11.9 89.1 2.6 0.5 5.1 2.1a
  59 wk × H 21 94.9 11.5 85.6 4.4 1.4 5.3 1.6ab
  SEM   1.6 0.1 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.7
a–cMeans within a column lacking a common superscript differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05).
1Number of experimental units; each experimental unit = 1 group of 18 eggs.
2Fertility (%) = (number of fertile eggs/number of eggs set) × 100.
3Weight loss at 18 d of incubation (%) = [(egg weight at setting − egg weight at transfer)/egg weight at setting] × 100.
4Hatch of fertile (%) = (number of salable chicks hatched/number of fertile eggs set) × 100.
5Early dead (%) = (number of embryos that died between 1 and 7 d of incubation/total number of eggs set) × 100.
6Mid dead (%) = (number of embryos that died between 8 and 14 d of incubation/total number of eggs set) × 100.
7Late dead (%) = (number of embryos that died between 15 and 21 d of incubation/total number of eggs set) × 100.
8Culls (%) = (number of nonsalable chicks culled at hatching/total number of eggs set) × 100.
9L = light (3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average egg weight); A = average (±1.5 g from the average egg weight); H = heavy (3.0 to 6.0 g heavier
than the average egg weight).
2740 Ulmer-Franco et al.
Table 3. Pipping and hatching times in a commercial Cobb 500 ers remains an unexplored hypothesis. No significant
broiler breeder flock at 2 flock ages and from 3 egg sizes differences were found in early, late, or overall FCR
Pipping Hatching between broilers hatched at the different breeder flock
Item n1 time2 (h) time3 (h) ages (Table 5). This means that, regardless of breeder
Flock age       flock age, Cobb broilers had the same FCR potential,
  29 wk 54 494.4a 503.8a and that the lighter final BW was a consequence of
  59 wk 54 490.2b 500.4b low feed consumption by small chicks. These results
  SEM   1.2 1.0
Egg weight4       disagree with those of Hulet et al. (2007). Using a com-
  Light 36 488.9b 498.0b mercial Cobb flock, Hulet et al. (2007) compared the
  Average 36 493.7a 503.3a cumulative FCR (up to 44 d of age) of chicks hatch-
  Heavy 36 494.3a 505.0a
  SEM   1.3 1.0 ing from old (57 wk) vs. young (29 wk) breeder flocks.
a,bMeans within a column lacking a common superscript differ signifi-
Even though the largest chicks (those hatching from
cantly (P ≤ 0.05).
the old flock) were heavier throughout production,

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1Number of experimental units; each experimental unit = 1 individual
egg.
2Time at which beak of embryo punctured through shell.
3Time at which chick was completely out of shell and the down was
dry.
4Light (3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average egg weight); average (±1.5
g from the average egg weight); heavy (3.0 to 6.0 g heavier than the
average egg weight).
sumption during the first 21 d of the grow-out period
observed in chicks from the young flock age (Table 5).
The results for BW observed in chicks hatching from
the young flock agree with those of Proudfoot and Hu-
lan (1981) and Sklan et al. (2003), who considered chick
weight at hatching an accurate predictor of final broiler
BW. Whether a connection exists between the smaller
dry yolk content (and perhaps less available energy)
they observed in eggs produced by the young breeders
and the lower final BW they observed in their broil-
they were less efficient (higher FCR) than the chicks
from the young flock. However, in their study, the ef-
fects of breeder flock, breeder age, and egg weight were
confounded statistically and thus were not analyzed as
separate effects (Hulet et al., 2007).
Egg Weight. Significant differences were observed
in early and final BW as well as in late and overall
BW gain between egg size treatment groups (Table 4).
Broilers hatched from H eggs were the heaviest at 21 d.
Despite differences in chick weight at hatching, broil-
ers hatched from L and A eggs did not differ in BW at
21 d. Even though at market age broilers from H eggs
were still heavier than those from L eggs, broilers from
A eggs had caught up in BW with those from H eggs.
When looking back at BW at hatching, chicks from A
eggs were approximately 3.1 g heavier than chicks from
L eggs, and approximately 3.5 g lighter than chicks from
H eggs. This means that H chicks were approximately
6.6 g heavier than L chicks at hatching, perhaps a large

Table 4. Effects of 2 breeder flock ages, 3 egg sizes, and their interaction on average broiler BW and BW gains in a commercial Cobb
500 flock
Chick BW1 21-d BW 41-d BW Early BW Late BW Overall BW
Item (g) (g) (g) gain2 (g) gain3 (g) gain4 (g)

Flock age            
  29 wk 37.3b (714)5 716.9b (686) 2,411.1b (665) 680.0b 1,699.2 2,373.8b
  59 wk 48.9a (714) 825.2a (692) 2,505.9a (678) 776.4a 1,678.0 2,457.3a
  SEM 0.1 4.2 15.5 4.2 13.4 15.6
Egg weight6            
  Light (L) 39.9c (476) 760.8b (461) 2,412.6b (448) 722.4 1,654.7b 2,374.6b
  Average (A) b
43.0 (476) 767.6b (461) 2,490.6ab (447) 724.5 1,720.8a 2,447.8a
  Heavy (H) 46.5a (476) 784.7a (456) 2,472.3a (448) 737.7 1,690.3ab 2,423.1a
  SEM 0.1 5.2 19.0 5.2 16.4 19.2
Age × weight            
  29 wk × L 34.1f (238) 697.1 (229) 2,346.4 (221) 665.0 1,654.4 2,316.1
  29 wk × A 37.0e (238) 715.8 (230) 2,458.7 (221) 678.8 1,744.2 2,421.3
  29 wk × H 40.1d (238) 737.7 (227) 2,428.1 (223) 696.6 1,698.8 2,381.9
  59 wk × L 45.6c (238) 824.5 (232) 2,478.8 (227) 778.9 1,654.9 2,433.2
  59 wk × A 48.9b (238) 819.5 (231) 2,522.5 (226) 770.7 1,697.3 2,474.6
  59 wk × H 52.1a (238) 831.6 (229) 2,516.4 (225) 779.5 1,681.8 2,464.3
  SEM 0.1 7.4 27.0 7.4 23.3 27.0
a–fMeans within a column lacking a common superscript differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05).
1BW at hatching.
2Early BW gain = 21 d BW − chick BW. Same number of experimental units as early BW.
3Late BW gain = 41 d BW − 21 d BW. Same number of experimental units as final BW.
4Overall BW gain = 41 d BW − chick BW. Same number of experimental units as final BW.
5(n) = number of experimental units; each experimental unit = 1 individual broiler.
6L = light (3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average egg weight); A = average (±1.5 g from the average egg weight); H = heavy (3.0 to 6.0 g heavier
than the average egg weight).
 FLOCK AGE, EGG WEIGHT, AND BROILER CHICK QUALITY 2741
Table 5. Effects or 2 breeder flock ages and 3 egg sizes on early, late, and total feed consumption and feed conversion ratio (FCR)
in commercial Cobb 500 broilers
Early feed Late feed Total feed Total
consumption2 Early FCR3 consumption4 Late FCR5 consumption6 FCR7
Item n1 (g/bird) (g/g) (g/bird) (g/g) (g/bird) (g/g)

Flock age              
  29 wk 6 958.9b 1.41 3,107.2 1.84 4,071.4 1.71
  59 wk 6 1,099.7a 1.41 3,115.6 1.86 4,212.0 1.71
  SEM   15.4 0.01 51.4 0.02 60.3 0.01
Egg weight8              
  Light 4 1,024.2 1.41 3,060.0 1.86 4,079.2 1.72
  Average 4 1,030.7 1.42 3,154.3 1.84 4,185.1 1.71
  Heavy 4 1,031.6 1.40 3,119.8 1.86 4,160.8 1.72
  SEM   19.0 0.01 62.2 0.03 72.4 0.02
a,bMeans within a column lacking a common superscript differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05).

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1Number of experimental units; each experimental unit = pen of 119 broilers.
2Early feed consumption = cumulative feed intake per bird from 1 d to 21 d.
3Early FCR = BW gain/feed consumption from 1 d to 21 d.
4Late feed consumption = cumulative feed intake per bird from 22 d to 41 d.
5Late FCR = BW gain/feed consumption from 22 d to 41 d.
6Total feed consumption = cumulative feed intake per bird from 1 d to 41 d.
7Total FCR = BW gain/feed consumption from 1 to 41 d.
8L = light (3.0 to 6.0 g lighter than the average egg weight); A = average (±1.5 g from the average egg weight); H = heavy (3.0 to 6.0 g heavier
than the average egg weight).

enough difference to affect final BW. Chick weight was
not an accurate predictor of final BW, as had been pre-
viously reported (Gardiner, 1973; Shanawany, 1987).
Egg weight did not affect feed consumption or FCR
parameters (Table 5).
Flock Age and Egg Weight Interaction. The
only broiler performance parameter affected by the
interaction was chick weight at hatching (Table 4).
Chick weight followed the same pattern as egg weight
at setting. Thus, L eggs produced by the young flock
hatched the lightest chicks and H eggs produced by the
old flock hatched the heaviest chicks. This result was
expected because a strong positive correlation between
egg weight and chick weight has long been reported
(McNaughton et al., 1978). Broiler mortality was not
affected by the main effects of flock age and egg weight
or by their interaction (data not shown).
Conclusions
It is known that during incubation, when the embryo
is enclosed in the egg, the yolk content (more specifi-
cally, the lipids contained in it) is the main source of
energy for embryonic development (Romanoff, 1960).
Over the first few days posthatch, the remaining con-
tent of the yolk sac provides the newly hatched chicks
with energy for growth and development of the small
intestine (Noy and Sklan, 1999). Furthermore, a direct
positive correlation between the nutrient content of
the yolk sac and the subsequent performance of broil-
ers has been reported (Murakami et al., 1992; Vieira
and Moran, 1999). In the present study, eggs laid by
a 29-wk-old broiler breeder flock had a smaller pro-
portion of yolk than those laid at 59 wk of age. The
offspring produced by this young breeder flock were
of equal chick quality at hatching, but they had lower
final BW than the offspring of the breeder flock at an
older age. All chicks were reared in separate groups ac-
cording to egg weight and flock age; thus, competition
between small and large chicks was avoided. In addi-
tion, the chicks were reared under the same conditions
and fed the same feed. It could be concluded that, when
reared under the same conditions, chicks produced at
a young breeder age (when eggs with smaller yolks are
produced) could be at a disadvantage when compared
with chicks produced at older breeder ages (when eggs
with larger yolks are produced). Further research de-
termining the ideal rearing conditions for chicks from
young breeders is advised. Cobb 500 is a strain com-
monly used for broiler production in Canada; because of
the normal egg production cycle, at any given moment
chicken producers would likely manage broiler chicks
from young breeder flocks. This research provided basic
information that could be useful when making decisions
for broiler chick management.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support of this
research by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council of Canada (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada),
Canadian Hatching Egg Producers (Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada), Alberta Chicken Producers (Edmonton, Al-
berta, Canada), Alberta Livestock Industry Develop-
ment Fund (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada), and Alberta
Innovation and Science (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada).
The donation of hatching eggs from Maple Leaf Hatch-
ery (Wetaskiwin, Alberta, Canada) is greatly appreci-
ated. The authors also thank M. MacKenzie (Depart-
ment of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
2742 Ulmer-Franco et al.

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada), J.
Hamidu (Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutri-
tional Science, University of Alberta), and the staff and
students of the University of Alberta Poultry Research
Centre for their technical assistance. We are indebted
to R. Meijerhof (Poultry Performance Plus, Voorst, the
Netherlands) for his contribution to this research.
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