Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348– 353

www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Mechanical response of friction stir welded AA2024: experiment

and modeling
William D. Lockwood, Borislav Tomaz, A.P. Reynolds *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uni6ersity of South Carolina, 300 Main Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.

Received 6 February 2001; received in revised form 28 March 2001

Abstract

The mechanical response of heterogeneous structures, such as weldments, is largely governed by the response of the local
constituents. In the present paper, the global and local mechanical response of friction stir welded AA2024 is examined
experimentally and numerically. Full field strain measurements are obtained on transversely loaded tensile specimens via the
digital image correlation technique. Assuming an iso-stress configuration, local constitutive data were determined for the various
weld regions and used as input for a 2-D finite element model. The simulation results were compared with the experimental results
to assess the viability of the modeling approach and the validity of the iso-stress assumption © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Friction stir weld; Constitutive response; Finite element model

1. Introduction The present paper examines the transverse tensile

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state joining
process that has proven to be particularly applicable to
aerospace aluminum alloys. Although the success of the
process has been demonstrated in the welding of a
variety of alloys, details of the tensile behavior of
friction stir welds in precipitation hardening alloys has
yet to be fully explored. Understanding of the effect of
friction stir welding on all precipitation hardening alu-
minum alloys will benefit from a combination of exper-
imental testing and numerical modeling. In particular,
the local behavior that underlies the observed global,
mechanical response of the welds must be elucidated.
Knowledge of the local behavior is critical to develop-
ment of a numerical model that can accurately predict
the response of friction stir welds to various loading
conditions. The benefit of such a model will lie in the
ability to examine, in detail, the local stress-state, the
effect of varying weld zone size and properties, and the
role of defects.
response of friction stir welded AA2024-T351 from
experimental and modeling standpoints. Standard
transverse, tensile tests provide global mechanical re-
sponse and a combination tensile/digital image correla-
tion (DIC) test is used to obtain full field, local, strain
data for transversely loaded FSW specimens. Local
constitutive data, in terms of stress –strain curves, are
extracted from the full field measurements for use as
input in a finite element model. A 2-D finite element
model of the friction stir weld is developed, based on a
composite material approach, utilizing the local mate-
rial properties and the distributions of these materials
within the weld as determined from the experimental
data. Model predictions of both the global and local
mechanical response are compared to the experimental
results to demonstrate the viability of the modeling
approach.
2. Background: digital image correlation

* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1-803-7779548; fax: +1-803-

Digital image correlation is an image analysis tool
7770106. used to measure surface displacements. The measure-
E-mail address: apr@sc.edu (A.P. Reynolds). ment of 2-D surface displacement fields in homoge-

0921-5093/02/$ - see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 3 8 5 - 5
 W.D. Lockwood et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348–353
neous materials via DIC has been discussed in great
detail in previous papers [1– 3] however, a brief discus-
sion of the technique will be presented here. As the
name suggests, DIC involves comparing digital images
to determine the relative displacement of surface fea-
tures between ‘un-deformed’ and ‘deformed’ images.
Different ‘gray levels’ represent surface features in the
digital images and in order to obtain correlatable im-
ages the specimen surface must have sufficient contrast.
This is accomplished by the application of a random
speckle pattern using black and white spray paint. The
task of correlation amounts to comparing ‘subsets’,
small windows within the digital images, to determine
the displacement that has occurred between deformed
and un-deformed states. A correlation function is used
to compare the gray levels of the respective subsets and
the displacement of the subset center is returned when
the best match is found. If numerous points in an image
are correlated, a displacement field for the image can be
produced. This process is automated by the use of
software developed by Correlated Solutions Inc. [4].
The software allows the user to define the subset size
and correlation area, among other things, based on the
un-deformed image. Therefore, correlation is limited to
surface features that are present in all images.
The local strain levels determined from DIC are
mapped to the corresponding global stress levels. From
this data, local constitutive relationships (stress–strain
curves) may be obtained. In order to perform this
mapping, it is assumed that the transversely loaded
friction stir weld may be considered a composite mate-
rial loaded in an iso-stress configuration [5].
3. Materials and procedures
2024-T351 is a precipitation hardened aerospace alloy
with a nominal composition (wt.%) of 4.4Cu– 0.6Mn–
1.5Mg–balance aluminum. Base metal microstructure
consists of recrystallized, slightly elongated grains. Base
material was supplied as 9.53 mm thick plates in the
T351 condition, a temper in which the material is
solution heat-treated, stretched and naturally aged.
Base metal mechanical properties are listed in Table 1.
Table 1
2024 Base metal and FSW tensile properties
Material AA2024 Mechanical properties
0.2% Yield UTS Total elongation
stress (MPa) (MPa) (%)
Base 380 490 17
2024 FSW 272 (72%) 426 (87%) 8.6 (51%)
Joint efficiencies for the FSW are shown as percentages of the base
metal values.
349
All friction stir welds were made using a vertical
milling machine with a tilting head and 15 HP spindle
motor and a typical FSW tool fabricated from oil
hardening tool steel. Prior to welding, base metal plates
were cleaned with a degreaser and then clamped to a
steel backing plate. The welds used in this investigation
are all single pass, full penetration welds.
Standard, full-size transverse tensile specimens were
machined from the welded plates so that the weld was
centered in the gage section and the loading axis was
normal to the welding direction (transverse tensile spec-
imens). All tests were performed on a 100-kN (22-kip)
servohydraulic test machine operated in ram-displace-
ment control at ambient temperature and a nominal,
initial strain rate of 10 − 3 s − 1. A PC based data acqui-
sition system is used to control machine operation and
data recording. Specimen strain is measured with a 25.4
mm gage length extensometer in the non-DIC tensile
tests. In the DIC tests, local and global strains are
calculated from measured surface displacements.
Prior to the DIC tensile test, the specimen is prepared
by the application of the random speckle pattern on the
through-thickness cross-section. After the prepared
specimen has been loaded into the tensile testing ma-
chine, the camera is positioned so that the line of sight
is normal to the specimen surface, to minimize out-of-
plane effects. An initial image of the un-deformed
specimen is acquired. Subsequent images are acquired
at specified intervals of applied load or overall specimen
strain (‘deformed images’). Each deformed image is
correlated with the initial un-deformed image and the
resulting displacement fields are smoothed and pro-
cessed to obtain strain data. Normal and shear strains
are determined from the gradient of the surface fit to
the total displacement fields.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Weld microstructure
Friction stir welding of 2024 produces micro-
structural characteristics that are typical of friction stir
welds in general; namely a fine grain recrystallized zone
(the ‘nugget’), a thermo-mechanically affected zone
(TMZ) and a heat affected zone (HAZ). The mi-
crostructure corresponding to the 2024 FSW is shown
in Fig. 1. The macrograph is oriented so that the
direction of welding is into the page and the advancing
and retreating sides of the weld are labeled A and R,
respectively. The nugget region (the central part of the
weld) and a region at the top of the weld (the crown)
consist of very fine, recrystallized, grains. These regions
have experienced high temperatures and extensive plas-
tic deformation and contain much smaller grains than
the base metal. Adjacent to the nugget is the TMZ, in
350 W.D. Lockwood et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348–353

Fig. 1. Macrograph of FSW AA2024 showing typical weld zones (Nugget, HAZ, TMZ). The welding direction is into the page and the advancing
and retreating sides are labeled A and R, respectively.

which the base metal grains have undergone some
deformation; however, due to the lesser degree of defor-
mation and lower temperatures experienced in this re-
gion compared to the nugget, recrystallization has not
taken place in the TMZ. Adjacent to the TMZ and
farther from the weld centerline, is a heat affected zone
(HAZ) similar to that observed in fusion welding. The
transitions from the TMZ to the HAZ and from the
HAZ to the base material are gradual and not distin-
guished by any abrupt change in microstructure.
4.2. Global tensile beha6ior
The global tensile responses of the friction stir weld
and base material are shown in Fig. 2 and the corre-
sponding mechanical properties are listed in Table 1. In
terms of joint efficiency, given as a percentage of the
base material value, the weld exhibits good yield
strength, UTS and ductility. Although the global re-
sponse of the weld provides useful information, it pre-
sents no detail on the local behavior of the various weld
zones. Knowledge of the local material behavior is
necessary for explaining the overall weld response and
essential for the development of the finite element
model.
stress–strain response is needed. Employing a tech-
nique first outlined by Reynolds and Duvall [5], this is
accomplished using the full field strain data and the
assumption of an iso-stress loading condition. Local
strain data may be extracted and plotted against the
corresponding global stress level to produce the stress–
strain response for virtually any spatial position within
the displacement data field. Constitutive data for mate-
rials representing the nugget and HAZ are shown in
Fig. 2. By constructing several curves over the weld
cross-section, the 0.2% offset yield strength may be
mapped to provide an alternative visual representation
of the weld properties. As seen in Fig. 4, the yield stress
map produces a detailed description of a local material
property distribution within the weld. This information
is used as a guide for defining the material distribution
in the finite element model, and depending on the
number of materials desired to describe the weld, the
contour range may be set accordingly. In this particular
plot, the contour range has been set at five so that
several distinct regions are recognizable.

4.3. Local strain measured by DIC

Local material behavior is determined using the full

field measurement capabilities of the DIC technique.
Full field strain information is obtained for each image
acquired during the tensile/DIC test and is associated
with a global load or strain level. In this manner, the
strain ‘history’ may be used to identify and track the
development of strain localizations. Fig. 3 shows the
longitudinal strain distribution within the weld for sev-
eral overall strain levels. These plots correspond to
overall strain levels, based on a 25.4 mm gage length, of
0.5, 2.5 and 4.6%. It is evident from the plots that the
dominant strain localizations occur in the HAZ on
both sides of the weld nugget, while the remaining
Fig. 2. Engineering stress – strain curves for AA2024. The base mate-
regions of the weld experience fairly uniform deforma- rial and FSW (global) curves are the overall responses obtained by
tion. In order to get a more complete description of the the standard tensile test. The local curves (Nugget, HAZ) are con-
actual material behavior in the various weld zones, the structed from the full field tensile/DIC tests.
 W.D. Lockwood et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348–353 351

Fig. 3. Full field normal strain distributions (in loading direction) for FSW AA2024 showing the development of strain localizations. Each plot
corresponds to a different level of overall specimen strain (based on a 25.4 mm gage length). Orientation of the weld is as in Fig. 1. The x-axis
values indicate the distance from the weld centerline.

4.4. Comparison of the numerical model to the and their corresponding boundaries are defined using
measured local beha6ior the yield stress map shown in Fig. 4. The constitutive
behavior for each material is selected from the experi-
The goal of the modeling effort was to accurately mental stress–strain curves and assigned to the respec-
predict the mechanical response of a transversely tive element set defining the material. Boundary
loaded FSW tensile specimen on both a global and conditions, prescribed to simulate the actual tensile test,
local level. Due to the heterogeneous nature of the include fixing one end of the specimen and applying a
weld, evident in the microstructure as well as the me- constant displacement to the other end.
chanical response, development of the model is based
on a composite material approach and therefore must
take into account material property gradients associ-
ated with the different weld regions. The level of detail,
and subsequently the accuracy of the results, is deter-
mined not only by the number of materials used to
describe the weld but also by the spatial distribution of
these materials within the weld model and the validity
of the iso-stress assumption. A 2-D approach is chosen
based on the assumption that the weld regions are
homogeneous in the direction of welding, so that the
heterogeneities exist only in the transverse and through-
thickness directions. All analyses were performed on a
PC using the ABAQUS software package [6].
Model geometry is 60 mm in length and 8 mm high,
which is based on the actual specimen gage section used
in the experimental testing. In order to capture the Fig. 4. Yield stress map for FSW AA2024. The yield stress distribu-
detail in the material distribution and simplify the tion is determined by determining the 0.2% offset yield strength for
several hundred stress strain curves constructed using the full field
process of assigning material properties, a fine uniform strain data and iso-stress loading assumption. This plot provides a
mesh of 4 noded solid elements is constructed contain- guide for the number and spatial distribution of materials used in the
ing 7680 elements and 7953 nodes. Fourteen materials finite element model.
352 W.D. Lockwood et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348–353
Fig. 5. Full field normal strain distribution (in loading direction)
predicted by FE simulation (top) compared to the experimentally
measured distribution (bottom). The overall specimen strain (based
on 25.4 mm gage length) is approximately 4% for both model and
experiment.
Fig. 6. Plot of the normal strain versus distance from the weld
centerline at a position near the top surface of the weld. Model and
experimental data are extracted from positions at the same distance
from the top surface.
Simulation results for the local mechanical response
are shown in Fig. 5 along with the experimental results.
The global strain level in Fig. 5 is approximately 4% for
both the model and experiment. It is clear from the
plots that the model is capable of predicting the type of
response shown by the experimental data, both in the
magnitudes and positions of the local strains. To better
illustrate the model results, in Fig. 6 the strain distribu-
tion at the top of the weld is plotted with the experi-
mental results. This comparison clearly demonstrates
that the model can accurately predict local specimen
strains. The same procedure was performed for data
taken near the middle and the bottom (root) of the
weld as well: in each case, the accuracy was similar to
that shown in Fig. 6.
In order to compare the models global response to
that of the actual tensile specimen, the overall strain
and applied load had to be calculated for each incre-
ment in the FEM analysis. Specimen strain was mea-
sured using the displacements of two elements located
approximately 25.4 mm apart for comparison with the
strains measured by the extensometer in the experiment.
The applied load was calculated by summing the nodal
forces along the model cross-section. The engineering
stress–strain curves for the model and the experiment
are shown in Fig. 7. The model predicts higher loads
than were actually measured, but the shape of the curve
predicted by the model matches the experimental curve
quite well.
The reasons for the discrepancy between the mea-
sured and predicted loads corresponding to similar
specimen displacements either measured during testing
or imposed on the finite element model are not obvious.
The most likely explanation lies in the use of the
iso-stress assumption for the heterogeneous weld. The
arrangement of the various microstructural regions of
the weld (and hence the arrangement of materials hav-
ing various constitutive properties) is not truly in series
with the loading axis as is required for iso-stress load-
ing. In addition, some regions of the weld exhibit
properties that are highly position dependent. Both of
these factors will contribute constraint effects to the
measured local strains and will promote a non-uniaxial
stress state in the weld region. Because the measured
Fig. 7. Global mechanical response predicted by the model compared
to experimentally measured response. Model and experimental strains
are based on a 25.4 mm gage length.
 W.D. Lockwood et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A323 (2002) 348–353
strain levels are mapped to an assumed, uniaxial stress,
the measured yield in soft regions of the weld may be
significantly higher than the actual uniaxial yield
strength. That is, the measured yield strength may be a
constrained yield strength value that is entered into the
model as a uniaxial strength. When the model is exer-
cised using the constrained yield values as uniaxial
properties, the observed (numerical) yielding is again
increased by the constraint calculated in the model.
This factor will lead to an overall increase in the level
of the calculated stress for a given strain. In addition,
the complicating effects of residual stresses in the weld
are not included in the analysis.
In the future, the 3-D effects on the local strains
measured by DIC will be studied by examination of the
local strains in transversely loaded tensile specimens of
partial plate thickness. The stress distribution in partial
thickness specimens should very closely approximate
iso-stress loading. In addition, the weld response to
loading axes other than 90° to the welding direction will
be examined.
5. Conclusions
(1) The local strain response of a 2024 friction stir
weld in transverse tension has been modeled.
(2) Full correspondence between predicted and mea-
sured global weld behavior has not yet been achieved.
353
This lack of correspondence may be attributable to the
iso-stress loading assumption.
(3) Based on conclusion no. 1, the combination of
full-field local strain measurement and numerical mod-
eling is a promising technique for the study of weld
defect behavior and for providing input to global mod-
els of welded structures.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by NASA-Langley
Research Center grant no. NRA-99-LaRC-1, Technical
Officer Dr R.S. Piascik, and by AFRL-ML, contract
no. 96-5835-0097-01, Technical Officer Dr Kumar Jata.
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