Ammonia 2 PDF

PROBLEM STATEMENT
• To design ammonia production plant for 950 Metric Tonnes/ day

of Ammonia using Natural gas.
The composition of natural gas is taken as-
Component Vol %
CH4 97.97
C2H6 01.79
C3H8 00.14
H2 00
N2 00.10
CO 00.00
CO2 00.00
Ar 00.03
Total 100
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1.1 Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. Ammonia is a
colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is a common nitrogenous waste,
particularly among aquatic organisms, and it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs
of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either
directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical
products and is used in many commercial cleaning products. It is mainly collected by
downward displacement of both air and water. Ammonia is named for the Ammonians,
worshipers of the Egyptian god Amun, who used ammonium chloride in their rituals.
Although common in nature and in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its
concentrated form. It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States,
and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in
significant quantities.
The global industrial production of ammonia in 2014 was 176 million tonnes, a 16% increase
over the 2006 global industrial production of 152 million tonnes. Industrial ammonia is sold
either as ammonia liquor (usually 28% ammonia in water) or as pressurized or refrigerated
anhydrous liquid ammonia transported in tank cars or cylinders.
Ammonia is a chemical found in trace quantities in nature, being produced from nitrogenous
animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small
quantities in rainwater.
On smaller, icy planets such as Pluto, ammonia can act as a geologically important
antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as 173 K
(−100 °C; −148 °F) if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such planets
to retain internal oceans and active geology at a far lower temperature than would be possible
with water alone.Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are
called ammonical.
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1.3 Properties
Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its
density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen
bonding between molecules; the liquid boils at −33.3 °C (−27.94 °F), and freezes at −77.7 °C
(−107.86 °F) to white crystals.
Ammonia may be conveniently deodorized by reacting it with either sodium bicarbonate

or acetic acid. Both of these reactions form an odourless ammonium salt.
1.3.1 Structure
The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape as predicted by the valence shell
electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle
of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from
each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are
arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one
lone pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel more strongly than bond pairs,
therefore the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but
106.7°. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, which makes ammonia
a base, a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar.
The molecule's polarity, and especially, its ability to form hydrogen bonds, makes ammonia
highly miscible with water. Ammonia is moderately basic, a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH
of 11.6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral (pH = 7),
99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and salinity also affect the
proportion of NH4+. The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and
is isoelectronic with methane.
The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful
analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this
inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz.
1.3.2 Toxicity
The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other
mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream.
Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoylphosphate and then
enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the
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urine. Fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from
their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to
aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as dangerous for the environment.
Ammonia is a constituent of tobacco smoke.
1.3.3 Amphotericity
One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. Ammonia is considered
to be a weak base. It combines with acids to form salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it
forms ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc. Perfectly
dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride; moisture is necessary to
bring about the reaction. As a demonstration experiment, opened bottles of concentrated
ammonia and hydrochloric acid produce clouds of ammonium chloride, which seem to
appear "out of nothing" as the salt forms where the two diffusing clouds of molecules meet,
somewhere between the two bottles.
NH3 + HCl → NH4C
The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium
salts and all contain the ammonium ion (NH4+).
Although ammonia is well known as a weak base, it can also act as an extremely weak
acid. It is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the
NH2− ion). For example, lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a solution of lithium
amide:
2Li + 2NH3 → 2LiNH2 + H2
1.3.4 Self-dissociation
Like water, ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base
conjugates:
2 NH3 (aq) ⇌ NH+4 (aq) + NH−2 (aq)
Ammonia often functions as a weak base, so it has some buffering ability. Shifts in pH will
cause more or fewer ammonium cations (NH+4) and amide anions (NH−2) to be present
in solution. At standard pressure and temperature, K=[NH+4][NH−2] = 10−30
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1.3.5 Combustion
The combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic:
4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O (g)
The standard enthalpy change of combustion,expressed per mole of ammonia and with
condensation of the water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic
product of combustion: all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N2 and O2, which is
the principle behind the catalytic converter. Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic
products in the presence of appropriate catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in
the production of nitric acid:
4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
A subsequent reaction leads to NO2
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such
as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide), because the temperature of the flame is
usually lower than the ignition temperature of the ammonia–air mixture. The flammable
range of ammonia in air is 16–25%.
1.4 USES OF AMMONIA:
1.4.1 Fertilizer
Globally, approximately 88% (as of 2014) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts,
solutions or anhydrously. When applied to soil, it helps provide increased yields of crops
such as maize and wheat. 30% of agricultural nitrogen applied in the USA is in the form of
anhydrous ammonia and worldwide 110 million tonnes are applied each year.
Precursor to nitrogenous compounds
Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds.

Virtually all synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia. An important
derivative is nitric acid. This key material is generated via the Ostwald
process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700–850 °C (1,292–
1,562 °F), ~9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this conversion:
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NH3 + 2 O2 → HNO3 + H2O
Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and many organonitrogen
compounds.
Ammonia can also be used to make compounds in reactions which are not specifically
named. Examples of such compounds also include the following: ammonium
perchlorate, ammonium
nitrate, formamide, dinitrogentetroxide, alprazolam, ethanolamine, ethylcarbamate, hexameth
ylenetetramine, and ammonium bicarbonate.
1.4.2 As a cleaner
Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a

general purpose cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-
free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is
also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime.
Household ammonia ranges in concentration by weight from 5 to 10% ammonia. United
States manufacturers of cleaning products are required to provide the product's material
safety data sheet which lists the concentration used.
1.4.3 Fermentation
Solutions of ammonia ranging from 16% to 25% are used in the fermentation industry as a
source of nitrogen for microorganisms and to adjust pH during fermentation.
1.4.4 Antimicrobial agent for food products
As early as in 1895, it was known that ammonia was "strongly antiseptic ... it requires 1.4
grams per litre to preserve beef tea." In one study, anhydrous ammonia destroyed 99.999%
of zoonotic bacteria in 3 types of animal feed, but not silage. Anhydrous ammonia is
currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef. Lean
finely textured beef in the beef industry is made from fatty beef trimmings (c. 50–70% fat) by
removing the fat using heat and centrifugation, then treating it with ammonia to kill E.Coli.
The process was deemed effective and safe by the US Department of Agriculture based on a
study that found that the treatment reduces E.coli to undetectable levels. There have been
safety concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of
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beef treated at optimal levels of ammonia.The level of ammonia in any final product has not
come close to toxic levels to humans.
1.4.5 Minor and emerging uses
Refrigeration
Because of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is a useful refrigerant. It was commonly

used before the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous ammonia is
widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its
high energy efficiency and low cost. It suffers from the disadvantage of toxicity, which
restricts its domestic and small-scale use. Along with its use in modern vapor-compression
refrigeration it is used in a mixture along with hydrogen and water in absorption refrigerators.
The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to geothermal power plants, depends on
the wide boiling range of the ammonia–water mixture. Ammonia coolant is also used in the
S1 radiator aboard the International Space Station in two loops which are used to regulate the
internal temperature and enable temperature dependent experiments.
The potential importance of ammonia as a refrigerant has increased with the discovery that
vented CFCs and HFCs are extremely potent and stable greenhouse gases. The contribution
to the greenhouse effect of CFCs and HFCs in current use, if vented, would match that of all
CO2 in the atmosphere.
For remediation of gaseous emissions
Ammonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, and the resulting product is
converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralizes the nitrogen oxide
(NOx) pollutants emitted by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic
reduction),.
Ammonia may be used to mitigate gaseous spills of phosgene.
As a stimulant
Ammonia, as the vapor released by smelling salts, has found significant use as a respiratory
stimulant. Ammonia is commonly used in the illegal manufacture
of methamphetamine through a Birch reduction. The Birch method of making
methamphetamine is dangerous because the alkali metal and liquid ammonia are both
extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive
boiling when reactants are added.
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Textile
Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, giving properties

like mercerisation, using alkalis. In particular, it is used for prewashing of wool.
Lifting gas
At standard temperature and pressure, ammonia is less dense than atmosphere and has
approximately 45-48% of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes
been used to fill weather balloons as a lifting gas. Because of its relatively high boiling point
(compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied
aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce
ballast).
Woodworking
Ammonia has been used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and Mission-style
furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change
colours.
Energy carrier
Ammonia can be manufactured from solar energy, air and water. This is an efficient way to
package hydrogen into a chemical that is much cheaper to store and transport than pure
hydrogen be it as gas or as liquid. In fact, per volume ammonia holds more hydrogen than
does liquid hydrogen. Ammonia may be the key to overcome not only the daily but also the
seasonal fluctuations of renewable energy sources.
1.5 AMMONIA PRODUCTION PROCESSES:
All processes for synthesis of ammonia are based on the pressure catalytic reaction of N2 and
H2. The principle variation is in the operating pressure.
1.5.1 Born Haber process invented by German chemist Fritz Haber in 1908.
N2 +H2 → 2NH3. promoted iron catalyst
400-450 deg. C
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150-200 atm 17% conversion.
1.5.2 Du Pont process;
Very high Pressure (900-1000 atm)
500-600deg C;
15-25% conversion.
1.5.3 Casale;
High Pressure(600 atm)
500 deg C;
15-25% conversion.
1.5.4 Mont Cenis;
Low pressure (100atm)
400-425 deg C;
8-20% conversion
1.6 HABER PROCESS:
FRITZ HABER
Theory:
NH3 is manufactured by Haber’s process. In this process, pure nitrogen and hydrogen gases
react in the ratio of 1:3 by volume in 400°C-500°C temperature, 200-900 atm pressure in
presence of iron as catalyst & molybdenum as promoter.
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Fe/Mo (400-500°C)
N2+3H2——————–> 2NH3+ heat
(200-900atm)
Conditions for maximum yield:
1. Low Temperature:
Since the reaction isexothermic, it favors low working temperature for maximum yield of
product i.e. around 500°C.
2. High Pressure:
Four volume reactant gives two volume of product i.e. volume is reduced to half. Hence there
is maximum production of ammonia at 200-900 atm pressure (high).
3. Use of Catalyst:
Use of catalyst makes the reaction faster in forward direction. Hence the catalyst like iron
(Fe) &promoter like molybdenum (Mo) is used for maximum yield of the product.
4. Purity of Reactant:
The purity of the reactants Hydrogen (H2) & Nitrogen (N2) helps in the more yielding of the
product.
5.Concentration of Reactants:
More the concentration of reactant, more the production. So, high concentration of hydrogen
and nitrogen is used.
2. PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2.1 FEED GAS COMPRESSION , PREHEATING & DESULFURIZATION
Natural gas for feed and fuel is supplied at the plant battery limit at 300 0C and 40.5 kg /cm2
natural gas is initially directed to a Feed Gas Knockout Drum , where any entrained liquid are
removed. Part of the natural gas from the outlet of Feed gas knockout drum is sent to the
primary reformer furnace as fuel.
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The remaining natural gas is compressed to 57.3 kg/cm2 in the Feed Gas compressor, which
is driven by an electric motor. To allow the compressor to operate over a wide range of
operating conditions without going into surge, it is provided with Kickback line with a
Kickback cooler. This allows some of the compressor discharge gas to be recycled back to
the compressor suction through Feed gas knockout drum. This is typically required during
plant start-up and turn down conditions when the feed gas flow is much lower than normal.
After compression in feed gas compressor , natural gas feed is mixed with a small amount of
sy-ngas recycled from the synthesis loop which provides the required hydrogen for the
downstream hydrotreater. If the synthesis loop is not in operation, the hydrogen recycle
stream can be taken from the Methanator Effluent Separator overhead, and added at the
suction to Feed gas compressor. There is also a provision to generate hydrogen via ammonia
cracking in the primary reformer during initial plant start-up.
The mixture of natural gas and hydrogen is heated to 3710C, first using condensing LP steam
in the LP steam/Feed Gas Preheater , and then in the Feed Gas Coil located in the convection
section of the primary reformer . The hot gas then enters a two-step desulfurization system. In
the first step, the hot gas passes through Hydrotreater, which contains cobalt/molybdenum
(CoMo) catalyst. The catalyst ensures hydrogenation of organic sulphur compounds, if
present in the feed gas, such as mercaptans (RSH), carbonyl sulfide (COS), to hydrogen
sulfide.
COS + H2 CO + H2S
RSH + H2 RH + H2S
In the second step, hydrogen sulfide in the feed gas is removed in two desulfurizers. Each
desulfurizer contains a bed of zinc oxide. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with the zinc oxide and is
retained as zinc sulfide, thereby producing an effluent stream containing less than 0.1 ppmv
of sulphur.
H2S + ZnO ZnS + H2O
The two desulfurizer vessels are arranged in series, in a lead-lag configuration such that
either vessel can be taken out of service to replace the zinc oxide while the other vessel
remains in service and plant operation is not interrupted. Each vessel contains enough zinc
oxide to last for at least one year of continuous service at the design inlet sulfur concentration
of 10 ppmv hydrogen sulfide in the feed gas.
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2.2 PRIMARY REFORMING
Desulfurized feed gas is mixed with process steam from the overhead of the Process
Condensate Stripper to give a steam to organic carbon molar ratio of 2.7:1. The feed gas flow
is controlled by ratio to the process steam flow. This feature protects the reforming catalysts
in case of loss of process steam. The mixture is preheated to about 495 0 C in the convection
section of the Primary Reformer . The preheated mixed feed is distributed over tubes packed
with reforming catalyst and suspended in the radiant section of Primary reformer. Steam
Reforming reactions takes place over the Nickel based reforming catalyst in the radiant tubes
to form carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Steam reforming reaction for any
hydrocarbon can be written as
CnHm + nH2O nCO + (2n+m)/2 H2
For methane the above reaction becomes:
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
The water gas shift reaction converts carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and additional
hydrogen:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
The Primary reformer effluent gas at 48.0kg/cm2 (a) and 72loC contains about 29.9 mole%
(dry basis) of unreacted methane. The Primary reformer effluent is sent to the Secondary
Reformer via the Primary Reformer Effluent Transfer line .
Heat for the endothermic steam reforming reactions in Primary reformer is supplied by the
combustion of fuel gas in burners located at the top of the furnace. The burners are located
between rows of catalyst tubes and operate with downward firing. Thus, the heat flux is
highest at the top of tubes, where the process temperatures are the lowest and most of the
reforming reaction is being done. The outlet manifolds and riser tubes are located inside the
radiant box, for heat conservation. The primary reformer uses the latest refractory and
insulation technology.
Ceramic fiber lining in the radiant section provides rapid thermal response due to low heat
storage. Super duty hard factory is used where flames may contact the sidewalls. The
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reformer is designed with 2% oxygen (dry basis) in the flue gas at the outlet of the radiant
section. This ensures complete combustion of the fuel in the burners.
The Purifier process uses excess air in the secondary reformer. This feature reduces the size
of the primary reformer furnace by about one third, and lowers the process gas outlet
temperature from the reformer substantially, as compared to a conventional ammonia plant.
The lower outlet temperature results in longer tube and catalyst life.
The primary reformer is designed to obtain maximum thermal efficiency by recovering heat
from the flue gas in the convection section. The heat recovered is used for the following
services:
• Mixed Feed Preheating

• Process Air Preheating
• Steam Superheating
• Feed Gas Preheating
• Combustion Air Preheating
2.3 PROCESS AIR COMPRESSION
Process air is drawn in through an Air Filter which removes any dust particles. Process air is
then compressed in an integrally geared Process Air Compressor to a pressure of 50.8kg/cm2
(a). Inter Stage cooling and condensate separation is provided in process air compressor.
Process air compressor is controlled to maintain a constant pressure drop across the
downstream process air control valve. During plant startup or turndown operation, enough
compressed air is vented to maintain the minimum load on the compressor to prevent it from
going into surge. Compressed process air is then preheated to about 5100C in Air preheat Coil
located in the convection section of Primary reformer, and sent to the secondary reformer.
Steam is continuously added to the process air to the inlet of the coil. This feature prevents
backflow of hot gas from the secondary Reformer in the event of Process air compressor trip.
Process air compressor also provides plant and instrument air which is required for the entire
plant from one of the intermediate stages of the compressor.
2.4 SECONDARY REFORMING
Hot compressed process air and primary reformer effluent are sent to the top section of the
Secondary Reformer where spontaneous combustion occurs. The resulting hot gas mixture
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then flows down through a bed of Nickel based reforming catalyst in the lower section of
Secondary reformer. The heat released from the combustion reactions in the upper section
supplies the heat for the steam reforming reactions in the lower section, converting methane
to more carbon oxides and hydrogen. The unreacted methane content in the gas leaving
Secondary reformer is about 1.8mole% (dry basis).
In a conventional ammonia plant, the amount of process air introduced in the secondary
reformer is controlled carefully to produce a stoichiometric 3:1 molar ratio of hydrogen to
nitrogen at the inlet to the ammonia converter.
In the Purifier process, about 50 percent excess air is used in the secondary reformer with the
excess nitrogen being removed in the Purifier Cold box. The excess air produces additional
combustion heat for the reforming reactions in the Secondary reformer. Thus the reforming
load is shifted from the primary reformer to the secondary reformer. This feature lowers the
primary reformer outlet temperature and furnace duty. In addition, the methane leakage from
the reforming section is relaxed as the unreacted methane is removed in the Purifier Cold
box. This reduces the overall reforming severity and lowers the secondary outlet temperature
to about 906 0C. The lower reformer results in milder conditions for the downstream waste
heat boiler as compared to conventional plants.
The heat in the Secondary reformer effluent is recovered by generating HP steam (104kg/cm2
(g)) in the Secondary Reformer Waste Heat Boiler is a KBR proprietary design. It is vertical
water tube, themosyphon boiler.
For safety reasons, Secondary reformer, Primary Reformer Effluent Transfer line and waste
heat boiler are provided with water jackets. The water jackets keep the metal walls cooler,
and provide an early warning system against any possible refractory failure which allows an
orderly shutdown of the plant in such a scenario.
2.5 SHIFT CONVERSION
The cooled secondary reformer effluent is sent to high Temperature shifter (HTS) Converter
reactor. Here , the gas flows over a bed of HTS catalyst (Fe based catalyst ) and carbon
monoxide reacts with steam to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen via the water gas shift
reaction.
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CO + H2O CO2+ H2
About 72% of the carbon monoxide is shifted to carbon dioxide in HTS converter. The
carbon monoxide content in the HTS effluent is about 2.9% (dry basis). The water gas shift
reaction is exothermic. The gas leaving the HTS converter is cooled by generating high
pressure steam in the HTS effluent and by heating high pressure boiler feed water in the HTS
effluent.
The gas then passes through a LTS guard bed which is packed with LTS catalyst. Catalyst
volume is based on 2.5 years of catalyst life. LTS guard effluent is cooled by the BFW in the
LTS guard bed effluent and is then sent to LTS shift converter at about 208 degree celcius.
Most of the remaining carbon monoxide is carbon dioxide in LTS, leaving a residual carbon
monoxide content about .25 mole% (dry basis) in the LTS effluent. LTS effluent is cooled
against BFW in the LTS effluent and by raising low pressure steam in the LTS effluent low
pressure steam generator. The gas is then sent to CO2 stripper and further cooled in LTS
effluent to about 70 degree celcius. The overhead of raw gas separator is sent to carbon
dioxide removal unit
2.6 CARBONDIOXIDE REMOVAL
The carbon dioxide removal unit uses two stage aMDEA process licensed BASF. The process
gas enters the bottom of CO2 absorber at 70 degree celcius. It is contacted counter-currently
with the semi-lean aMDEA solution. The gas then flows upward into top section of CO2
absorber tower where it is contacted with lean aMDEA solution. The gas is then passed
through a water wash section,a demister pad and is sent to CO2 absorber overhead knockout
drum to remove traces of entertained aMDEA solution.
Rich aMDEA solution from the bottom of CO2 absorber is first Passed through a power
recovery hydraulic turbine. The power recovered in the hydraulic turbine is used to drive one
of the semi-lean solution pump. The rich aMDEA solution is then sent to high pressure flash
where most of the dissolved inert are flashed out from the rich solution.
As the flash gas from the high pressure flash contain a fair amount of the carbon dioxide .this
gas is further scrubbed with the slipstream of lean aMDEA solution in the high pressure gas
scrubber to recover almost all of the carbon dioxide.
The high pressure gas scrubber bottoms are mixed with the high pressure flash bottom and
sent to the CO2 low pressure flash. The low pressure flash operates about 1.8kg/cm2 .at this
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low pressure most of the carbon dioxide from the rich aMDEA solution is flashed. The
solution flows down through the packed bed where it is contacted with rising vapor from
CO2 stripper.condensate is separated from the CO2 low pressure flash overhead knockout
drum and pumped by the CO2 low pressure reflux pump to provide wash water for CO2
absorber. CO2 low pressure flash and high pressure flash gas scrubber .the makeup water
required for the CO2 removal unit is also added to the suction of reflux pump.
Semi lean aMDEA solution is drawn from the bottom of the low pressure flash. Most of the
semi-lean solution is pumped by the pumps to the bottom section of CO2 absorber about 17%
of the semi-lean solution is pumped by the semi lean solution circulating pump heated to
about 111 degree celcius in the lean/semi-lean solution exchanger and then sent to CO2
stripper. LTS effluent gas supplied heat to the CO2 stripper which is used to strip carbon
dioxide from the aMDEA solution. The stripped carbon dioxide flows up to the stripper and
is then sent to low pressure flash. Lean aMDEA solution is drawn from the bottom of CO2
stripper .the lean solution is cooled by the exchanging heat with the semi-lean solution is then
pumped by the lean solution pump to the top section of CO2 absorber.
The carbon dioxide removal unit is designed with a slightly negative water balance to
maintain the concentration of aMDEA solution in the system , a continuous make-up of about
220kg/hr of demineralized water is required. This design eliminate the discharge of any
aMDEA solution loss. Given the composition of natural gas , the steam reforming front end
does not produce sufficient amount of carbon dioxide ,when producing syn-gas sufficient for
950 MTPD of ammonia. hence additional feed gas to be reformed and passed through to meet
requirement of the carbon dioxide.
2.7 METHANATION:
The vapor CO2 absorber Overheated Knockout Drum is preheated to methanation reaction
temperature .using the methanator effluent in the Feed/Effluent ex-changer and using
condensing high pressure start-up heater. The preheated gas then flows through the
methanator where carbon dioxides converted to methane by reaction with hydrogen over Ni
catalyst .Residual carbon oxides leaving the methanator are less than 5ppmv(dry basis)
CO2 +4H2 ------------- CH4 + 2H2O
CO + 3H2 -------------- CH4 + H2O
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The methanation reactions above are slightly exothermic and could potentially over heated in
methanator. This could occur if an upset in the shift (LTS/HTS) or carbon dioxide to
methanator an automatic shutdown system is provided to prevent overheating
2.8 DRYING:
In prepration for drying the methanator effluent is cooled by heat exchange with methanator
feed ex-changer to 79C and against cooling water in methanator effluent cooled to 38C the
methanator effluent then combines with recycle synthesis loop purge gasfrom high pressure
ammonia scrubber and the mixture is chilled using ammonia refrigerant in the methanator
effluent chiller to about 4C.The chilled gas is sent to methanator effluent separator where the
process condensate is separated out
Then two dryers the packed with zeolites based dessicant and operate cyclically .Each dryer
sized to remove traces of ammonia. Residual carbon dioxide and the water in 24-hours
drying cycle
The dryer regeneration facilities are designed for a 20hrs heating and cooling cycle to
provide a comfortable safely margin of 4 hours of stand-by time .Regeneration and cooling of
driers are done using waste gas from the purifier .During dryer regeneration the waste gas is
heated to 265C in the molecular sieve Regeneration heater by condensing steam from the
63kg/cm2 steam heater.
2.9 CRYOGENIC PURIFICATION:
Dried raw synthesis gas is then sent to cryogenic purification section. The gas is cooled by
heat exchange with make-up synthesis gas and with purifier waste gas is the top section of the
purifier Feed/Effluent ex-changer .The gas then flows through the purifier expander where
work is remove to provide net refrigeration duty required for purifier .THE expander effluent
is further cooled and partially condensed in bottom section of effluent ex-changer and enter
the purifier rectifier at 171C .Liquid from the bottom of rectifier is partially evaporated at
reduced pressure in the shell side of purifier rectifier condenser and provides cooling for
condenser and re-flux for the column. the rectifier contain nitrogen ,methane and some of
hydrogen.
The partially evaporated liquid leaving the shell side of purifier rectifier condenser is
reheated and the vaporize ineffluent exchanger and leave as purified waste gas, the waste gas
is used as carrier gas to regenerate the molecular sieve drier and then sent to fuel system, the
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makeup syn-gas from the top of purifier rectifier is heated ineffluent exchanger and send to
the synthesis gas compressor at 1.8 degree celcius, the operation of purifier to maintain and
control the exact molar ratio of hydrogen and nitrogen of 3:1 the other impurities in make-up
gas is 32% argon and less then 50ppmv of methane
2.10 SYNGAS COMPRESSION
The process for syn-gas compression and ammonia synthesis section of the plant are
identical, except for new mechanical refrigeration system and purge gas ammonia recovery
system all the existing equipment in the syn-gas compression and ammonia synthesis sections
will be reused.
The purified syn-gas is compressed in four stages, steam turbine driven synthesis gas
compressor, recycle gas is added to the syn-gas before the fourth stagesuction , and the
combined flow leaves the compressor at about 197.2kg/cm2.
The syn-gas compressor is driven by turbine that is rotated with the help of 91 ata steam
pressure.
2.11 AMMONIA SYNTHESIS
Ammonia is produced in fixed – bed , vertical converter. Effluent in the hot exchanger. It
then flow to the ammonia converter. Ammonia concentration in the feed to the converter is
about 2.7 mole %. Ammonia is synthesized in two adiabatic beds provided with an inter
cooler and after cooloer.
The converter effluent containing about 17.70 mole% ammonia at 726 K .it is cooled by
generating high pressure steam in the syn – loop Waste heat Boiler and by heating boiler feed
water in the converter effluent BFW Preheater. After recovery of heat, the converter effluent
is cooled to 311 K by cooling water in the converter effluent cooler. The converter effluent is
then sent to the cold Ex – changer where it is chilled by heat exchangerwith the recycle gas.
The gas is finally chilled to 269 K against the ammonia refrigerant in the ammonia chiller.
Liquid ammonia is separated out from the converter by the separator while the vapor is
recycled to the last stage of compression by line. A small fraction of the vapor stream from
purged from the synthesis loop is control the inerts (methane or argon) concentration inlet to
18
the ammonia converter at 3.20 mole% liquid ammonia is depressurized to about 37.0kg/cm2
in a flash drum. This reduction in pressure dissolve most of the gas in liquid ammonia. Than
this recovery ammonia is sent to the Horton Sphere as product of capacity 2500m3. The
expected purity of the ammonia is 99.85wt% ammonia. The Horton Sphere is operate about
4.2kg/cm2 pressure and it is used to pump ammonia to Urea Plant at 283 K which passes
through the ex-changer.
3. MATERIAL BALANCE OF AMMONIA PLANT:
3.1 Knockout Drum:
Inlet: Natural gas(F)=23938Kg/hr

Outlet: D1=2883Kg/hr and D2
F=D1+D2
D2=21055Kg/hr
3.2 Hydrotreater:
Inlet DA=357Kg/hr and D2=21055Kg/hr

DA+D2=D3
Outlet D3=21412Kg/hr
3.3 Primary Reformer:
Steam reforming reaction for any hydrocarbon can be written as:
CnHm + nH2O nCO + (2n+m)/2 H2
For methane the above reaction becomes:
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
19
The water gas shift reaction converts carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and
additional hydrogen:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Inlet:
D3(after adding process steam)=85448 Kg/hr
D1=2883 Kg/hr
D1+D3=D4
Outlet:
D4=88281 Kg/hr
Methane balance:
Inlet Composition Total moles
D3 0.9531 4679.1
D1 0.9797 1291.4
Outlet:
D4 0.29 19740.8
20
3.4 Secondary Reformer:
Inlet:
D4=88281 kg/hr; J1(process air)=74225 Kg/hr
D4+J1=D5
D5=162506 Kg/hr
Methane Balance:
Inlet: Composition total moles
D4 0.29 19740.8
J1 0 2653.7
Outlet:
D5 0.018 9435.6
3.5 High temperature shift convertor:
Carbon monoxide balance:

Inlet:
D5=9435.6 Kg mole/hr, composition: 0.1094
Outlet:
D6=10323.7 Kg mole/hr, Composition: 0.0287
21
3.6 Low temperature shift convertor:
Inlet:
D6=10323.7 Kg mole/hr, composition: 0.0287
Outlet:
D7= 9763.6 Kg mole/hr, composition: 0.0025
3.7 Carbon dioxide absorber tower:
Inlet:
D7 =159673 Kg/hr, D8=1535900 Kg/hr
Outlet:
D9; D10=64205 Kg/hr
D7+D8=D9+D10
D9=1590100 Kg/hr
Carbon dioxide balance:

Inlet:
Composition Total moles
D7 0.1691 9435.6
D8 0.0261 13105.3
Outlet:
D9 0.111 13831.51
D10 0.0005 5812.5
3.8 High Pressure – Low Pressure flash drum:
High Pressure:
Inlet:
D9=1590100 Kg/hr
Outlet:
D11, D12=1588400 Kg/hr
D9=D11+D12
D11=1700 Kg/hr
22
Low Pressure:
Inlet:
D13=1609700 Kg/hr, D14=500 Kg/hr
Outlet:
D15=1593700 Kg/hr,D16
D13+D14=D15+D16
D16=58036 Kg/hr
This amount of Carbon dioxide goes to urea section for production of urea.
3.9 Methanator:
CO2 +4H2 ------------- CH4 + 2H2O
CO + 3H2 -------------- CH4 + H2O
Methane balance:
Inlet:
D10 0.0193 5812.5
Outlet:
D17 0.023 5627.5
3.10 Cryogenic Purification:
Inlet:
D17=62403 Kg/hr
Outlet:
D18=43198 Kg/hr, D19
D17=D18+D19
23
D19=19205 Kg/hr
Hydrogen Balance:
Composition Total Moles
Inlet:
D17 0.6443 5627.5
Outlet:
D18 0.7474 5011.8
Nitrogen Balance:
Inlet:
D17 0.3240 5627.5
Outlet:
D18 0.2493 5011.8
3.11 Ammonia Synthesis Convertor:
Nitrogen Balance:
Inlet:
D19 0.2493 18323.4
Outlet:
D20 0.1956 15997.9
Hydrogen Balance:
Inlet:
D19 0.7051 18323.4
Outlet:
D20 0.5897 15997.9
Ammonia Balance:
Inlet:
24
D19 0.0276 18323.4
Outlet:
D20 0.177 15997.9
4. ENERGY BALANCE OF AMMONIA PLANT:
4.1 Primary Reformer
Steam Reforming Reaction in Primary Reformer
CH4+ H2O CO + 3H2 H1= 224.588 Kilo Joule/Mole
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 H2= -36.534 Kilo Joule/Mole
Components Inlet(Temperature=768K) Outlet( T = 993.7 k )
Kmol/hr Heat Capacity Kmol/hr Heat Capacity

(J/mol.K) (J/mol.K)
H2 25.884 29.360 1634.111 28.960
N2 9.956 31.248 9.956 32.676
CH4 1311.337 57.512 878.596 71.600
Ar 1.593 - 1.473 -
CO 0 31.710 122.738 33.180
CO2 0 50.952 310.003 55.176
Heat consumed in reforming reaction for the conversion of methane upto 33% (Q1) =
37.818635Gcal/hr.
Heat evolved in shift reaction (Q2) = - 3.525 Gcal/hr.
Qreaction = Q1+Q2 = 34.293 Gcal/hr.
Heat consumed by nitrogen = 0.019 Gcal/hr.
Net heat duty of primary reformer = 34.312 Gcal/hr.
25
4.2 Secondary Reformer:
CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O H1= -793.329 Kilo Joule/Mole

2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O H2 = -1024.068 Kilo Joule/Mole
Components Inlet(Temperature= 993.85K) Outlet( T = 1178.15 k )
Kmol/hr Heat Capacity Kmol/hr Heat Capacity

(J/mol.K) (J/mol.K)
H2 1618.383 28.960 3106.058 30.590
N2 1892.890 32.676 1892.890 33.600
CH4 880.209 71.600 113.863 78.4
O2 506.426 34.912 0 35.584
CO 126.712 33.180 691.739 34.048
CO2 310.003 55.176 511.326 56.100
Heat consumed in reforming reaction for the conversion of methane upto 91% (Q1) = 49.270
Gcal/hr.
Heat evolved in shift reaction (Q2) = - 1.574 Gcal/hr.
Qreaction = Q1+Q2 = 47.696 Gcal/hr.
Heat consumed by nitrogen = 3.092 Gcal/hr.
Net heat duty of primary reformer = 50.788 Gcal/hr.
4.3 High Temperature shift Converter:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 H= -36.694 Kilo Joule/Mole
26
Components Inlet(Temperature=1178K) Outlet( T = 698 k )
Percent Heat Capacity Percent Heat Capacity

composition (cal/mol.K) composition (cal/mol.K)
H2 49.01 7.57 52.72 7.18
N2 29.84 7.68 27.67 7.19
CH4 1.77 18.87 1.65 13.36
Ar 0.38 4.97 0.35 4.97
CO 10.94 8.01 2.87 7.43
CO2 8.06 13.4 14.74 11.85
Total Molar inlet flow rate = 6344 Kmol/hr,
Average Heat Capacity(inlet) = 34.74 J/mol.K.
Hin = mcT = 259620079.7 KJ/hr.
Total Molar outlet flow rate = 6841.6 Kmol/hr,
Average Heat Capacity(outlet) = 33.32 J/mol.K.
Hout = mcT = 159094758 KJ/hr.
Hr = - 4478377.478 KJ/hr.
Hin – Hr + Hsupply = Hout
Hsupply = - 105003699.2 KJ/hr.
4.4 Low Temperature Shift converter:
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 H= -40.351 Kilo Joule/Mole
27

H2 52.72 7.18 53.93 7.025
N2 27.67 7.19 26.96 7
CH4 1.65 13.36 1.6 11.09
Ar 0.35 4.97 0.35 4.97
CO 2.87 7.43 0.25 7.2
CO2 14.74 11.85 16.91 10.93
Total Molar inlet flow rate = 6841.6 Kmol/hr,
Hin = mcT = 159094758 KJ/hr.
Average Heat Capacity(outlet) = 32.33J/mol.K.
Hout = mcT = 113484766 KJ/hr.
Hr = - 5736409.75 KJ/hr.
Hsupply = - 39873582.25 KJ/hr.
4.5 Methanator
CO + 3H2 CH4 +2H2O H1= -206.835 Kilo Joule/Mole
28

H2 64.82 6.88 64.43 7.1
N2 32.49 6.82 32.85 7.11
CH4 1.93 9.05 2.3 12.19
Ar 0.42 4.97 0.42 4.97
CO 0.3 6.96 - -
CO2 0.05 9.35 - -
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 +2H2 O H2= -165.694Kilo Joule/Mole
Hin = mcT = 54126523.13 KJ/hr.
Hout = mcT = 100367497.1 KJ/hr.
Hr = - 414733601.9 KJ/hr.
Hsupply = - 0.595 GJ/hr.
4.6 Ammonia synthesis
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 H= 91.8 Kilo Joule/Mole
29
Components Inlet(Temperature=503K) Outlet( T = 726.1 K )

H2 70.51 7.02 58.97 7.2
N2 23.52 7 19.68 7.226
CH4 0.05 11.12 0.05 13.69
Ar 3.15 4.97 3.6 4.97
NH3 2.76 9.86 17.7 11.27
Hin = mcT = 270877937.2 KJ/hr.
Hout = mcT = 381007266.2 KJ/hr.
Hr = - 119363513 KJ/hr.
Hsupply = - 9.23 GJ/hr
30
DESIGN OF REFORMER
Primary Reformer
Introduction
The steam reformer is one of the main critical equipment in Methanol and Ammonia
production plants. The cost of the reformer is a substantial part of the investment of the
complete plant. This paper covers in brief the service, design and construction of the steam
reformer with concentration on the construction materials, damage mechanisms and their
mitigation for the radiant section (catalyst tube – inlet and outlet pigtail – inlet and outlet
manifold). This is mainly to help in maintaining high levels of safety, reliability, and
structure integrity of the reformer.
Service
The steam reformer is used in the production of synthesis gases from the natural gas. In the
steam reformer steam is mixed with the natural gas and the combined stream is further heated
and routed through tubes in a reforming furnace containing nickel oxide catalyst. Here a
reforming reaction occurs in which methane in the natural gas is partially converted into
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
The steam reformer is a rectangular insulated structure containing vertically supported tubes
filled with nickel oxide catalyst in which the steam reforming takes place at elevated
temperatures.The endothermic heat of reaction is supplied from downward firing burners
situated in the roof of the Reformer. These are fired on a mixture of combined process waste
gas streams supplemented with natural gas. The burners are arranged in rows between the
reforming tubes and are positioned such that no flame impingement occurs on the tubes or on
the furnace walls.
The natural gas and steam reactants are evenly distributed by a system of headers on the top
of the reforming furnaces and the connections to each tube are made by solid drawn alloy
flexible connectors.
Radiant section arrangement

As the process requires high heat input levels, the catalyst-filled tubes are placed vertically in
the radiant firebox section of the furnace. The steam hydrocarbon mixture is typically
preheated outside the radiant section to 500°C ÷ 650°C to minimize the radiant heat load and,
therefore, the furnace fuels requirement. Excessive preheat will effect coke formation of the
feed, resulting in carbon deposits on the catalyst causing degradation and/or pluggage, and
also potential tube failure in the preheat section.
Properly located combustion equipment (burners) assures heat input as the mixture passes
through the catalyst tubes and is reformed to the required outlet conditions. The catalyst tube
31
arrangement consists of a multiple of “once-through” parallel “passes”, typically with the
preheated inlet mixture entering the top of each catalyst tube, and exiting at the bottom. Once
the reformed gas exits the catalyst tubes, it is collected in a header system and cooled in an
external process gas waste heat exchanger.
The effluent from this equipment is typically cooled to 320°C ÷ 370°C to permit further
reaction in downstream equipment. Safe and reliable operation of the reformer furnace
depends on the disposition of the catalyst tubes and the burners that supply the heat to the
catalyst tubes.
Two particular designs are considered.
Top Fired (“Down-fired”)
The down-fired design locates from one to as many as ten or more rows (or “lanes”) of
catalyst tubes (in-line) in a single radiant firebox enclosure, with rows of burners located in
the roof (or arch) of the firebox between the tube lanes. The burners fire downwards, parallel
to the hydrocarbon-steam mixture flow direction through the catalyst tubes.
Burner flame and hot gas radiation provide heat input to the tubes. The combustion of low
calorific value PSA gas produce long, lazy and uncontrollable flame patterns which will be
creating down-flowing as well as side turning flames with impingement on catalyst tubes,
since no hot refractory lining is present to retain the flame away from the catalyst tubes.
32
This arrangement effects somewhat higher heat fluxes at the top of the tube (coldest fluid).
Lane spacing (versus tube length) is established to assure proper heat transfer. Access for
burner operating maintenance, is from the walkways located between the tube lanes and
burner rows at the firebox arch. The concentration of heat flux at catalyst tube inlet might
result in local Overheating of both tubes and catalyst in particular when operating at partial
loads.
Each row of burners provides heat input affecting two rows of catalyst tubes. The two lateral
rows are subject – in addition to flue gas radiation – also to the radiation of the hot unshielded
wall facing the tubes. This fact results in an overheating of one side of the lateral catalyst tube
with consequent heat mal-distribution.
Flue gases are collected at the bottom of the firebox in refractory “tunnels”, properly sized
and arranged to maintain a uniform flow pattern in the firebox. The flue gases exit the
“tunnels” and are directed to the heat recovery section for process coil heating, steam
generation services, and air preheating exchanger.
To assure negative pressure at the firebox, mechanical draft equipment (induced draft fan)
must be installed to overcome the “draft gain” in the firebox and the pressure losses in the
various heat recovery coils and/or equipment.
Having firing only at one level, there is no possibility of control of the heat input along the
catalyst tubes, and the heat transfer mechanism more dependent on burner spacing (not by
uniformly heated sidewalls). The catalyst tubes are spaced at a 2.0 to 2.5 ratio (centre-
tocentre divided by outside diameter) to minimize peak tube metal temperatures.
Lane spacing (versus tube length) is established to assure proper heat transfer. Access for
burner operating maintenance, is from the walkways located between the tube lanes and
burner rows at the firebox arch.
Also in case of a generous lane spacing particularly with multiple fuel headers and/or hot
ducting to the burners, this area, which is very hot during natural operation, might be
dangerous for operator.
In case of failure of the induced draft flue gas fan, hot flue gases will be trapped at the top of
the down fired radiant box since no draft is available and therefore the excessive heat
concentration and the possibility to have slight positive pressure atthe top of the downfired
reformer is a risk of injury for operating personnel, present on top of radiant section under the
penthouse.
The down-fired arrangement is more difficult to be operated since an uneven heat flux
distribution caused by a mal-distribution of the heat fired on the various lane of burners might
affect heavily tube life.
In addition during start-up and warm-up of steam reformer all the heat liberated by the down-
firing burners will remain at the top determining a very hot area at arch level since the
remaining radiant zone, still in cold condition and without vertical walls, are not suitable to
provide the heat downwards. This can result in uncontrolled flame and detrimental after
burning conditions between the catalyst tubes arranged in parallel lanes.
33
Side Fired
Foster Wheeler Fired Heater Division developed its patented Terrace Wall reformer furnace
in the early 1960’s and continuously improves it to incorporate the desired process
requirements and provide a safe, operable, and economic design.
This design typically locates a single, in-line row of catalyst tubes in the middle of the radiant
firebox, and locates burners on both sides to provide uniform heat distribution around the
catalyst tube circumference. The burners fire vertically upward along the refractory lined
walls of the radiant section, essentially parallel to the catalyst tubes, to assure flame stability
and avoid flame impingement. The burners provide a flat-shaped flame and are suitably
spaced along the length of the firebox, assuring uniform heat input to the catalyst tubes;
essentially the refractory wall becomes a uniform heat radiating plane.
Operating flexibility is “built in” to allow trimming of burners in specific areas where minor
hot spots may occur, since the burners “serve” a single row of tubes.
With catalyst tubes typically 11 to 14 meters long, control of vertical heat distribution along
the tube lengths is typically obtained by providing two levels of burners. This permits
controlled heat input as process conditions, catalyst activity or other factors varies during
operation. As is the case with all fired process furnaces, the radiant section heat transfer is
augmented by a convection component as hot flue gases recirculate, drawn downwards by the
relatively colder tubes. In this design, the recirculation is essentially “contained” by the
sidewalls on both sides of the tubes, and “reheating” (as the gases return upwards along the
sidewalls past the up-fired burners) is predictable, resulting in efficient overall heat transfer.
The up flowing hot flue gases exhaust “naturally” at the top of the firebox, entering the heat
recovery section where feed preheat, steam generation, air preheat or post-combustion Nox
reduction (SCR’s) may be installed.
The top of the firebox is the point of highest pressure (lowest negative pressure, or “draft”).
This area must be controlled to be maintained at least 2.5 mm water column below
atmospheric pressure to keep the furnace at negative pressure throughout, avoiding hot flue
gas leakage through the various openings (tube penetrations, sight doors, etc.) and to prevent
hot flue gas from contacting the furnace casing plate. The Terrace Wall design can frequently
utilize simply a natural draft stack.
Where very high fuel efficiency is needed (e.g., air preheat) or an SCR is installed, the
pressure loss through this equipment usually dictates the use of mechanical draft equipment
(induced draft fan).
With firing at more than one level to reduce the vertical heat flux variation, and with a
uniform radiating plane effected by firing along the side walls the catalyst tubes can be
34
spaced typically at a 1.4 to 1.7 ratio (centre-to-centre divided by outside diameter) to obtain
an optimal distribution of heat around the tube, minimizing peak tube metal temperatures.
Each catalyst tube is flanged on top to permit catalyst loading from walkways at the firebox
roof (or arch). The firebox sidewalls are slopped at a small angle to optimize radiant heat
transfer. This also creates a “terrace” shape, which provides a mounting space for the
individual burner levels.
Burner access for operation and maintenance is from essentially unrestricted platforms
located along the sidewalls at each firing level. Burner noise plenums, ductwork supplying
preheated combustion air or, in some cases, hot gas turbine exhaust, can be readily installed.
Various fuels such as natural gas, refinery gas, oreven liquid fuels (and associated atomizing
steam) can be readily piped to the burners The off-gas from a PSA (Pressure Swing
Absorption) hydrogen purification system is used as fuel for the reformer furnace. This is low
BTU fuel, and usually available at low pressures. When properly integrated with hydrogen
plant design itself, the PSA fuel can provide most – or all – of the fuel needed in the reformer
furnace. Typically, the plant design prefersto limit the PSA offgas to “base-load” at 90% or
so of the total reformer fuel requirement, allowing the balance (refinery gas or natural gas) to
be used for controlling the heat input.
The burner arrangement on the Terrace Wall design (firing along the refractory sidewalls)
allows stable burning 100% of PSA off-gas once the firebox is heated.
Main components
1. Burners : Main and auxiliary burners
2. Radiant coils : -
a. Catalyst tubes
b. Inlet and outlet manifolds
c. Inlet and outlet pigtails
3. Convection section coil
4. Ducting
a. Air ducting with supports and guides
b. Turning Flue gas ducting with supports
c. Main burners duct
d. Transition duct
e. Air intake
f. Flue gas duct to stack
35
5. Refractory radiant and auxiliary firing lining
6. Steel works
7. Piping included in reformer package -
a. Interconnection piping (convection to radiant)
b. Steam and mixed feed gas
c. Inlet manifolds
d. Inlet and outlet pigtails
e. Main and auxiliary burners piping complete
f. Instrument, drain and vent connection
g. Reformer gas main.
9. Flue gas stack.
10. Equipment:
a. Steam super heater.
b. Mixed feed heater
c. Steam super heater
d. Mixed feed heater
e. Combustion air pre-heater
f. Flue gas stack
g. Flue gas fan with steam turbine
h. Combustion air fan with steam turbine
Catalyst Tubes
At a specified design point, a comparison can be shown (between the two design
configurations) of the in-tube fluid and tube metal temperature profiles along a catalyst tube.
The comparative profiles for typical hydrogen reformer conditions indicate the higher heat
flux at the top of the tube on the down-fired design, as evidenced from a steeper fluid
temperature profile (and relatively hotter tube metal temperature).
The Terrace Wall design has the advantage that with a proper split of firing between the two
burner level the fluid/metal temperature profile can be modified and optimized in accordance
with the actual operating condition while in the Down-firing design the temperature profile is
only a consequence of the operating conditions.
36
Operational upsets such as interruption of process steam or unexpected impurities in the
hydrocarbon feed tends to result in greater catalyst temperature with possibility of tubes
damages in the higher flux inlet zone of the down-fired unit.
Configuration of Steam reformers
Schematics of different configurations of reformers
Top fired reformers

Advantages and disadvantages of top fired reformers
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Small catalyst volume needed High heat flux at the top may lead to carbon
formation.
Small number of burners Heat flux in the bottom part of the tubes cannot
be varied
Burner control is difficult; small number of

burners.
37
Foster wheeler terrace wall reformers
Advantages and disadvantages of foster wheeler terrace wall reformers
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Ability of firing burners in two levels High catalyst volume

alternatively; reduce methane slip
Low heat flux; no carbon formation Feed and flue must be balance between two
Cells
Side fired reformers

Almost all the radiation from refractory. Small amount of radiation which is less than that in
terrace wall reformer involve in the heat transfer. Same advantages and disadvantages as
terrace wall reformer, are present in side fired reformers.
5. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
5.1 Tube Geometry

Syngas generation reaction is highly endothermic reaction which needs high amount of
energy. Reformer tubes are designed to transfer the heat to the feed gas through it while
holding the randomly packed catalyst pellets. Dimensions of reformer tubes have standard
value ranges to meet required performance of the reformer.
5.1.1 Tube diameter

Tube diameter should be according to sufficient surface area/ volume ratio. High tube
diameter will enable more catalyst to be loaded which is cost effective. But tubes diameter
larger than 130mm (7 inch) not good for heat transfer to the center axis. Although reducing
diameter gives good heat transfer, pressure drop in the tubes will be increase. So that
38
diameter below 3inch is not used in reformer tubes. 4inch (100mm) tubes are commonly used
in reformers.
5.1.2 Tube length

Using longer tubes may be cost effective rather than fabricating high number of tube in the
reformer. But high length causes high pressure to drop throughout the reformer tubes and
may not be easy to fabricate supports. So that 7-10m is used as the ideal length of tube for
reformers
5.1.3 Tube wall thickness
Tube wall thickness is parameter that directly affect construction cost and operational cost of
reformers. Excessive thickness may cost highly since the tube material used normally
expensive (stand over 1000oC). Excessive thicknesses may cause following problems.
• High weight of tubes which is difficult in construction: due to high weight,

construction length of the tube should be reduced which leads to increase in number
of tubes.
• High thick tubes have smaller bore size. So that small catalyst pellets have to be used
leads to high pressure drop.
• Higher thermal resistance of the tubes leads high temperature of tube wall which
means more energy requirement.
Design Calculation
Assumption:
1) After Primary reformer conversion of methane is 33%.
2) After Secondary reformer conversion of methane is 91%.
3) Internal Diameter:
It should not be more than 130 mm to avoid temperature gradient inside the tube.
It should not be less than 75 mm to avoid cost of the equipment.
Hence we take 100 mm as tube ID
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
▲H1= 37.819 Gcal/hr

▲H2= - 3.525 Gcal/hr
39
Heat consumed by Nitrogen (H3) = 19463.668 Kcal/hr
Heat duty of reformer tubes (H) = H1+H2+H3 = 34.313 Gcal/hr.
From standard data Heat flux through the tube wall (Qavg) = 100 KW/m2
= 86124.4 Kcal/hr.m2
= 0.086 Gcal/hr.m2
To avoid all film/dirt resistances of Reformer tubes we will take safety factor of 5%.
Hence design load of tube is = 36 Gcal/hr.
Calculation Of Heat Flux

Property of mixed stream enter in reformer
Density=14.1 kg/m3
Molecular weight= 17.446
Heat capacity = 2561.384 J/kg-k
Thermal conductivity =0.075 W/m-k
Viscosity = 0.022cp
Mass flow rate M* = 854 kg/hr
Prandtl No.Pr = Viscosity*Cp/K
= 0.755
Reynold No. = Density*V*D/Viscosity
Re = 13743807.5
Assumed Dia. = 0.1 m
*Let resistance offered by wall is negligible.
*And temp. In the reformer box is uniform.
U = 1/1/hi
U = hi
D*hi/K = 0.027Re^(0.8)*Pr^(0.33)
hi = 942.3 w/m2-k
U = 942.3 w/m2-k
Average heat flux(Q/A) = 942.3*Temp. Difference
FOR AVERAGE TEMP GRAD. =100C
Q/A =94.23 Kw/m2
&
FOR AVERAGE TEMP. GRAD.= 110C
Q/A = 103.653Kw/m2
We are taking average heat flux as standard heat flux = 100KW/m2
H = n.A.Qavg
N = no. Of tubes
A = inner wall area of tube
Qavg = Average heat flux.
40
Total area required from the above data = 416 sq mtr.
Tube length
Assumption:
It should not be more than 10 m to avoid pressure drop inside the tube and easy to avoid
fabricating support so we take 10 m as length.
Area of one tube on the basis of above assumptions:
A = 3.14*0.1*10 = 3.14 m2
Number of tubes:
Total area of all tubes/ area of one tube = 416/3.14 = 132.48 tubes.
So we will take 132 tubes for our primary reformer to sustain the required heat load.
We will arrange these tubes in the form of row *column = 11*12 = 132.
We assume tube wall thickness 10 mm.
Size of Reformer:
Total number of tubes = 132.
Total number of rows = 11.
No. Of tube in each row = 12.
Centre to centre distance = 300 mm.
Tube clearance = (200-20) mm.
Distance of tube bundle from each side of reformer box = 1.5 m.
Length of reformer box = 11*300 +120 + 2*1500 = 6420 mm.
= 6.42 m.
Width of reformer = 12*300 +120 + 2*1500 = 6720 mm
= 6.72 m.
Height of reformer = 10 + 2*1.5 = 13 m
• DESIGN OF CARBON DIOXIDE ABSORBER TOWER
Absorber tower used in this industry is used to remove carbon dioxide coming from Low
Temperature Shift Converter(LTS) effluent with the aMDEA solution flowing counter
currently to it. The gas passed through the water wash section, a demister pad and is sent to
the carbon dioxide absorber overhead knockout drum to remove any traces of entertained
aMDEA solution ,the absorbed carbon dioxide is then used for the production of urea.
41
❖ PROPERTIES OF aMDEA(activated methyldiethanolamine) SOLUTION:-
• It is a colorless liquid with an ammonia odour, miscible with water,alcohol and

benzene and widely used as a sweetening agent in chemical,syn-gas production and
naturalgas.
• It has molecular weight of 119.163 gm/mole and low vapour pressure which allows
for high amine composition without appreciable losses through the absorber and
regenerator.
• It is resistant to thermal and chemical degradation and is largely immiscible with
hydrocarbons and has relatively low heat of reaction with Carbon Dioxide which
allow low reboiler duty thus lower operating cost.
• It is less reactive toward Carbon Dioxide,but has an equilibrium loading capacity
approaching 1 mole Carbon Dioxide per mole amine.
❖ PROPERTIES OF PIPERAZINE(Activator)
• It is an organic compound that consist of a six-membered rings containing two
nitrogen atoms at opposite position in the ring
• Piperazine exists as small alkaline deliquescent crystals with a salient taste,freely
soluble in water .
• Piperazine protect MDEA from oxidative degradation , increased stability of the
solvent blend and require less work to capture a given amount of Carbon Dioxide.
• Its solubility is low,so used in relatively small amount to supplement another amine
solvent.
❖ TWO KIND OF aMDEA SOLUTION IS USED
1 Lean– it is carbon dioxide free
2 Semi lean- it contains some amount of carbon dioxide
In this unit high pressure and low temperature is required for efficient absorption operation.
The absorber tower is packed bed type consisting of IMTP(Intalox Metal Tower Packing) ,
the material used for IMTP packing is stainless steel type.
42
At the bottom of tower we have process gas inlet and solution outlet The solution outlet
contain absorbed carbon dioxide in aMDEA solution.
At the top of tower process gas outlet and solution inlet. The gas outlet contains traces of
carbon dioxide and the solution inlet have 3 parts :
1. wash water
2. semi lean solution
3. Lean solution
❖ APPLYING COMPONENT BALANCE OVER TOWER
KY= Overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient
a = specific surface area per unit volume
KY*a=0.024kg-mole/sec-m2
• Lean =203.27 ton/hr = 203270 kg/hr
Moles of lean =203270/119.163 =1705.814 kg-mole/hr
43
• Semilean= 1401.33 ton/hr =1401330 kg/hr
Moles of semilean = moles of aMDEA + moles of carbon dioxide
CO2 Loading = 4 Nm3/ton
1401.33 ton= 4*1401.33
= 5605.32 Nm3
Moles of carbon dioxide = 5605.32/22.4 =250.2375
Kg of carbondioxide= (250.2375)*(44)= 11010.45 kg/hr
Moles of aMDEA = (1401330 -11010.45)/119.163= 11667.37 kg-mole/hr
Moles of semilean= 11917.6137 kg-mole/hr
• Water= 1.51 ton/hr= 1510 kg/hr
Moles of water= 1510/18 =83.88 kg-mole/hr
• Inlet liquid flow rate= moles of lean + moles of semilean + moles of water
L= 13707.3077 kg-mole/hr
LS(carbon dioxide free basis)= 13707.3077- 250.2375
= 13457.0702
X(2)= mole of carbon dioxide /mole of solution carbon dioxide free basis
X(2)= 250.2375/13457.0702
= .01859
Y(2)= 483 ppm= .000483
• Gas flow rate (G)= 7840.04 kg-mole/hr

CO2 composition = .1601
GS= 7840.04 – (.1601)*7840.04
=6584.8496 kg-mole/hr
Liquid flow rate (Ls)= 13457.0702 kg-mole/hr
Y(1)= .19061
44
❖ APPLYING MATERIAL BALANCE OVER TOWER
GS(Y(1)-Y(2))= LS(X(1)-X(2))
X(1)= .11162
• USING ONDA CORRELATION FROM PERRY HANDBOOK
We can calculate individual gas phase and liquid phase mass transfer coefficients given by
• For gas phase mass transfer coefficient –
❖ kgRT/ apDg=A(G/apug)0.7Nsc,G.33(apdp)-2.0
A = 5.23 for packing above 15 mm

Kg= individual gas phase mass transfer coefficient
R= Universal gas constant
a = specific interfacial area of gas-liquid contact
ap= specific surface area of packing
T = temperature
Dg=diffusion coefficient
G= mass gas flow rate per unit column cross sectional area kg/m2sec
NSC,G= gas phase schimdt number
Dp= packing size
Ug = gas viscosity
Now,
R= 8.314 J/mole-k T= 333Kelvin
a= 82.52 meter Dg= 2.76 * 10-5 m2/sec
ap= 55.56 meter Ug= 0.0177* 10-3 kg/m-sec
A= 5.23 NSC,G= 0.0263
Dp= 50mm = 0.05 meter
G=97320.09 kg/hr= 97320.09/3600
=27.033 kg/sec
Area of column= 7.06 m2
G= 27.033/7.06
= 3.8290 kg/m2-sec
45
Putting these values in formula we get,
Kg= .017
Ky= Kg * PT
PT= 44.1 kg/cm2
PT= 44.1*9.8*104
= 432.18 * 104 N/m2
Ky = 7.347 * 104
kya= 606.279 *104 mole/m3-sec
❖ For liquid phase mass transfer coefficient
➢ KL(pL/uLg).33= 0.0051(L/awuL)0.67NSC,L-0.5(apdp)0.4
PL= density of liquid (kg/m3)

UL= liquid viscosity ( kg/m-sec)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m2/sec)
L= liquid flow rate ( kg/m2sec)
Aw/ap = 1- exp [ -1.45(qC/qL)0.75(L/apuL)0.1(L2ap/pL2g)-0.05(L/pLqLap)0.2]
Where ,
Qc= critical surface tension for packing (N/m)
QL = liquid surface tension(N/m)
Aw= effective interfacial surface area of packing
PL= 1038 kg/m3 uL= 0.01289 kg/m-sec

g = 9.8 m2/sec NSC,L= 1387963.05
L= 1377596.969 kg/hr
= 382.6658 kg/sec
Area of column = 7.06 m2
L = 54.2019 kg/m2sec
Ap = 55.56 meter
Qc = 75 N/m
QL = 38.1 N/m
Aw= 31.015272 m2/m3
KL= 0.1 *10-4
Kx = kl * c
C(molar density)= 1038/119.163
= 8.71 mole/m3
Kxa = 0.00719 mole/m3-sec
Now,
46
1/KYa = 1/kya + m/kxa
m = equilibrium slope
putting values we get,
m=0.29907
So far we have calculated the equilibrium slope based on our design data now , we would
calculate the height of packed beds based on real time data
• For gas phase mass transfer coefficient –
❖ kgRT/ apDg=A(G/apug)0.7Nsc,G.33(apdp)-2.0
A = 5.23 for packing above 15 mm

Kg= individual gas phase mass transfer coefficient
R= Universal gas constant
a = specific interfacial area of gas-liquid contact
ap= specific surface area of packing
T = temperature
Dg=diffusion coefficient
G= mass gas flow rate per unit column cross sectional area kg/m2sec
NSC,G= gas phase schimdt number
Dp= packing size
Ug = gas viscosity
Now,
R= 8.314 J/mole-k T= 333Kelvin
a= 82.52 meter Dg= 2.76 * 10-5 m2/sec
ap= 55.56 meter Ug= 0.0177* 10-3 kg/m-sec
A= 5.23 NSC,G= 0.0263
Dp= 50mm = 0.05 meter
G= 108979.2609 kg/hr
= 30.272 kg/sec
Area of column= 7.06 m2

G= 30.272/7.06
= 4.287 kg/m2-sec
47
Putting these values in formula we get,
kya= 616.613*104 mole/m3-sec
➢ KL(pL/uLg).33= 0.0051(L/awuL)0.67NSC,L-0.5(apdp)0.4
PL= density of liquid (kg/m3)
UL= liquid viscosity ( kg/m-sec)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m2/sec)
L= liquid flow rate ( kg/m2sec)
Aw/ap = 1- exp [ -1.45(qC/qL)0.75(L/apuL)0.1(L2ap/pL2g)-0.05(L/pLqLap)0.2]
Where ,
Qc= critical surface tension for packing (N/m)

QL = liquid surface tension(N/m)
Aw= effective interfacial surface area of packing
PL= 1038 kg/m3 uL= 0.01289 kg/m-sec

2
g = 9.8 m /sec NSC,L= 1387963.05
L= 232624.8 kg/hr
= 64.618kg/sec
Area of column = 7.06 m2
L = 59.9938 kg/m2sec
Ap = 55.56 meter
Qc = 75 N/m
QL = 38.1 N/m
Aw= 32.18 m2/m3
KL= 0.11 *10-4
Kx = kl * c
C(molar density)= 1038/119.163
= 8.71 mole/m3
Kxa = 0.007917 mole/m3-sec
1/KYa = 1/kya + m/kxa
m = equilibrium slope
now,
1/KYa= 0.29907/0.007917
1/Kya= 37.77567
Now plotting graph of equilibrium slope and operating line we determine number of
transfer units that is coming out to be
NTUOGHTUOG=Height of packed depth
HTUOG= GS/KY*a
= 0.25322* 37.7756
48
= 9.56553 meter
Number of Transfer units(NTUOG)=4.75 by stage wise construction method.
4.75* 9.56553= 45.4363 meter
Thus height of packed depth = 45.4363 meter
DIAMETER OF TOWER
We first calculate flow parameter
Flv = LS/GS(PG/PL)0.5
LS= Liquid mass flow
GS = gas mass flow
=1595098.811/108979.2609(24.7/1038)0.5
= 2.25
Now
<P>/L is 0.375 in H2O/ft( pressure drop)
From Strigle GPDC( General Pressure Drop Correlation) chart
We have
Cs(Fp)0.5V0.05= 0.4
Fp= packing factor
= 18 ft-1
V= viscosity
= 0.0128 * 103 centistoke
On putting these values we get,
Cs= 0.083
Now,
Cs= usg(pg/pl –pg)0.5
Pg= density of gas= 24.7 kg/m3
Pl = density of liquid = 1038 kg/m3
Superficial gas velocity(usg)= 0.53ft/sec
= 0.161 m/sec
Volumetric gas flow rate = 108979.2609/(24.7)*(3600)
49
= 1.2255 m3/sec
Tower cross section = 1.2255/0.161= 7.611 m2
Tower diameter(Dc) = [(7.611)(4)/3.14]0.5
= 3.1128 meter
TOWER DIAMETER = 3.1128 METER
50
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
1) Need for control in the plant

During its operation, the plant must satisfy several requirements imposed by its designers and
the general technical, economic and social conditions in the presence of ever-changing
external influences or disturbances. Among such requirements are the following :-
i) Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement for the well
being of the people in the plant and for its continued contribution to the economical
development. Thus, the operating pressure, temperature, concentration of chemical and so on
should always be within allowable limits.
ii) Production specifications: A plant should produced the desired amount and quality of
the final products. To maintain the final product composition desired, chemical process
control is essential.
iii) Environmental Regulations: Various central and state laws may specify the allowable
limits of temperature, concentration and flow rates of effluents from the plant.
iv) Operational constraints: The various types of equipments used in plants have constraint
inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be satisfied throughout the operation of
the plant. For example pumps must maintain a certain NPSH, tanks should not overflow or go
dry, distillation columns should not be flooded, the temperature in catalytic reactors should
not exceed the range of the catalyst. The control systems are needed to satisfy all these
operational constraints.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is provided to monitor the key process variables during the plant operations.
They must be incorporated in automatic control loops or used for the manual monitoring of
the process operation. Instrument monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with
automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations.
It is desirable that the process variable to be monitored and dependent variable (that is easier
to measure) are monitored in their places. For example in the control of distillation columns
the continuous, on line analysis of the overhead products is desirable but difficult and
expensive to achieve reliably, so temperature is often monitored as an indicator of
compositions. The temperature instruments may form part of a control loop controlling, say
reflux ratio, with the composition of the overhead checked frequently by sampling and lab
analysis.
51
Instrumentation claims the following advantages:
1. It controls all those parameters, which control the process and do not allow them to cross
safe limit thereby enabling smooth and safe operation.
2. An efficiently controlled plant possesses high safety by carefully monitoring potential

hazards like fire, explosion, toxicity etc
3. By the monitoring of the process parameters like temperature, pressure and composition
streams of reaction vessel, it guarantees the quality of the product.
Instrumentation and Process Control of Reformer
The reformer consists of the following:

1. Two Temperature Controllers, for regulation of fuel and air, are required for heating
purposes to maintain the temperature of reformer box. If the temperature is high/low, the
valve operates accordingly to maintain a constant temperature of reformer box by regulating
the flow of fuel and air.
2. One Pressure Controller is required for controlling the amount of gas inside the reformer
tubes. If the pressure is high/low, the valve operates accordingly to maintain a constant
pressure of gas by regulating the gas flow rate.
52
• Instrumentation and Process Control of CO2
The absorber consists of the following:

1. Two Pressure Controllers required for controlling the amount of gas inside the CO2
absorber. If the pressure is high/low, the valves operate accordingly to maintain a constant
pressure of gas by regulating the gas flow rate.
2. One Level Controller required for controlling the level of liquid inside the CO2 absorber.
If the level is high/low, the valves operate accordingly to maintain a constant level of liquid
by regulating the liquid flow rate so that packing is immersed always.
3. One Flow Controller required for controlling the amount of liquid entering the CO2
absorber. If the flow is high/low (chances of flooding / weeping), the valves operate
accordingly to maintain a constant flow of liquid by regulating the liquid flow rate.
53
PLANT LAYOUT
54
SAFETY AND POLLUTION ABATEMENT
1) SAFETY
(A) FIRE
FIRE CHEMISTRY:- The well known “Fire triangle” requires the three ingredients of fire
namely fuel, oxygen and source of ignition.
“A fire is a combination of fuel, oxygen and source of ignition”.
FIRE PREVENTION:
Fire prevention can be done in three ways:
i) Eliminate sources of ignition.
ii) Eliminate combustible substances.
iii) Eliminate air excess to combustible substances.
FIRE PREVENTION THROUGH ELIMINATION OF IGNITION SOURCES:

To prevent fire the first is to remove the cause of fire. Studies made by fire insurance
company shows that majority of fires are caused by following general sources of ignition:
i) Electrically limited fire: Improper earthing, short circuiting, loose electrical contacts,
temporary direct connections without proper fittings, high current, over heating of electrical
equipment are among the common cause of electrically initiative fires.
ii)Smoking ignited fire: Smoking or even carrying cigarettes/ beedies/matches/lighter etc. in

the following areas is a serious offence. All non-smoking areas should carry “NO
SMOKING” signboards.
iii) Friction and overheated material: In flame proof areas, frictional fires can also be
started by the friction of moving parts of machinery which are overheated due to excess
friction. This is likely in non-lubricated and not well maintained machinery.
55
FIRE PREVENTION THROUGH ELIMINATION OF COMBUSTIBLE
MATERIALS:
Waste and combustible materials: All combustible wastes and materials like waste paper,
cotton waste etc. accumulated after a job should be transported to waste bins and is the
responsibilities of the person doing the job that creates the wastes.Tins and cans of flammable
materials like paints, oils, spirit etc.: These should b handled carefully ensuring that no undue
spillages takes place during their uses and any spillages takes place during their use and any
spillage should be cleaned immediately.
Fueling of vehicle tanks: Engine should be always switched off while fueling a vehicle. If
diesel or petrol spills over during fueling, dry sand should covered over the spill immediately
till only dry sand is visible on the spilled area.
S
Waste disposal: All combustible waste must be regarded in such a way that can be disposed
off as such and not burnt.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES:
Fires are classified according to the nature of fuel burning and fire extinguishing methods that
can be applied and the following is the fire classification under the Indian fire code.
CLASS “A” FIRE
CLASS “B” FIRE
CLASS “C” FIRE
CLASS “D” FIRE
CLASS “E” FIRE
CLASS “A” FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a cellulosic material such as wood,
clothing, paper etc. is called class “A” fire.
It can be extinguished by the water and sand. Class “A” fires can also be extinguished by all
the available means of extinguishing fires like foam, soda acid, dry chemical powder, carbon
dioxide etc.
CLASS “B” FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a flammable liquid Naphtha, petrol etc.
are categorized as class “B” fire.
Blanketing is a useful first aid fire control for “B” class fire. Water is forbidden as a fire
fighting means on class “B” fires. Foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder extinguishers
are the desired means of controlling “B” class fires.
56
CLASS “C” FIRE: Fire involving flammable like natural gases hydrogen are classified as
class “C” fire. The best means of extinguishing “C” type fire is by stopping the gas supply to
the leaking vessels or pipe lines if possible. This must be the intermediate and very first step.
Dry chemical powder and carbon dioxide are useful in controlling “C” class fire.
CLASS “D” FIRE: Fire involving material like magnesium, aluminium, zinc, potassium etc.
are classified as class “D” fire. Sand buckets are useful in most cases of metallic fires. Special
dry chemical powder also works on class “D” fires.
CLASS “E” FIRE: Fires involving electrical equipments are classified as “E” class fires.
Only carbon dioxide and D.C.P extinguishers are used on class “E” fires.
FIRE FIGHTING GADGETS AND APPLIANCES:-
CO2:- It contain under pressurized liquid carbon dioxide.

SODA ACID: - Contain a double container with sodium bicarbonate solution
in outer container and dilute sulphuric acid in the inner container. After the inner container
both react and produce a liquid of entrapped CO2.
FOAM: - Contain aluminous sulphate in inner container and sodium bicarbonate in outer
one. After cracking the container both reacts to produce carbon dioxide and the foam
stabilizer makes stable form of carbon dioxide.
DRY CHEMICAL POWDER:- It contains an inert dry chemical powder of sodium

bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate or potassium chloride and diammonium phosphate
along with liquid carbon dioxide under pressure.
HALON/ BROMOCHLOROFLUORO METHANE:-Halon is in the form of a liquid gas

under pressure that is released on pressing the knob.
TOXICITY
Toxicity of a chemical is an inherent property which relates to its ability to damage tissues
and organs. Toxicity hazard is a measure of the likelihood of such damage occurring and is
determined by the frequency and duration of exposure and concentration of chemicals.
The physical phase of material defines the potential mode of entry of substance into the body.
Material may be inhaled in the form of dust, mist, vapour or fumes. The diameter of particles
are usually defined as
0.002μm < fume < 1 μm < dust < 76 μm < grit < 500 μm.
Only the smaller particles ( < 5 μm) are readily inhaled.
ROUTES OF TOXIC MATERIALS ENTERING IN HUMAN

A toxic material can enter human body by 4 routes:
57
1. Ingestion – via mouth to stomach
2. Inhalation – via mouth or nose to lungs
3. Injection - via cuts to skin
4.Dermal absorption – via skin membranes
Toxic blood level concentration as a function of route of exposure

Wide variations are expected as a result of rate and extent of absorption, distribution,
biotransformation, and excretion.
To define toxicity there are various terms.
1. TLV (Threshold Limit Value)

It is the concentration in air which can be inhaled without harmful effects for 5 consecutive 8
hour working days. It is expressed in ppm for gases or vapour and in mg/m3 for fumes, dust
and mist.
TYPES OF TLV:
TLV-TWA - Time-weighted average for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour work week, to
which nearly all workers can be exposed, day after day, without adverse effects. Excursions
above the limit are allowed if compensated by excursions below the limit.
58
TLV-STEL - Short-term exposure limit. The maximum concentration to which workers can
be exposed for a period of up to 15 minutes continuously without suffering
(1) intolerable irritation,

(2) chronic or irreversible tissue change,
(3) narcosis of sufficient degree
to increase accident proneness, impair self-rescue, or materially reduce worker efficiency,

provided that no more than 4 excursions per day are permitted, with at least 60 minutes
between exposure periods, and provided that the daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded.
TLV-C - Ceiling limit. The concentration that should not be exceeded, even instantaneously.
TDLo (Total Dose Low) - Lowest known dose of a substance that produces any toxic,
mutagenic, terotogenic or tumorous effects.
TCLo (Toxic Concentration Low) – Lowest concentration of a substance that is reported to
have produced any toxic effect.
LD50 (Lethal Dose Fifty) – A calculated dose that is expected to cause death in 50% of a
given experimental population.
LDLo (Lethal Dose Low) – Lowest dose of a substance reported to have caused death in
humans or animal.
(A) EVALUATING EXPOSURES TO VOLATILE TOXICANTS BY

MONITORING
1. Continuous Monitoring
A direct method for determining worker exposures is by continuously monitoring the air
concentrations of toxicants on-line in a work environment. For continuous concentration
data C(t) , the TWA (time-weighted average) concentration is computed using the
equation
Where,
C(t) is the concentration (in ppm or mg/m3) of the chemical in the air and tw is the
worker shift time in hours.
59
The integral is always divided by 8 hours, independent of the length of time actually
worked in the shift. Thus, if a worker is exposed for 12 hours to a concentration of
chemical equal to the TLV-TWA, then the TLV-TWA has been exceeded, because the
computation is normalized to 8 hours.
2. Intermittent monitoring
The more usual case is for intermittent samples to be obtained, representing worker
exposures at fixed points in time. If we assume that the concentration Ci is fixed (or
averaged)
over the period of time Ti , the TWA concentration is computed by
All monitoring systems have drawbacks because
(1) The workers move in and out of the exposed workplace and
(2) The concentration of toxicants may vary at different locations in the work area.
Industrial hygienists play an important role in the selection and placement of workplace
monitoring equipment and the interpretation of the data. If more than one chemical is
present in the workplace, one procedure is to assume that the effects of the toxicants are
additive (unless other information to the contrary is available).
a) If concentration Ci is fixed over the period of time Ti , the combined exposures from
multiple toxicants with different TLV-TWAs is determined from the equation
where
n is the total number of toxicants,
Ci is the concentration of chemical i with respect to the other toxicants, and (TLV-
TWA), is the TLV-TWA for chemical species i.
If the sum exceeds 1, then the workers are overexposed.

b) The mixture TLV-TWA can be computed from
If the sum of the concentrations of the toxicants in the mixture exceeds this amount,
then the workers are overexposed.
60
(B) ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT SAFETY
The sparking of electrical equipment, such as motors, is a major potential source of ignition,
and flame proof equipment is normally specified. Electrically operated instruments,
controllers and computer systems are also potential sources of ignition of flammable
mixtures.
The use of electrical equipment in hazardous areas is covered by British Standards BS 5345
and BS 5501. The code of practice, BS 5345, Part 1, defines hazardous areas as those where
explosive gas-air mixtures are present, or may be expected to be present, in quantities such as
to require special precautions for the construction and use of electrical apparatus. Non-
hazardous areas are those where explosive gas-air mixtures are not expected to be present.
Three classifications are defined for hazardous areas:
Zone 0: explosive gas-air mixtures are present continuously or present for long periods.
Specify: intrinsically safe equipment.
Zone 1: explosive gas-air mixtures likely to occur in normal operation
Specify: intrinsically safe equipment, or flame-proof enclosures: enclosures with
pressurizing and purging.
Zone 2: explosive gas-air mixtures not likely to occur during normal operation, but could
occur for short periods.
Specify: intrinsically safe equipment, or total enclosure, or non-sparking apparatus.
(C) PRESSURE SAFETY
Over-pressure, a pressure exceeding the system design pressure, is one of the most serious
hazards in chemical plant operation. Failure of a vessel, or the associated piping, can
precipitate a sequence of events that culminate in a disaster.
Pressure vessels are invariably fitted with some form of pressure-relief device, set at the
design pressure, so that (in theory) potential over-pressure is relieved in a controlled manner.
Three basically different types of relief device are commonly used:
1. Directly actuated valves: weight or spring-loaded valves that open at a predetermined

pressure, and which normally close after the pressure has been relieved. The system pressure
provides the motive power to operate the valve.
2. Indirectly actuated valves: pneumatically or electrically operated valves, which are

activated by pressure-sensing instruments.
61
3. Bursting discs: thin discs of material that are designed and manufactured to fail at a
predetermined pressure, giving a full bore opening for flow.
Relief valves are normally used to regulate minor excursions of pressure; and bursting discs
as safety devices to relieve major over-pressure. Bursting discs are often used in conjunction
with relief valves to protect the valve from corrosive process fluids during normal operation.
The discs are manufactured in a variety of materials for use in corrosive conditions; such as,
impervious carbon, gold and silver; and suitable discs can be found for use with all process
fluids. Bursting discs and relief valves are proprietary items and the vendors should be
consulted when selecting suitable types and sizes.
Vent piping
When designing relief venting systems it is important to ensure that flammable or toxic gases
are vented to a safe location. This will normally mean venting at a sufficient height to ensure
that the gases are dispersed without creating a hazard. For highly toxic materials it may be
necessary to provide a scrubber to absorb and “kill” the material; for instance, the provision
of caustic scrubbers for chlorine and hydrochloric acid gases.
If flammable materials have to be vented at frequent intervals; as, for example, in some
refinery operations, flare stacks are used. The rate at which material can be vented will be
determined by the design of the complete venting system: the relief device and the associated
piping. The maximum venting rate will be limited by the critical (sonic) velocity, whatever
the pressure drop. The design of venting systems to give adequate protection against over-
pressure is a complex and difficult subject, particularly if two-phase flow is likely to occur.
For complete protection the venting system must be capable of venting at the same rate as the
vapour is being generated. For reactors, the maximum rate of vapour generation resulting
from a loss of control can usually be estimated. Vessels must also be protected against over-
pressure caused by external fires. In these circumstances the maximum rate of vapour
generation will depend on the rate of heating.
Under-pressure (vacuum)
Unless designed to withstand external pressure a vessel must be protected against the hazard
of under-pressure, as well as over-pressure. Under-pressure will normally mean vacuum on
the inside with atmospheric pressure on the outside. It requires only a slight drop in pressure
below atmospheric pressure to collapse a storage tank. Though the pressure differential may
be small, the force on the tank roof will be considerable. For example, if the pressure in a 10-
m diameter tank falls to 10 millibars below the external pressure, the total load on the tank
roof will be around 80,000 N (8 tonne). It is not an uncommon occurrence for a storage tank
to be sucked in (collapsed) by the suction pulled by the discharge pump, due to the tank vents
having become blocked. Where practical, vacuum breakers (valves that open to atmosphere
when the internal pressure drops below atmospheric) should be fitted.
(E) NOISE
Excessive noise is a hazard to health and safety. Long exposure to high noise levels can cause
permanent damage to hearing. At lower levels, noise is a distraction and causes fatigue.
62
The unit of sound measurement is the decibel, defined by the expression:
The subjective effect of sound depends on frequency as well as intensity. Industrial sound
meters include a filter network to give the meter a response that corresponds roughly to that
of the human ear. This is termed the “A” weighting network and the readings are reported as
dB (A).
Permanent damage to hearing can be caused at sound levels above about 90 dB (A), and it is
normal practice to provide ear protection in areas where the level is above 80 dB (A).
Excessive plant noise can lead to complaints from neighbouring factories and local residents.
Due attention should be given to noise levels when specifying, and when laying out,
equipment that is likely to be excessively noisy; such as, compressors, fans, burners and
steam relief valves.
(F) SAFETY PROVISIONS
Personal protective equipment (PPEs): The various types of PPEs are:-

1. Helmet for head protection.
2. Goggles for eye protection.
3. Ear plugs and muff for ear protection.
4. Safety shoes for foot protection.
5. Gloves for hand protection.
6. Face shields foot protection.
7. Full body protection suits.
8. Hoods for head, neck, face, and, eye protection.
9. Safety belts or life belts or harness.
(2) POLLUTION CONTROL AND ABATEMENT
Pollution means such contamination or alteration of the physical, chemical or biological

properties of the atmosphere which is likely to create a nuisance or render the atmosphere
harmful or injurious to public health or safety or to domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of the
aquatic organisms.
According to the Environment Protection Act of 1986, Environment is that which includes
the “inter-relationship which exists among and between water, air, and land and human
beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and property.”
63
Essentially, The Water (Prevention & Control) Act, 1974 can be considered to be truly the
first regulations. It has been amended many times since then. Basically, there are seven
Pollution regulations.
1. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and its amendments
2. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1974 and its amendments;
3. The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and its amendments;
4. The Environment (Prevention) Act, 1986 and its amendments,
(a) National Environmental Tribunal Act of1995 and
(b) National Environmental Appellate Authority Act of 1997;
5. Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, July1989 and
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 has been included as the sixth environmental
regulation because it is the first regulation which gives some teeth to the other five pollution
regulations listed above.
THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)ACT, 1974 AND

ITS AMENDMENTS
The purpose of this act is “to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and
the maintenance or restoring wholesomeness of water for the establishment, with a view to
carrying out the purpose of aforesaid of Boards for the prevention and control of water
pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.” This is the Act that established the Central and
a State Board and also the authority and power to constitute as many committees as it feels
essential to carry out specific functions for it.
The Act specifically prohibits “any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter’ into any stream
or well. A consent from the State Board is required for any type of new discharge into any
new stream or well. This also includes consent for “temperature” discharges as done by
cooling tower users.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
This Act was passed for the “prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.” This law
defined an air pollutant as “any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere
in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment.”
THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION ACT, 1986)
The Act was enacted to “provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for
matters connected there with.” this act defined environment which includes “water, air, and
land and the inter-relationship which exists among and between “water, air and land, and
human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property.” It also defined
a hazardous substance as “any substance or preparation which, by reason of its chemical or
64
physics-chemical properties, or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other
living creatures, plants, micro-organisms, property or the environment.”
The Act also deals with prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution by
specifying the restrictions allowed to the discharge or emit any environmental pollutant in
excess of such standards as may be prescribed. Nor is anyone allowed to handle hazardous
substances except “as maybe prescribed.” In case of discharge of excess of any material the
industry must forthwith.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
1986 - The Environment (Protection) Act authorizes the central government to protect and
improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit
or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.
1991 - The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn
up to provide for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to
the persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous substance.
1997 - The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear
appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out
or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.
2000 - The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid
down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances
1974 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional
structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water
quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into
effluent bodies. The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was constituted under this act.
1977 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act provides for the levy
and collection of cess or fees on water consuming industries and local authorities.
Reduction of Pollution:
i) Toxic metals should have a restriction on maximum environmental release based
on relative toxicity levels and accumulation rates in ecosystems. If it is inevitable
that heavy metals will be released in waste, treatment is necessary before the
waste is be released into the environment. In a series of steps, electrolysis should
be used to reduce precious metals (Cu, Ag), which can then be refined and sold.
Then, biological processing with the appropriate microbes should be used to
reduce toxicity of very reactive ions (Hg, Cd, Mn). Last, the waste solution should
be made slightly alkaline to precipitate as much metal hydroxides as possible
before release into the environment.
ii) Toxic organic compound emissions that are not pesticide applications should be
reduced by setting a fixed standard of emissions and ecotoxicity in a cap-and-trade
system which can gradually be lowered. Ideally, this would eventually lead to zero
emissions, as most organic compounds can be degraded by microbes and thus
65
treated effectively. If compounds are found to be excessively toxic, a blanket ban
should be introduced.
iii) Agrochemicals should be subject to a taxation system in which the ecotoxicity of

the compound determines the levy. However, some dangerous pesticides such as
atrazine should be incorporated in a cap-and-trade system of dangerous
agrochemicals that would gradually be lowered to allow time for transition to less
dangerous chemicals. Again, excessively toxic compounds will need to be
removed from the market by a blanket ban.
Detoxification and Recolonization:
i) Strongly polluted sites should be cleaned up through programs though bioremediation

and in-site cleanup should be the preferential treatment options.
ii) Physical and chemical reductions to bioavailability will need to be secured additionally,
preferably by an irreversible degradation, so that pollutants cannot be released again.
iii) Once a site has been detoxified, appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that all
important positions of the biome can be fulfilled.
For reducing emissions –
1. Leak Detection and Repair: if consistently and aggressively implemented in the

U.S.,SF6 emissions could be reduced by 20 percent;
2. Use of Recycling Equipment: recycling could eliminate 10 percent of total related
emissions from the U.S. electric industry; and,
Employee Education/Training: by how much SF6 emissions could be reduced through

training and an aggressive corporate policy of minimizing releases is unclear, but without
question, it is substantial.
66
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Total Capital investment
Purchased equipment cost
Serial no. Equipment Cost
1. Reformer 1500000000
2. First synthesis convertor 100000000
3. Second Synthesis Convertor 100000000
4. CO2 Removal Absorber 200000000
5. Methanator 100000000
6. Distillation Column 150000000
7. Purge Gas Absorber 150000000
8. Adiabatic Ammonia Convertor 300000000
9. Heat Exchanger 200000000
10. Pumps 100000000
11. Compressor 100000000
Total Purchased equipment Cost= Rs. 3000000000.
67
Fixed Capital Investment(FCI)
Serial No. Costs Amount(Rs.)
1. Purchased Equipment 3000000000
2. Equipment Installation 400000000
3. Instrument and Control(installed) 350000000
4. Piping (Installed) 425000000
5. Electrical(Installed) 270000000
6. Building(Including Services) 270000000
7. Land 150000000
TOTAL 4865000000
Fixed Capital Investment= Rs. 4865000000.

Total Capital Investment= Fixed Capital Investment+ Working Capital
Working Capital= 15% of Total Capital Investment= (3/17) of Fixed Capital
Investment
Total Capital Investment= Rs. 4865000000+ Rs. 729750000
= Rs 5594750000.
Thus, the plant can be setup in around 600 crores.
PRODUCTION COST
ASSUMPTION: The Production of Ammonia is taking place for 330 days an year.
(15 days shutdown in every six months for maintainence)
DIRECT PRODUCTION COST
Serial No. Nature of Expenses Costs(per year)
1. Raw Materials 6450000000
2. Operating Labour 66000000
68
3. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour 39600000
4. Utilities 2640000000
5. Maintenance and Repairs 726000000
6. Operating supplies 594000000
7. Laboratory Charges 7920000
TOTAL 10523520000
FIXED CHARGES:
Assumptions: Depreciation is calculated for a life time of 20 years(Straight line
Method)
Serial no. Nature of Expenditure Cost(as per year)
1. Depreciation 2455924040
2. Insurance(10% of FCI) 486500000
TOTAL 732092440
Manufacturing Cost= Direct Production Cost+ Fixed Charges

= Rs. (10523520000+ 732092440)
= Rs.11255612440.
GENERAL EXPENSES
Serial No. Name of Expenses Costs(per year)
1. Administrative cost 10950000
2. Distribution and Marketing cost 18250000
3. Research and Development 7300000
TOTAL 36500000
69
Total Product Cost= Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses
= Rs. (11255612440+36500000)
= Rs. 11292112440.
Selling Price:
For a minimum acceptable rate of return(r) (ROI) of 15%
Profit = r* Total Capital Investment
= 0.15* 5594750000
= Rs. 839212500.
Gross Profit( Profit before taxes)= Profit – depreciation;
= 839212500 – 245592440
= Rs. 59.3620060 crore per year.
Selling Price = ( Production Cost + Gross Profit)/ (Amount of Ammonia * No. of Working
days)
= ( 11292112440 + 593620060)/ (950 * 330)
= (11885732500)/(950*330)
= Rs. 37913.0227 per ton
PAYBACK PERIOD
Total taxes = 30% of Gross Profit;
= Rs. 178086018.
Net Profit after Taxes = Gross Profit – Total Taxes;
= 593620060 – 178086018;
= Rs. 415534042.
Payback Period = ( Fixed Capital Investment + Interest(10%) on Total Investment)/ (Profit

after taxes per year + Depreciation per year);
= (4865000000 + 559475000)/(415534042 + 245592440)
=5424475000 / 661126482 = 7.9 years.
70
BREAK EVEN POINT
Cumulative cash position = Net Profit after Taxes + Depreciation – Total capital Investment
Net profit after taxes = Rs 458085292 per year
Depreciation = Rs 245592440 per year
Total capital investment = 600 crore
Plant life= 20 years
Construction period = 3 years
Break even point = 8.67 years
Total profit over life of project = 912.36 crore
71
DETAILED DIAGRAM OF REFORMER AND ABSORBER
• DETAILED ENGINEERING DRAWING OF REFORMER
72
Tube Details
Length of tube = 10.85 m
Inner Diameter of tube = 107.23 mm
Outer Diameter of tube =127.00 mm
Thickness of tube = 9.017 mm
+Tube clearance = 200 mm
Number of Tubes = 132
Material of Construction = Ni-Cr high alloy steel
Reformer Box Details
Total number of tubes = 132
Number of tubes in each rows =12
Number of rows = 11
Length of Box = 6.4 m
Width of Box = 6.1 m
Height of Box = 13.85 m
73
DETAILED ENGINEERING DRAWING OF ABSORBER
Column Details
Diameter of Column = 3.1128 m
Height of Column = 45.436 m
Intalox Metal tower packing.
74

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PROBLEM STATEMENT

• To design ammonia production plant for 950 Metric Tonnes/ day

The composition of natural gas is taken as-

Ammonia may be conveniently deodorized by reacting it with either sodium bicarbonate

Ammonia is a constituent of tobacco smoke.

NH3 + HCl → NH4C

2Li + 2NH3 → 2LiNH2 + H2

2 NH3 (aq) ⇌ NH+4 (aq) + NH−2 (aq)

The combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic:

4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O (g)

A subsequent reaction leads to NO2

1.4 USES OF AMMONIA:

Precursor to nitrogenous compounds

Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds.

Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a

1.4.4 Antimicrobial agent for food products

1.4.5 Minor and emerging uses

Because of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is a useful refrigerant. It was commonly

For remediation of gaseous emissions

Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, giving properties

1.5 AMMONIA PRODUCTION PROCESSES:

N2 +H2 → 2NH3. promoted iron catalyst

1.5.2 Du Pont process;

Very high Pressure (900-1000 atm)

High Pressure(600 atm)

1.5.4 Mont Cenis;

Low pressure (100atm)

1.6 HABER PROCESS:

N2+3H2——————–> 2NH3+ heat

Conditions for maximum yield:

2.1 FEED GAS COMPRESSION , PREHEATING & DESULFURIZATION

H2S + ZnO ZnS + H2O

CnHm + nH2O nCO + (2n+m)/2 H2

For methane the above reaction becomes:

CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2

• Mixed Feed Preheating

2.3 PROCESS AIR COMPRESSION

2.4 SECONDARY REFORMING

2.5 SHIFT CONVERSION

2.6 CARBONDIOXIDE REMOVAL

CO2 +4H2 ------------- CH4 + 2H2O

CO + 3H2 -------------- CH4 + H2O

2.9 CRYOGENIC PURIFICATION:

2.10 SYNGAS COMPRESSION

2.11 AMMONIA SYNTHESIS

3. MATERIAL BALANCE OF AMMONIA PLANT:

3.1 Knockout Drum:

Inlet: Natural gas(F)=23938Kg/hr

Inlet DA=357Kg/hr and D2=21055Kg/hr

3.3 Primary Reformer:

Steam reforming reaction for any hydrocarbon can be written as:

CnHm + nH2O nCO + (2n+m)/2 H2

For methane the above reaction becomes:

CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2

Inlet Composition Total moles

D4=88281 kg/hr; J1(process air)=74225 Kg/hr

Inlet: Composition total moles

3.5 High temperature shift convertor:

Carbon monoxide balance:

3.7 Carbon dioxide absorber tower:

D9; D10=64205 Kg/hr

Carbon dioxide balance:

3.8 High Pressure – Low Pressure flash drum: