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 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

tF
1. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
212
In this topic, we discuss various phenomenas involving

Temperature (°F)
thermal and how does a matter behave on experiencing the
flow of thermal energy. Primarily we study tF=180

• Thermal Expansion
• Heat & Clariometry
• Heat Transfer
O
1.1 Temperature and Heat Temperature (°C) 100 tC

Temperature : Temperature is a relative measure of hotness 1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale

or coldness of a body.
It is kelvin scale
SI Unit : Kelvin (k)
Ice point  273.15 K
Commonly Used Unit : °C or °F
Steam point  373.15 K
Conversion : t(k) = t°C + 273.15
Comparing it with the celcius scale, number of scale division
Heat : Heat is a form of energy flow (i) between two bodies
in both the scales is same.
or (ii) between a body and its surroundings by virtue of
temperature difference between them t c  0C t k  273.15

SI Unit : Joule (J) 100 100
Commonly Used Unit : Calorie (Cal) • Kelvin scale is called as absolute scale, because it is
Conversion : 1cal = 4.186 J practically impossible to go beyond OK in the negative
• Heat always flows from a higher temperature system side.
to a lower temperature & system. Steam
373.15 K 100°C 212.0°C
Point
1.2 Measurement of Temperature
Ice
273.15 K 0°C 0°C
Principle : Observation of Thermometric property with the Point
change in temperature and comparing it with certain
reference situations.
• Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point. Absolute
OK –27315°C –27315°C
zero
1.2.1 Celcius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales Kelvin Scale Celcius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale 1K 1°C 1.8°F

Ice point  0°C Ice point  32°F Comparison of Temperature Scales

Steam point  1000°C Steam point  212°F
1.2.3 Thermometers
It implies that 100 division in celcius scales is equivalent to
Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is
180 scale divisions in fahrenheit scale.
called as thermometer.
t f  32 t Examples : Liquid in Glass thermometer, Platinum Resistance
Hence   c
180 100 Thermometer, Constant Volume Gas Thermometers.
 Study Materials
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Important Questions for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 9, 10 & 12 (Math &
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 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance • All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point & steam point
but go non uniform for different liquids and different materials. 1.3 Thermal Expansion
• Constant volume gas thermometer gives same readings
It is widely observed, that most materials expand on heating
respective of which gas. It is based on the fact that at low
and contract on colling.
pressures and constant volume, P × T for a gas.
This expansion is in all dimensions.
Pressure
Experimentaly it has been observed that fractional change
Gas A
in any dimension is proportional to the change in
temperature.
Gas B

–273.15°C 0°C Temperature

(°C)

x
 KT constant (k)
x

L
Linear Expansion   T Coefficient of Linear expansion () :
L
Increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temp.
L

A
Area Expension   T Coefficient of Area Expansion () :
A
L
Increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temp.

V
Volume Expansion   T Coefficient of volume expansion () :
V
Increase in area per unit volume per degree rise in temp.

V

Units of ,, = /°C or /K

• In general with change in volume the density will also
6
change.
•  for metals generally higher than  for non-metals –5
r(10 K )
–1

• is nearly constant at high temperatures but all low temp

it depends on temp.
250 500
T(K)
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of we know

temperature.
V
• For ideal gases  is inversely propertional to temp. at  T  compressive strain
V
constant pressure
nRT V T ol
v   Also    Thermal stress
P V T V
 T  T ...(3)
 
T
• Practical applications in railway tracks metal tyres of cart
• As an exception, water contracts on heating from 0°C to
wheels, bridges and so many other applications.
4°C andhence its density increases from 0°C to 4°C. Thus
is called as anamolous expansion 1.4 Heat & Calorimetry

When two systems at different temperatures are connected

1 gm/cc
together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower
Density
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become
same.
Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to
surroundings, heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
4°C 4°C equal heat gained by a body at lower temperature.
(a) (b)
heat gained = heat lost
• In general Whenever heat is given to any body, either its temperature
changes or its state changes.
3
  3  
2 1.4.1 Change in Temperature
Proof : Imagine a cube of length, l that expands equally in When the temp changes on heating,
all directions, when its temperature increases by small T; Then
We have Heat supplied change in temp (T)
l = lT amount of substance (m/n)
Also nature of substance (s/C)
3 3 3 2 2 2 3
V = (l l) – l = l + 3l l + 3ll + l – l  H = msT
2
= 3l l ...(1) m = Mass of body
2 3
In Equation (1) we ignore 3ll & l as l is very small as s = specific heat capacity per kg
compared to l.
T = Change in temp
So
or H = nCT
3V V n = Number of moles
V  l = 3VT [Using  l2 ] ...(2)
l l
C = Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole
V
 3T T = Change in temp
 V
• Specific Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise
  = 3 the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one
degree.
Similarly we can prove for area expansion coefficient
Units
• In case, thermal expansion is prevented inside the rod by
fixing its ends rigidly, then the rod acquires a compressive SI  J/KgK SH Oe = 1 cal/g°C
2
strain due to external fones at the ends corresponding stress
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. Common  Cal/gC° SH O ice = 0.5 cal/g°C
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Molar Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the On heating.

temperature of unit mole of the substance through one degree Step - 1 : Temp changes to 0°C first
Units Step - 2 : Ice melts to H2O(l) keeping the temp constant
SI  J/mol K Step - 3 : Temp. inverses to 100°C
Common  Cal/gc° Step - 4 : H2O(l) boils to steam keeping the temp constant
• Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the Step - 5 : Further temp increases
temperature of a system through one degree
 H = ST Temp

where S = Heat Capacity

Units
SI  J/K
Common  Cal/C°
• For H2O specific heat capacity does change but fairly very Heat
less.
• The slope is inversely proportional to heat capacity.
• Materials with higher specific heat capacity require a lot of
• Length of horizontal line depends upon mL for the process.
heat for some a given in temperature
1.4.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling point
1.4.2 Change in state
• For some substance melting point decreases with increases
When the phase changes on heating
pressure and for other melting point increases
Then
• Melting poing increases with increase in temperature. We
Heat supplied  amount of substance which changes the can observe the above results through phaser diagrams.
state (M)
 nature of substance (L) P B P B
(atm) (atm)
 H = mL C C
Liq Liq
Where L = Latent Heat of process Solid Solid

• Latent Heat : Amount of heat required per mass to change O Vapour O Vapour
the state of any substance.
A A
T(°C) T(°C)
Units For H2O For CO2
SI  J/Kg
Common  Cal/g Line AO  Sublimation curve
• The change in state always occurs at a constant Line OB  Fusion curve
temperature. Line OC  Vapourization curve
For example Point O  Triple Point
Solid  Liq Lf Point C  Critical temperature
Triple Point : The combination pressure and temperature
Liq  Gas Lv at which all three states of matter (i.e. solids, liquids gases
Lf = Latent Heat of fusion co-exist.
Lv = Latent heat of vaporization For H2O it is at 273.16K and 0.006 Atm.
• In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P, then on heating Critical Point : The combination of pressure & temp
the temperature will change till the time a particular state beyond which a vapour cannot be liquified is called as
change temperature reaches. critical point.
For Example : If water is initially at –50°C at 1 Atm pressure Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as critical
in its solid state. temperature & critical pressure.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting point • Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of
decreases with increases in pressure for H2O. heat energy flow for a given temperature difference.
Based on this is the concept of reglation. • Kmetals > Knon metals
Reglation : The phenomena of refreezing of water melted • Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. Therefore,
below the normal melting point due to addition of pressure. air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily.
• It is due to this pressure effect on melting point that cooking • For combinations of rods between two ends kept at different
is tough on mountains and lasier in pressure cooker. temperatures, we can use the concept of equivalent thermal
conductivity of the composite rod.
1.5 Heat Transfer
For example :
There are three modes of heat transfer.
• Conduction
T1 L1, K 1, A L2, K 2, A T2  T1 Leq, 2L, A T2
• Convection
• Radiation

1.5.1 Conduction where Keq for equivalent thermal conductivity of the

compositive.
Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy
is transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder T C
 TD 
• The term in the above equation is called as
one or from hot body to a cold body in contact with it L
without any transference of material particles. Temperature Gradient.
TC > TD Temperature Gradient : The fall in temperature per unit
TC TD
L length in the direction of flow of heat energy is called as
Temperature Gradient
A
Units
Direction of
heat flow SI  K/m
• The term Q, (i.e.) rate of flow of heat energy can also be
At steady state,
named as heat current
The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes
• The term (L/KA) is called as thermal resistance of any
constant.
conducting rod.
T  TD  Thermal Resistance : Obstruction offered to the flow of
This is rate Q  kA
C
...(i) heat current by the medium
L
for uniform cross-section rods Units  K/W

where Q = Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W) 1.5.2 Convection

2
A = Area of cross-section (m ) The process in which heat is transferred from one point to
TCTD = Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively another by the actual movement of the heated material
(°C or K) particles from a place at higher temperature to another place
L = Length of the rod (m) of lower temperature is called as thermal convection.

K = coefficient of thermal conductivity
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity : It is defined as
amount of heat conducted during steady state in unit time
through unit area of any cross-section of the substance
under unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being normal
to the area.
Units
SI  J/mSk or W/mK.
• If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan or a
pump, it is called as forced convection.
If the material moves because of the differences in density
of the medium, the process is called natural or free
convection.
• Examples of forced convection
Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat
connector
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Examples of natural convection On integrating

Trade winds, Sea Breeze/Land Breeze, Monsoons Burning log (T2 – T2) = –Kt + C
of Tea. or T2 = T1 + C1e
–Kt
where C1 = e
c
...(6)
1.5.3 Radiation equation (6) enables you to calculate the time of cooling of
a body through a particular range of temperature.
It is a process of transmission of heat in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of
any intervening medium.
T
• This radiation of heat energy occurs in the form of EM (°C) log
(T2–T1)
waves.
• These radiators are emitted by virtue of its temperature, like
the radiation by a red hot iron or light from a filament lamp.
Time (minute) Time
• Every body radiates energy as well as absorbs energy from
surroundings. • For small temp diff, the rate of cooling, due to conduction,
• The proportion of energy absorbed depends upon the colour convection & radiation combined is proportional to
of the body. difference in temperature.
(a) Newtons Law of cooling • Approximation : If a body cools from Ta to TB in t times in
medium where surrounding temp is T0, then
Newton’s Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
d Ta  Tb  T  Tb 
of the body is directly proportional to the differenct of  K a  T0 
dt t  2 
temp difference
• Newton’s Law of cooling can be verified experimentally.
 ds
Now  k  T2  T1  ...(4)
dt
T2 T1
where k is a positive constant depending upon area and
nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass loge (T2-T1)
m, specific heat capacity s is at temperature T 2 & T1 be the
temp of surroundings if dT2 the fall of temperature in time
C
dt. V
Amount of heat lost is
t
dcs = msdT2 (a) (b)
 Rate of loss of heat is given by

dcs dT Set Up : A double walled vessel (v) containng water in

 ms 2 ...(5) between two walls.
dt dt
A copper calorimeter (c) containing hot water placed inside
From Equation 4 and 5
the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the
dT2 carbs are used to not the temperature T 2 of H 2O in
 ms  k  T2  T1 
dt calorimeter T 1 of water in between the double walls
respectively.
dT2 k Experiment : The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter
  dt   Kdt
T2  T1 ms after equal intervals of time.
Result : A graph is plotted between log (T2 – T1) and time
k (t). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
where K 
ms as it should be from Newton’s law of cooling.
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