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I. Introduction
What Is Technology? Technology is a body
of knowledge devoted to creating tools, processing
actions and the extracting of materials. The term
‘Technology” is wide, and everyone has their way
of understanding its meaning. We use technology to
accomplish various tasks in our daily lives, in brief;
we can describe technology as products and
processes used to simplify our daily lives. We use
technology to extend our abilities, making people
the most crucial part of any technological system.
We apply technology in almost everything
we do in our daily lives; we use technology at work,
we use technology for communication,
transportation, learning, manufacturing, securing
data, scaling businesses and so much more.
Technology is human knowledge which involves
tools, materials, and systems. The application of
technology typically results in products.
technology is well applied, it benefits humans, but
the opposite is true, if used for malicious reasons.
Technology ushers in fundamental structural
changes that can be integral to achieving significant
improvements in productivity. It is use to support
both teaching and learning, technology infuses
classrooms with digital learning tools, such as
computers and hand held devices; improving
learning materials; supports learning 24 hours a day,
7 days a week; builds 21st century skills; increases
student engagement and motivation; and accelerates
learning. Technology also has the power to
transform teaching by ushering in a new model of
connected teaching. This model links teachers to
their students and to professional content, resources,
and systems to help them improve their own
instruction and personalize learning.
The History of Educational Computing
Each invention changed how classrooms
functioned, either in productivity, connectivity or
efficiency. Some have come and gone out of style,
some have evolved and some are just still used
today. All were necessary for us to get where we are
now in the advancement of education for children of
all ages.
Let's take a look on how technology enable
to help people and children learn in ways that are
easier, faster, more accurate, but less expensive.
One of the earliest means of formal teaching
was oral- through human speech- although
technology has been increasingly used to facilitate
or "back-up" oral communication. Then, we can
trace back to the emergence of very early tools,
such as paintings on cave walls. Also, writing
slates, desktop sandbox, hornbook and blackboards
have been used while, books and pamphlets have
held a prominent role in education. In their days,
these "technology" were viewed as radical and
effective teaching and learning tools until
computers evolve in Educational technology.
The History of Educational Computing
If
ANCIENT COMPUTING HISTORY
ABACUS- 3000BC
o Also called as counting frame. It is a
calculating tool that was use in the ancient near east
and a mechanical aid used for quick calculations.
PASCALINE - 1600s
o Also called Arithmethic machine. It was
designed and built by the french mathematician and
philosopher Blaise Pascal. It could only do addition
and subtraction with numbers being entered by
manipulating it dials. Pascal invented the machine
for his father, so it was the first business machine.
MECHANICAL CALCULATORS
JACQUARD'S LOOM PUNCH CARD - 1800s
o Is a piece of stiff of paper that contains
digital information represented by the presence or
absence of holes on predefined positions. Herman
Hollerith began designing a machine to tabulate
census data more efficiently than by traditional
hand methods. It was us punch card device that help
to analyze the US census data.
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ELECTRONIC COMPUTER SYSTEM - First
generation (1943-1956)
VACUUM TUBE COMPUTER
o It is a computer that uses vacuum tubes for
logic circuitry. These machines use electronic
switches, electromechanical relays. It used punch
cards to input and externally store data and this kind
of technology used in war effort.
ELECTRO NUMERICAL INTEGRATOR AND
CALCULATOR (ENIAC)
o Also, it is a computer that use the vacuum
tube in order to function, allowing signals to be sent
and calculations to be performed mire quickly
through the use of electrical switching. These
mashine was use to produce the WWII firing tables
for the US defence department. It was build by John
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert.
ELECTRONIC COMPUTER SYSTEM - Second
generation (1957-1964)
MAIN FRAME COMPUTER
o The large cabinets called main frames are
computers used primarily by large organization for
critical application, bulk data processing, such as
census, industry and consumer statistics. They are
larger and have more processing power than some
other classes of computers.
o It was the first Instructional use of
computers as flight stimulator used to train Pilot,
but unluckily the main frame are not widely
accepted in schools that are still using the single
classroom.
MINI COMPUTERS
o It is a class of smaller computers that was
develop in the mid 1960's and sold much less than
main frame.
MICRO COMPUTERS
o Is a small realtively inexpensive computer
with a microprocessor as its central processing unit
(CPU) as a microprossesor. Designed for individual
us or Personal Computers that is smaller than main
frame or a mini computer. It process over a 1 billion
operation per second. Adopted by public school
system during 1980's.
DURING 1990
o Tim Berners- Lee, a researcher at CERN,
the high energy physics laboratory in general,
develops hypertext markup language (HTML),
giving rise to the world wide web.
Through that kind of evolution, it brings an
advancement to Education sector, wherein the
students can learn in various ways through the help
of educational technology.
The effective Use of Technology in
Education has changed the face of education and it
has created more educational opportunities. Both
teachers and students have benefited from various
educational technologies, teachers have learned how
to integrate technology in their classrooms and
students are getting more interested in learning with
technology. The use of technology in education has
removed educational boundaries, both students and
teachers can collaborate in real time using advanced
educational technologies.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology refers to the use of
tools, technologies, processes, procedures,
resources, and strategies to improve learning
experiences in a variety of settings, such as formal
learning, informal learning, non-formal learning,
lifelong learning, learning on demand, workplace
learning, and just-in-time learning. Educational
technology approaches evolved from early uses of
teaching tools and have rapidly expanded in recent
years to include such devices and approaches as
mobile technologies, virtual and augmented
realities, simulations and immersive environments,
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collaborative learning, social networking, cloud
computing, flipped classrooms, and more.”
How Important is Technology in Education?
1. Kids are the digital native.
Kids know technology better than most adults. It
has become the easiest way they learn, because it is
such an integral part of their life. Engaging with
technology in the classroom has not only helped
them learn better, but they also acquire multi-
tasking skills. At this day in age, they hardly know
how to learn without it. This knowledge is
important, because they would be way behind in the
real world without it.
2. Kids can learn at their own pace.
We know from years of experience that kids learn at
their own pace, but sometimes the traditional
classroom makes it difficult to do so. With the
integration of technology in education, children
have the ability to slow down and go back over
lessons and concepts, and more advanced kids can
go ahead. It also frees up the teacher to help kids on
a more one-on-one level.
3. With technology, there are no limitations.
Having access to other information outside of the
book gives students many different ways to learn a
concept. Teachers can come up with creative ways
to teach their students that keeps them engaged.
Technology has changed the learning environment
so that learning is more hands-on. Schools
throughout the nation are diverse in income, and
often kids don’t always get the resources they need.
The implementation of technology in schools helps
close that gap.
4. Technology has the ability to enhance
relationships between teachers and students.
When teachers effectively integrate technology into
subject areas, teachers grow into roles of adviser,
content expert, and coach. Technology helps make
teaching and learning more meaningful and fun.
Students are also able to collaborate with their own
classmates through technological applications.They
learn best being more interactive, and technology is
what helps them do that. Children often struggle to
stay on task or interested, and with resources to help
the teacher, they can better stay focused and learn
faster.
5. Multitude of resources
Computers, tablets, and other forms of technology
bring multiple resources for the teacher that’s not in
the book. They not only keep students engaged with
exciting new features and apps, but also have other
ways to teach students material. Every kid learns
differently, and technology helps with this gap as
well.
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Instructional Technology is the branch of
education concerned with the scientific study of
instructional design. The main purpose of
instructional designers is to create engaging,
effective learning experiences.
When individuals hear the term Instructional
Technology they automatically think of how
computers are used in an educational environment.
Instructional technology is much broader than the
use of computers, hardware and software.
Understanding what Instructional technology is can
be challenging because it has its roots in several
disciplines. These include the behavioral and
cognitive sciences, communication systems,
computer science, business and education. The
multidisciplinary aspect of the field of instructional
technology has brought forward various definitions
for the field from different perspectives.
Instructional Technology in its simplest
definition is, “applying a systems approach to the
solution of instructional problems,” as stated by
Professor Thomas Reed in a lecture at Indiana
University(1999). There are other definitions
recognized in this professional fieldMcMurrin
(Reigeluth, 1999) states that instructional
technology “is a systematic way of designing,
carrying out, and evaluating the total process of
learning and teaching in terms of specific
objectives, based on research in human learning and
communication, and employing a combination of
human and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction” (p.669). In addition,
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Gentry’s definition of instructional technology is as
follows: “The systemic as well as a systematic
application of strategies and techniques derived
from behavioral and physical science and other
knowledge to the solution of instructional
problems” (Gentry, 1987 p.7). Another definition of
the field is from Cutshall (2002) who explains that
instructional technology is a field of study that
integrates the findings of the behavioral sciences
and learning theories with technology and
instruction. In his view, Instructional Designers
analyze learning needs and goals as well as develop
a delivery system to meet those needs. Throughout
the instructional design process, instructional
materials and activities are developed, implemented
for tryout as well as evaluated to see if the learning
objectives are met.
Analyzing the above-mentioned definitions
of this challenging field, it is evident that there are
common threads woven throughout, which are:
 Instructional Technology is derived from
behavioral and cognitive sciences
 Instructional Technology process is systematic
 Instructional Technology places emphasis on
the process of learning
 Instructional Technology focus is on the design
and development of effective instruction
The most widely used definition of Instructional
Technology takes into account all of the points
indicated above. The definition derives from Seals
and Richey (1994) and the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT), which states:
"Instructional Technology is the theory and
practice of design, development, utilization,
management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning."
1. Interactive White Boards
Interactive white boards, such as
SMART Boards, are now in many classrooms.
These interactive boards allow teachers and
students to manipulate text and objects and to
visit websites for content review. In addition,
these boards act as a projector for what’s on a
computer screen. For instance, if a teacher has
a Power Point presentation on her computer,
she would use the SMART Board to show it to
students. SMART Boards also come with
several activities and programs that benefit
educators. For example, Response Question
Sets are prepared questions related to content
based on grade level and subject. Also, math
teachers can use the math multimedia
resources to allow students to manipulate
math problems.
2. Websites and Blogs
Many teachers now have websites or
blogs to keep students and parents up to date.
Teachers can get their own domain name, or
they can simply sign up for a blog on a host
site like Blogspot or Wordpress. On these
sites, teachers should post upcoming
assignments, important dates and even
additional content. For instance, a teacher
might post a lecture online and reference it
the next day in class. Teachers can post
important information for parents, such as
dates for parent-teacher conferences and
important school functions.
3. Projectors
Projectors are a basic way to introduce
technology to students in the classroom. The
projector is hooked up to the teacher's laptop and
projects the screen from the laptop to the white
board in the front of the room. This enables students
to see a larger version of what is on the laptop
screen. A teacher can project a word document and
show students' note-taking strategies. The teacher
can also show PowerPoint presentations to students
using the projector. Students can follow the teacher
as he or she goes onto educational websites as well.
A projector in the classroom is a remarkable tool in
engaging the student with technology.
4. SMART Technologies
SMART Technologies are leading the way
in classroom interaction between students and
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teachers using computers. SMARTboards are a
fantastic way for students to stay engaged in
lessons. A SMARTboard is an interactive white
board that allows the teacher to project an image
from a laptop to the front of the room. The amazing
part is that the teacher can then digitally draw on
that image. Graphs and tables are available
templates in SMARTboards. SMARTboards can
folders. Bulky encyclopedias and dictionaries are
unnecessary if every student can access the Internet
on his or her own time using a personal computer.
A paperless world in the classroom can be
organized as well as environmentally friendly.
Finally, students become empowered in their
education by having their own personal tool to
better their academic outcomes.

EDUCATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY
Difference of Educational Technology and
Instructional Technology
 Development of  Deals with the The terms educational technology and
teaching and process of using
learning technology for instructional may seem compatible, but they have
 Applies theories of instruction important subtle differences. Educational
instruction,  Describes the
learning, behavioral technologies that technology embraces all areas of technology in any
and cognitive facilitates access to fields of education. Instructional technology covers
psychology to information of all
assessment, design, types. a narrow field dealing with all types of teaching and
implementation,  Acquisition, learning. Instructional technology is defined as the
and evaluation of processing, storage,
instructional and dissemination theory and practice of design and evaluation
material. of information in all processes for learning. Instructional technology
 Applies research, its forms.
theory,  Evaluation, primarily goal is to enhance the teaching and
technologies, and management, and learning process. Educational technology primarily
psychology to solve integration of
instructional and instruction with goal technological literacy for everyone. The
performance tools available. analysis between educational technology and
problems.
 The particular instruction technology are in fact found at the roots
approach used to of their definitions. Instruction is a part of the
achieve the ends of
education. education as a whole but instruction unlike
education is carefully mapped out in every detail.

store lessons and digitally enhance plain templates

into customized learning tools. Hundreds of
Conclusion:
applications are possible with this technology, and
students are benefiting immensely from it. It would seem that educational technology
and instructional technology are synonymous. The
simple definition for each makes the distinction of
5. Classroom PCs
their difference. Educational Technology is the
procedure for using the tool and Instructional
Some educators are lucky enough to have Technology is the tool.
individual PCs for every student in the class. When
every student has his or her own laptop, learning
EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
takes on a whole different dynamic. For example, a
Educational media refer to channels of
teacher can allow students to follow along during a
communication that carry messages with an
writing lesson on Word programs. In addition,
instructional purpose. They are utilized for the sole
students can research and explore on their own. PCs
can store a student's work more efficiently than
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Educational Educational Media Audio media: This form of media carry sounds
Technology
alone, for example, audio tapes, record player,
Development of teaching Are the means for
and learning transferring or a. Visual media: These are the ones that
delivering messages. can be seen. For example television,
Applies theories of Refers to the channels of computer, white board
instruction, learning, communication that
b. Audio- Visual: These terms refer to
behavioral and cognitive carry messages with an
psychology to instructional purpose those instructional materials which
assessment, design, provide learners with audio and visual
implementation, and
evaluation of experiences by appearing to the hearing
instructional material. and seeing senses at the same time, for
Applies research, theory, Are channels or avenues example television, video tapes, and
technologies, and or instruments of close circuit television (CCTV).
psychology to solve communication
instructional and
performance problems.
Is the application of Are the means of
scientific knowledge communication
about learning and available for educational
conditions of learning to purposes other than the
improve the teacher himself.
effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching
Educational media is any type of media used to
and training
educate someone on a topic. Educational media can
purpose of learning and teaching (Webcrawler,
be used at home or in the classroom to supplement
2013).
lessons and formal education. Some examples
Classification of Educational Media include primary documents, documentaries and

There are different ways to classify media. Print music. Educational media covers a large number of

media, non-profit media, and electronic media. different types of media. Media falls into a few
major categories: text, image, video and audio.
1. Print media: They include: books, journal,
magazines, newspapers, workbooks and text books. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)

2. Non-print media: They include: projected and IT is the use of any computers, storage,

non-projected media. networking and other physical devices,

3. Electronic media: They include audio media,
visual media and audio- visual, projected media and
non-projected media.
a. Projected Media: They require light
source for projection, for example, film
projector slides, and so on.
b. Non-projected Media: They do not
require light source. They include
3dimensional objects, 2 dimensional
objects, prints, chart, models and so on.
3.1 Audio Media, Visual Media and Audio-visual
infrastructure and processes to create, process,
store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic
data. Typically, IT is used in the context of
enterprise operations as opposed to personal or
entertainment technologies. The commercial use of
IT encompasses both computer technology and
telephony.
The term information technology was
coined by the Harvard Business Review, in order to
make a distinction between purpose-built machines
designed to perform a limited scope of functions
and general-purpose computing machines that could
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be programmed for various tasks. As the IT industry
evolved from the mid-20th century, computing
capability advanced while device cost and energy
consumption fell lower, a cycle that continues today
when new technologies emerge.
According to ND Century Code (Chapter 54.59.01),
Information Technology means the use of hardware,
software, services, and supporting infrastructure to
manage and deliver information using voice, data,
and video.
IT can do at least 3 things:
1. It can process raw data into useful
information.
2. It can recycle processes information an use
it as data in another processing step.
3. It can pack information in a new form so it's
easier to understand, more attractive, or
more useful.
Conclusion:
Educational media and Information
Technology are both useful to students and teachers
because they are way similar to each other in terms
of their usage. Educational Media can be used at
home or in the classroom to supplement lessons and
formal education while Information Technology is
use to process and store information to deliver using
voice, data, and video.
1. Technology in education
Technology has certainly changed the way
we live. It has impacted different facets of life and
redefined living. Undoubtedly, technology plays an
important role in every sphere of life. Several
mundane manual tasks can be automated, thanks to
technology. Also, many complex and critical
processes can be carried out with ease and greater
efficiency with the help of modern technology.
Thanks to the application of technology, living has
changed and it has changed for better.
Technology has revolutionized the field of
education. The importance of technology in schools
cannot be ignored. In fact, with the onset of
computers in education, it has become easier for
teachers to impart knowledge and for students to
acquire it. The use of technology has made the
process of teaching and learning all the more
enjoyable.
Technology's Impact on Education
 Technology is a teaching aid
Computers offer an interactive audio-visual
medium. PowerPoint presentations and animation
software can be used to present information in an
interactive way. Owing to the audio-visual effects,
this way of teaching invites greater interest from
students.
 Technology has made student life easy
Technology aids student expression.
Students can use much more than just pen and paper
to express themselves or present what they have
learned. They can use software to make
presentations and projects. This makes them more
interested in the subject and leads to better retention
of information.
 It's easier to store information
Computers enable better and more robust
storage of information. If you weigh chalk, board,
books, and notebooks against technology, you find
that technology can substitute for any and all of
these. Computers have replaced chalk and board;
they can even do the talking sometimes while the
teacher takes a step back and lets the presentations
'speak'. Digital libraries require no physical space
and students and teachers sitting in different parts of
the world can access the same library at the same
time.
 Information is easily accessible
The Internet is a huge information base. It can
be used as an effective tool for acquiring
knowledge. All a web user needs to do is to key in
queries to search engines. Users are presented with
thousands of search results. There are several
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websites and web directories that offer information
on literally everything in the world. And all this is
just a few clicks away. Both teachers and students
can benefit from this.
 Technology has eliminated space and time
constraints
Online education and distance learning have
given a new dimension to education and higher
learning. Even if students are geographically far
away from each other, they can be a part of one
classroom.
 Teaching is sharing
Thanks to the application of technology,
education has become more collaborative. With
plethora of information so easily available to
students, they can be a part of the process; they
don't need to remain at the receiving end. Owing to
the use of technology, subject experts can come
together to formulate courses, design assessments,
and better the process of teaching.
Technology improves education to a great
extent and it has now become a need for
revolutionizing education for the better.
With technology, educators, students and
parents have a variety of learning tools at their
fingertips. Here are some of the ways in which
technology improves education over time:
Teachers can collaborate to share their ideas
and resources online: They can communicate with
others across the world in an instant, meet the
shortcomings of their work, refine it and provide
their students with the best. This approach definitely
enhances the practice of teaching.
Students can develop valuable research
skills at a young age: Technology gives students
immediate access to an abundance of quality
information which leads to learning at much quicker
rates than before.
Students and teachers have access to an
expanse of material: There are plenty of resourceful,
credible websites available on the Internet that both
teachers and students can utilize. The Internet also
provides a variety of knowledge and doesn’t limit
students to one person’s opinion.
Online learning is now an equally credible
option: Face-to-face interaction is huge, especially
in the younger years, but some students work better
when they can go at their own pace. Online
education is now accredited and has changed the
way we view education.
Evolution and development
Few things have changed in the last few
centuries as much as the way we learn. Students
have gone from attending one room school houses
to having the world at their finger tips in the
classroom. Here’s a look at how envolving
technology has impacted education.
1635- the first public school in the u.s boston latin
school is founded. Noted alumni include Benjamin
Franklin, Samuel Adams and John Hancock.
1651- John Dury invents the modern library.
1795- Nicolas Jacques Conte creates the basis of the
modern pencil by mixing graphite with clay and
pressing the material between two half cylinders of
wood.
1868- Christopher Sholes invents the first
typewriter with a QWERTY keyboard.
1950- The first computer used for instruction a
flight simulator, trains MIT pilots.
1959- The IBM 650 becomes the first commercially
available digital computer. With a memory of 2kb it
costs S500.00
1967- The first handheld calculator is invented by
Texas instruments
1977- Apple computer begins selling the first
personal computer the Apple II
1977- The first personal computers enter schools.
1981- 18% of U.s public school have one or more
computers for instruction
1985- Oregon trail becomes the first educational
game to be widely adopted by schools
1991- the availability of computer in school is 1 for
every 18 students
1994- Despite only 3% of schools having internet
access President Clinton challenge’s the nation to
connect every school to the web.
1996- 1 in 12 students in formal education setting
has computer access
1997- Distance learning is offered by 78%of public
four year higher education institutions.
2000 - There is 1 computer for every 5 students in
school.
2004- 5.1% of k-12 school have laptops available to
students.
2005- 9.1% of schools have a classroom with
internet access.
2007- Nearly 1 in 5 college students takes at least
one class online.
2008- Poll everywhere launches, allowing teachers
to live poll students in the classroom via
submissions from text, email and twitter
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2009- The University of southern California online
master of arts in teaching program. The
MAT@USC, Becomes the first online degree
program to include real time element s like live
sessions. Breakout rooms and collaborative
learning.
2011- As part of a pilot program NYC public school
s order over 2000 iPads for teachers and students.
Technology in Special education
The educational standards claim that
students with disabilities should be provided with
opportunities to realize their potential. They should
participate in education and training on the same
basis as students without disabilities and that they
are not subject to discrimination. Due to the
progress in the IT industry, digital technologies are
easily accessible and widespread which allows
using them for providing students with new
opportunities.
Special technology allows increasing the
independence of a particular student freeing him
from the constant need for direct teacher
involvement. As a result, a student can choose the
speed of learning that is convenient for him which
leads to more personalized learning. When a student
doesn’t inhibit the learning process for the whole
group, it allows reducing the anxiety level which
plays a significant role in education as well.
Implementation of technologies in special education
allows simplifying the communication and improve
the academic skills of students with disabilities.
Other benefits of technologies include the
following:
Increased Independence.
Personalized learning.
Better connection with peers.
Reduced anxiety.
Easier communication.
Improved academic skills.
Traditional and digital media for education
People- human beings they are
knowledgeable but not in all aspect.
They can Cook dinner together.
Go to the library.
Do a puzzle.
Take a walk.
Have a family picnic.
Without technology, but the technology can
bring entertainment to people without any
interactions with other.
Audio- Sound especially when recorded,
transmitted or reproduced. You can get the attention
of your audience, easy to follow, easier to
remember and etc. But easier to lose focuse also
require a well design materials.
Visual- Relating to seing or sight. It can be
easy explanation, popular but sometimes it is
difficult to understand
Text- A book or other written or printed
works regarded terms of its content rather than its
physical form. It can be readable and easy to
understand but sometimes the more it has a deeper
meaning of words the more the people can lose
interest of it.
Motion- The act or process of moving or
being moved. It can be a good source of skills
because they can see the actual presentation but not
a source of meaningful words.
Manipulatives- Characterise by
unscrupulous control of a situation or person. They
can manipulate your mood in just a second but it
can easily lose your attention. It can be a source of
knowledge but it can lose your daily routine to
maintain your health.
Multi-media- Using more than one medium
of expression or communication. It can be a good
combination of material and advantage to take all
the learning s but it gives many info that sometimes
the people lose interest and it gives confused.
2. Media, Technology and Learning
What is Learning?
Learning involves ongoing, active processes
of inquiry, engagement and participation in the
world around us (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking,
2000).We do it from the moment were born and it
takes place in schools, beyond those walls and
throughout our lives. Regardless of ability or
background, everyone has the potential to learn.
Learning experiences literally shape the brain.
Lifelong learning should be the foundation of an
effective school, an active community, and a
fulfilled and meaningful life.
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Process
 A process resulting in some modification,
relatively permanent, of the way of thinking,
feeling, doing, of the learner.
Perceiving
 Input (often called cues)
 Learner perceives or develops an idea of
what must be done
Deciding
 Processing in the brain
 How do we put the info into a response?
Acting
 Output
 Move or movement
Feedback
 External or internal
 Coach important here
 Asked to practice further
 Cycle starts again
Environment
Learning environment refers to the diverse
physical locations, contexts, and cultures in which
students learn. Since students may learn in a wide
variety of settings, such as outside-of-school
locations and outdoor environments, the term is
often used as a more accurate or preferred
alternative to classroom, which has more limited
and traditional connotations—a room with rows of
desks and a chalkboard, for example.
The term also encompasses the culture of a
school or class—its presiding ethos and
characteristics, including how individuals interact
with and treat one another—as well as the ways in
which teachers may organize an educational setting
to facilitate learning—e.g., by conducting classes in
relevant natural ecosystems, grouping desks in
specific ways, decorating the walls with learning
materials, or utilizing audio, visual, and digital
technologies. And because the qualities and
characteristics of a learning environment are
determined by a wide variety of factors, school
policies, governance structures, and other features
may also be considered elements of a “learning
environment.”
Educators may also argue that learning
environments have both a direct and indirect
influence on student learning, including their
engagement in what is being taught, their
motivation to learn, and their sense of well-being,
belonging, and personal safety. For example,
learning environments filled with sunlight and
stimulating educational materials would likely be
considered more conducive to learning than drab
spaces without windows or decoration, as would
schools with fewer incidences of misbehavior,
disorder, bullying, and illegal activity. How adults
interact with students and how students interact
with one another may also be considered aspects of
a learning environment, and phrases such as
“positive learning environment” or “negative
learning environment” are commonly used in
reference to the social and emotional dimensions of
a school or class.
Dale’s Cone of Experience
Edgar Dale (April 27, 1900 – March 8, 1985) was a
U.S. educationist who developed the famous Cone
of Experience.
Dale’s Cone of Experience is a model that
incorporates several theories related to instructional
design and learning processes. During the 1960s,
Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more
information by what they “do” as opposed to what
is “heard”, “read” or “observed”. His research led
to the development of the Cone of Experience. The
Cone was originally developed in 1946 and was
intended to describe various learning experiences.
Essentially, the Cone shows the progression of
experiences from the most concrete (at the bottom
of the cone) to the most abstract (at the top of the
cone).
Dale’s Cone of Experience is a visual model
that is composed of eleven (11) stages starting from
concrete experiences at the bottom of the cone then
it becomes more and more abstract as it reaches the
peak of the cone.The experiences in each stagecan
be mixed and are interrelated that fosters more
meaningful learning.
2.2. Types of Learners
1. VISUAL LEARNER
 The visual learners need to see things to
understand. They can do this by reading,
seeing information on a chalkboard or white
board, looking at pictures, graphs, or
illustrations.
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 Graphic displays such as charts, diagrams,
illustrations, handouts, and videos are all
helpful learning tools for visual learners.
Characteristics of visual learners:
 Remember what they read rather than what
they hear.
 Prefer reading a story rather than listening to
it.
 Learn from seeing things written out on a
chalkboard.
 Use diagrams and charts to understand ideas
and concepts.
 Take notes during class or while listening to
presentations.
 Study by looking over things.
 Are good at spelling.
 Use color to organize information.
 Need quiet study time.
 Often prefer to work alone rather than in
groups.
 May not understand verbal instructions.
 Ask a lot of questions to seek clarification.
 Need to be able to see the teacher.
Technologies suited for visual learners:
PowerPoint that outlines key points and includes
pictures or diagrams.
YouTube video
2. AUDITORY LEARNER
 Auditory learners learn best while they are
actively listening.
 Auditory learners find conventional study
practices, such as making notes directly
from a textbook, not terribly effective. They
much prefer to ingest information through
audio or video clips, or by discussing a
topic.
 While they are not rabid note-takers in class,
they are able to take in what they need
simply by listening intently.
 Combine this with a tendency to want to
talk, auditory learners can sometimes appear
disruptive or uninterested in class.
 Learn effectively through lectures, audio
books, oral presentations, music, or verbal
instructions
Characteristics of Auditory leaners:
 Remember who said what in the past
 Enjoy discussions and debates
 Benefit from reading aloud
 Follow oral directions better than written
ones
 Tend to memorize well
 Prefer listening to the news
 Remember names
 Notice sound effects in movies
 Don’t automatically understand graphs,
diagrams, or maps
3. KINESTHETIC LEARNER
 Kinesthetic (or tactile) learners learn best by
touching and doing. Hands-on experience is
important to kinesthetic learners.
 They try things out, touch, feel and
manipulate objects. Body tension is a good
indication of their emotions. They gesture
when speaking, are poor listeners, stand very
close when speaking or listening, and
quickly lose interest in long discourse.
 They remember best what has been done,
not what they have seen or talked about.
They prefer direct involvement in what they
are learning. They are distractible and find
it difficult to pay attention to auditory or
visual presentations.
Characteristics of Kinesthetic learners:
 Understand more when learning through
hands-on experience
 Become easily bored in a traditional
classroom
 Learn through movement
 Enjoy sports and physical activity
 Likes to build things and work with their
hands
 Loves testing things and experimenting and
creating
4. MULTISENSORY LEARNER
 All learning happens through the senses,
which act as pathways to the brain.
 Multisensory lessons are so impactful
because no matter the learning strength of
each child (be it auditory, visual, tactile, or
kinesthetic) a multisensory lesson will target
the learning strengths of all students at one
time. We can teach once and successfully
reach all our students.
AUDITORY LEARNER
 Children who are strongly auditory and need
lessons to be presented via this modality
don’t just need to hear a lesson taught; they
mostly need to hear themselves speak what
they are learning.
 Auditory learners benefit from repeating
new content out loud. They benefit from
using an auditory amplification device, so
they can hear themselves more clearly. They
benefit from reading aloud. Auditory
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learners will benefit from explaining what
they have learned to another student or to a
small group of their peers
VISUAL LEARNER
 Children who are visual learners don’t just
need to see what they are learning, they need
visuals that show the meaning of what they
are learning. They benefit from charts or
graphs that organize content in ways that
make sense of the whole. Visual learners
strongly prefer seeing content organized in
ways that allow them to discover patterns.
They benefit from illustrating what they are
learning.
KINESTHETIC LEARNER
 Children who learn tactilely must have the
opportunity to use their hands to learn. This
goes beyond paper and pencil learning.
Tactile learners make meaning by moving
things around, by manipulating objects that
represent the concepts they are learning.
2.3. MEDIA
What is Media?
 refers to the communication channels
through which we disseminate news, music,
movies, education, promotional messages
and other data. It includes physical and
online newspapers and magazines,
television, radio, billboards, telephone, the
Internet, fax and billboards.
 It describes the various ways through which
we communicate in society.
Types of Media:
 Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines) -
One of the oldest and basic forms of
communication. It includes newspapers,
weeklies, magazines, monthlies, banners &
graphics, posters and other forms of printed
material
 Electronic Media – (TV, Radio) - The most
expedient means to transmit information
immediately to the widest possible audience,
although the Internet currently challenges
television as the primary source of both
news and other recreational content (e.g.,
movies, sitcoms, etc.).
 Internet– Weblogs, social media
ROLES OF MEDIA IN LEARNING
Media plays a very important role in the
field of education.Media is field which works on a
broad scale, both the social and mass media played
different roles.Because the power of media is so
extensive and huge it can be used to educate people
at very little cost. Through online teaching 1000 of
persons can be taught at the same time.It also allows
students and teachers to connect and share ideas, as
being anextension of class discussion by extending
the possibility of sharing beyond the classroom
walls.
Social media in education is simply a new
tool for timeless goals: to connect, share and create
with the school community. Whether in a classroom
on for marketing a school or for connecting with
fellow educators. Social media forges new ties and
exchange content in meaningful ways that would
have not been possible a few years ago.
The mass media, television
programs,internet websitesnewspapers, music, tapes
and CDs magazines, radio programs specially a
tool/technology which is used by someone to
transmit the message to a large external audience. It
is becoming clear that mass media is a far greater
source of information about the world rather than
textbooks or academics. Children love to learn new
things practically rather than theoretically, so when
they see many historical serials on TV,they learn a
lot from them,rather than when they read from
books.Thus, we can say media plays an important
role to create awareness, knowledge and make
people educated.
Print Media
 Newspapers - Through newspapers, we can
get news,information,and we can learn our
national language,and English newspapers
are very helpful to learn the English
Language.
 The journal of educational change welcomes
and supports contributions from a range of
disciplines, including
history,psychology,political
science,sociology,anthropology,philosophy
and administration and organizational theory
and from a broad spectrum of methodologies
including quantitative and qualitative
research and conceptual developments.
 Magazines - Through magazines, we can
learn by articles,features,interviews,short
stories, and we can get very nice literature
by magazines. Different types of magazines
having different and versatile knowledge of
over all the world.
 Book is the best source of education. A lot
of material of formal and informal education
is available in the books. Mostly students
depend upon this medium to learn the
education. Despite modern technology, still
this medium is popular for the learning.
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Electronic Media
 Television has been given considerable
importance in many countries as a source
and a tool of teaching. The success stories of
using television for education in many
countries has negated the concept that
television is basically on entertainment
oriented medium and it is hostile to
thoughts. Television is adaptable and can
follow different approaches when used in
the different educational situations. The
medium is used for formal, non-formal and
informal education.
 Radio is a mass medium that can be
harnessed to enhance an education campaign
since it can span great distances and reach a
large number of listeners. Because of its
wide coverage, relatively low unit cost,
ability to reach those who are illiterate and
without the use of mains power, it has
proved to be an effective educational
medium. The features of the radio medium
are: it is a ‘blind’ (ie non‐visual) medium; it
functions in real time; and its codes are
purely auditory, consisting as they do of
speech, music, sounds, noises and silences.
 Computer use in school has and will have a
great role in the presentations of lessons, and
for communication and information. A test
conducted by electronic means has various
advantages among which may be
mentioned: direct monitoring by the teacher
in a virtual class, the results can be stored in
databases is different draw conclusions on
the evolution of each particular student and
his performances can be available to test
different data can be accessed repeatedly,
etc., leading to an adaptable and flexible
learning and assessment, as part of a
complex mechanism of the educational
process.
Internet
 The internet has a significant potential for
providing children and youth with access to
educational information and can be
compared with a huge home library.
 Regardless of gender, race, age, geographic
location, language or any disability, internet
gives an equal chance to all to progress in
the field of education.
 Enhanced Lessons - Teachers can make use
of the internet by giving students extra
resources and material from the Internet,
such as interactive lessons and educational
games. Many college courses use a "hybrid"
model where many lessons are done online,
requiring fewer in-class meetings. This
saves students from having to commute to
campus with their heavy textbooks every
day. Tests, homework, collaboration with
students and research can all be done from
any computer with Internet access.
METHODS
Print Media
 Newspapers, books, magazines
Electronic Media
 Radio, TV, Internet, Electronic Advertising,
Computer, Smartphone
Internet
 application, audio, image, text and video.
3. Types of experiences
These are the rich experiences that our
senses bring from which we construct the ideas, the
concepts, the generalizations that give meaning and
order to our lives. (Dale, 1969)
1. Direct Purposeful Experience
They are experiences that are internalized in
the sense that these experiences involve the
asking of questions that have significance in
the life of the person undergoing the direct
experience. These experiences are
undergone in relation to a purpose, i.e.
learning andi t is done in relation to a certain
learning objective.
Let us give our students opportunities to
learn by doing. Let us immerse our students
in the world of experience through
preparation or preparing their stuffs. Help
our students develop the five senses to the
full to heighten their sensitivity to the world
and guide our students so that they can draw
meaning from their first hand experiences
and elevate their level of thinking with the
means of experiments.
Examples:
Preaparation
Experiments
Delivering a speech
Taking a trip/ field trip and
Playing
2. Contrived Experience
These are the edited copies of reality and are
used as substitutes for real things when it is
not practical or possible to bring or do the
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real thing in the classroom and designed to
stimulate real life situations.
Examples:
Model -- is a reproduction of a real thing in
a small scale, or a large scale or exact size-
but made of synthetic materials. It is a
substitute for a real thing which may or may
not operational –Brown, et. al, 1969
Mock up -- is an arrangement of a real
device or associated devices, displayed in
such way that representation of reality is
created.
Specimen -- is any individual or item
considered typically of a group, class, or
whole.
Object -- it may ay also include artifacts
displayed in a museum or objective
displayed in exhibits or preserved insect
specimens in science.
3. Dramatized Experience
A process of communication in which both
participant and spectators are engaged.
Examples:
Pageants - These are usually community
dramasthat are based on local history,
presented by local actors.
Psychodrama - Facilitates insight, personal
growth, and integration on cognitive,
affective, and behavioral levels. It clarifies
issues, increases physical and emotional
well-being, enhances learning and develops
new skills.
Sociodrama – is a method by which a group
of individual select and spontaneously enact
a specific social common to their
experience.
Learning process– a process that people
pass through to acquire new knowledge and
skills and ultimately influence their
attitudes, decisions and actions.
Learning environment- The learning
environment can refer to an educational
approach, cultural context, or physical
setting in which teaching and learning occur.
The term is commonly used as a more
definitive alternative to "classroom" but it
typically refers to the context of educational
philosophy.
Psychological perspective - The
psychological perspective is the result of a
synthesis of cognitive and behavioral
psychology theories. In this tradition of
research, three strategies are clear: (1) the
adoption of attitude change as the most
interesting dependent variable, (2) the
modeling of communication (i.e.,
persuasion) as a special case of behavioral
learning theory, and (3) the reliance on
experimental social psychology for
conceptual and methodological research
strategies. The basic communication model
proposed by Hovland and Janis (1959).
Instructional approaches - The
instructional approaches identified in the
document are flexible enough to incorporate
the Common Essential Learnings and to
accommodate individual student needs,
abilities, interests, and strengths through the
Adaptive Dimension
Middle Ground – connectivity using a
communication tool to support a mix of
academic learning; intellectual, cognitive,
and social interaction with selected peers
amd academics.
Philosophical perspective on learning -
Philosophy of education is the study of key
philosophical ideas that have influenced
educational thought and developments in the
world.
4. Display Surfaces
What is the point of display?
Displays should aim to:
 Make the environment attractive -
Displays can add colour, texture,
variety and order, to areas which would otherwise
be drab.
 Communicate ideas and information
clearly - By careful planning and
selection of materials, thematic displays or special
interest displays should
help students to understand more about the subject.
 Stimulate interest and questioning - A
display can sometimes act as a
starting point for a particular area of investigation.
Students are encouraged
to ask questions and seek solutions.
 Show appreciation of children’s work -
Good display acknowledges the
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value of work done. By displaying a child’s work
you demonstrate your
interest and approval.
Display Surfaces - Chalkboards, flannel boards,
whiteboards, newsprint, flipcharts, magnetic boards,
multipurpose boards (marker board) and bulletin
boards form agroup of media materials which we
refer to as display surfaces. Display surfaces are the
most commonly available medium in schools.
Chalkboards
Until recently the chalkboard was the most
important teaching medium in the classroom.
Teachers used to deliver most of their explanations
via writing on the classroom blackboard. Nowadays
chalkboards have been replaced by multipurpose
boards (whiteboards). However, chalkboards have
not been removed completely from schools. In some
classes, chalkboards are being used for displaying
charts and pictures.
Chalkboards can be used as a surface upon which
you can
1. Draw visuals - sketches, diagrams, graphs etc.
2. Display visuals – pictures, charts
Bulletin Boards
A bulletin board is a display surface made of
a material that holds pins, thumbtacks and other
sharp fasteners without damage to the board. In
practice bulletin board displays tend to serve three
broad purposes:
1. Decorative –bulletin boards are used to
lend visual stimulation to the
educational environment.
2. Motivational – bulletin boards are used
to display student work. This fosters pride in
achievement reinforcing students’ efforts to do a
good job. Creating a display of student work is also
relatively effortless for the teacher to assemble.
3. Instructional – bulletin boards are used
to complement the objectives of a lesson. Such
displays can be designed to actively invite
participation. For example these displays can give
the viewers some means of manipulating parts of
the display to verify their answers, such as flaps,
pockets, dials, or movable parts.
Multipurpose Boards
Nowadays almost all classes are equipped
with a multipurpose board commonly referred to as
whiteboards. As their name implies multipurpose
boards can be used for more than one purpose. The
surface can be used for:
1. Writing text and drawing sketches,
diagrams etc.
2. Projection of films, slides and overhead
transparencies.
3. For displaying visuals via magnets
provided that the surface is made of
steel.
Unlike chalkboards, multipurpose boards are
dustless. Accordingly they are the most suitable
display surfaces for classes equipped with
computers. Also a variety of colours are available
for use on multipurpose boards.
It is important to:
1. Use the appropriate markers on
multipurpose boards. Whiteboard markers should be
used. Remove any permanent markers in the
vicinity of multipurpose boards.
2. Erase the board after use. Do not let the
marks remain on the board overnight. The longer
the marks remain on the board, the more
difficultthey are to erase. Old marks may be erased
using a damp cloth. However, one would have to
allow some time for the surface to dry off before it
can be used.
3. Cap the markers when not in use even
during the delivery of your explanation. This is
because the markers have a solvent base that dries
quickly. Also markers should be stored in a
horizontal position with thecap tight when not in
use to prevent them from drying out. If a marker
dries out, cap it, turn it upside down, and shake it
vigorously for 20 seconds.
Cloth Boards
Cloth boards are made up of cloth stretched
over a hard material such as plywood or heavy
cardboard. Sometimes the cloth is hanged to a
multipurpose board or bulletin board. Different
cloth materials may be used including flannel, felt
or Velcro material.
Visuals cut from flannel can stick easily –
by applying gentle pressure - to another cloth made
of flannel. You can use felt-tip markers to draw any
shape or letter on a flannel cloth piece. You can cut
this out and press this on the flannel cloth board.
You can also stick pieces of flannel to pictures and
graphics and press these on the flannel cloth board.
Coarse sandpaper can also be used on the back of
visuals for attachment to a cloth board. If adhesion
is less than desired, slant the board slightly to
prevent materials from slipping.
You can also stick Velcro material to
pictures and graphics and press these on the flannel
cloth board. When pressed together, the two
surfaces stick firmly. Velcro material can be
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purchased in rolls or strips. One great advantage of
Velcro is its ability to support heavy visuals and
also light three dimensional objects.
Cloth boards are particularly useful for
lessons in the primary classroom. With a little bit of
imagination cloth boards can be used for
storytelling. This is because any visual can be easily
moved from one part of the cloth board to another.
Children may be allowed to do such movements
themselves.
Be sure you have proper storage space for
your cloth board and cloth-board visuals when not
in use. Proper storage will help keep them clean and
prevent them from being bent or torn. If possible,
store your materials on a flat surface rather than
stacking them up against a wall. If you use
sandpaper backing on your visuals, put paper
between them during storage, as sandpaper can
scratch the surface of visuals.
Peg Boards
A board having a regular pattern of small
holes for pegs, used chiefly for games or the display
of information. The holes are used to accept pegs or
hooks to support various items, such as tools in a
workshop. Peg-Board is an expired trademark used
as a brand name by the Masonite Corporation, first
used in 1962, which is often used as a generic term
for perforated storage boards made of hardboard,
wood, metal, or other material.
Flip Charts
A flip chart is a pad of large paper fastened
together at the top and mounted to an easel. Each
individual sheet can hold a limited amount of text or
visuals. However, one can use the individual sheets
in a flip chart for sequential presentation to a small
group. The text or drawings can be prepared before
the lesson. Each sheet can be revealed one at a time
during the lesson. Flip charts are particularly useful
for small group tutoring or discussions.
The flip chart is very versatile, convenient
and inexpensive teaching medium. It requires no
electrical power, has no moving parts to wear out,
can be used in a wide range of lighting conditions,
is portable and requires only a marking pen as
peripheral equipment.
As indicated above the flip chart is an ideal
medium for small group tutoring or discussions.
Students regard teaching sessions using flip charts
as friendly, casualand comfortable. The flip chart is
an exceptionally valuable aid to any group
discussion process. Ideas contributed by students
can be recorded in a way visible to all participants.
Comments and correction can be made and the
results can be preserved. Finished sheets can be torn
off the pad and taped to walls or windows for later
reference. You can also refer to the checklist for use
of flip charts during lessons.
Copy Board
The backing on which the original to be
reproduced is positioned in front of the camera in
photoengraving.
The Copyboard is a simple but powerful tool
which maximizes results of your meetings. Just like
you would do on a whiteboard, you write directly
on the panel surface of the Copyboard – take notes,
draw diagrams, brainstorm.
Unlike when using a whiteboard, with a
Copyboard you are able to retain your work. You
have the option of printing or electronically storing
what has been written on the board. Or you can
simply scroll to a clean panel, allowing you to
continue writing without losing your current work
or your train of thought!
Magnetic Board
Sheets of ferromagnetic material with
specially-painted light surfaces on which material
can be written or drawn using suitable markers or
pens.
Uses of Magnetic Board:
 Enable display items made of magnetic
material to be stuck to and moved about on
their surfaces.
 Magnetic boards can be used to produce
highly sophisticated displays that enable
movement and change in systems to be
clearly demonstrated to a class or small
group.
Exhibit
An exhibit is an item that is shown
off for the public, such as a painting on
display at a gallery or a historical document
shown under glass at a museum. The main
thing to remember about an exhibit is that it
refers to something presented formally and
in a public setting.
Two Types of Exhibit:
 Display, evince, exhibit, manifest
mean to show or bring to the
attention of another or others. To
display is literally to spread
something out so that it may be most
completely and favorably seen: to
display goods for sale. To exhibit is
to display something in a show: to
exhibit the best flowers.
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 A diorama is often used as a learning
tool to help show a student's
understanding of a certain subject
matter. In reality, a diorama is much
more. A diorama is a three-
dimensional scene used to creatively
express learning.
Dioramas or 3-D boxes are a part of elementary
and secondary school in almost every subject
matter. They are an excellent way to merge craft
projects and the understanding of the subject. A
diorama is a 3-dimensional scene created to
illustrate an academic subject, a plot of a story,
or an event in history.
5. Still Pictures
A still image or pictures is a single static
image, as distinguished from a moving image (i.e. a
movie). This phrase is used in photography, visual
media and the computer industry to emphasize that
one is not talking about movies, or in very precise
or pedantic technical writing such as a standard.
a. Drawings – These are crude and simple
lines, which are effective in showing what
needs to be shown with sufficient clarity, to
make the meaning vivid to learners or
students. They are drawings with no illusion
of depth but a smart teacher can use them in
a very effective way in explaining and
showing ideas and concepts.
Examples:
Sketches
Comic
Caricatures
b. Charts – a graphic or pictorial
representations of a large mass of
information or show progression thru time
and space of people or events, ideas and
objects.
Examples:
Data chart – contains items of information
pf all sorts especially quantitative data.
Pictorial chart – use relevant pictures to
present data or information on quantifiable
data over a specific period or condition.
Schematic chart – shows a principle or a
law as applied like that of refrigeration
Diagrammatic chart – verb chart is
popular example
Multiple leaf chart – internal working
parts of a machine
Phantom view chart – shows hidden parts
of a machine without obliterating the outer
parts
Development or progress chart – profile
of a place or a person
Table chart – bus trips
Time and tabular chart – presidents and
their term of office
Stream or tree chart – family tree
Flow or organizational chart – school
personnel chart, life cycle of a frog or the
water cycle.
c. Graphs – It present quantitative data for
easier analysis and interpretation. It shows
comparative relationship of data involved in
size, trends and growth. Graphs are best
used in developing and in summarizing a
unit.
Examples:
Line graph – is the most accurate of all
graphs used in plotting trends of
relationships between two series of data. It is
used when there is a considerable number of
data to be plotted and if these data are
continuous
Bar graphs – simplest of all graphs to read.
They are represented either by vertical or
horizontal bars. The lengths of the bars
represent an amount or percentage data. It is
best when number of values to be compared
is small.
Circle or pie graph – the sections of which
are used to represent component parts of a
whole. They always present total amounts,
their parts or segments are calculated in
percentage or fractional parts of a whole.
Area or Solid graphs – use for the simplest
quantitative comparison thru the use of
geometric shapes. It is used to compare two
or three related totals.
Pictorial Statistics or pictograph – it
makes use of related pictures in showing
quantitative data. Pictures give realism and
interest so it is widely used specially in the
elementary grades.
d. Poster – Combination of bold designs and
color primarily intended to catch attention
on a significant fact, idea or message.
Simply stated, a poster is a picture with
appropriate caption.
e. Cartoons – tell stories metaphorically
through pictures, which need no captions.
Symbolism conveys messages, less words
more symbolism the better; It is a pictorial
representation or caricature of a person,
idea, situation or issue that is designed to
influence public opinion. Therefore cartoons
must be presented in a challenging manner.
For better understanding they should be
drawn around a single idea.
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f. Maps – Maps are usually shown on flat
surface and are used to represent the surface
of the earth or some parts of it, showing the
relative size and position according to scale
or projection and position represented.
I. Technologies for Learning
Technology ushers in fundamental structural
changes that can be integral to achieving significant
improvements in productivity. It is used to support both
teaching and learning, technology infuses classrooms
with digital learning tools, such as computers and hand
held services; expands course offerings, experiences,
and learning materials; supports learning, builds 21st
century skills; increases student engagement and
motivation and accelerates learning.
These are some of the technologies that can
alleviate students’ learning.
Custom Learning Experiences
Modern technology can initiate custom teaching
and learning methodologies and experiences in our
present day educational infrastructure. With modern
gadgets and interfaces, one can initiate learning based
on their need, preference, and availability.
Instead of the one-size-fits-all approach to
classroom education, mobile apps development for
education unleashed a new way of need-based learning.
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing unlocks the door of high tech
education. The anytime-anywhere accessibility of
information stored in remote cloud servers of the apps
made it possible to access courseware and educational
materials from any device and from anywhere. Besides
the ease of access and collaboration, cloud-based
education apps solved the problem of storing data as
well.
Speech-To-Text Options
A vast majority of devices and app platforms are
now coming with virtual assistant apps and features like
Apple’s Siri. Such smart assistants responding to voice
commands make things even easier for learning.
Moreover, the speech-to-text feature, coming with most
devices, makes note taking and writing even more
comfortable and fast-paced.
Virtual And Augmented Learning Experiences
Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality have
come as a big boost to online education such learners
can actually get an immersive learning experience
without needing to move their legs too much. If a student
wants to learn about space objects just by running a 3D
space video on his VR headgear, he can float in space
while a background voice continues depicting the Milky
Way in detail. Similarly, real-time broadcasting of critical
surgical operations allows medical students to learn
through a more immersive experience.
3D Printing
3D printing, also known as prototyping, allows
students to learn with a more tangible and physical
experience. A student can easily shape his idea of an
object thanks to 3D printers. With 3D printing, students
can give shape to their imagination. In any institution, 3D
printers will only help students to unleash their creative
ideas and have more hands-on experiences.
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Learning Analytics
The increasing pace of high tech adoption of the
educational system, learning data is increasingly
becoming important to drive decisions and make
decision-making procedures easier. The huge volume of
education information and data give birth to learning
analytics, as it is increasingly important to assess and
evaluate student engagement, traction, and learning
output. Eventually, learning systems will dictate the way
education is remitted by teachers and experienced by
learners. Learning analytics will boost learner
engagement in education more than anything else.
II. COOPERATIVE LEARNING is a successful teaching
strategy in which small teams, each with students of
different levels of ability, use a variety of learning
activities to improve their understanding of a subject.
Benefits of Cooperative Learning
• improves academic achievement
• improves behavior and attendance
• increases self-confidence and motivation
• increases liking of school and classmates
• develops and uses critical thinking skills and
teamwork
• promotes positive relations among different
ethnic groups
• implements peer coaching
• establishes environments where academic
accomplishments are valued
• cooperatively manage schools
Strategies forCooperative Learning
GroupInvestigations
- structured to emphasize higher-order thinking
skills such as analysis and evaluation. Students work
to produce a group project, which they may have a
hand in selecting.
Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) (For
Grades 2-12)
Students with varying academic abilities study
what has been initially taught by the teacher and to
help each reach his or her highest level of
achievement then students are tested individually.
Jigsaw II (for Grades 3 to 12)
Each team member is responsible for learning a
specific part of a topic, who are "expert" in the same part,
the "experts" return to their own groups and present their
findings. Team members then are quizzed on all topics.
III. SIMULATIONS
Simulations are instructional scenarios where the
learner is places in a world defined by the teacher. It
isalso a form of experiential learning. It is a strategy that
fits well with the principles of student-centered and
constructivist learning and teaching.
Purposes of Simulations
• Promote the use of critical and evaluative
thinking
• Promote concept attainment through experiential
practice.
• Help students appreciate more deeply the
management of the environment, politics,
community and culture.
• Can reinforce other skills indirectly, such as
debating.
Forms of Simulations
 a game
 a role-play
 an activity that acts as a metaphor
IV. GAMES AND SIMULATION GAMES
 Flash cards, game show competitions.These
are best suited for memorization-based or drill-
based applications.
 Role-Play, Quests.Encourage imitation,
reinforce continuous practice, and emphasize
increasingly challenging content.
 Strategy, Adventure.Fosters decision-making
abilities, or sharpen choice-making and quizzing
skills.
 Multi-player gaming. For fostering collaboration
and team work is the ultimate learning objective.
 Open-Ended Simulation. Best suited for
teaching experimentation and logic
 Timed Games, Reflex Testing. Foster quick
thinking and thinking “out of the box,”
Benefits of Simulation Games
 Active engagement
 Adaptability
 Self-paced
 Feedback
 Standardization
 Cost-effective
V. LEARNING CENTERS
Learning Centers are the foundation of your
classroom - how well they work makes a big difference to
the whole year as you look around the room, review the
setup and consider the following suggestions.
It is a self-contained section of the classroom in
which students engage in independent and self-directed
learning activities. Get information on learning centers
and how to incorporate them in to your instructional
routine using this advice.
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Also, it is a space set aside in the classroom that
allows easy access to a variety of learning materials in an
interesting and productive manner. Learning centers are
usually designed to offer a variety of materials, designs,
and media through which students can work by
themselves or with others to operationalize the
information learned in the classroom. Centers are
designed to enhance the learning of concepts, skills,
themes, or topics. This learning can take place after a
topic is presented to students, during the course of
presenting important concepts, or as an initial introduction
to material in the text.
Lastly, learning centers can have any number of
designs, each limited only by your creativity and
imagination. Feel free to work with your students in
creating a center they will want to use. Such shared
responsibility assures that students have a sense of
ownership in the center and will be more willing to
engage in the resultant activities.
Setting up Learning Centers in the classroom
Teachers can set up as many centers as they
would like or have room for, but make sure that no two
centers are the same. This ensures that these spaces are
special and enticing. These centers should be a
conscious and efficient use of the space in the classroom.
Here are some pointers to help teachers set up Learning
Centers in the classroom:
 Number of centers: Have an idea of the number
of centers that are needed in the classroom. It is
best to name each center from the start to help
differentiate between them and to indicate their
learning objective.
 Space and location: Consider the entire space
of the classroom and decide how the classroom
should be arranged. Teachers may need to
consider the actual teaching area along with the
other spaces, as it is not easy to constantly be
rearranging. It is also important to consider easy
mobility between the centers, so that students
can travel to and from centers without disrupting
or disturbing others.
 Furniture: Take inventory of the furniture
provided and decide the optimal way of arranging
it within the classroom, so as to create a positive
and encouraging learning atmosphere. When
arranging the furniture, teachers should keep in
mind the type of activities that the space will be
used for (individual/group) and the nature of the
center (reading, writing, etc.).
 Materials and storage: Plan in advance how to
procure the needed materials for the space.
Does the teacher need to approach the school
administrator or request certain items from
parents? Another point to consider is the storage.
Where and how should the materials at each
center be stored for organization and easy
access for the students?
Structuring the Learning Center
After considering the physical structure of the
Learning Centers, the next step is to plan the centers in
the most effective way. Then the centers can stimulate
the highest levels of learning in the classroom. Pointers
for planning the centers are as follows:
 Grouping students: When placing students into
groups it is best to have 3-4 members that are
similar in their needs and abilities. Each group
can be given a name and color as it allows for
easy planning and monitoring.
 Directions: Have clear directions to be followed
in each center. These instructions can be
displayed where students can easily view, to
encourage adherence. The instructions may be
open ended to encourage independent learning
or specific to accomplish certain learning
objectives.
 Scheduling: Have specific time limits for each
center or certain times during the day that the
centers are open.
 Duration: Have an idea of how long a particular
center will be operational. For instance some skill
centers may not be useful after students have
gained mastery over the particular skill.
 Rotate: For specific group center times create a
rotating schedule, a road map or a graphic
organizer that gives an order to the student
groups and their use of the centers. Have a timer
or a buzzer, to signal students to move on to the
next center. Students can also be given
individual and group check-sheets that let them
know which center to precede to next and what
all activities need to be completed.
 Activities: Have a variety of alternate learning
resources catering to every learning style and
need of the students. Every center can have a list
or sequence of activities to be completed and
choices of free activities which students can
perform in their free time.
 Responsibility: Give students some
responsibilities such as cleaning up and storing
equipment after use to increase tidiness and
student ownership of the centers.
Creating Learning Centers in the classroom can
add a new dimension to learning than just lectures. These
centers encourage students to learn at their own pace,
work together in groups, and have fun while learning.
Three Different Types of Learning Centers
Most teachers will agree that there are three different
types of learning centers: enrichment centers, skill
centers, and interest and exploratory centers.
1. Enrichment Centers
Enrichment centers are designed to offer students a
variety of learning alternatives as an adjunct to a common
unit of instruction. These centers are typically used after
the presentation of important materials or concepts and
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are designed to provide students with opportunities to
enrich and enhance their appreciation and understanding
of the topics through individual experiences in the center.
For example, after you have presented a lesson on the
life cycle of plants, you might assign individual students to
a center with the following components:
 Construction of a terrarium using soil, several
plants, rocks, etc.
 Observing several plants under the microscope
 Designing an individual observation kit for use in
the field
 Preparation of several foods using different types
of common plants
 Exploring various news articles on plants in our
daily lives
 Creative writing on the uses and misuses of
plants in modern society
 Watching a filmstrip on the ecological
implications of acid rain on plant life
 Painting a mural on the stages of plant growth
Enrichment centers require you to be aware of your
students' learning styles (see Chapter 2) as well as their
knowledge about a topic. The enrichment center can
provide individual students with varied activities or
combination of activities that differ from those pursued by
other students. As such, the center becomes an
individualized approach to the promotion of the topic.
2. Skill Centers
Skill centers are similar to enrichment centers in
that they are used after the initial teaching of a concept or
skill. Their difference lies in the fact that students are
assigned particular areas in the center as opposed to
having free choice of the topics they want to pursue.
Thus, after introductory instruction on a particular concept
has taken place, you can assign students to various parts
of the center to help reinforce the information presented.
You must be aware of the various skill needs of your
students to effectively assign individuals to the areas in
the center through which they can strengthen and
enhance these skills.
Skill centers are typically used at the elementary
level, more so than at the secondary level. Students may
work on math facts, phonics elements, or other tasks
requiring memorization and/or repetition.
3. Interest and Exploratory Centers
Interest and exploratory centers differ from
enrichment and skill development centers in that they are
designed to capitalize on the interests of students. They
may not necessarily match the content of the textbook or
the curriculum; instead they provide students with hands-
on experiences they can pursue at their own pace and
level of curiosity. These types of centers can be set up
throughout the classroom, with students engaging in their
own selection of activities during free time, upon arrival in
the morning, as a “free-choice” activity during the day, or
just prior to dismissal. These centers allow students to
engage in meaningful discoveries that match their
individual interests.
The success of this form of learning center
depends on your knowledge of your students' interests.
You might want to use student interests that will help
pinpoint the specific areas you can use in the design of
relevant centers. A paper-and-pencil inventory can
provide you with important information about their
interests.
Some Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning
Centers
Advantages
1. Students Get Additional Practice in Areas They
Feel Are Weak
If you teach several areas of language (and most
of us do), you will probably have students who excel
in one area (conversation, for example) but struggle
in another area (grammar, perhaps). Learning centers
are a great opportunity for students to focus in on areas
that challenge them. That way, in one class period, you
can have some students working on grammar, others on
pronunciation, and still others on vocabulary, and
everyone is working on the skill they most need to
improve. Teachers may not be able to be in several
places at one time, but they can walk from learning
center to learning center checking in on students and
seeing their progress as well as correcting their
mistakes.
2. Students Can Be Creative and Expressive
You probably give your students
opportunities to be creative in class, but those
opportunities might not be enough for some of your
most creative students. The right learning centers can
allow your students to express themselves creatively –
using art with English or composing creative literature.
Not every student is ready to express herself this way, but
those who are will reap the benefits from creative
expression in education.
3. Students Learn at Their Own Pace
Sometimes the pace that most of your students feel
comfortable with is not the pace that all of your
students feel comfortable with. Some students need
more time to understand and absorb information than
others. Allowing students to study independently at
learning centers lets them go at their own pace. They do
not have to complete any activity in a specific amount of
time and can take two class periods or more if they need
it while other students concentrate on other activities.
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Disadvantages
1. Learning Centers Are Costly
With many schools facing yearly budget cuts, setting up
learning centers has become more difficult, often
resulting in the teacher spending her own money to
create quality centers for the classroom. Even when
shopping at dollar stores or thrift shops, the teacher is
likely to spend a good deal of her own money to
adequately set up four or five different centers. Keep in
mind, more expenses will be incurred when the time to
update the centers arrives.
2. Learning Centers Are Noisy
Learning centers encourage children to learn through
various methods, including communication with others at
their station. This leads to what some have labeled,
“controlled chaos.” The noise level often rises above that
which is deemed acceptable, making it difficult for the
teacher to regain the students' attention. Likewise, some
students have the tendency to become distracted and
disoriented by the noise.
3. Learning Centers Affect Self-Esteem
Many feel that learning centers set up according to
certain academic levels are degrading to the students
and promote lack of self-esteem. Some students may
quickly recognize the arrangement and compare
themselves and their abilities with those of their
classmates. This area of categorization also affects the
teacher, who is naturally prone to spend more time with
struggling students than with those who are gifted.
VI. Programmed Instruction
What is a Program?
A program is a subject which pupils learn. As far
as programmed instruction is concerned, it is a new
strategy of teaching. It is a device or strategy to control
student’s behavior and helps them learn without the
supervision of a teacher. It is highly individualized
instructional strategy for modification of behavior.
What is a Programmed Instruction?
The programmed instruction is the
arrangement of materials which are to be learnt by the
pupils in graded steps of difficulty; it is in such a manner
and sequence that it will result in the most efficient rate of
understanding and retention. It is a method of giving
individualized instructions in which the student is active
and proceeds at his/her own pace. Physical presence of
teacher is not essential in this strategy.
Also, it was devised to make the teaching-
learning process more humane by making it more
effective and customized to individual differences. B.F.
Skinner’s original prescription, although it met with some
success, had serious limitations. Later innovators
improved upon the original notion by incorporating more
human interaction, social reinforcers and other forms of
feedback, larger and more flexible chunks of instruction,
and more attention to learner appeal. Although PI itself
has receded from the spotlight, technologies derived from
PI, such as programmed tutoring, Direct Instruction, and
Personalized System of Instruction have compiled an
impressive track record of success when compared to so-
called conventional instruction. They paved the way for
computer-based instruction and distance learning. The
success of the PI movement can be attributed largely to
the commitment of its proponents to relentless, objective
measurement of effectiveness.
Origin of Programmed Instruction
Originally introduced in the mid-1950s by
behaviorist B.F. Skinner, programmed instruction is a
system whereby the learner uses specially prepared
books or equipment to learn without a teacher. It was
intended to free teachers from burdensome drills and
repetitive problem-solving inherent in teaching basic
academic subjects like spelling, arithmetic, and reading.
Skinner based his ideas on the principle of operant
conditioning, which theorized that learning takes place
when a reinforcing stimulus is presented to reward a
correct response. In early programmed instruction,
students punched answers to simple math problems into
a type of keyboard. If the answer was correct, the
machine would advance to another problem. Incorrect
answers would not advance. Skinner believed such
learning could, in fact, be superior to traditional teacher-
based instruction because children were rewarded
immediately and individually for correct answers rather
than waiting for a teacher to correct written answers or
respond verbally.
Programmed instruction quickly became popular
and spawned much educational research and commercial
enterprise in the production of programmed instructional
materials. It is considered the antecedent of modern
computer-assisted learning
Objectives of Programmed Instruction
The objectives of programmed instruction have been
summarized as follows:
 To help the student in learning by doing.
 To provide the learners situation so that they can
learn at their own pace.
 To help students learn in the absence of a teacher.
 To present the content in a controlled manner and in
logically related steps.
 To help students in assessing their own performance
themselves by comparing it with the given answers.
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Types of Programmed Instruction
The original programs devised by B.F. Skinner
and his followers led users through a pre-specified
sequence of small steps. Shortly after Skinner’s
invention, Norman Crowder introduced a variation that
was not founded on any particular theory of learning, but
only on practicality. It featured a more flexible
programmed lesson structure that allowed learners to
skip ahead through material that was easy for them or to
branch off to remedial frames when they had difficulty.
Crowder (1962) labeled his method intrinsic
programming, but it was quickly dubbed branching
programming because a schematic outline of the program
resembled a tree trunk (the prime path) with multiple
branches (the remedial sequences). Skinner’s method
was thereafter known as linear programming.
Initially, Crowder’s programs were incorporated
into the AutoTutor, a desktop teaching machine which
used his branching technique to tailor the lesson to the
responses of the learner. The original AutoTutor,
released in the early 1960s, provided individualized
instruction long before general-purpose desktop
computers were feasible. But Crowder also joined the
rush to convert programs to book form.
His TutorText series became one of the best-known
series of programmed materials. In the print format,
readers encountered multiple-choice questions and each
alternative answer led to a different “next page” in the
book.
Again, Linear programming involves a simple
step-by-step procedure. There is a single set of materials
and students work from one problem to the next until the
end of the program.
Branching programming is more complex.
Students choose from multiple-choice answers and then
are prompted to proceed to another page of the book
depending on their answer. If a correct answer is given,
students move on to another page with more information
to learn and more questions to answer. An incorrect
answer leads to comments on why the answer is
incorrect and a direction to return to the original question
to make another selection.
Principles of Programmed Instruction
The following principles are considered to be the
basic ones for programmed learning:
1. Objective specification:
Which means identifying the terminal behaviors
that the learner will be able to perform when he has
completed the program.
2. Small Step Size:
Which involves dividing the information to be
communicated into small units.
3. Overt Responding:
It means that pupils must act on each unit of
information by means of exercises provided to assimilate
it.
4. Success or Minimal Error:
This means that error and failure must be
avoided at all costs because they are construed as
obstacles to learning.
5. Immediate feedback:
In order to ensure success and satisfaction, the
pupil must know that his action is correct.
6. Logical, graded progress:
It implies two things-relevance of content and its
graded presentation.
7. Self Pacing:
It is used for program development and
validation.
VII. Programmed Tutoring/ Programmed Teaching
A psychology professor at Indiana University,
Douglas Ellson, had a life-long consuming interest in
improving the teaching-learning process. He examined PI
very closely, detected its weaknesses, and in 1960
developed a new approach to address those weaknesses
(Ellson, Barber, Engle & Kampwerth, 1965). Programmed
tutoring (PT) puts the learner together with a tutor who
has been trained to follow a structured pattern for guiding
the tutee. Like PI, students work at their own pace and
they are constantly active—reading, solving problems, or
working through other types of materials. The tutor
watches and listens. When the tutee struggles to
complete a step, the tutor gives hints, taking the learner
back to something he already knows, then helps him to
move forward again. Thus, learners are usually
generating their own answers. And instead of receiving
“knowledge of correct response” as reinforcement, they
receive social reinforcers from the tutor—praise,
encouragement, sympathy, or at least some attention.
Of course, giving every student a tutor is a labor-
intensive proposition, but Ellson solved this problem by
using peers as tutors—students of the same age or a little
older, a role they proved able to play after a little training
in how to follow the specified procedures. Not only did
tutors serve as “free manpower,” but research showed
that it was a win-win situation because tutors showed
learning gains even greater than the tutees’! By going
through the material repeatedly and teaching it to
someone else, they strengthened their own grasp of the
material.
During the early 1980s PT gained credibility due
to its track record in comparison studies (Cohen, J.A.
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Kulik & C. C. Kulik, 1982). It was recognized by the U.S.

Department of Education as one of the half-dozen most
successful innovations and it was widely disseminated
(although not as widely as it deserves, as with many of
the other soft technologies that have been developed
over the years).