Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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z Unbalance
z Misalignment
z Eccentricity
z Bent shaft
z Shaft crack
z Mechanical looseness
z Journal bearing faults
z Rolling element bearing faults
z Rotor rub
z Cavitation
z Electrical motor problems
z Gear faults
In the following some simple rules for the most common machine faults
are drawn up giving the fault type and a characteristic vibration
measurements.
The spectra in the examples are all made as drawings, in order to
emphasize the typical feature of each fault.
Page 1
Unbalance
Static Unbalance
•Equal phase on Typical
Typical
each bearing Unbalance
Unbalance
•Mainly radial Spectrum
Spectrum
vibration
RPM
Dynamic Unbalance Radial
Page 2
Misalignment
mm/s
A. Parallel misalignment
10
3.1
0.31
mm/s 1X 2X 3X
B. Angular misalignment 1
0.31
1X 2X 3X
Please
PleaseNote:
Note:
Misalignment
Misalignmentoften
oftenappears
appearson
on1X
1X
Axial Vibration approx.. 0 ° phase shifted component
componentonly
only
1X , 2X or 3 X highest
A misaligned rotor tend to wear in. That is after a while the bearing will get
deformed after the misalignment. In the spectrum this is seen as the 2nd
order component will decrease and the third order will increase as wear
develops.
Page 3
Bent Shaft
mm/s
10
3.1
0.31
1X 2X
Page 4
Eccentricity
10
3.1
0.31
Fan Motor
RPM RPM
The Eccentric rotor will produce high vibration at the rotation speed.
The Phase will be the same in both horizontal and vertical direction.
If you try to balance an eccentric rotor, you may reduce the vibration
readings in one direction, but the readings will increase in the other.
Page 5
Looseness
mm/s
Loose Foundation
10
2X often high
Sub-harmonics 3.1
0.31
.5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X
components 3.1
½, 1/3, ... 1/n
1
0.31
.5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X
Page 6
Rotor Rub
mm/
10
3.1
0.31
Page 7
Shaft Crack
X/Y Position History
Shaft
ShaftCracks
Cracksmaymaybebedetected
detected
by monitoring
by monitoring ofof
••Amplitude
Amplitudeand andPhase
Phaseofof
1X first and 2X and
1X first and 2X and
second
secondharmonic
harmonicof ofRPM.
RPM.
Longitudinal Crack ••Monitoring
Monitoring of Coastdown
of Coast down
and
andRun
Run- -up
upcharacteristics
characteristics
when
whenpassing
passingthrough
through
resonance
resonance
Radial Crack
Nyquist Bode
1X Run Up
Page 8
Journal Bearings
wo= 0
Oil Instability
10
• normally 42 %- 47 % of
wo= ws running speed 3.1
mm/
Wear 10
• Harmonic Series 1
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X 9X 10X...
Oil Whirl
Simplified explanation.
In a journal bearing the shaft is “surfing” on an oil wave.
Let us look at the speed profile of the oil film.
At the boundary of the shaft the oil film has the same speed as the shaft.
At bearing boundary the oil film is stationary.
Clearance Problems
In a worn journal bearing harmonics up to 10 or 20 times the running
speed may be seen.
Page 9
Rolling Element Bearings
Faults in Rolling Element Bearings
are Detected with CPB in the High
frequency range
Rolling element bearing faults normally start with small cracks or spalls,
which produce very hard impacts by the passing of the balls.
As the bearing impacts are very short, they will contain energy in very high
frequencies - the resonances of the force path will be excited and ring.
Detection of bearing wear is done by seeing increases of the resonances
of the bearing and the machine structure in the 2kHz -
14 kHz frequency range.
Using Envelope analysis the modulation of the high frequency can be
analyzed. Envelope analysis provides thus an excellent tool for both
detection and diagnosis of bearing signals.
If no modulation is present in the signal. There will be no peaks in the
envelope spectra.
Page 10
Rolling Element Bearing
Frequencies
D1 D2
D1 + D 2
PD =
2
n = number of balls
f r = rotation frequency
Page 11
Typical Bearing Defects
Development Envelope Analysis
1. Outer Race Faults
• Lead Time Month’s
• Ball Pass Frequency Outer Race
( BPFO) and Harmonic BPFO
RPM
2. Inner Race Faults
• Lead Time Days - Weeks
• Ball Pass Frequency Inner Race
(BPFI) With Side bands BPFI
of Rotation speed
3. Ball Defects
• Requires Immediate action
• Ball Spin Frequency
BSF with Harmonics. BSF
• Often in combinations with
above with various inter-harmonics.
The typical bearing fault start as a crack or spall in the outer race.
Depending on bearing load a rolling element bearing can “survive” long
time with an outer race fault.
An outer race spall will eventually develop to a wear. This can be seen in
the envelope spectrum by the reduction of harmonics of the BPFO and an
increase of the BPFO itself.
At as certain stage the balls off tracked by the outer race fault will cause a
fault in the inner race. As the fault in the inner race is rotating into and out
of the load zone, the fault frequency will be modulated with the rotation
speed, and thus produce side bands with RPM spacing.
An inner race fault is often faster growing than an outer race fault.
In the end of a bearing fault, often faults and the balls are seen as well as
inter modulation frequencies between the different fault types.
Page 12
Bearing Mounting Defects
Analyzed With Envelope Analysis
Rotor Misalignment
1*RPM
Rotor Unbalance
RPM
Misalignment of
2*BPFO
outer Race
2*BPFO
Increase of
Lubrication Defect Background
level
The earliest detection of bearing fault is done by placing the envelope filter
on a resonance of the bearing. By doing so however, one miss the
opportunity of classifying the defect depth, by the height of the peaks in
the envelope spectrum.
Also one misses the opportunity of being able to analyze above defects in
the envelope spectra.
Page 13
Electrical Motor
Cracked Rotor Bars
Broken Rotor Bars Lin freq.
Stator
Stator Rotors spacing
35 dB
45 dB
Pole
PolePass
PassFreq.
Freq.==Slip
SlipFreq.*
Freq.*No.
No.ofofPoles
Poles
Slip
SlipFreq.
Freq.==Synch
SynchSpeed
Speed - -RPM
RPM
Rotor
RotorBar
BarFreq.
Freq.==No.
No.ofofrotor
rotorBars
Bars**RPM
RPM
A motor with loose, broken or shortened rotor bars will produce modulation
of the rotation speed with the slip frequency.
An efficient way of analyzing this fault is making zoom FFT around the
motor rotation speed of the motor current.
The motor current can be analyzed using a current probe on one of the
motor current supply lines.
If the side bands appear less than 45 dB below the RPM component, alert
caution should be taken.
Side bands appearing less than 35 dB below the RPM component should
be regarded as shut down criteria.
Page 14
Electrical Motor Problems
mm/s
Stator Eccentricity 10
of line frequency
1X Line 2x 2*Line freq.
mm/s
Pole
PolePass
PassFreq.
Freq.==Slip
SlipFreq.*
Freq.*No.
No.ofofPoles
Poles
Slip
SlipFreq.
Freq.==Synch
SynchSpeed
Speed - -RPM
RPM
The electrical magnets of an electric motor are contracting twice for every
period of the net frequency. Thus electrical faults are appearing at twice
the net frequency.
The slip frequency is the difference between the rotation frequency of the
rotor and the net frequency.
The pole pass frequency is the number of poles times the slip frequency.
An eccentric electric motor will produce side spaced with the pole pass
frequency around twice the net frequency.
Zoom is required to analyze these faults.
Page 15
Synchronous Motors, DC Motors
Synchronous Motors
1 RPM
Loose Stator Coils spacing
DC Motors
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
SCR firing frequency increase may show:
• Bad SCR
•Loose Connections
•Broken Field Windings
Page 16
Cavitation
Cavitation is caused by the collapse
of small bubbles that occurs during
local boiling at certain condition of the
fluid (low dynamic pressure)
The Collapses are short in time
and thus wide in Frequency.
• The resonances are exited throughout
the spectrum
• Specially high Frequencies are exited
• In Envelope Spectra an increase of the
background level with no distinct lines
are seen.
The faster a fluid travels by an object the lower the pressure will be, this
phenomenon is well known as Bernoullis law, and it is the reason that
aero planes can fly and turbo machines are working.
The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling temperature of water.
In some instances the water of a pump may start boiling locally as a result
of the local fluid speed will decrease local dynamic pressure and hence
decreased the boiling point below the fluid temperature.
When the local pressure increases again the small bubbles formed in the
boiling process collapses very rapidly. The rapid collapse causes shock
pulses which may be strong enough to break apart fragments of metal on
the location it occurs - cavitation wear.
The collapsing bubbles also induce shock waves which are transferred
through the structure. Since the pulses are very short, they have a very
high frequency content, and they will excite resonances throughout the
spectrum range.
Page 17