Keith Forrest H.

Andil
BSChE - IV

Effects of Air Pollution: Health, Vegetation, Properties

-Introduction
Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals
from factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a
major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog.
Some air pollutants are poisonous. Inhaling them can increase the chance you'll have health
problems. People with heart or lung disease, older adults and children are at greater risk from
air pollution. Air pollution isn't just outside - the air inside buildings can also be polluted and
affect your health.
Outdoor air pollution involves exposures that take place outside of the built environment.
Examples include fine particles produced by burning of fossil fuels(i.e. Coal and Petroleum
used in energy production), noxious gases (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
chemical vapors, etc.), Ground-level ozone (a reactive form of oxygen and a primary
component of urban smog), and tobacco smoke. whilst Indoor air pollution involves involves
exposures to particulates, carbon oxides, and other pollutants carried by indoor air or dust.
Examples include Gases (CO, Radon etc.), Household products and chemicals, building
materials (asbestos, formaldehyde, etc.), outdoor indoor allergens (cockroach and mouse
dropping, etc.), tobacco smoke, and mold and pollen. In some instances, outdoor air pollution
can make its way indoors by way of open windows, doors, ventilation, etc.

-Effects of Air Pollution on Health

Air pollution causes around seven million deaths a year worldwide. Growth and
concentration of the population in cities, as well as the way in which we consume energy in
urban areas through transport or heating and air conditioning systems, among others, result in
the emission of huge quantities of gases that are harmful to our health. Emissions from
different transport modes, the burning of fossil fuels, industrial production, forest fires,
aerosol use and radiation fare some of the main causes of air pollution. Such sources of
emissions liberate gases and substances that are toxic for human beings, the most harmful of
which are: tropospheric ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and suspended particulate matter (PM).
Our physical and psychological wellbeing is affected differently by the kind of air
pollution we are exposed to. There are many organs and bodily functions that can be harmed,
the consequences includes:

1. Hair Damage – People in the cities are presenting with prickling in the scalp, itching,
dandruff, oily scalp and pain in the hair roots. Various studies have identified this as
‘Sensitive Scalp Syndrome’ resulting from exposure to increasing levels of air
pollution including particulate matter, dust, smoke, nickel, lead and arsenic, sulfur
dioxide nitrogen dioxide, ammonia and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
which settle on the scalp and hair. The pollutants migrate into the dermis,
transepidermally and through the hair follicle conduit, leading to oxidative stress and
hair loss.
2. Fatigue, Headache, and Anxiety – Carbon monoxide, which can interfere with the
delivery of oxygen throughout the body, may cause fatigue, headaches, dizziness,
nausea, confusion and disorientation when inhaled at high levels. As you may know,
when carbon monoxide is inhaled at very high levels it can cause unconsciousness
and death. Those with cardiac and respiratory disease may be more sensitive to lower
levels of this gas.

3. Eye and Mucous Membrane Irritation – A significant level of eye irritation occurs
when exposed to automobile exhaust for up to four hours.Interactions of sulfur
dioxide and trioxide at subthreshold concentrations with sodium chloride or carbon
black particles precipitate in inducing irritation.The presence of aerosol is also
suggested to be a critical factor. Oxidants can dissolve in the tear film and acidify it,
further irritating the mucous membrane of the eye. The dry eye syndrome (DES) is
the most frequent complaint among all the air pollution-induced eye problems.
Conjunctivitis associated with increased nitrogen dioxide levels is another common
feature.

4. Nervous System Damage – In the recent past, air pollution has also been associated
with diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), including stroke, Alzheimer’s
disease, Parkinson’s disease, and neurodevelopmental disorders. It has been
demonstrated that various components of air pollution, such as nanosized particles,
can easily translocate to the CNS where they can activate innate immune responses.
Also, systemic inflammation arising from the pulmonary or cardiovascular system can
affect CNS health.

5. Respiratory Diseases – Air pollution exposure can trigger new cases of asthma,
worsen a previously-existing respiratory illness, and provoke development or
progression of chronic illnesses including lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, and emphysema. Air pollutants also negatively and significantly harm lung
development, creating an additional risk factor for developing lung diseases later in
life. Asthma, a chronic disease of the lungs characterized by inflammation and
narrowing of the airways, causes a sensation of tightness in the chest, shortness of
breath, wheezing, and coughing. There are many triggers to asthma attacks, including
dust, smoke, pollen, and volatile organic compounds. Common outdoor pollutant
triggers include ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Ozone,
one of the most widespread air pollutants, is formed when volatile organic compounds
react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight. Ozone irritates the lungs at
concentrations which are fairly common in urban settings, particularly in summer
months. Increases in ozone are linked to asthma and other lung diseases. For those
with severe asthma, symptoms increase even when ambient ozone levels fall under
the thresholds set by the EPA. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is
another condition characterized by narrowing of the airways, but these changes are
permanent rather than reversible. COPD is caused by exposure to pollutants that
produce inflammation, an immunological response. In larger airways, the
inflammatory response is referred to as chronic bronchitis. In the tiny air cells at the
end of the lung’s smallest passageways, it leads to destruction of tissue, or
emphysema. Although current and ex-smokers account for most patients with COPD,
exposure to air pollutants plays an important role in the development of COPD and
the origin and development of acute exacerbations. Lung cancer, one of the leading
cancer killer in both men and women, is often (and accurately) associated with
 smoking tobacco. While that’s true, there are multiple other risk factors for
developing lung cancer, including air pollution. Particulate matter and ozone in
particular may affect mortality due to lung cancer.
6. Cardiovascular Damage – Pollution is believed to have inflammatory effects on the
heart, causing chronic cardiovascular problems. Medical researchers are particularly
concerned about pollution particles smaller than 2.5 microns, which are usually
related to fuel combustion. Because they are so tiny, they aren’t easily screened and
more readily enter the human body. They then begin to irritate the lungs and blood
vessels around the heart. Data suggest that over time pollutants aggravate or increase
the process of disease in the arteries. Short-term exposure to air pollutants can
increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, arrhythmias and heart failure in susceptible
people, such as the elderly or those with pre-existing medical conditions. The risk of
death is greater from long-term exposure. Current science suggests air pollution
facilitates atherosclerosis development and progression. It also may play a role in high
blood pressure, heart failure and diabetes.

7. Liver, Spleen and Blood Damage – Previous research has linked PM2.5 to the liver,
causing effects like fibrosis, metabolic disease, and liver cancer. In the smokers, the
researchers found reduced activity in the heart, lungs, kidneys and spleen, anywhere
from 33 percent to 46 percent lower.

8. Skin Damage – The increase of air pollution over the years has major effects on the
human skin. The skin is exposed to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and environmental air
pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), oxides, particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), and cigarette
smoke. Although human skin acts as a biological shield against pro-oxidative
chemical and physical air pollutants, the prolonged or repetitive exposure to high
levels of these pollutants may have profound negative effects on the skin. Exposure of
the skin to air pollutants has been associated with skin aging and inflammatory or
allergic skin conditions such as atopic dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis or acne, while
skin cancer is among the most serious effects.

9. Bone Damage – A recent study has brought to light how osteoporosis and bone
fractures can be caused by air pollution, and found that populations in areas of higher
ambient concentrations of particulate matter less than 2.5 μm had lower bone mineral
density with higher rates of hospital admissions for bone fractures.

10. Intestinal Damage – Recent studies have indicated that air pollution may affect
gastrointestinal disorders such as the inflammatory bowel diseases and appendicitis.
Air pollutants can cause systemic effects such as cardiovascular or liver
metabolicchanges after primary deposition and direct effects in the respiratory
compartment. However, most inhaled particles deposited in the nasopharyngeal
compartment and airways are removed through mucociliary clearance and swallowed
within a day and thus, gastrointestinal effects may be due to direct effects of particles.

11. Reproductive System Damage – In recent years, numerous studies showed that
exposure to environmental air pollutants affected reproductive functions and, in
particular, produced adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes, fertility, and fetal health.
Epidemiological studies demonstrated that exposure to ambient levels of air pollutants
 are associated with low birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity,
neonatal death, and decreased fertility in males.

-Effects of Air Pollution on Vegetation

Plants usually show damage in a variety of ways, including visible signs of damage
like necrotic lesions, stunted plant growth, or changing in color including chlorosis (aka
yellowing leaves), reddening, bronzing, mottling.
Ozone holes in the atmosphere also harm plants. Holes in the upper atmosphere allow
an excess ultraviolet light to pass through the atmosphere leading to plant damage. In the
lower atmosphere, ozone damages plants by preventing photosynthesis and obstructing
stomata, restricting respiration and stunting plant growth.
Physiological response of plants
While plants, due to their fixed life and wide distribution, are among the first victims
of air pollution, they can also be a source of secondary pollution. During high heat, they emit
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as terpenes, one of the precursor gases of ozone. In
cities in the hot regions of the USA, it is recommended not to plant certain trees (pines, oaks,
etc.) in order not to increase ozone levels. Plants also emit fine particles (pollens, spores, wax
compounds, various particles) which, if they have no effect on plants, can have effects on
human health (allergies).
Penetration of Pollutants into plants
The penetration of pollutants into plants is mainly through the leaves. There may also
be a slight penetration through the stems and trunk. Before reaching the leaf, the pollutant
will first have to pass through the “boundary layer” which corresponds to the layer of air not
agitated in contact with it
The thickness of this layer depends on the size and shape of the leaf, the presence of
leaf hairs (or trichomes) and wind speed. Its thickness is in the order of a few tenths of a
millimetre.
During the temporary presence of a pollutant in this boundary layer, many reactions
are likely to occur because the incident pollutant will react with:

 An aqueous phase consisting of the water film present on the surface of the leaf as
well as water bound to the polar groups of the cuticle;
 A lipid phase consisting of the waxes present within (intracuticular waxes) or located
on the surface (epicuticular waxes) of the cuticle;
 A gaseous phase consisting of the components of the atmosphere and the emissions of
the leaf.

Gaseous pollutants enter the plant like other atmospheric gases (CO2, Oxygen,…),
mainly through stomata present on leaf surfaces. On the other hand, a large part of the
organic pollutants will be absorbed mainly by the lipid structure of the cuticle. Only a small
part will penetrate the leaf, then diffuse and react between and within the different internal
compartments that constitute the apoplast and symplast.
Particulate pollutants (organic or inorganic) are first captured by foliar surfaces
(thanks to the micro-structure created by the presence of epicuticular waxes, trichomes, etc.),
in a size range that is generally between 1 and 10 µm. In forests, this particulate deposition
can vary between 280 and 1000 kg per hectare. Subsequently, meteorological conditions such
as wind, sun and especially rain (leaching of leaves, dissolution of inorganic particles)
influence the characteristics of this deposition (Figure 4). Thanks to the effectiveness of the
cuticular barrier, organic or inorganic foliar deposition often causes only a slight penetration
of pollutants into the leaves and therefore limit their physiological impacts.

After penetration, the physiological response of plants to air pollution will depend on
the two actors involved: on the one hand, the characteristics of the plant and, on the other
hand, the nature of the pollution.

The answer depends on the plant

Plants react to air pollution by producing reactive oxygen derivatives. After

penetrating the leaves, and as for most biotic and abiotic stresses, the pollutants will first of
all induce an oxidative stress with the production of free radicals (hydroxyl radicals) and
reactive oxygen species (ROS) likely to cause damage at different levels. In particular, these
ROS will have three main targets at the cell level: lipids (at the membrane level), proteins (at
the amino acid level) and nucleic acids (adduct formation).

At the same time, the pollutant will cause specific stress related to its own physico-
chemical characteristics:

 Thus, in the case of pollution by hydrofluoric acid (HF), there will be a disruption of
the cellular metabolism of calcium (precipitation of calcium in the form of CaF2).
 In the case of pollution with sulfur oxides (SO2…), the reducing properties of this gas
will disturb the functioning of the photosynthetic apparatus (degradation of
chlorophyll)
 Acid rain, on the other hand, causes mineral deficiencies leading to yellowing of the
leaves due to rainwater leaching of the mineral elements Ca, K and Mg.

When facing these stresses, the traditional strategy of defending the plant aims to limit
the absorption of the pollutant and increase its tolerance to it. It consists in implementing: (a)
physical processes, i.e. closing stomata, falling leaves…; and (b) chemical and biochemical
processes.

These chemical and biochemical factors correspond to:

 production of insoluble precipitates (formation of CaF2 in the case of fluorine

pollution);
 detoxification by the reduced form emission of the pollutant (H2S in the case of
pollution by SO2, NH3 in the case of pollution by NOx);
 enzymatic degradations by cytochromes P450 and a number of antioxidant enzymes.
Non-enzymatic antioxidant compounds such as glutathione, vitamins E and C and
carotenoids may also be involved.

When a “pollution stress” is installed, the plant will therefore set up (more or less
quickly) processes that will be added to the pool of defense processes already present in the
plant. Following the aggression, the plant’s resistance to the pollutant will result from the
combination of these various processes. For this reason, there is a specific scale of plant
sensitivity for each pollutant and for each plant.

Visible and invisible damage. During low pollution and/or when the plant’s defense systems
are sufficient to limit the physiological impact of a pollutant, this resistance still has a
physiological cost, which is characterized by decreases in size, in yield… We then speak of
“invisible damage”.

During heavy pollution and/or when the plant’s defence systems are not sufficient,
irreversible damage appears such as cell death (leaf necrosis, among others). This is referred
to as “visible damage” due to air pollution.

Plants react according to environmental conditions. The plant, like all biological systems,
is sensitive at the same time to abiotic factors (temperature, humidity, light…) and biotic
factors (age, diseases, genotypes…) in its environment. If diseases have a negative impact,
other factors can have a positive impact on the plant’s response to air pollution. Thus,
drought leads to the closure of stomata, which protects the plant, while the increase in
CO2promotes photosynthesis. The daily evolution of air pollution will also affect the
response of plants. This is what field observations show:

 During hot weather, high temperatures lead to very high ozone concentrations in the
air but at the same time to the closure of stomata. The result is a very low impact of
this pollutant on vegetation during these periods. This was observed in the forests
during the 2003 heat wave.
 During summer periods, ozone concentrations in the air around high altitude forests
are high with slight day-night variations. As the high air humidity in these areas leads
to a large opening of the stomata, a high impact of the ozone present is observed.
 On the other hand, at the level of lowland forests, air pollution is characterized by
average ozone concentrations, this time with strong day-night variations. As the air
humidity is lower in these areas, the opening of the stomata will be less important: for
these two reasons, a lower impact of ozone is observed.

-Effects of Air Pollution on Properties

The main pollutants affecting materials of properties are sulfur dioxide and sulfates,
nitrogen oxides and nitrates, chlorides, carbon dioxide and ozone. The effects of particulate
matter, especially from diesel vehicle emissions is of increasing significance.
In buildings containing books, historical artifacts or other works of art indoor
pollutants may cause significant degradation. These pollutants may either be lower
concentrations of pollutants originating outdoors or other substances generated from synthetic
materials, paints, varnishes and display cases as well as from combustion for heating.
The materials most sensitive to pollutants are calcareous building stones and ferrous
metals. Manifestations of damage include losses of mass, changes in porosity, discoloration
and embrittlement. Damage to materials in polluted atmospheres can be attributed to dry or
wet deposition of pollutants, or dissolution in rainfall in the case of stone.
One famous example of air pollution affecting a property or a structure is the Taj
Mahal which was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, to house the
tomb of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Over the last four centuries the Taj has aged and
darkened as a result of natural oxidation processes – the marble equivalent of rust – but it has
been given no help by its hostile surroundings. It has been drenched in acid rain, coated in
soot from industrial and domestic chimneys, and eroded by atmospheric pollutants. Air
pollution in Indian cities is legendary, and Agra is no exception. As in many Asian cities,
increasing car ownership has caused traffic to surge, while dirty air seeps from Agra’s oil
refinery and tannery chimneys. These pollutants – sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
mainly carbon-based particulates – have steadily weathered and eroded the Taj’s brilliant
white facade, giving it a yellow sheen. Despite the establishment of a 4,000-square mile
protective area around the site, (the Taj Trapezium Zone), within which emissions are
supposedly strictly controlled, photographs show a marked deterioration in the Taj’s
condition over the last few years.Legal emission limits have been long contested by
developers and are widely ignored. Smoky funeral pyres are lit, and piles of rubbish are
regularly burned very close to the buildings. Pollution from the Yamuna River presents a
further challenge. Untreated sewage and industrial waste pours in from the city, creating
nutrient-rich waters. These nutrients are then picked up by the wind and deposited in the
Taj’s increasingly porous stonework, allowing river-derived microorganisms to thrive on its
surfaces, coloring them green.Allegedly, excrement from the many insects that thrive in the
contaminated river water has hastened the damage, but the effect is surely negligible
compared to that of fossil fuel-derived sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.

-Conclusion
Air pollution currently affects the health of millions of people, animals, plants and
even degrades the materials of our properties. Effects of air pollutants has become
widespread throughout the years, thus, the case for action to reduce air pollution is
overwhelming and this action can take many forms. Some of these include urban planning,
technological developments (e.g. the design of new vehicles that produce less pollution), and
at the government level, the introduction of new laws. It has been estimated that reducing
both black carbon and O3 levels would prevent over 3 million premature deaths and increase
crop yields by around 50 million tons annually. Improvements to cooking stoves would also
decrease demand for firewood and reduce deforestation in the developing world. If air
pollution levels in heavy traffic areas were reduced, the incidence of asthma and other
respiratory diseases would be significantly reduced. While it is generally accepted that efforts
to reduce air pollution will prevent further environmental changes, they will not reverse
existing warming.