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Cite This: Langmuir 2017, 33, 12903-12907 pubs.acs.org/Langmuir

Spontaneous Draining of Liquids from Vertically Oriented Tubes

C. W. Extrand*
CPC, Inc., 1001 Westgate Drive, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, United States

ABSTRACT: This paper describes experiments where liquid-filled

tubes, with the bottom ends open, were pulled vertically from a
reservoir. If the open diameter on the bottom of the tubes was
sufficiently small, liquid was retained. Otherwise, if sufficiently large,
the tubes drained from the bottom up. The critical diameter of the
opening at the bottom of the tubes ranged from 10−15 mm for water
to >5 mm for a dense, low surface tension, perfluoroether oil. The
ability of relatively large diameter tubes to retain liquid is attributed to
a combination of materials properties and atmospheric pressure. If surface tension were acting alone, the tubes would have had to
be much smaller to prevent drainage or spillage.
Downloaded by 157.41.93.250 at 05:40:39:171 on May 27, 2019

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from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247.

INTRODUCTION Table 1. Liquids and Their Propertiesa

In many laboratory and industrial processes, it is desirable to liquid γ (mN/m) ρ (kg/m3) μ (mPa·s)
prevent liquid from draining from tubes or spilling from water 72 998 1.0
connections. Consider the following two examples. The first glycerol 65 1260 1000
example is for dip tubes. Liquid chemicals are often withdrawn ethylene glycol 48 1110 20
from containers using a dip tube. When a container is emptied, isopropanol 22 789 2.0
the dip tube is removed and transferred to a full one or is perfluoroether oil 17 1880 110
removed to allow refilling. Movement of the tube can cause a
γ is surface tension, ρ is density, and μ is viscosity.
drainage. When the dip tube is reimmersed into a full container,
many processes require that the line and dip tube must be
purged to remove air. Purging wastes both time and liquid Tubes were purchased from McMaster Carr. They consisted of glass
(heat-resistant borosilicate glass) and three types of polymers: clear,
chemical. If the dip tube does not drain when removed from its plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC, Food and Dairy grade Tygon,
container, then purging can be minimized or perhaps Formulation B-44-4x), semitransparent polyamide 66 (PA66, wear-
completely eliminated. resistant nylon), and semitransparent polyethylene (PE, crack-
The second example is for connectors, couplers, or small resistant). Glass tubing was cleaned with oxygen plasma (10 min at
valves of various types. Couplers and related devices are often 800 mTorr and high radio frequency power in a Harrick Plasma
used to connect liquid flow lines. In many cases it is desirable Cleaner PDC-001-HP). The nylon tubing was received in straight five
for couplers to have a valve, such that, when a liquid line is foot lengths. The PVC and PE tubing was received in coils. To
disconnected, liquid does not flow or drain from the line. straighten the PVC and PE tubing, 10 cm lengths were pushed over
stainless steel mandrels and heated under vacuum overnight (at 60 °C
Valved couplers prevent loss of large quantities of liquid. for PVC and at 80 °C for PE).
However, dead space inside traditional designs can still allow Unless stated otherwise, capillary rise and drainage experiments
spillage of small volumes of liquid when disconnected. This were performed on a tensile test machine (Lloyd-Ametek LS1) at 25
spillage can cause corrosion or create hazards to people and °C with 10 cm sections of tubing where ends were cut normal to their
equipment. length.
In both cases described above, a simple technology for Wettability of Tube Materials. Wettability of the various tube
preventing drainage or spillage would be desirable. This paper materials was assessed by contact angles from capillary rise. For a given
describes a variety of experiments that have been performed to type of glass or plastic, a tube of the smallest diameter was clamped
vertically in the test machine with both ends open. For advancing
understand drainage so that better means can be devised to contact angles (θa), the tube was pushed downward into the liquid at
control and/or prevent drainage and/or spillage. 10 mm/min, stopping periodically to capture images for measuring the

■
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The liquids used were deionized water, glycerol (Acros, 15892-0010,
99+%), ethylene glycol (Fisher Scientific, BP230-1), isopropanol
(Pharmco-Aaper, 99% reagent ACS grade), and a perfluoroether oil
(DuPont Krytox 1506 Vacuum Pump Fluid). The properties of the
liquids are listed in Table 1. Values of surface tension (γ), density (ρ),
and viscosity (μ) were taken from the scientific and supplier
literature.1−4
height of the fluid column inside the tube (h). On the other hand, for
receding contact angles (θr), immersed tubes were pulled upward at
the same speed, pausing occasionally to capture images. The height of
the column (h) along with tube diameter (D) and properties of the
liquid (γ and ρ) were used to estimate contact angles (θ):5
Received: September 15, 2017
Revised: October 17, 2017
Published: October 27, 2017

© 2017 American Chemical Society 12903 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247

Langmuir 2017, 33, 12903−12907
Langmuir
⎛ ρgDh ⎞
θ ≈ arccos⎜ ⎟ bridge formed and then broke, creating an air liquid interface or
⎝ 4γ ⎠ (1)
2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s ).
Table 2 lists advancing and receding contact angles (θa and θr) for
the various tube materials. The clean glass was completely wet by
Table 2. Tube Materials and Their Wettabilitya
tube material θa (deg) θr (deg)
clean glass 6±8 3±8
polyamide 66 (PA66) 70 ± 1 46 ± 3
plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 103 ± 1 70 ± 1
polyethylene (PE) 109 ± 1 99 ± 1
a
θa and θr are advancing and receding contact angles.
water (and the other liquids), effectively exhibiting zero contact angles.
The polymers were relatively hydrophobic, with advancing contact
angles for water ranging between 70° and 109° and receding angles
between 46° and 99°.
Drainage Experiments. In most of the drainage experiments, a 10
cm length of tubing was filled by immersing it into a liquid container.
While still immersed, one end on the tube was plugged with a rubber
stopper; the other end was covered to prevent drainage. The tube was
transferred from the liquid container to the tensile test machine; the
tube was oriented vertically with the stoppered end directed upward
and clamped, while the other end was immersed in a liquid reservoir.
Figure 1 shows such a tube in the tensile test machine. The vertical
Figure 1. Image of a clean glass tube (D = 15.7 mm) containing water
in the tensile test machine. The top end of the tube is plugged. The
bottom end is immersed into a water reservoir. The water contains red
food coloring to improve contrast.
tubes were pulled upward from the reservoir at velocities (v) of 10,
100, 1000, or 2000 mm/min. The ascent of the tube was stopped
when its bottom was a short distance, usually 10 mm, above the liquid
reservoir. The observed behavior was noted.
Images and videos of the resulting phenomena were captured with a
Nikon digital SLR camera. To improve contrast, red food coloring
(McCormick Red) was added to some of the liquids. It made the
liquids easier to see but did not affect the properties of the liquid nor
the observed behavior.
■
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Consider the clean glass tube (D = 15.7 mm) shown in Figure
1. It is completely full of colored water. The top end of the tube
is plugged. The bottom end is immersed into a water reservoir.
The tube does not spontaneously drain. With a proper seal,
water remains abutted against the stopper indefinitely. On the
other hand, if the stopper were dislodged or improperly seated
to allow leakage, then the tube would drain from the top down.
This was true for all of the combinations of liquids and tubes
types, regardless of their diameter.
12904
Article
What happened when tubes were lifted vertically? A capillary
meniscus on the bottom of the tube. Tubes of large diameter
immediately drained from the bottom up. In contrast, tubes of
sufficiently small diameter retained liquid. Figure 2 shows the
Figure 2. Side view images of glass tubes of various diameters (D)
pulled from a water reservoir at 100 mm/min. (a) D = 2.7 mm, (b) D
= 4.1, (c) 5.6, (d) 7.9, (e) 9.7, (f) 11.2, (g) 11.2, (h) 12.7m, and (i)
15.7 mm.
end result from experiments with clean glass tubes that were
filled with water and then lifted from a reservoir−the larger
tubes with D ≥ 15.7 mm consistently drained. In contrast, the
smaller tubes with D ≤ 9.7 mm retained water. Tubes of
different lengths (5−25 cm) or partially filled tubes with air
above the liquid showed the same behavior.
It should be noted that the transition between retention and
drainage was not abrupt. If liquid laden tubes with diameters
slightly less than or equal to the critical diameter were tapped,
shaken slightly, or tilted, they drained. Tubes with slightly larger
diameters sometimes retained liquid when lifted from the
reservoir but were easily disturbed; the slightest perturbation
initiated drainage.
If liquid surface tension (γ) alone were at work, the
maximum hydrostatic pressure (Δpmax) that could be supported
inside the tubes by an upwardly directed Laplace pressure can
estimated as,6
4γ
Δpmax =
D (2)
For water, Δpmax would range from 107 Pa for the smallest tube
(D = 2.7 mm) to a mere 30 Pa for the largest nondrainer (D =
9.7 mm). (These values are overestimates, as eq 2 assumes the
liquid meniscus is a hemispherical cap.6 None of the menisci
were hemispherical shaped but had greater curvature;
subsequently, their Laplace pressures were even lower.) With
a vertical length of 10 cm, the water inside these tubes
generated a hydrostatic pressure of nearly 1000 Pa. Thus, other
factors must play a role in preventing drainage.
The shape of the meniscus at the bottom of the tubes that
retained liquids provides additional evidence that surface
tension is not acting alone. The smallest tubes had convex
menisci (bulging outward for the bottom of the tube). As the
diameter of tubes was increased, their curvature decreased,
giving way to concave interfaces for the largest diameter tubes
that retained liquid. With this change in curvature, the Laplace
pressure pushing upward against the liquid diminished and
DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247
Langmuir 2017, 33, 12903−12907
Langmuir Article

inverted, pulling downward on the liquid inside the largest
retaining tubes.
Why do these relatively large diameter tubes not drain? It is
hypothesized that if the air−liquid interfaces at the bottom of
the raised vertical tube is sufficiently stable, then atmospheric
pressure pushing upon it prevents the liquid from draining.
Otherwise, if the inner diameter of the tube is too large, the
air−liquid interface is sufficiently unstable that local deforma-
tion can initiate drainage.
There is rich literature on the dripping and jetting that occurs
as flowing liquids exit tubes or other orifices.7,8 The first papers
on this subject date from 19th century work of Savart, Plateau,
and Rayleigh.9−12 However, it seems that almost nothing has
been published on the stability of stationary liquids in plugged
vertical tubes. Thus, a simple expression was derived here for
estimating the critical orifice diameter (Dc) for the onset of the
drainage
⎡ of the interface and the hydrostatic pressure across the opening.
⎧
⎢ ⎪
Dc = ⎢(3 + cos θr)⎨3 + cos θr
⎢⎣ ⎪
⎩ Influence of Viscosity, Lift Velocity, and Height. The
⎡ 2 ⎤−1/2 ⎫ ⎤1/2
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎪ γ ⎥
+⎢ −⎜ − ⎟⎥ ⎬ ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎝2 3 + cos θr ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ ρg ⎥
⎭ ⎦ (3)
where γ and ρ are the surface tension and density of the liquid,
θr is the receding contact angle, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. Details of the derivation are given in the Appendix.
Various Liquids. For water in clean, wettable glass tubes, eq
3 predicts Dc = 13.6 mm, which agrees reasonably well with the
experimentally observed behavior, 9.7 mm ≤ Dc ≤ 15.7 mm.
The experiments described above for water were repeated with
other liquids in clean glass tubes. Results for the various liquids,
including water, are listed in Table 3. The other liquids behaved
(∼3×) considering that the perfluoroether oil has one-quarter
the surface tension of water and is nearly twice as dense.
Influence of Tube Material and Wettability. Table 3
also lists results from drainage experiments performed with
water and plastic tubes. The various tubes had receding contact
angles between ∼0° and 99°. The drainage was only weakly
dependent on the wettability of the tubes, where the observed
onset of flow occurred between 9.5 and 15.7 mm, in agreement
with the predicted values from eq 3 of Dc = 10.2−12.7 mm.
Tubes with an Angled Bottom. Nearly all of the tubes
tested here had flat ends cut normal to their length. Several
experiments were done with PVC tubing that had its bottom
cut at a 45°, such that it resembled the sharp end of a
hypodermic needle. These angled tubes were tested with water.
Their behavior was similar to the flat bottomed tubes, except
that drainage occurred for smaller diameter tubes, D > 6.4 mm.
The presence of a diagonal cut increases the radius of curvature
Both of the factors are expected to make the tube more
susceptible to drainage.
rate at which liquid-filled tubes were lifted from the reservoir
had a subtle influence on drainage. Tubes with diameters
slightly larger than Dc (D/Dc ≈ 1−1.3) more frequently
retained liquid when lifted at a faster rate. This is somewhat
surprising, as the greater acceleration/deacceleration at the
beginning/end of the lift provided a greater jolt to the liquid. It
may be that inertia carried more liquid within the capillary
bridge between the bottom of the tube and the reservoir,
producing a more convex curvature and thereby stabilizing the
meniscus. The notion that greater stability from faster lift rates
is also supported by the size and shape of the menisci of the
nondraining tubes. Figure 3 shows side view images of 9.7 mm

Table 3. Measured and Predicted Diameters (Dc) where

Drainage Occurred for the Various Liquid/Tube
Combinations
measured Dc Figure 3. Side view images of 9.7 mm clean glass tubes pulled from a
(mm) drains? water reservoir at various velocities. (a) v = 10, (b) 100, and (c) 2000
predicted Dc mm/min.
tube material liquid no yes (mm) eq 3
clean glass water ≤9.7 ≥15.7 13.6
clean glass glycerol ≤9.7 ≥12.7 11.5
clean glass ethylene glycol ≤7.9 ≥9.7 10.4
clean glass tubes pulled from a water reservoir at various
clean glass isopropanol ≤5.6 ≥9.7 8.5
velocities. The slowest lift rate yielded a less stable, concave
clean glass perfluoroether ≤2.7 ≥5.6 4.8
meniscus; whereas, at the fastest lift rate produced a more
oil stable, convex meniscus.
polyamide 66 water ≤11.1 ≥12.7 12.7 While viscosity, lift rate, and lift height had little influence on
(PA66) the onset of drainage, they had a much greater effect on the rate
polyvinyl chloride water ≤7.9 ≥12.7 11.6 and manner in which liquids drained. Liquids with higher
(PVC)
viscosities, such as glycerol and the perfluoroether oil, drained
polyethylene (PE) water ≤9.5 ≥12.7 10.2
more slowly than lower viscosity liquids. The height that the
tube was lifted above the liquid reservoir also affected the rate
similarly. When tubes were lifted vertically, a capillary bridge and mode of drainage. If tubes were lifted very quickly from the
formed and then broke, creating a meniscus on the bottom of reservoir, liquid often drained continuously. On the other hand,
the tube. Smaller diameter tubes retained their liquids. The if a tube was lifted sufficiently slowly, then drainage occurred in
transition between drainage and retention was gradual. Tubes intervals. Flow was momentarily stopped as liquid exiting the
with D ≈ Dc were easily perturbed. Tubes with D > Dc drained tube recreated a capillary bridge with the reservoir. Changing
from the bottom up, ranging from D > 9.7 mm for water to D > the rise height produced similar behavior: lifting tubes to a
2.7 mm for the perfluoroether oil. The difference in critical tube height >10 mm assured continuous drainage, whereas a lift
diameters between these two liquids was surprisingly small height ≤10 mm often led to periodic drainage.
12905 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247
Langmuir 2017, 33, 12903−12907
Langmuir Article

Influence of Tube Length and Hydrostatic Pressure. If

the stated hypothesis that atmospheric pressure pushing upon a
stable liquid meniscus prevents drainage is true, then in the
absence of shock or vibration, liquid should be retained in tubes
that are much taller than 10 cm. Thus, a few drainage
experiments were performed with longer tubes at the historic
fire tower in Pequot Lakes, MN. That day, the temperature and
atmospheric pressure were 21 °C, 100.5 kPa.
Approximately 10 L of tap water were poured into a 40 L
bucket. Red food coloring (McCormick Red) was added to the
water. Starting with one end, 12 m of PVC with D = 6.4 or 15.9
mm was slowly pushed below the surface of the water in the
bucket such that the air inside the tubing was displaced by the
water. At this point, the tubing contained no air or bubbles; its
entire length was filled with red water. One end of PVC tubing
was plugged with a silicone stopper and raised from the bucket
to heights as high as 11 m. The open end was kept under water.
At several intervals before reaching the maximum height, the
top, plugged end was held static. With the open end of the tube
submerged, the tubes behaved as a classic water barometer.
Atmospheric pressure pushed on the free surface of water in the
bucket. That pressure was transmitted through the water,
preventing the water from flowing out of the tubes. Below 10 m
where atmospheric pressure was greater than hydrostatic
pressure, the liquid did not drain. The top of the liquid
column inside the tube remained in contact with the stopper. If
raised above 10 m, the water separated from the stopper. The
greater the height above 10 m, the longer the gap. However, the
height of the liquid column did not change. If the top of the
tubing was lowered back to 10 m or less, the water closed the
gap. (After the initial creation of the gap, the void did not
completely close; the vacuum that was initially created was
partially “filled” by water vapor.)
Periodically during lifting, the open end of the tubes was
oriented vertically and gently raised above the surface of the red
water in the bucket. For the smaller diameter PVC tubing with
D = 6.4 mm, water did not flow from the tube. Thus, it was
concluded that in the absence of shock or vibration, sufficiently
small diameter tubing could indeed retain a 10 m column of
water. On the other hand, when the larger diameter PVC
tubing with D = 15.9 mm was lifted from the bucket, it
immediately began to drain from the bottom up.

■ CONCLUSIONS
Vertical tubes pulled from liquid reservoirs retained liquid when
their diameters were sufficiently small to inhibit distortion of
the air−liquid interface at their open bottom end. Atmospheric
pressure pushing on their air−liquid interface prevented
drainage from tubes as tall as 10 m. If surface tension were
acting alone, the transition between draining and retention
would have expected to occur at much smaller tube diameters.
Figure 4. Depiction of tubes that were filled with liquid, plugged at the
top end, oriented vertically, and then immersed in a liquid reservoir.
When lifted from the reservoir, the air−liquid interface at the bottom
of smaller diameter tubes is stable, and the tube does not drain. (a) A
tube with a stable convex meniscus. (b) A tube with a less stable
concave meniscus. (c) If the interface is sufficiently long (i.e., the tube
diameter is sufficiently large), a Rayleigh instability forms, and then (d)

■ APPENDIX
Derivation of Model for Drainage from a Tube
Consider the liquid-filled tubes depicted in Figure 4. They are
circular with inner diameters of D and exhibit advancing and
receding contact angles of θa and θr. Their upper end is
plugged. The tubes are oriented vertically and pulled upward
from the reservoir to expose their open, bottom end to
atmospheric pressure. If their diameter is sufficiently small, then
liquid will not drain. For the smallest diameter tubes, the
resulting meniscus at the bottom opening is convex, Figure 4a.
12906
air enters the tube and the tube drains from the bottom up. (e) Cross-
sectional view of the critical meniscus shape where the hydrostatic
pressure and Laplace pressure are equal, Δph = ΔpL, for θr = 0°. (f)
Cross-sectional view of the critical meniscus shape where Δph = ΔpL
for θr > 0°.
As tubes of progressively larger diameters are lifted from their
liquid reservoir, the shape of the meniscus changes. As tube
diameter approaches the critical limit for drainage, the meniscus
takes a sinusoidal shape, where liquid protrudes outward from
one side of the tube end and inward from the other, Figure 4c.
DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247
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Langmuir Article

The minimum critical diameter (Dc) required to prevent ⎡ ⎧

drainage can be estimated by equating the opposing Laplace ⎢ ⎪
Dc = ⎢(3 + cos θr)⎨3 + cos θr
pressure (ΔpL) and hydrostatic pressure (Δph) acting on the ⎢⎣ ⎪
bulge protruding from the bottom of the tube ⎩

⎡ 2 ⎤−1/2 ⎫ ⎤1/2
Δph = ΔpL 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎪ γ ⎥
(4)
+⎢ −⎜ − ⎟⎥ ⎬ ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎝2 3 + cos θr ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ ρg ⎥
Assume that the maximum Laplace pressure (ΔpL) occurs ⎭ ⎦ (3)

■
where the bulge expands to take a shape that can be
approximated as hemi-ellipsoid2,5 AUTHOR INFORMATION
γ γ Corresponding Author
ΔpL = + *E-mail: chuck.extrand@cpcworldwide.com. Tel: 1-651-999-
R1 R2 (5)
1859.
where γ is the surface tension and R1 and R2 are its principal ORCID
radii of the hemi-ellipsoidal bulge. Conversely, the critical C. W. Extrand: 0000-0002-0330-9236
hydrostatic pressure (Δph) can be estimated as Notes
The author declares no competing financial interest.
Δph = ρgR1 (6)

where ρ is the density of the liquid and g is the acceleration due

to gravity.
The wettability of the tubes affects the shape of the bulge.
For tubes with a receding contact angle of θr = 0°, Figure 4e, it
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank M. Acevedo, D. Burdge, L. Castillo,
J. Doyon, K. Long and D. Meyer, K. Sekeroglu, K. Switalla, K.
Vangsgard, J. Wittmayer, and G. Zeien for their help and
comments. Also, thanks to executive leadership at CPC and
Dover Corporation their continued support of research at CPC.

■
is assumed that the principal radii of curvature are
1 REFERENCES
R1 = D
4 (7) (1) Wu, S. Polymer Interface and Adhesion; Marcel Dekker: New York,
1982.
and (2) Adamson, A. W. Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, 5th ed.; Wiley:
New York, 1990.
3 (3) Weast, R. C. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd ed.; CRC:
R2 = D Boca Raton, FL, 1992.
4 (8) (4) DuPont Krytox VPF Vacuum Pump Fluids, Product Information; H-
58530; E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, December, 2012.
(The minor radius of curvature (R1) of the protruding bulge (5) Laplace, P. S. Mécanique Celeste; Courier: Paris, 1805; Vol. 4,
lies within the drawing plane of Figure 4e,f, whereas the major Supplément au Xe Livre.
radius of curvature (R2) is normal to the drawing.) Combining (6) Padday, J. F.; Pitt, A. R. The Stability of Axisymmetric Menisci.
eqs 4−8 gives an equation for estimating the critical diameter Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A 1973, 275 (1253), 489−528.
(7) Pomeau, Y.; Villermaux, E. Two Hundred Years of Capillarity
(Dc) required to initiate drainage of liquids from tubes where θr Research. Phys. Today 2006, 59 (3), 39−44.
= 0° (8) Lin, S. P.; Reitz, R. D. Drop and Spray Formation from a Liquid
Jet. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1998, 30 (1), 85−105.
⎡ γ ⎤
1/2
(9) Savart, F. Mémoire sur la constitution des veines liquides lancées
Dc = 4⎢(1 + 3−1/2 ) ⎥ par des orifices circulaires en mince paroi. Ann. Chim. (Paris) 1833, 53,
⎣ ρg ⎦ (9) 337−386.
(10) Plateau, J. Experimental and Theoretical Statics of Liquids;
For the case where the receding contact angle of θr > 0°, the Gauthier-Villars: Paris, 1873; Vol. 1.
curvature of the lower bulge is less pronounced than a wettable (11) Rayleigh, L. On The Instability Of Jets. Proc. London Math. Soc.
tube of the same diameter, Figure 4f. Here, the principal radii of 1878, 1−10 (1), 4−13.
(12) Rayleigh, L. On the Capillary Phenomena of Jets. Proc. R. Soc.
curvature are approximated as London 1879, 29 (196), 71−97.
1
R1 = D
3 + cos θr (10)

and

⎡ ⎛1 ⎞2 ⎤
1/2
1 1
R2 = ⎢ − ⎜ − ⎟⎥ D
⎢⎣ 4 ⎝2 3 + cos θr ⎠ ⎥⎦ (11)

Combining eqs 4−6, 10, and 11 yields the following equation

for estimating the critical diameter (Dc) required to initiate
drainage of liquids from tubes where θr ≥ 0°
12907 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b03247
Langmuir 2017, 33, 12903−12907