Chapter 5

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
‫ﻗﯿﺎس اﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬
Dr. Mohamed Osama El Samadony
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Power,
Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University
Introduction
1. Pressure or the force exerted per unit
area on the boundaries of a substance.
Pressure = Force / Area

2. Pressure can be deductively used ‫ ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﺑﺷﻛل اﺳﺗﻧﺗﺎﺟﻲ‬to

measure other variables such as Flow and Level

3. Pressure plays a major role in determining the Boiling

Point of Liquids

4. Fluids exerts pressure on the containing vessel equally and

in all directions
2
 Measured values of pressure
• Differential Pressure ‫ﺿﻐط ﻓرﻗﻲ‬
It is the pressure difference that exists between points.
This is highly relevant for day-to-day pressure
measurement, especially in industry.
• Gauge Pressure ‫ﺿﻐط ﻗﯾﺎﺳﻲ‬
It is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge
pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric
pressure, and negative for pressures below it.
Commonly, gauge is designed to measure pressure
values expressed with respect to atmospheric pressure.
• Absolute Pressure ‫اﻟﺿﻐط اﻟﻣطﻠق‬
It is the pressure that is relative to the zero pressure in
the empty, air-free space of the universe.
• Vacuum Pressure ‫ﺿﻐط اﻟﺗﻔرﯾﻎ‬
It is the pressure below atmospheric pressure.

3
 Pressure Term Relationships

Absolute Zero Pressure. The complete absence of any gas; a perfect vacuum. 4
 Common Pressure Units

• 1 inch of water = 249.1 N/m2 = 249.1 Pa

• 1 mmHg (mm of mercury) = 1 torr = 133.3 Pa

• = 1.33322 mbar

• 1 kgf /cm2 = 98.1 kN/m2 = 98.1 kPa

5
 Types of Pressure Measurement Devices
‫أﻧﻮاع أﺟﮭﺰة ﻗﯿﺎس اﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬
• Mechanical Instruments ‫أﺟﮭزة ﻗﯾﺎس ﻣﯾﻛﺎﻧﯾﻛﯾﺔ‬
• Self-operated mechanical devices that can be classified into two groups:
• The first group works on the basis of a balance between known
pressure force and that of pressure to be measured, of this type,
manometers.
• The second group works on the basis of a balance between the pressure
force to be measured and the force resulting from stress on a flexible
medium or organ.
• Electromechanical Instruments ‫أﺟﮭزة ﻗﯾﺎس ﻛﮭروﻣﯾﻛﺎﻧﯾﻛﯾﺔ‬
• These devices generally contain a primary mechanical transducer to
measure pressure and a secondary electrical transducers to covert it to
an electric signal that can be easily recorded and remotely controlled.
• Electronic Instruments ‫أﺟﮭزة ﻗﯾﺎس إﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾﺔ‬
• These devices depend on physical changes in some materials when
exposed to pressure and are measured by electronic means

6
7
 Manometers ‫اﻟﻤﺎﻧﻮﻣﺘﺮات‬
• Manometers are devices used to determine
the pressure at any point in fluid either by
balancing the same fluid column or by using
another fluid column.
• Types of Simple Manometers
Common types of simple manometers are:
o Piezometer
o U-tube Manometer
o Single Column Manometer

8
1. Piezometer
• Piezometers are the
simplest form of simple
manometers that can be
employed to measure the
gauge pressures.
• One end of the tube is
connected to the point
where the pressure is to be
measured and the other
end is open to the
atmosphere .
• The rise of the head gives
the pressure head with
respect to the point under
consideration. Pg = r g h
9
2. U-Tube Manometers ‫ اﻟﻣﺎﻧوﻣﺗرات ﺣرف‬U

p1 + r f gh = p2 + r m gh
or
Dp = p1 - p2 = gh (r m - r f )
10
 ‫اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة ﻟﻠﻤﺎﻧﻮﻣﺘﺮ‬
‫‪Dp = p1 - p2 = r m gh‬‬
‫وﯾﻼﺣظ ھﻧﺎ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ ‪:‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻣﻛن ﻗﯾﺎس ‪ p1‬ﻛﺿﻐط ﻣطﻠق إذا ﻛﺎﻧت ‪p2 =0‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻣﻛن ﻗﯾﺎس ‪ p1‬ﻛﺿﻐط ﻗﯾﺎﺳﻲ إذا ﻛﺎﻧت ‪p2= ps‬‬ ‫•‬
‫إذا ﻛﺎﻧت ‪ p2‬أي ﻗﯾﻣﺔ أﺧرى ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﯾﺗم ﻗﯾﺎس ﻓرق اﻟﺿﻐط‬ ‫•‬

‫‪11‬‬
 Properties of the measuring fluid
• Low viscosity to give a quick response
• Low expansion coefficient to reduce density /
volume change with temperature change.
• Low surface tension to reduce capillary effect.
• The type of fluid used depends on the value of
the measured pressure difference, as well as
on the type of fluid to be measured.

Colored Water 1000 kg/m 3

Mercury 13600 kg/m 3
Acetylene tetrabromide 2967 kg/m3
12
3. Well Type Manometer ‫اﻟﻤﺎﻧﻮﻣﺘﺮات ذات اﻟﺒﺌﺮ‬

• The single column manometer possesses an

arrangement similar to that of U-tube manometer. A
reservoir is connected to one of the limbs and the
other end is left open to the atmosphere.
• The cross-sectional area of the reservoir (well) is very
large (100 times larger) compared to the area of cross-
section of the tube. Thus, the change in liquid level of
the reservoir is negligible for any pressure variation.
Hence, the pressure is contributed from the height of
the liquid in the other limbs.

13
‫‪a) Vertical well-type Manometer‬‬

‫‪d . A =h/ . a‬‬

‫‪d = h – h/‬‬

‫‪A( h – h/ ) = h/ a‬‬

‫) ‪h= h/ ( 1 + a/A‬‬

‫) ‪)(r m - r f‬‬
‫ﺷﻛل )‪ (٣-٦‬ﻣﺎﻧوﻣﺗر ذو ﺑﺋر‬ ‫‪a‬‬
‫‪Dp = p1 - p2 = gh¢(1 +‬‬
‫‪well type manometer‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫وﻣن اﻟﻧﺎﺣﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺔ ﯾﺗم ﺗدرﯾﺞ اﻟﻣﻘﯾﺎس ﺑﺣﯾث ﻻ ﻧﺣﺗﺎج إﻟﻰ اﻟﺿرب ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻣل ‪ .‬ﻓﻣﺛﻼً إذا ﻛﺎﻧت اﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ‬
‫‪a/A = 0.02‬ﻟﺟﮭﺎز ﻗﯾﺎس وﻛﺎﻧت ‪ h/=100 mm‬وﺑذﻟك ﺗﻛون ﻗﯾﻣﺔ ‪ h = 102‬ﻓﻲ ھذه اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻛون‬
‫اﻟﻣﺳﺎﻓﺔ ‪ 100 mm‬ﻣﻘﺳﻣﺔ إﻟﻰ ‪102‬ﻗﺳﻣﺎ ً ‪.‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
b) Inclined Tube well-type Manometer
• The inclined well—type manometer has a large-cross-section
container for the manometer fluid connected to an inclined tube
with a scale.
• In this form of the gauge, sensitivity is improved at the expense
of a reduced measuring range (higher sensitivity).
• The pressure difference becomes: p 1 - p 2 = ρ g (h1 + d sin α )
A1 h1 = A2 d
A
h1 = 2 d
A1
A2
p1 - p2 = ρ gd ( + sinα )
A1

‫ ﻧﺟد أن‬A2/A1 ‫وﺑﺈھﻣﺎل اﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ‬

inclined tube manometer ‫( ﻣﺎﻧوﻣﺗر ذو أﻧﺑوﺑﺔ ﻣﺎﺋﻠﺔ‬٤-٦) ‫ﺷﻛل‬

p1 - p 2 = ρ gd sin α 15
Inclined Tube well-type Manometer with
adjustable inclination angle

16
 Elastic Pressure Elements
‫اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻤﺮﻧﺔ‬
Uses flexible element as
sensor. As pressure changed
,the flexible element moved,
and this motion was used to
rotate a pointer in front of
dail.

‫( أﺷﻜﺎل ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻤﺮﻧﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻘﯿﺎس‬٦-٦) ‫ﺷﻜﻞ‬

‫اﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬ 17
‫‪Bourdon Tube‬‬
‫أﻧﺒﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﻮردون‬

‫ﺷﻛل )‪(٧-٦‬اﻟﻣﻛوﻧﺎت اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻌداد ﻗﯾﺎس اﻟﺿﻐط ﯾﻌﻣل‬

‫ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام أﻧﺑوب ﺑوردون‬ ‫‪18‬‬
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tubes are generally are of

three types;
1. C-type
2. Helical type
3. Spiral type

19 19
Diaphragm and Bellows Pressure Gauge

• Diaphragm are popular because they required less space

and the motion they produce is sufficient for operating
electronic transducers

20
21
Bellows

• More sensitive than bourdon

type gauge.

• Used to measure low

pressures

• Brass, phosphor bronze,

stainless steel, beryllium copper
etc.

22
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers

Mechanical Pressure Transducers

to
Displacement
to
Electric Transducer

PEC – UET Lahore Dr. Shahid Naveed 16. Dezember 2019 / Dr. –Ing Naveed Ramzan 23 23
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers

1. Pressure sensing transducer such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a bourdon tube

2. Secondary transducer e.g. resistance or voltage

24
25
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge

26
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge

27
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge

28
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge

29
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Strain Gauge

30
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Capacitive

31
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Inductive

32
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Inductive

33
Electromechanical Pressure Transducers: Optical

34
Electrical Pressure Transducers

Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?

• Transmission requirements for remote display as
electric signal transmission can be through cable or
cordless.
• Electric signals give quicker responses and high
accuracy in digital measurements.
• The linearity property of the electric signal produced
to pressure applied favors simplicity.
• They can be used for extreme pressure applications,
i.e. high vacuum and pressure measurements.
• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and
mechanical vibrations.

12/16/2019
35 Group Se7en 35
36
 ‫‪Oscillating Pressure‬‬
‫اﻟﻀﻐﻮط اﻟﺪﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﻜﯿﺔ )اﻟﻤﺘﺬﺑﺬﺑﺔ(‬
‫• ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﻟﻘﯾﺎﺳﮭﺎ ﻣﺣوﻻت ﺿﻐط ذات ﺣﺳﺎﺳﯾﺔ وﺳرﻋﺔ إﺳﺗﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬
‫ﺑﯾزوإﻟﻛﺗرﯾك ‪Piezo-electric pressure transducer‬‬
‫• وﺗﺗﻛون ﻣن ﺑﻠورة ﻣن اﻟﻛوارﺗز ‪ ... Quartz‬ﺛﺎﻧﻰ أﻛﺳﯾد اﻟﺳﯾﻠﯾﻛون‬
‫‪.SiO2‬‬
‫• ﺗوﻟد ھذه اﻟﻣﺎدة ﻓرق ﺟﮭد ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﺗﻌرض ﻟﺿﻐط‪ .‬ﯾﺗﻧﺎﺳب ﻓرق اﻟﺟﮭد ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﻣﻘدار اﻟﺿﻐط اﻟواﻗﻊ ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪Gas independent‬‬
‫‪0.1 to 1000 Torr‬‬
‫‪1% accuracy‬‬
‫‪Typical Operating‬‬
‫‪Temperature: 0°C to 40°C‬‬

‫‪37‬‬
Vacuum Pressure

38
 Low Pressure (Vacuum )
• Vacuum is defined as the difference between atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure of the fluid
• The common units for vacuum measurement are the
micrometer of mercury and torr
• 1 torr=1 mmHg and micrometer=10-3 torr
• Vacuum pressure is classified into:
– Low vacuum : 760 to 1 mm Hg
– Medium vacuum : 1 to 10-3 mm Hg
– High vacuum : 10-3 to 10-7 mm Hg
– Ulta-High vacuum : less 10-7 mm Hg Typical vacuum cleaner suction
pressure is 710 mm Hg abs

39
Vacuum Measurements

40
41
 McLeod Gauge ‫ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﻣﻜﻠﻮد‬
McLeod Gauge: (Originally invented in 1878),
• The McLeod gauge measures the pressure of gases by compressing a known volume
with a fixed pressure. The new volume is then a measure of the initial absolute
pressure.

• The McLeod gauge has been used until recently for calibrating other gauges.

• It covers the vacuum range between 1 and 10-6 torr.

42
 McLeod Gauge ‫ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﻣﻜﻠﻮد‬
The volume of bulb and capillary A
above level W is V
Gas pressure to be measured is p
In mmHg
v is the volume of gas in capillary
A after compression
A is the cross-sectional area of
capillary A
‫( ﻣﻘﯾﺎس ﻣﻛﻠود ﻟﻘﯾﺎس اﻟﺗﻔرﯾﻎ‬٨-٦) ‫ﺷﻛل‬
p1 is the volume of gas in capillary
A after compression in mmHg

pV=p1v v=ah
h=p1-p
Substitute with p1 , v

p=ah2/(V-ah) mmHg

43
• Nowadays, these gauges
have largely been
replaced by electronic
vacuum gauges. McLeod
gauges continue to be
used as a calibration
standard for electronic
gauges

44
45
46
Vacuum Measurements (cont.)

47
 Pirani Gauge ‫ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﺑﯿﺮاﻧﻲ‬
• This device works on the principle of changing the thermal
conductivity of gases with the change of pressure. Hence, we
find that if a hot conductor is placed inside a space with gas,
the rate of heat loss from the conductor will be proportional
to the pressure.
Gas dependent
1e-4 to 1000 Torr
50% accuracy above 10 Torr, 10%
accuracy below 10 Torr
Constant temperature, variable
current
Typical Operating Temperature:
0°C to 40°C
‫( ﻣﻘﯾﺎس ﺑﯾراﻧﻲ‬٩-٦) ‫ﺷﻛل‬

48
• Gas molecules collide with the wire and extract heat
from it. The lower the pressure, the fewer these
particles and the wire remains hot. Since the
resistance of the wire is proportional to its
temperature, the measurement of its resistance gives
an indication of the value of the vacuum pressure.

49
Vacuum measuring system with compensation for
change in ambient temperature

50
 Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge
‫ﻗﯿﺎس اﻟﺘﻔﺮﯾﻎ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻻزدواج اﻟﺤﺮاري‬

• Gas dependent
• Accuracy: ± 50% above 10 Torr,
• ± 15% below 10 Torr
• Constant current, variable temperature
• Typical Operating Temperature: 0°C to
100°C

51
 Hot Cathode Ionization Gauge
‫ﺟﮭﺎز اﻟﺘﺄﯾﻦ ذو اﻟﻜﺎﺛﻮد اﻟﺴﺎﺧﻦ‬

‫( ﻣﻘﯾﺎس اﻟﺗﻔرﯾﻎ ذو اﻟﻛﺎﺛود اﻟﺳﺎﺧن‬١٢-٦) ‫ﺷﻛل‬

Gas dependent
Range: 1e-9 to 1e-4 Torr
± 30% accuracy
Typical Operating
Temperature: 0°C to 40°C
52
53
Hot Cathode Ionization Gauge
This slide illustrates the
variation of ion current with
pressure which is found in a
typical triode gauge for three
different gases

There are three clear regions

and it will be noted that only
region 2 is really useful for
pressure measurement. In
this region, the characteristic
is linear

54
55
56
 Cold Cathode Ionization Gauge
‫ﺟﮭﺎز اﻟﺘﺄﯾﻦ ذو اﻟﻜﺎﺛﻮد اﻟﺒﺎرد‬
All gases under normal conditions of pressure and temperature are dielectric. But
when we empty the glass tube from the gas, so that the gas pressure becomes less
than (0.001 - 0.01) mm Hg, breakdown occurs and the gas becomes conductor of
electricity if the gas is exposed to a suitable voltage difference. If the voltage difference
between the poles is increased to Around 10,000 volts, a flow of invisible radiation
from the cathode is observed causing flashes ‫ وﻣﯾض‬on the tube walls, called cathode
ray ‫أﺷﻌﺔ اﻟﻣﮭﺑط‬.

Gas dependent
1e-10 to 1e-2 Torr
± 30% accuracy
Typical Operating
Temperature: 0°C to 55°C

57
Glow discharge

If the voltage between two

plates is fixed at a few
thousand volts, then the
discharge current is a
function of pressure and may
be used as a measure of the
pressure

58
59
Pressure Gauge Calibration

60
61
62
63
64
 ‫ﺗﺠﮭﯿﺰ اﻟﺮﺳﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت‬
‫ﺗﺄﻛد ﻣن وﺿﻊ اﻟﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛل ﻣﺣور ﻣن ﻣﺣﺎور اﻟرﺳم اﻟﮭﻧدﺳﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺑﻧﻔس اﻟﺣروف وﻧﻔس اﻟطرﯾﻘﺔ ﺑﺣﯾث ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك ﺗﻧﺎﺳق ﺟﯾد ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﻛد ﻣن وﺿﻊ ﺣدود اﻟﻘﯾم ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛل ﻣﺣور ﻣن ﻣﺣﺎور اﻟﺷﻛل ‪ .‬ﻛﻣﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺟب وﺿﻊ اﻟوﺣدات ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛل ﻣﺣور ﻣن اﻟﻣﺣﺎور ‪ .‬وﯾﺟب اﺳﺗﺧدام‬
‫ﻧﻔس ﻧوع اﻟوﺣدات ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺟب اﻷﺧذ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر إﻣﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ ﺗﺻﻐﯾر اﻟﺷﻛل اﻟﮭﻧدﺳﻲ ﻓﯾﻣﺎ ﺑﻌد‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﺳﺑب ﺻﻐر اﻟﻣﺳﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﮫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ أو اﻟﺗﻘرﯾر ‪.‬‬
‫وﺣﯾث أن اﻟﮭدف ﻣن اﻟرﺳم ھو ﺗﺳﮭﯾل ﻧﻘل اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻘد ﯾﻘﺗﺿﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﻣر ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻟﺣﺎﻻت وﺿﻊ أﻛﺛر ﻣن ﻣﻧﺣﻧﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔس اﻟﻣﺣﺎور‬
‫ﻟﺗﺳﮭﯾل ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ وﻛذﻟك ﺗﻘﻠﯾل اﻟﻣﺳﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺷﻐﻠﮭﺎ اﻟرﺳم ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ أو اﻟﺗﻘرﯾر ‪.‬‬

‫‪65‬‬