Project: Ambition

A collection of all the math formulas

Hyeong Seon Yoo

Colegio San Agustin - Makati STEM 12A

September 15, 2016

Abstract intuition on what happens when these expressions are

expanded.
This paper contains all the formulas learned in the De- (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
partment of Education Mathematics General Curriculum (a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2
from Grade 7 and Grade 10, and the formulas from the (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
General Mathematics and Pre-calculus subjects of the (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
Senior High School Academic Track STEM Strand cur- (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3
riculum. Derivations and equivalents which require less (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) = a3 + b3
than 3 steps to achieve have been omitted for concise- (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) = a3 − b3
ness. Some of these sound or look like common sense,

but when one starts applying them, one can nd the im-
mense usefulness of some of the robust denitions these
formulas provide. (e.g. comparison of real numbers de-
ned in terms of their dierences)
Solving linear equations (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
All linear equations, that is to say, a polynomial equa-
tion with a degree 1, are reduced to the following form:
−b
ax + b = 0 → x = a

Example. 4x + 6 = 2x − 23
Absolute value Dene A as any expression that eval- ∴ 2x + 20
= 0 → x = − 10
3 3
uates to a real number:

A ≥ 0 → |A| = A Transversals The following are the relationships of

A > 0 → |A| = A angles formed by a transversal of two parallel lines

Laws of exponents These laws apply to any real num-

ber or expression.

am · an = am+n
am m−n
an = a
m n mn
(a ) = a
(ab)m = am bm ∠1 ∼
m
Vertical angles = ∠4
( ab )m = abm Corresponding angles ∠1 ∼
= ∠5
−m
a = a1m Alternate Interior ∼ ∠6
angles ∠3 =

Alternate Exterior angles ∠1 ∼

= ∠8
Common polynomial products Instead of memoriz- m∠3 + m∠5 = 180o
ing these products verbatim, it would help to have some m∠1 + m∠7 = 180o

1
Characteristics of convex polygons The following x2 + (a + b)x + ab+ = (x + a)(x + b)
are some useful information about a polygon with n mnx2 + (an + bm)x + ab2 = (mx + a)(nx + b)
sides. Note: The last two should be done intuitively without
n(n−3)
Number of diagonals = the use of the formulas
2
o
Sum of interior angles = 180 (n − 2)
Sum of exterior angles = 360 o Linear functions These are the common forms of lin-

ear functions.

Measures of central tendency in ungrouped data Slope-intercept form y = mx + b

The measures of central tendency are Mean, median, General form ax + by = c
and mode. Point-slope form y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
P
xi y−y1
x̄ = n , x
e = xn/2+0.5 (Note: 17.5th data point Slope form: m= x−x1
means the mean of the 17th and the 18th.)

M o =The most frequent data value Systems of linear equations This section presents

three ways of solving systems of linear equations

Measures of central tendency in grouped data No- Solving through matrices (Best method, but dicult

tation: f : total frequency, Lm/mo : Lower class bound- to be acquainted with)

ary of the median/mode class, Cf p : Cumulative fre-  ax + by = m

Given the following: and cx + dy = n
 a b 
quency of the previous class, i : frequency of the class,
D=

 = ad − bc

fm/mo =frequency of the median/mode class
 c d 
 
fx  m b 
x̄ = n Dx =   = md − bn
 
n÷2−Cf p  n d 
x̃ = Lm + ( fm )i  
mo f
af ter −f  a m 
M o = Lmo + ( (fmo −faf ter )+(fmo −fbef ore ) )i Dy =   = an − mc
 
 c n 
Dy
Measures of variability in ungrouped data The x= Dx
D y= D
symbols should be familliar to an average high school Solving through elimination: an Example

reader. Given
 3x + 4y = 8 and 6x + 7y = 26:
Range = highest − lowest 2(3x + 4y) = 2(8)
IQR = Q3 − Q1 6x + 7y = 36
(xi −x̄)2 (xi −x̄)2
P P
2 2 
σ = n s = n−1 6x + 8y = 16
6x + 7y = 36
Measures of variability in grouped data Warning:
Subtracting the two expressions gives us:
Long formulas
y = −20
IQR = Q3 − Q1
Substituting this value in the rst equation gives us:
Q1 = LQ1 + ( n÷4−f 3n÷4−f
fQ1 )i Q3 = LQ3 + ( fQ3 )i 3x + 4(−20) = 8 → 3x − 88 = 0
( f x)2 ( f x)2
P P
f x2 − f x2 −
P P
σ2 = n
n
s2 = n−1
n
∴x= 88
3
(−20, 88

Solution Set
3 )
Factoring These are the common factors of polyno- Solving through substitution: an Example

mials Given x − 2y = 6 and 3y + 21 x = 8:

ab + ac = a(b + c) x = 2y + 6
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b) 3y + 21 (2y + 6) = 8
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) 3y + y + 3 = 8
3 3 2 2
a − b = (a − b)(a + ab + b ) 4y = 5
2 2 2 5
a + 2ab + b = (a + b) y= 4

2
 Substituting the y-value into x = 2y + 6 gives us: Hinge theorem: If two sides of one triangle are con-

x= 2( 54 ) +6 gruent, respectively, to two sides of a second triangle,

17
x= 2 and the included angle of the rst triangle is longer than

( 54 , 17

Solution Set
2 ) the third side of the second, then the third side of the

rst triangle is longer than the third side of the second.

Geometric relationships of 2 lines

1. Parallel lines have the same slope but dierent y
Quadratic equations General form: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Solving quadratic equations by completing the
intercept; this means that the system of these two
squares: an example
linear equations have no solution.
x2 + 6x + 2 = 0
2. Coinciding lines have the same slope and y inter-
x2 + 6x = −2
cept; this means that the equations are identical
x2 + 6x + 9 = −2 + 9
and the system has innite solutions
(x + 3)2 = 7
√
3. Intersecting lines have dierent slopes and the sys- x+3=± 7
√
tem of those equations one unique solution. x = −3 ± 7
Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic for-
4. Perpendicular lines have a slope that is the negative
mula: an example
reciprocal to each other.
x2 + 6x +
√2 = 0
−6± 62 −4(1)(2) √
x= = −3 ± 7
Denition of a function f (x)is a function where for 2(1)
Number of roots using the discriminant b2 − 4ac
every x in its dened domain, there is one and only one

y dened.
If b2 − 4ac > 0 there are 2 real roots

If b2 − 4ac = 0 there is only 1 real root

2
Triangle congruence If b − 4ac < 0 there are no real roots

Coecients and the sum/product of the roots

1. SAS congruence −b
Sum of the roots:
a
c
2. ASA congruence Product of the roots:
a

3. SSS congruence
Quadratic functions Domain: all real numbers

4. AAS congruence (A theorem derived from 2) Range: determined by the vertex and direction

Vertex form: y = a(x − h)2 + k where the vertex

If two triangles are congruent, the corresponding parts
is given by the point with the coordinates (h, k) and a
are also congruent.
determines the direction of the parabola
If the corresponding parts of two triangles are congruent
Example of converting from general form to vertex
(as indicated in the above 4), the two triangles are also
form: given y = x2 + 14x + 22,
congruent.
y = x2 + 14x + 49 − 49 + 22

The geometric theorems on triangles The following

y = (x + 7)2 − 27 → vertex(−7, −27)
are the theorems on the angles and sides of triangles.

Exterior angle inequality theorem: Any exterior angle Variations Direct, inverse, joint

of a triangle is greater than either angle not adjacent to Direct variation (the ratio of the quantities remain

the exterior angle. constant): y = kx

Triangle inequality theorem: The sum of any two Inverse variation (the quantities change in an opposite
k
sides of a triangle is greater than the third side manner): y= x

3
 Joint variation (there are two quantities that change Mid-segment of a triangle
1
with a constant): y = kxz Example: Atriangle = 2 bh
1
where k= 2

Radicals Are basically fractional exponents.

Radical-Exponent equivalence
m √
n
an = am
Laws of radicals
√
( n a)n = a
√ √ √
n
a n b = n ab
√
n a
= n ab
p
√
n A mid-segment of a triangle joins the midpoints of
b
√ √
( n a)m = n am two sides of a triangle.
pn m
√ √ p√
The mid-segment is parallel to the unconnected third
a = mn a = m n a
side of the triangle.

The mid-segment is half as long as the unconnected

Parallelograms A quadrilateral with two pairs of par- third side of the triangle.

allel sides.

Similarity When two gures are similar, the ratios of

their correspondings sides and corresponding angles are

equal.

Similarity of triangles There are three general theo-

rems for proving the similarity of triangles.

1. SAS similarity
Opposite sides are congruent

Opposite angles are congruent

2. SSS similarity
Adjacent angles are supplementary

Diagonals bisect each other

3. AA similarity
Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two con-

gruent triangles There are two similarity theorems for right triangles

The sum of the squares of the sides equals the sum

of the squares of the diagonals 1. Right triangle similarity theorem says that when the

ratios of the hypotenuse and one leg is the same,

the two right triangles are similar.

Midline theorem A midline is a line segment that

connects the midpoints of two sides of a triangle. The 2. The special right triangles: These are the right tri-

midline theorem says that cutting a triangle in its mid- angles with the angle measurements of 45-45-90 or

line and connecting the midpoints creates a parallelo- 30-60-90. They are said to be special because the

gram. lengths of their sides have special relationships.

4
 Law of sines and law of cosines These can be ap-

plied to just about any triangle as long as they are prop-

erly used.

The Pythagorean theorem Formal denition: The

sum of the squares of the legs of a right triangle is

equal to the square of the hypotenuse.

a2 + b2 = c2 where a and b are the lengths of the

legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse

Pythagorean triples (Integers that satisfy the sin(A) sin(B) sin(C)

Law of Sines:
a = b = c
Pythagoream theorem) to know Law of Cosines
3: 4 :5 a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos(A)
5: 12 :13 b2 = a2 + c2 − 2accos(B)
8: 15 :17 c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcos(C)
7: 24 :25

9: 40 :41
Arithmetic sequences and series are sequences of

numbers where in there is a common dierence between

Trigonometric ratios The following are the ratios of each and every term.

the sides of any right triangle given a specic angle. Example: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13...

You should view these ratios as function which outputs Not an Example: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16...

a RATIO given the angle of a right triangle. Arithmetic sequences can be described using a linear

equation of the form an = a1 + (n − 1)d This equation

nds the nth term given the rst term and the common

dierence d.

Formula for an arithmetic series:

n(a1 +an ) n
Sn = 2 = 2 [2a1 + (n − 1)d]

Geometric sequence and series are sequences of

opposite hypotenuse
sin(θ) = hypotenuse csc(θ) = opposite numbers where there is a common ratio between each
adjacent hypotenuse
cos(θ) = hypotenuse sec(θ) = adjacent and every term.
opposite adjacent
tan(θ) = adjacent cot(θ) = hypotenuse Example: 4, 12, 36,108, 324...

Not an example: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10...

Trigonometric ratios of special angles These can Geometric sequences can be described using the equa-

be derived from the Special Right Triangles. tion an = a1 rn−1 This equation nds the nth term given
θ 30o 45o 60o the rst term and the common ratio r.
√ √
1 2 3
sinθ Formula for a geometric series
√2 √2 2
3 2 1 a1 (1−r n )
cosθ Sn = 1−r for a diverging series (r > 1)
√2 2
√2
3 a
tanθ 3 1 3 Sn = 1−r for a converging series (0 < r < 1)

5
Division of polynomials Generally, there are three Circles and angles These parts of a circle can be re-

methods: Factoring, long division, and synthetic divi- lated with dierent theorems which are useful in calcu-

sion. lating parts.

Long division

Note: Arcs can be measured in degrees. For example,

Synthetic division the Arc above can be said to be 120o .
3 2
x + 2x − 5x − 6 ÷ (x − 2)

1. The central angle's measurement is equal to the

Remainder and factor theorem
angle measurement of its intercepted arc.

1. Remainder theorem: If a polynomial f (x) is divided

by x − c, the remainder of the quotient is f (c).

2. Factor theorem: The binomial x−c is a factor of

the polynomial f (x) if and only if f (c) = 0.

Rational root theorem This theorem constrains the

possible zeroes of a polynomial function to certain ra-

tional numbers. More specically, the theorem states

that:

For any polynomial an xn +an−1 xn−1 +. . .+a0 , each

p 1
possible root k can be expressed as k= q where p is a 2. The inscribed angle is
2 of the measurement of the
factor of a0 and q is a factor of an . intercepted arc and its corresponding central angle

6
 m∠ACE = 21 (80o − 20o ) = 30o

3. Tangent Chord Angle Theorem m∠ABC = The distance formula The distance of any two points
1
2 (ArcAB) in a Cartesian Plane is:
p
D= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
The shortest distance from a point to a line is:
ax√
0 +by0 +c
distance(ax + by + c = 0, (x0 , y0 )) = a2 +b2

Equation of a circle The equation of a circle takes

two forms: The center-radius form, or the general form.

Center-radius form: (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 where

the center is located at the point (a, b) and the radius

is r.
General form: x2 + y 2 + Ax + By + c = 0
Converting from the general form to the center-radius

form: An example:
4. Two Intersecting Chords: m∠BED = 12 ArcBD+
ArcAC Given x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 20 = 0,
x2 − 4x + y 2 + 10y + 20 = 0
5. Angle formed outside a circle by two tangents, two x2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 + 10y + 25 + 20 = 4 + 25 Completing
secants, or a tangent and a secant: The angle formed the squares with APE
1
outside is
2 the dierence of the intercepted arcs (x−2)2 +(y +5)2 = 29−20 Factoring, and moving
the constants to the right side
Examples:
(x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 9 Center is (2, −5) and radius
√
is 9 = 3.

Permutations of objects The number of ways to ar-

range n objects taken r at a time is

n!
nP r = (n−r)!
If one has repeating elements in the objects that are

counted as identical in the number of permutations,

simply divide nP r by the factorial of the repeating ele-

ments.

Example: given the word MISSISSIPPI, in how many

1 o o o
m∠ABC = 2 (260 − 100 ) = 80 ways can one arrange the letters?

7
 There are 11 total letters, 4 Is, 4 Ss, and 2 Ps. There Measures of position (quartiles, deciles, per-
are 4! ways to arrange the Is, 4! ways to arrange the centiles) Quartiles divide a data set into 4 equal re-
Ss, and 2! ways to arrange the Ps. gions, deciles into 10, and percentiles to 100.
11! 11·10·9·8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1
4!4!2! = 4!·4·3·2·1·2·1 = 11·10·9·7·5 = 34650. The general instruction for getting quartiles, deciles

The number of ways to arrange n objects in a circle and percentiles is as follows:

is 1. Rank the data.

Pn = (n − 1)! 2. Divide the number of samples by either 4, 10, or

100, and multiply by the nth quartile, decile, or per-

Combination of objects The number of ways to se- centile desired. Examples: For the 3rd quartile, divide

lect r objects from n objects is: by 4 and multiply by 3. For the 52nd percentile, divide
n!
nCr = (n−r)!r!
by 100 and multiply by 52.

3. If the result of 2 is an integer, add 0.5. If it is not

Probabilities of events An event is a single result of an integer, round up.

some action or experiment. 4. Find the number in that position. For example,

Probability is the likelihood of an event happening in a if the result of step 3 returns 16.5, take the average of

possible set of events (called sample space). Generally: the 16th and the 17th data points. If the result of step
n
P = T where P is the probability, n is the number of
3 returns 39, take the 39th data point.

ways an event can happen, and T is the total number The general instruction for nding the percentile of a

of events. data point goes like this:

Mathematical sets describe a set of events. The set S 1. Take the number of data points below the number.

describes all possible events or the sample space. Other 2. Add 0.5 to the result of 1.
sets can describe a set of sample points (A single event).
3. Divide by the total number of data points.
For example, we can describe the set of events where
4. Convert the decimal to a percent.
in the odd numbers turn up on a dice with a set A=
{1, 3, 5}. We can describe the set of events where in a

multiple of 3 turns up on a dice as set B = {3, 6}. Function theory This paragraph describes some

things about functions that take 1 argument (as in a

Then, it is easy to think about the probability of the
function graphable in a Cartesian plane)
union of these events where either A happens or B hap-

pens. Piecewise functions are functions that have dierent

n(A∪B) denitions in

a certain area of domain or x-values.
P = n(S)
x + 2 x<0
In this example, the probability of getting either a odd
Example:
2 x2 + 4x x≥0
number or a multiple of three is
3.
The probability of the intersection of these events, Evaluating a function: f (x) is evaluated at c when x

where both A and B happens is similar. is substituted with c.

n(A∩B)
P = Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
n(S)
Here is a useful formula when getting the number of functions: f (x) and g(x) can be operated with the 4

the union of two non-mutually exclusive events: basic operations by simply operating on their denitions

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) in terms of x.

Mutually exclusive events are events that do not have Example: f (x) = x2 + x1 , g(x) = 3x+4 f (x)·g(x) =
an intersection. In the real world, it means these events (x2 + x1 )(3x + 4)
cannot happen together. For example, having an odd Composition of functions: f ◦ g = f (g(x)). In other

number turn up on a dice is mutually exclusive with words, the argument of the function f (x) becomes the

having an even number turn up on a dice. denition of g(x) in terms of x.

8
 1
Example: f (x) = x2 + x, g(x) = 3x + 4 f ◦ g = function has a slant asymptote when the degree of P (x)
2 1 2 1
(3x + 4) + 3x+4 = 9x + 24x + 16 + 3x+4 is greater than the degree of Q(x), and is the quotient
4x3 +x+1
Translating and ipping functions: Given f (x), f (x− of P (x) and Q(x). Example: f (x) = 3x2 +2x−4 has a
4 8
h) + k moves the function by (h, k) units. −f (x) mir- slant asymptote of
3x − 9 which can be calculated by
rors the function along the x-axis. f (−x) mirrors the long division.

function along the y-axis. x-intercept: The x-intercept of a function f (x) is the

Inverse Function: Graphically, the inverse of a func- value of f (0). In other words, substitute x with 0 and

tion is the reection of a function along y=x , which evaluate.

is also known as the identity function. Algebraically, y-intercept: The y-intercept of a function f (x) =
P (x)
the inverse of a function f (x) can be determined by Q(x) is the solution of P (x) = 0. In other words, equate
transforming the denition as x = f (y) (i.e. switch the the numerator to 0 and solve.

places of x and y) and solving for y.

Example: f (x) = y = 4x + 5 → x = 4y + 5 Exponential functions are functions that have a

−1 x−5
f (x) = y = 4
polynomial exponent. The most basic form of an ex-

An inverse function of the same domain exists only ponential function is f (x) = bx . The function can be
x−k
when the function is one-to-one. If the function is a shifted in the form f (x) = b +h where k is the

many to one function, the domain must be limited for horizontal and h is the vertical shift. The domain of the

the resulting inverse to be a function. function f (x) = bx is R. The range of this function is
−1
√
Example: f (x) = y = x → f 2
(x) = x...(x ≥ from [0, +∞) The asymptote of this function is y = 0.
0)(y ≥ 0) because if the domain and range were all The y-intercept of the function is 1.

real numbers, the function would be undened in some The function increases as x increases when b > 0, and
parts of the domain and a value in the domain would it decreases as x increases when 0 < b < 1.
have two values.

x and y intercepts: For x intercepts, set y =0 and Exponential equations and inequalities Remember
x y
solve. For y intercepts, set x=0 and solve. this property: b = b ←→ x = y . Solving exponen-

tial equations entails manipulating the given so that the

Rational functions are functions that are dened as

base becomes the same. Then, the property can be used

to equate the polynomial exponents.

the ratio of polynomials. It is written in the form f (x) =
P (x)
P (x) Q(x) Example: 4x+4 = 32x−2
Q(x) . If the polynomials and has a non-

zero polynomial greatest common divisor, the simplied (22 )(x+4) = (25 )(x−2)
version is equivalent to the non-simplied version. 22x+8 = 25x−10
The domain of rational functions: A rational function 2x + 8 = 5x − 10
is undened where Q(x) = 0. 3x = 18
Vertical asymptote: the vertical asymptote is a line x=6
5
wherein the rational function is undened, and takes Example 2: x 4 = 324
5
the form x = c, where c is the solution to Q(x) = x 4 = 25
0. The graph of a rational function does not cross the x5 = (25 )4
asymptotic line. x5 = (24 )5
Horizontal/slant asymptotes: A rational function has x = 24 = 16
a horizontal asymptote when P (x) has the same degree When solving for inequalities, remember that if 0<
as Q(x). It is simply the ratio of the coecients of b<1
4x3 +x+1
the leading term. Example: f (x) = 3x2 +2x3 −4x has a The sign of the inequality FLIPS. (Figure this out

horizontal asymptote of y = 2. Meanwhile, a rational yourself ).

9
Logarithmic functions A logarithmic function is the

inverse of an exponential function. The most basic form

of an exponential function is f (x) = logb (x) where b>

0, b 6= 1. The domain of the function is (0, +∞). The

range of the function is R. The logarithmic function

returns the exponent of the expression f (x) = bx .

The laws of logarithms These are the laws of loga-

rithms which are obvoiusly copies of the laws of expo-

nents.

loga m + loga n = loga mn

loga m − loga n = loga ( m
n)
loga mn = nloga m
loga 1 = 0
loga a = 1 (x−h)2 (y−k)2
The equation of an ellipse:
a2 + b2 = 1
aloga x = x
Notes: a and b are the distance of the vertices of the
logb x
loga x = logb a parabola in the x and y directions, respectively. In other
The last law of logarithm is useful for converting logs
words, if a>b , the ellipse is horizontal. If b > a, the
of dierent bases into the common log or the natural
ellipse is vertical. The constants a, b andc where c is
log.
the distance of the focus from the center depend on the
log(40)
log5 (40) = log(5) following equation:

Logarithmic equations The two most important laws a2 = b2 + c2 , a > b

are the third one and the sixth one. Use the laws to

simplify both sides of the equation to a single logarithm b2 = a 2 + c 2 , b > a .

(if applicable) and apply the third and sixth law to solve

them. The graph of an ellipse

b
Case 1: loga f (x) = b Change this to a = f (x)
Case 2: loga f (x) = loga g(x) ←→ f (x) = g(x)
Case 3: loga(x) f (x) = logb(x) f (x) ←→ a(x) = b(x)
In logarithmic inequalities, it is the same thing. If

a > 0, the signs stay the same, however, if 0 < a < 1,

the signs FLIP.

There are two more topics in the Grade 11 Curricu-

lum: Logic and Business Math. However, seeing One can see other interesting properties in this dia-
as they are generally not included in CET's, I will gram.
neglect them. They are still important, however.
The equation of a parabola: (y − k)2 = 4p(x − h)
Conic sections These are the geometrical shapes de- where the axis is horizontal and (x − h)2 = 4p(y − k)
rived by cutting or slicing a cone in special ways. where the axis is vertical. The vertex is the point (h, k).
2 2 2
The equation of a circle: (x − a) + (y − b) = r p is the distance of the focus from the vertex, which is

The graph of a circle also the distance from the vertex to the directrix.

10
 Some common summations
n
X n(n + 1) Pn 2 n(n+1)(2n+1)
i= i=0 i = 6
i=1
2

Pascal's triangle This is the triangle that gives the

coecients of a binomial expansion, where a binomial

gets raised to a positive integral exponent. (x + y)n

The distance from the focus to a point on the

parabola is equal to the distance from the directrix to

the same point on the parabola.

x2 y2
The equation of a hyperbola:
a2 − b2 = 1 (East-west)
y2 x2
or 2
a − b2 =1 (North-south). Notes for East-west hy-

perbola (replace x with y and the appropriate constants

Generally, when we expand any expression of the form
for the North-south hyperbola): a is the distances of the (x + y)n , we get this result, where the a coecients are
vertices of the hyperbola from the center in the x axis
the numbers in the Pascal's triangle

(x + y)n = a0 xn + a1 xn=1 y + a2 xn=2 y 2 + ... +

respectively. The constants a, b, and c where c is the

an=1 xy n=1 + an y n ,
distance from the center to the focus depend on each

other in the following equation: c2 = a2 + b2

For example, the (x + y)5 expands to:
The graph of a hyperbola (East-west)
x + 5x y + 10x y + 10x2 y 3 + 5xy 4 + y 5 .
5 4 3 2

The unit circles and the trigonometric functions

This paragraph explains how the trigonometric functions

were derived from a unit circle.

Radian: The radian is the ratio of the central angle

to 2π which is one complete rotation. For example, 60o

1 2π π
is
6 of a circle. In radians, it is 6 = 3.

Sigma notation for a series

n
X
ai = am + am+1 + am+2 . . . + an−1 + an
i=m
In this notation, ai represents the formula for the

terms in the sequence to be summed. m represents

the number of the rst term: m = 5 means that the

summation starts with, and includes, the 5th term. n

represents the numbe of the last term: n = 12 means
degrees·π
that the summation ends with and includes, the 12th Conversion: radians = 180o
radian·180o
term. Conversion: degrees = π

11
Angles in standard position Angles in standard po-

sition are angles where the vertex is the origin and the

starting side is the positive x-axis.

Coterminal angles: angle + 360o k where k is an in-

teger

Example: The coterminal angles of 60o are

−300o , 420o , −660o , 780o

Reference angle This is the angle measure of any

angle from its NEAREST x-axis. For example, the ref-

erence angle of 150o is 30o which is the angle measure

of the terminal side to its nearest x-axis.

Circular Functions The trigonometric functions

(sine, cosine, and tangent) can be dened using the

unit circle (A circle with radius 1 and a center 0,0)

The sine function returns the y-coordinate of the ter-

minal point given an angle in standard position.

The cosine function returns the x-coordinate of the

terminal point given an angle in standard position.

The tangent function returns the ratio of the y co-

ordinate to the x coordinate of the terminal given an

angle in standard position.

12