Gravity and Motion

Elementary Astronomical Calculations: Lecture-01

•By Sukalyan Bachhar
•Curator (Academic)
• National Museum of Science & Technology,
•Agargaon, Sher-E-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka-1207.
•Tel:+88-02-55006961(Off), Fax:8802-9114831(Off)
• Contact: 01923522660; Email: sbachhar@yahoo.com; Facebook: Buet Tutor
&
•Member of Bangladesh Astronomical Association

•Short Bio-Data:
➢First Class BUET Graduate In Mechanical Engineering [1993].
➢Master Of Science In Mechanical Engineering From BUET [1998].
➢Field Of Specialization  Fluid Mechanics.
➢Field Of Personal Interest  Astrophysics.
➢Field Of Real Life Activity  Popularization Of Science & Technology From1995.
➢An Experienced Teacher Of Mathematics, Physics & Chemistry For O- ,A- &
Undergraduate Level.
➢Habituated As Science Speaker.
➢Experienced In Supervising For Multiple Scientific Or Research Projects.
➢17 th BCS Qualified In Cooperative Cadre (Stood First On That Cadre).

1
 1. Basic facts: Measurements of angles:

• There are mainly three measurement systems for angles.

• (1) Degree system ; (2) Grade system & (3) Radian system.

• #(1) Degree system: One right angle = 900 .

• Meaning of superscript: ‘0’ Degree; ‘’ Minute & ‘’ Seconds.
• This system of measurement is popular one in engineering field.

• # (2) Grade system: One right angle = 100g .

• Meaning of superscript: ‘g’ Grade; ‘’ Minute & ‘’ Seconds.
• This system of measurement is suitable for calculating as it is based on 100
instead of degree system which is based on 60.

• # (3) Radian system: One right angle =

 c
Meaning of superscript: ‘c’
Radian [ ‘c’ comes from circle]. 2
• This system of measurement is the most close to nature (related to circle) and
widely used in pure science.

2
 1. Basic Facts: Concept About Radian
• Definition of one radian: One radian is an angle subtended at centre by the arc of a circle whose
length is equal to the radius of the circle.

• Definition of  (pi) : It is experimentally established that the ratio of circumference (or perimeter) of a
circle to its diameter is always constant.
This constant is known as .

• Actual value of  is still undiscovered, it is used as:

 3.1415926535897932384626433832795 ; but as rough estimate,   22/7.

• Circumference of a circle:
From the above definition: Circumference/Diameter =   C/D = 
But, diameter = 2  Radius. So, C/2r =   C = 2r.
• i.e, C = 2r
[N.B. : Where ‘C’ ‘D’ and ‘r’ stand for circumference, diameter and radius of a circle respectively.]

• It is clear that: in case of subtending an angle at centre by the arc of any circle, the angle subtended at
centre is directly proportional to its arc length..

• Now, from definition of one radian: Angle (in radian) = arc length/radius.
  = s/r  s = r.
[N.B. : Where ‘’ ‘s’ and ‘r’ stand for angle, arc length and radius of a circle respectively.]

• That is: one complete angle = Circumference/radius =2r/r = 2.

• So, 2c = 3600  90 0 = c/2

3
1. Basic Facts: Terminology Of A Right-angled Triangle

• Let us consider a triangle, ABC.

Of which one angle, ABC = 900
or right angle.

• The angle, ACB =  is introduced

as the Angle of consideration.

• Opposite arm of the right angle is known as Hypotenuse.

• The arm opposite the  is introduced to be Opposite.

• The arm adjacent to  (but not Hypotenuse ) is introduced to be Adjacent

4
 1. Basic Facts: Trigonometric Ratios

• Name of trigonometric ratios are:

• Sine  sin ; Cosine  cos ; Tangent  tan; Cosecant  cosec or csc ; Secant
 sec ; Cotangent  cot.

• Definition of trigonometric ratios:

Opposite Opposite
• sin = ; cos =
Adjacent ;
tan  =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Adjacent

Hypotenuse ; Hypotenuse Adjacent

• cos ec = sec = ; cot =
Opposite Adjacent Opposite

5
1. Basic Facts: Relationship Among The Trigonometric Ratios

• From above definition, one can easily find:

• sin  =
Opposite
= 1 =
1 
1
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse cos ec sin  =
Opposite cos ec
Adjacent 1
cos = = 1 = cos =
1
• Hypotenuse  Hypotenuse sec 
  sec
 Adjacent 
Opposite 1 1
• tan  = = 1 =  tan  =
 Adjacent  cot
Adjacent
  cot
• Also,  Opposite 

 Opposite 
 
sin   Hypotenuse Opposite sin
• = = = tan   = tan 
cos  
cos
Adjacent Adjacent
 
 Hypotenuse

6
 1. Basic Facts: Trigonometric Inverse Functions

• In general:
y = f (x )  x = f -1(y)
• For Trigonometric Function:

y = sin(x )  x = sin-1(y) or arcsin(x )

y = cos(x )  x = cos-1(y) or arccos(x )
y = tan (x )  x = tan -1(y) or arctan(x )

( )
Example : sin 56 0 = 0.8290  sin−1(0.8290 ) = 56 0

7
 1. Basic Facts: Circle and Sphere

Equation : (x − h) + (y − k ) = r 2 ; Centre(h, k) & radius = r

2 2
• Circle:

Area = πr 2

• Equation : (x − h) + (y − k ) + (z − l) = r 2 ; Centre(h, k, l) & radius = r

2 2 2
Sphere:

Surface area of sphere = 4ππ2

4π 3
Volume of sphere = r
3

• Ellipse: x2 y2
Equation : 2 + 2 = 1 ; a → Semi major axis & b → Semi minor axis
a b

Area of Ellipse = πab

8
 1. Basic Facts: Equations of Motions

The Equations :
v = u + at
1
s = ut + at 2
2
v 2 = u2 + 2as

The equations with initial velocity is zero (u = 0) :

v = at
1 2
s= at
2
v 2 = 2as

9
 1. Basic Facts: Equations of Motions
The equations of falling body with initial velocity is zero (u = 0) :
s=h → height from which body is released
a = + g → gravitatio nal accelerati on

v = gt
1 2
h= gt
2
v 2 = 2gh

The equations of body thrown up with initial velocity u :

s=h → height reached
a = - g → gravitatio nal accelerati on

v = u − gt ; For maximum height : v = 0, t = u/g

1
h = ut − gt 2 ; For maximum height : v = 0, h = u2 /2g
2
v = u - 2gh
2 2

10
 1. Basic Facts: Newton’s Law of Gravitations

• Newton’s law of gravitation: In universe, any two bodies attract each other. This
force of attraction is directly proportional to product of their masses and inversely
proportional to square of distance apart between them. This force acts along the
line joining between them.

• Mathematically, 1 m1m2 m1m2

F  m1m2 & F  F F=G
r2 r2 r2
• Where F is gravitational force; m1 and m2 are masses of two bodies; r is the
distance apart between them and G is universal gravitational constant. And G =
6.7 10-11 N-m2 /kg2.

11
 1. Basic Facts: Newton’s Law of Gravitations

Gravitational acceleration on any object:

A body of mass ‘m’ is placed on the surface of the planet
of radius ‘r’ & mass ‘M’.

Force acting on mass ‘m’ is due to gravity

GMm
 The Force due to gravity = F =
r2

But, force = mass  accelerati on

and accelerati on = gravitatio nal accelerati on = g
GMm GM
F = mg =  g =
r2 r2

12
 1. Basic Facts: Angular Motion

• Angular displacement is designated by .

• Angular velocity is designated with by .

• Angular acceleration is designated with by .

• The moment of inertia, I, of a body about an axis is defined by

I = m1r12 + m2r22 + ...

i.e. I =  miri2 ; Where i = 1, 2, 3, and so on.
where ri is the perpendicular distance from the axis of a particle of mass mi, and the
summation is taken over the whole of the body.

• Torque is designated by .

13
 1. Basic Facts: Angular Motion

* Angular velocity( ω)
θ 2π v
ω= ω= ω= v → Linear velocity, r → distance
t T r

Angular accelerati on(αn

ω v2
α= a= a = αr a → Linear accelerati on, r → distance
t r

Torque (ττ
τ = Fr F → Force, r → perpendicu lar distance

Angular Momentum
Angular Momentum = Iω
v
Angular Momentum of particles = mr 2  = mvr
r
m → mass, v → linear velocity, r → pendicular distance 14
 1. Basic Facts: Angular Motion

* Equation of Angular Motion

1. ω 2 = ω0 + αt

1
2. θ = ω0 t + αt 2
2

ω 2 = ω0 + 2αα
2
3.

ω0 → Initial angular velocity ω → Final angular velocity

15
 1. Basic Facts: Light

• Speed of Light in Vacuum = 2.99792458 108 m/s.

• Computational value of Speed of Light = 2.99792458 108 m/s.

• Speed of Light = c = Frequency ()  wave length ()

• Energy = E = Plank Constant (h)  Frequency ()

• Plank Constant (h) = 6.63 1034 J-s.

• Inverse Square Law: Intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of

the distance of the source.

1
Intensity   I  1/r 2
square of distance

16
 1. Basic Facts: Light

Rate of emissiom of Energy from Black Body

E = Constant  A  T 4
Constant( σ) → Stefan − Boltzman Constant = 5.67  10 −8 J/m2 .deg 4
A → Surface Area
T → Absolute Temperatur e

Wavelength at which Black body emits

maximum energy : Wien' s law
Correspond ing wavelengt h (λm ) = 3  10 6 /T

Unit of wavelenth
1 Angstrom = 10 -8 cm = 10 -10 m

17
 1. Basic Facts: Light

Color Frequency (THz) Wavelength(nm)

Violet 668-789 380-450

Blue 606-668 450-495

Green 526-606 495-570

Yellow 508-526 570-590

Orange 484-508 590-620

Red 400-484 620-750

18
 1. Basic Facts: Light

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

*
Wave Type Wavelength (m) Frequency (Hz) Energy (J)

Radio waves > 0.1 < 3 x 109 < 2 x 10-24

Microwaves 10-3 - 0.1 3 x 109 - 3 x 1011 2 x 10-24 -2 x 10-22

Terahertz waves 10-3 -10-4 3 x 1011 -3 x 1012 2 x 10-22 -2 x 10-21

Infrared 7 x 10-7 - 10-3 3 x 1011 - 4 x 1014 2 x 10-22 - 3 x 10-19

Optical (visible light) 4 x 10-7 - 7 x 10-7 4 x 1014 - 7.5 x 1014 3 x 10-19 - 5 x 10-19

Ultraviolet 10-8 - 4 x 10-7 7.5 x 1014 - 3 x 1016 5 x 10-19 - 2 x 10-17

X-rays 10-11 - 10-8 3 x 1016 - 3 x 1019 2 x 10-17 - 2 x 10-14

Gamma rays < 10-11 > 3 x 1019 > 2 x 10-14

19
 1. Basic Facts: Important Constants
• Table of astronomical constants

Relative
Quantity Symbol Value
uncertainty

Astronomical Unit AU 1.496 ×1011 m -

Speed of light c 299 792 458 m s−1 defined

Constant of gravitation G 6.674 28×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 1.0×10−4

Parsec = A/tan(1") pc 3.085 677 581 28×1016 m 4.0×10−11

Light-year = 365.25cD ly 9.460 730 472 5808×1015 m defined

Hubble constant H0 70.1 km s−1 Mpc−1 0.019

3.939×1026 W variable,
Solar luminosity L☉
= 2.107×10−15 S D−1 ±0.1%

Electron volt eV 1.602 ×10−19 J defined

PI  3.1416 defined
20
 1. Basic Facts: Units and Conversion

• Prefix Symbol Factor Numerically Name

• Tera T 1012 10000000000 thousand billion

• Giga G 109 1 000 000 000 billion**
• Mega M 106 1 000 000 million
• Kilo k 103 1 000 thousand
• Centi c 10-2 0.01 hundredth
• Milli m 10-3 0.001 thousandth
• Micro μ 10-6 0.000 001 millionth
• Nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 billionth**

• Pico p 10-12 0.000000000001 thousand billionth

21
 1. Basic Facts: Greek Alphabets

• *

22
2. Gravitational Force Exerted By Sun And Earth on Moon

GM s m
From Newton' s law of Gravitatio n, F =
R2

GM S m
Gravitional Force on Moon to the Sun = FS = 2
RS

GM E m
Gravitional Force on Moon to the Earth = FE = 2
RE
Where,
M S → Mass of the Sun = 2  1030 kg R S → Distance of Sun from Moon  1.50  108 km
M E → Mass of the Earth = 6  1024 kg R E → Distance of Earth from Moon  3.85 105 km
m → Mass of the Moon G → Universal Graviotational Constant

Taking the ratio of the above equations we have,

2 2
FS MS  R E  2  1030  3.85 105 
=   =   = 2.2  FS = 2.2FE
FE M E  R S  6  1024  1.50 108 

23
2. Gravitational Force Exerted By Sun And Earth on Moon
• This suggests that Sun exerts almost twice as great a force on Moon
as the Earth does.

• Thus it is not proper to say that Moon orbits the Earth. Moon actually
orbit the Sun, with the Earth causing the curvature of Moon’s orbit to
change.

• Moon’s path is always concave towards the sun, because the Net
force on Moon is always inward, even when it is between the Earth
and Sun.

24
 3. Gravitational Acceleration On The Earth

* The weight of an object of mass m at the

surface of the Earth is obtained by multiplying
the mass m by the acceleration due to
gravity, g, at the surface of the Earth. The
acceleration due to gravity is approximately
the product of the universal gravitational
constant G and the mass of the Earth M,
divided by the radius of the Earth, r, squared.
(We assume the Earth to be spherical and
neglect the radius of the object relative to the
radius of the Earth in this discussion.)

GMm GM
F = mg =  g =
r2 r2
* The measured gravitational acceleration at the
Earth's surface is found to be about 9.80 m/s2
.
25
 3. Gravitational Acceleration On The Earth
• *The acceleration that an object experiences because of gravity when it falls
freely close to the surface of a massive body, such as a planet. Also known as
the acceleration of free fall, its value can be calculated from the formula

• g = GM / (R + h)2
•
where M is the mass of the gravitating body (such as the Earth), R is the
radius of the body, h is the height above the surface, and G is the gravitational
constant (= 6.6742 × 10-11 N·m2/kg2). If the falling object is at, or very nearly
at, the surface of the gravitating body, then the above equation reduces to

• g = GM / R2
•
In the case of the Earth, g comes out to be approximately 9.8 m/s2(32 ft/s2),
though the exact value depends on location because of two main factors: the
Earth's rotation and the Earth's equatorial bulge.

26
 4. Gravitational Acceleration On The Planets

Knowing the gravitional acceleration on the surface of the Earth, it can be found
* the gravitatio nal acceleration on any other body or planet; the following will be :
GM
g = 2 for any other body or planet
R
GM
g= 2 for earth
R
g M  R  M  R 
2 2

 =    g = g  
g M  R  M  R 

Let us consider Mercury.

M R
= 0.0553, = 2.6 and g = 9.8
M R
Gravitational Acceleration on Mercury = g = 9.8  0.0553 (2.6) m/s 2
2

 g = 3.66 m/s 2

27
 4. Gravitational Acceleration On The Planets
Acceleration Due to Gravity Comparison

Acceleratio
g / g-Earth n Due
Body Mass Ratio Radius Ratio Acceleration Due to Gravity,
to Gravity, "g" [m/s²] "g" [m/s²]

Sun 3327760 109.091 27.95 274.13

Mercury 0.0553 0.383 0.37 3.59
Venus 0.815 0.949 0.90 8.87
Earth 1.000 1.000 1.00 9.81
Moon 0.0123 0.273 0.17 1.62
Mars 0.107 0.533 0.38 3.77
Jupiter 317.8 11.200 2.65 25.95
Saturn 95.2 9.450 1.13 11.08
Uranus 14.5 4.010 1.09 10.67
Neptune 17.1 3.880 1.43 14.07
Pluto 0.0021 0.187 0.04 0.42 28
 5. Masses of Sun And Earth

• Mass of Sun:

The Earth revolves around the Sun. The neccessary centripeta l force is provided by the
gravitatio nal attraction of the Sun on Earth. We have,

Centripeta l Force - Gravitatio nal Attractio n of Sun

GMm
 mRω2 =
R2
R 3ω2 R 3 4π 2
Mass of The Sun = M = = .
G G T
Where,
M → Mass of Sun, m → Massof Earth, ω → Angular velocity of the earth = 2ππ/
R → Distance between the Sun and Earth = 1.5  1011 m
T → Time of Revolution of Earth = 365.25  24  3600 s
G → Gravitatio nal Constant = 6.67  10 -11 mks units.

Mass of The Sun = M =

(1.5 10 ) 11 3

4π 2
= 1.98  10 30 kg
6.67  10 -11
(365.25  24  3600 )2

29
 5. Masses of Sun And Earth

• Mass of Earth:

The gravitatio nal attraction of the Earth provides the neccessary centripeta l force for the
orbital motion of Moon. We have,

GM Em
mR MωM =
2
2
RM
3
RM 4π 2
Mass of The Earth = ME = 
G T

Where,
RM → Distance between the Moon and Earth = 3.84  10 8 m
T → Time of Revolution of Moon = 27.3  24  3600 s

Mass of The Earth = M =

(3.84 10 ) 8 3

4π 2
= 6  10 24 kg
6.67  10 -11 (27.3  24  3600 )2

30
 6. Escape Velocity
Every planet exerts gravitatio nal attraction on a body in its cotect. In order to escape
from this gravitatio nal clutch of a planet, the body should be thrown with with a certain
minimum velocity so that it never returns back to the planet. The mvelocity is
known as escape velocity of the planet. The minimum velocity correspond to zero total energy
of the body. In other words kinetic plus potential energy of the body should be zero. we have,

1 GMm
Kinetic Energy = mV 2 Gravitatio nal Potential Energy = -
2 R
Hence,
1 GMm
mV 2 - =0
2 R
Cancelling m and rearrangin g we get,
2GM
Escape Velocity = Ve =
R

Let us find the Escape Velocity of Earth

For Earth
G → Gravitatio nal Constant = 6.67  10 -11 mks units
M → Mass of Earth = 6  10 24 kg
R → Radius of Earth = 6.376  10 6 m

 Escape Velocity of the Earth = Ve =

( )( )
2 6.67  10 -11 6  10 24
m = 1.12  10 4 m/s = 11.2 km/s
(
6.376  10 )
6
31
 6. Escape Velocity

Knowing the Escape Velocity of the Earth and mass and radius ratios of the planets with the
Earth we can calculate escape velocity of all the planets by comparison . We have,

2GM  2GM
Escape Velocity of Earth = Ve = Escape Velocity of Planet = Ve =
R R
 M R
 Escape Velocity of Planet = Ve = Ve 
M R

Let us find the Escape Velocity of Jupiter, where

M R 1
= 318 and =
M R 11.2
 318
 Escape Velocity of Jupiter = Ve = 11.2 km/s = 60 km/s
11.2

Isaac Newton's analysis of escape

velocity. Projectiles A and B fall back to
earth. Projectile C achieves a circular
orbit, D an elliptical one. Projectile E
escapes.

32
 6. Escape Velocity

Following table gives the Escape Velocity of All planets (Including the Sun and Moon):

* Body Mass Ratio Radius Ratio Escape velocity

km/s
Sun 3327760 109.091 620
Mercury 0.0553 0.383 4.3
Venus 0.815 0.949 10.4
Earth 1.000 1.000 11.2
Moon 0.0123 0.273 2.4
Mars 0.107 0.533 5.0
Jupiter 317.8 11.200 60.0
Saturn 95.2 9.450 36.0
Uranus 14.5 4.010 21.3
Neptune 17.1 3.880 23.5
Pluto 0.0021 0.187 2.4
33
 7. Escape Velocity From solar system

Gravitatio nal attraction of the Sun provides neccessary centripeta l force to keep the
* planets in their orbit. Even though a body may ecsape froma planet if necccessar y velocity is
imparted. but the body may not neccessari ly escape from Sun' s gravity. If a spacecraft is to be
launced so that it should escape from solar system a certain minimum velocity is required,
which depends on on the distance from Sun. Let us find the escape velocity at a distance of
Earth so that the body permanantl y escape from the solar system,. We have,
2GM
Escape velocity =
R
where
G → Constantof Gravity = 6.67  10 −11 mks units M → Mass of Sun = 2  10 30 kg
R → Distance from Sun = 1.5  1011 m (In case of Earth)

Escape Velocity From Sun at Earth' s Distance =

( )(
2 6.67  10 −11 2  10 30 )
(
1.5  1011 )
m/s

= 4.2  10 4 m/s = 42 km/s

Knowing the distance of the Planets in astronomic al units we can find the escape velocity
with reference to Sun at distances of planets :

34
 7. Escape Velocity From solar system

* Location with respect to Ve[2] Location with respect to Ve[2]

on the Sun, the Sun's gravity: 617.5 km/s

Mercury's
on Mercury, 4.3 km/s at Mercury, the Sun's gravity: 67.7 km/s
gravity:

on Venus, Venus' gravity: 10.3 km/s at Venus, the Sun's gravity: 49.5 km/s

the Earth's at the

on Earth, 11.2 km/s the Sun's gravity: 42.1 km/s
gravity: Earth/Moon,

the Moon's
on the Moon, 2.4 km/s at the Moon, the Earth's gravity: 1.4 km/s
gravity:

on Mars, Mars' gravity: 5.0 km/s at Mars, the Sun's gravity: 34.1 km/s

on Jupiter, Jupiter's gravity: 59.5 km/s at Jupiter, the Sun's gravity: 18.5 km/s

on Saturn, Saturn's gravity: 35.6 km/s at Saturn, the Sun's gravity: 13.6 km/s

on Uranus, Uranus' gravity: 21.2 km/s at Uranus, the Sun's gravity: 9.6 km/s

Neptune's
on Neptune, 23.6 km/s at Neptune, the Sun's gravity: 7.7 km/s
gravity:

in the solar the Milky Way's

≥ 525 km/s[3]
system, gravity:

35
 8. Kepler’s laws
• Johanes Kepler (1571-1630) was first to conceive the laws of
planetary motion. Astronomical observations of Mars led
Kepler to the elliptical orbits.

• Kepler’s laws are stated as follows:

• First Law: Every planet moves round the sun on a elliptic
path keeping the sun one of the focus of the ellipse.

• Second law: The line connecting the planet and the Sun
sweeps out equal area in equal time.

• Third law: The square of orbital periodic time of a planet is

directly proportional to the cube of semi-major axis of the
ellipse.

Mathematic ally, τ 2 a 3
2 4π 2 3
More accurately , τ = a
GM

36
 8. Proof of Kepler’s Second Law
Kepler’s Second Law
* A planet in its path around the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

Suppose at a given instant of time the planet is at point P in its orbit,

moving with a velocity meters per second in the direction along the
tangent at P (see figure). In the next second it will move v meters,
essentially along this line (the distance is of course greatly
exaggerated in the figure) so the area swept out in that second
is that of the triangle SPQ, where S is the center of the sun.

The area of triangle SPQ is just ½ base x height. The base PQ is v meters long, the height is the
perpendicular distance from the vertex of the triangle at the sun S to the baseline PQ, which is
just the tangential velocity vector .

Hence
Comparing this with the angular momentum L of the planet as it moves around the sun,

it becomes apparent that Kepler’s Second Law, the constancy of the area sweeping rate, is telling
us that the angular momentum of the planet around the sun is constant.

In fact,

37
 9. Proof of Kepler’s Third Law

* For orbital motion centripeta l force should act on a planet which provided by graviatati onal
attraction of the sun. We have,

Centripeta l Force = Gravitatio nal Attractio n of Sun

GMm
mRω 2 =
R2

Where,
m → Massofplan et R → Distance of Planet from Sun
ω → Angular velocity = 2ππ/ T → Periodic Time of revolution
M → Mass of Sun
T → Time of Revol

Cancelling ' m' from both sides and rearrangin g, we get,

4π 2 3
T =
2
R
GM
4π 2
From this equation, is constant  T 2 = Constant  R 3
GM
T2
 T R
2 3
 3 = Constant
R
In oder to avoid large numbers, let us select the period T in years and distance R in
Astronomic al units. The following table proves the Kepler' s third law.
38
 9. Proof of Kepler’s Third Law

Planet Period T Distance R T2/R3

* (years) ( Au) (y /Au )
2 3

Mercury 0.241 0.387 1.002

Venus 0.615 0.723 1.000
Earth 1.000 1.000 1.000
Mars 1.880 1.524 0.998
Jupiter 11.90 5.204 1.005
Saturn 29.50 9.582 0.989
Uranus 84.00 19.201 0.996
Neptune 165.0 30.047 1.003

Pluto 248.0 39.236 1.018

39
 10. Elliptical Motion
•In the solar system, the Elliptical motion is quite common. All the planets move
around the Sun and all satellites of the planets move around the respective
planets in the Elliptical orbits. Hence its instructive to learn more about the
Elliptical motion.

•In the Elliptical motion

P → Perihelion → Nearest point to the Sun
A → Aphelion → Farthest point to the Sun
C → Centre of the ellipse
CP = CA = a → Semi major axis
CQ = CR = b → Semi minor axis
F → Focus → Position of the Sun
F’ →Empty Focus

40
 10. Elliptical Motion
* CF
The Ecentricity of the Ellipse = e =  CF = Cp  e = ae
CP
Perihelion Distance = FP = CP - CF = a - ae = a(1- e )
Aphelion Distance = FA = CA + CF = a + ae = a(1 + e )
FJ = r → Position Vector from F
FJ = r  → Position Vector from F
For any Ellipse, r + r  = constant = 2a
If the planet is at Q, r + r  = constant = 2a
 2r = 2a  r = a
In right angle triangle FCQ
r 2 = b 2 + a 2 e 2  a 2 = b 2 + a 2 e 2  b 2 = a 2 (1− e 2 )
 The semi minor axis = b = a 1- e 2
We shall accept the expression for the velocity of the Planet at any point on the ellipse
 2 1
V2 = G(M + m) − 
 r a
Where G → Grvitation al Contant = 6.67  10 -11 mks units
M → Mass of the Sun
m → Mass of the Planet (can be neglected)
r → Position Vector
41
 10. Elliptical Motion

• Velocity at Perihelion
At perihelion r = a(1- e )
 2 1  2 − (1− e ) 
 VP2 = G(M + m ) −  = G(M + m ) 
 a(1− e ) a   a(1− e ) 
G(M + m ) 1+ e
VP2 =
a 1− e

• Velocity at Aphelion

At aphelion r = a(1+ e )
 2 1  2 − (1+ e ) 
 VP2 = G(M + m ) −  = G(M + m ) 
 a(1+ e ) a   a(1+ e ) 
G(M + m ) 1− e
VP2 =
a 1+ e

42
 10. Elliptical Motion
• Magnitude of the position vector ‘r’

Applying the law of cosines to the triangle FJF

r 2 = r 2 + (2ae ) + 2r (2ae )cos(180 - x )
2

 r 2 = r 2 + (2ae ) + 2r (2ae )cosx

2

 r 2 = (2a − r ) = r 2 + (2ae ) + 2r (2ae )cosx

2 2

r  + r = 2a  r  = 2a - r
 4a 2 − 2  ar + r 2 = r 2 + 4a 2 e 2 + 4raecosx
 4a 2 − 4ar = 4a 2 e 2 + 4arecosx
( )
 4a 2 1− e 2 = 4ar (1+ ecosx )

r =
(
a 1− e 2 )
1+ ecosx

If the values of a and e are known for different values of ' x' the position vector ' r' can be
found and the ellipse can be plotted.

43
 11. Elliptical Motion Applied to Hale-Bopp Comet
• The Hale-Bopp comet was the brightest
comets observed in past several tears. The
comet as nearest the Sun on 1st April 1997. Its
periodic time is too long, about 2500 years.
Naturally its orbit is quite elongated. As an
application of the Elliptical motion, Hale-Bopp
comet is very ideal celestial object. With the
knowledge of eccentricity of its orbit several
aspects of the motion of the comet can be
studied.

• Eccentricity of the orbit of the hale-Bopp comet

= e = 0.995074405
• Since eccentricity is nearly one the orbit is
almost parabolic.
• Perihelion distance = 0.914091158 AU (given)
• The semi major axis ‘a’
44
 11. Elliptical Motion Applied to Hale-Bopp Comet

Perihelion Distance 0.91409115 8

* a = = AU = 185.57965 AU
(1- e ) (1- 0.99507440 5 )
We have, Perihelion Distance = a(1- e )
(Semi major axos of Pluto is only 39.236 AU)

 Semi minor axis ' b'

We have, b = a 1- e 2 = 185.5795 1- 0.9950744 2 AU = 18.396681 AU
 Perihelion distance = 0.91409115 8 AU = 0.94109115 8  1.5  10 8 km
Wkich means the Hale - Bopp comet arrives slightly inside the Earth' s orbit.
 Aphelion distance = a(1+ e ) = 185.57965 (1+ 0.66507440 45 ) AU = 370.2452 AU = 555.3678  10 8 km
 Speed at Perihelion
G(M + m ) 1+ e
VP = 
a 1− e
G → Gravitatio nal constant = 6.67  10 -11 mks units
M → Mass of Sun = 2  10 30 kg
m → Mass of Hale - Bopp comet can be neglected compared to Sun

45
 11. Elliptical Motion Applied to Hale-Bopp Comet
*
VP =
( )
6.67  10 -11 2  10 30 + 0 1+ 0.99507
 m/s
185.57965  1.5  1011 1− 0.99507
= 4.4097506  10 4 m/s = 44 km/s = 158400 km/hr

 Speed at Aphelion
G(M + m) 1− e
Va =  = 108.772 m/s = 0.108772 km/s = 391.5792 km/hr
a 1+ e

 Periodic Time ' T'

We use Kepler' s 3rd Law : T 2  R 3
We shall compare Periodic time of Earth and Hale - Bopp comet.
3
R 
3/2
 185.57965 AU 
2 3
T R 2
H
= H
 TH = TH  H  = (1 yr)   = 2528.1074 yrs
 
2 3
TE R E  E
R 1 AU

46
 12. Barycenter

• The barycenter is the point between two objects where they balance each
other. It is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies orbit each
other.

• When a moon orbits a planet, or a planet orbits a star, both bodies are actually
orbiting around a point that lies outside the center of the primary (the larger body).

• For example, the moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a
line between the Earth and the Moon approximately 1,710 km below the surface of
the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This is the point about which the
Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun.

•
The barycenter is one of the foci of the elliptical orbit of each body. This is an
important concept in the fields of astronomy and astrophysics.

47
 12. Barycenter
* 1 Earth - Moon System
R → Average distance between Earth and Moon = 384000 km
r → Distance of the barycenter from the center of the Earth
Me → Mass of the Earth
Mm → Mass of the Moon = 0.01227 Me
Since the system balances at the barycenter B,
Me R R M + Mm Mm
Me  r = Mm (R − r )  = −1  = e r = R
Mm r r Mm Me + Mm
We have,
In this equation substituti ng the values of Me , Mm and R
0.01227M e
r=  384000 km = 4654 km
Me + 0.01227M e
The radius of the Earth = 6400 km
 The barycenter of the Earth Moon System is, (6400 - 4654 ) km = 1746 km inside
the surface of the Earth.

48
 12. Barycenter
* 2 Sun - Jupiter System
For this system R = 7.8  10 8 km
Ms → Mass of the Sun
1
M j → Mass of the Jupiter = Ms = 0.000955M s
1047
Using the earlier equation,
0.000955M s
Sun - Jupiter barycenter = r =  7.8  10 8 km
Ms + 0.000955M s
 744000 km
The radius of the Sun is 696000 km. The barycenter of the
Sun - Jupiter System is outside the surface of the sun at a
distance , (744000 - 696000 ) km = 48000 km.

49
 12. Barycenter

* 3 Pluto - Charon System

For this system R = 19600 km
Mp → Mass of the Pluto
Mc → Mass of the Charon = 0.12M p
Using the earlier equation,
0.12M p
Pluto - Charon barycenter = r =  19600 km
Mp + 0.12M p
 2110 km
The radius of the Pluto is only 1200 km. Hence the barycenter of the
Pluto - Charon System is at a distance , (2110 - 1200 ) km = 900 km
outside the Pluto' s surface.

50
 12. Barycenter
• Examples

Larger m1 Smaller m2 a r1 R1
r1/R1
body (mE=1) body (mE=1) (km) (km) (km)

Remarks

Earth 1 Moon 0.0123 384,000 4,670 6,380 0.732

The Earth has a perceptible "wobble"; see tides.

0.000254
Pluto 0.0021 Charon 19,600 2,110 1,150 1.83
(0.121 mPluto)

Both bodies have distinct orbits around the barycenter, and as such Pluto and Charon were considered as a double planet by many before the redefinition
of planet in August 2006.

150,000,000
Sun 333,000 Earth 1 449 696,000 0.000646
(1 AU)

The Sun's wobble is barely perceptible.

318 778,000,000
Sun 333,000 Jupiter 742,000 696,000 1.07
(0.000955 mSun) (5.20 AU)

51
 12. Barycenter

Two bodies similar mass Pluto – Charon System Earth – Moon System

52
Sun - Earth System Binary Star System
 13. Conversion of The Coordinates

• In Astronomy coordinates of stars or planets

are given with reference to either ecliptic or
celestial equator. Longitude and Latitudes are
the ecliptic, while Right ascension and
declination are equatorial coordinates. Many
times it becomes necessary to convert the
coordinates from one form to another.
• 1) Equatorial to Ecliptic

53
 13. Conversion of the Coordinates

• 1) Equatorial to Ecliptic

sin(RA )cos(i) + tan (declinatio n)sin(i)

tan (longitude ) =
cos(RA )
sin(latitude ) = sin(declinatio n)cos(i) − cos(declinatio n) sin(i)sin(RA )

• 2) Ecliptic to Equatorial

sin(longitude )cos(i) − tan (latitude )sin(i)

tan (RA ) =
cos(longitude )
sin(declinatio n) = sin(latitude )cos(i) + cos(latitude ) sin(i)sin(longitude )

54
 Gravity and Motion
Elementary Astronomical Calculations: Lecture-01

Thank You

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