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CHAPTER NO 1
Portion
2
exercise 1.2
Limits and Continuity
exercise 1.3
exercise 1.4
1.1 Introduction
Function are important tools by which we describe the real world in mathematics terms. They
are used to explain the relationship between variable and quantity and hence play a central
role in the study of calculus.
1.1.1 Concept of a Function
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was born in Leipzig, Germany. He was six-year-
old when his father, a professor of philosophy and left his son the key to his library and a life
of book and learning, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig at age 15, graduated at 17,
and received a doctor of law degree from university of altodor four years later. He wrote on a
legal matter, but was more interested in philosophy. He also developed original theories
about language and the nature of the universe. His background in philosophy led him to very
original, though not always rigorous, results.
The term Function was recognized by a Greek mathematician Leibniz who is equally
famous as a philosopher and as mathematician (1646-1716) to describe the dependence
of one quantity on other quantity. The following examples illustrates how this term is used.
Simple examples:
(i) The area “ A ” of a square depends on one of its sides “ x ” by the formula A x2 , so
we say that A is a function of x.
(ii) The volume “ V ” of a sphere depends on one of its sides “ r ” by the formula
4
V r 3 , so we say that V is a function of
3
Important note: in (i) a square of a given side has only one area.
A function is a rule or correspondence, relating two sets in such a way that each
element in the first set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set.
A function f ( x ) from a set X to a set Y is a rule or a crosspondnace that assigns to
each element in X a unique element in Y .
f ( x)
Such that
f :XY
Domain: 1 x
2 y
The set X is called the domain of f ( x ) .
3 z
Range: The set of cross ponding elements of Y
is called range of f ( x ) .
Figure 1.1.2
1.1.3 Presentation and Value of the Function
If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that value of x determines exactly one
value of y , we say that “ y is a function of x ”
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 3
Important note: Function is also denoted by f, g and h etc. And in capital letters F, G and
H etc.
Algebraic function are those functions which are defined by algebraic expression. We classify
algebraic functions as follows:
We can see Example (1) is a cubic polynomial of degree three and example (2) is a
quadratic polynomial of degree two.
(i) y sin x 1 y 1
x
2 2
(ii) y cos x 0 x 1 y 1
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 5
(v) y sec x y 1 or y 1
[0, ], x
2
(vi) y cot x 0 x (, )
x y x y x y x y
1: sin x sin y 2sin cos 2 : sin x sin y 2cos sin
2 2 2 2
x y x y x y x y
3: cos x cos y 2cos cos 4 : cos x cos y 2sin sin
2 2 2 2
x x x 1 cos x
1: sin 2 x 2sin x.cos x 2 : sin x 2sin cos 3: cos 2
2 2 2 2
x 1 cos x 1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
4 : sin 2 5 : cos 2 x 6 : sin 2 x
2 2 2 2
3tan x tan 3 x
1: sin 3x 3sin x 4sin 3 x 2 : cos3x 4cos3 x 3cos x 3: tan 3x
1 3tan 2 x
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We denote and define inverse trigonometric function as follows.
(i) y sin 1 x 1 x 1
y
2 2
(ii) y cos 1 x 1 x 1 0 y
(v) y sec 1 x x 1 or x 1
[0, ], y
2
(vi) y cot 1 x (, ) 0 y
A function in which the variable appears as exponent (power) is called exponential function.
Examples:
The logarithmic function with base 10 is called the common logarithmic function. The function
The logarithmic function with base e is called the natural logarithmic function. The function
f ( x) log e x is usually expressed as f ( x) ln x .and also,
e x e x
sinh x is called hyperbolic sine function.
2
Its domain and range are the set of real numbers.
e x e x
cosh x is called hyperbolic sine function.
2
Its domain is the set of real numbers.
Its range is the set of all numbers in the interval [1, )
The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in the term of the hyperbolic sine and
cosine function as follows.
e x e x 1 2 e x e x
(1) sinh x (2) csch x x x (3) cosh x
2 sinh x e e 2
1 2 sinh x e x e x 1 e x e x
(4) sech x x x (5) tanh x (6) coth x x -x
cosh x e e cosh x e x e x tanh x e e
Hyperbolic Identities:
Important note: The hyperbolic functions have the same properties that resemble to
those of trigonometric functions.
The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in term of natural logarithms and we shall
study in higher class.
It is denoted by y f ( x)
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in term of the independent variable
x , then y is called implicit function of x.
It is denoted by f ( x, y) 0
3xy 2 2 y 5
Examples: (1) 3x 2 xy y 2 (2) 7
9 xy
Parameter:
When a curve is described by expression both x and y as a function of third variables " t "
and " " then these variables are called parameters.
Parametric Equations:
Where " t " and " " are parameters in both examples.
Solution :
x at 2 (1) , y 2at (2)
from (2) we can written as
y
t putting this in (1),we get
2a
y
2
y2
x a a
2a 4 a 2
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 9
y2
x
4a
y 4ax
2
Solution :
f ( x) = x 2
replace x by x
f ( x) = ( x) 2 x 2
f ( x) f ( x)
Hence, the function is even.
Solution :
f ( x) cos x
replace x by x
f ( x) cos( x)
as we know that
cos( y x) cos y cos x sin y sin x
putting y 0 on both sides,then
cos(0 x) cos 0 cos x sin 0sin x 1.cos x 0.sin x
cos( x) cos x
f ( x) f ( x)
Hence, function is even
1.1.14 Odd function
A function is said to be an odd if f ( x) f ( x).
Solution :
f ( x) x 3
replace x by x
f ( x ) ( x )3 ( x 3 )
f ( x)
Hence, the function is odd
x 1
Example 3: Show that function f ( x) = is neither even nor odd
x+1
Solution :
x 1
f ( x)
x 1
replace x by x
( x) 1 ( x 1)
f ( x)
( x) 1 ( x 1)
x 1
x 1
f ( x)
Hence, the function is niether even nor odd
Important note: in both the cases for each x in the domain of f ( x) , x must also be in
the domain of f ( x) .
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 11
EXERCISE 1.1
x3 x 3x
(i) f ( x) x 3 x (ii)f ( x ) x x 2 5 (iii) f ( x ) (iv) f ( x )
x2 1 x 2 1
(v) f ( x ) x 3 (vi) f ( y ) sin y
QUESTION 3: Show that the functions, neither even and nor odd.
x 1
(i) f ( x) ( x 2) 2 (ii) f ( x) (iii) f ( x) sin x cos x
x 1
QUESTION 4: Prove the identities:
x2 y2
(iii) x a cos t , y b sin t Represent the equation of ellipse 1
a2 b2
x2 y2
(iv) x a tan t , y b sec t represent the equation of hyperbola 2 2 1
a b
QUESTION 6: Given that (a) f ( x ) x 2 x Find.
2 h h 2 h h
(i) 6 (ii) h 2 ( a 2 ah)3 2( h 2a ) (iii) cos a sin (iv) sin a sin
h 2 2 h 2 2
1.2 Composite of the Function and Inverse of a Function
( gof )( x) g ( f ( x)) gf ( x) , x X
1.2.1 Composite of Functions
gf
Explanation:
Let two real valued functions
f ( x ) and g ( x) define
f ( x) 2 x 3 and g ( x ) x 2
Then
gof ( x) g ( f ( x))
g (2 x 3)
(2 x 3) 2 X Y Z
Figure 1.2.1
The arrow diagram of two
consecutive mappings, f ( x ) followed by g ( x) denoted by gf ( x ) is shown in the
diagram. Thus a single composite function gf ( x) is equivalent to two successive functions
f ( x ) followed by g ( x) .
1
f ( x) x 1 ; g ( x) ,x 0
x2
Find out the (i) fg ( x) (ii) gf ( x) (iii) f 2 ( x) (iv) g 2 ( x)
(i) fg ( x )
Solution :
f ( x ) x 1 (1)
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 13
fg ( x) f g ( x)
1 1
f 2 1 by using (1)
x x2
1 x2 1 x2
x2 x
(ii) gf ( x)
Solution :
f ( x) x 1 (1)
1 1
fg ( x) f g ( x) f 2 1 by using (1)
x x2
1 x2 1 x2
x2 x
2
(iii) f ( x)
Solution :
f ( x) x 1 (1)
f 2 ( x) f f ( x) f
x 1 x 1 1 by using (1)
(iv) g 2 ( x)
Solution :
1
g ( x) 2 (1)
x
1
g 2 ( x) g g( x) g 2
x
1
= x 4 by using (1)
1 2
2
x
Defined by:
y f ( x) x f 1 ( y ) x X , y Y
y f ( x) x f 1 ( y )
1
We find the composition of the functions f and f as follows.
( f 1of )( x) f 1 ( f ( x)) f 1 ( y ) x and
( fof 1 )( y ) f ( f 1 ( y ))
f 1 ( x) y
Y
X
We note that f 1of and fof 1 are f
Domain f Range f
Range f 1 Domain f 1
Figure 1.2.2
Important note: the change of name of variable in the definition of the function does not
change that function where the domain and range coincide.
Example 1: Find a : f 1 ( x ) and b : f 1 ( 1) of the given function. And prove that
c: f ( f -1 ( x)) f -1 ( f ( x)) x
f ( x) ( x 9)3
Solution : a
Suppose, f ( x) y x f 1 ( y ) (1)
so, y ( x 9)3
1 1
y 3 ( x 9)3 3
1
y x 9
3
1
x 9 y (2)
3
c:
1
1
f(f ( x)) f (9 x ) 3
1 1
[(9 x 3 ) 9]3 [9 x 3 9]3
1
(x ) x
3 3
f 1
( f ( x)) f 1 ( x 9)3
1
9 ( x 9)3 3 9 x 9 x
1 1
Hence, f(f ( x)) f ( f ( x)) x
EXERSICE 1.2
A: Find fog ( x ) .
3
(i) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x ) x 1 ; g ( x) 2 ,x 0
x
1
(iii) f ( x ) ,x 1 ; g ( x ) ( x 2 1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x ) 3x 4 2 x 2 ; g ( x) ,x 0
x
(v) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) x 1
2
(vi) f ( x ) 2 x 3 ; g ( x) x 2
Answers:
5 x 1 x2 1 8(6 x 1)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 2 x 2 1 (vi)
x 1 x x x 2 2 x2
B: Find gof ( x) .
3
(i) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x ) x 1 ; g ( x) 2 ,x 0
x
1
(iii) f ( x ) ,x 1 ; g ( x ) ( x 2 1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x ) 3x 4 2 x 2 ; g ( x) ,x 0
x
(v) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) x 1
2
(vi) f ( x ) 2 x 3 ; g ( x) x 2
Answers:
2
3 1 x 2
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)4 x 2 4 x (vi)(2 x 3) 2
2x x 1 x 1 x 3x 2 2
C: Find fof ( x ) .
3
(i) f ( x) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x) x 1 ; g ( x) 2 ,x 0
x
1
(iii) f ( x) ,x 1 ; g ( x) ( x 2 1) 2
x 1
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 17
2
(iv) f ( x) 3x 4 2 x 2 ; g ( x) ,x 0
x
(v) f ( x) 2 x 1 ; g (x) x 1
2
(vi) f ( x) 2 x 3 ; g (x) x2
Answers:
x 1
(i) 4 x 3 (ii) x 1 1 (iii) (iv) 3(3x 4 2 x 2 ) 4 2(3x 4 2 x 2 ) 2 (v) 4 x 3 (vi)
1 x 1
D: Find gog ( x) .
3
(i) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x ) x 1 ; g ( x) 2 ,x 0
x
1
(iii) f ( x ) ,x 1 ; g ( x ) ( x 2 1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x ) 3x 4 2 x 2 ; g ( x) ,x 0
x
(v) f ( x ) 2 x 1 ; g ( x) x 1
2
(vi) f ( x ) 2 x 3 ; g ( x) x 2
Answers:
3( x 1)
(i) (ii) x 4 (iii) [( x 2 1) 4 1] 2 (iv) 2 x (v) x 4 2 x 2 (vi)
4 x
QUESTION 2: For real valued function f . defined below.
2x 1
(i) f ( x) 2 x 8 (ii) f ( x) 3x 3 7 (iii) f ( x ) ( x 9) 3 (iv) f ( x) , x 1
x 1
1 1
8 x 9 x 7 3 8 3
1 1
x 1
Answers: (i) , (ii) , (iii) 9 x 3 ,9 ( 1) 3 (iv) ,0
2 2 3 3 x2
Portion 2:
1.3 Limit of a Function and Theorem on limits
The concept of the limit of a function is the basic on which the structure of the calculus rests.
Before the definition of the limits of a function .it is essential to have a clear understanding of
meaning of the following phrase.
1.3.1 Meaning of phrase “ x Approaches zero”
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , ........ .i.e. 1, , 2 , 3 , 2 ...... n .....
2 4 8 16 2 2 2 2 2
We notice that x is becoming smaller and smaller as n increasing and can made as small
as we please by taking n sufficiently large. This unending decrease of x is symbolically
written as x 0 and read “ x approaches zero or” x ”tends to zero”.
Symbolically written as x a and read “ x approaches a “or” “ x tends to a”. Which means
that x is sufficiently close to but different from the number a. from the left and right sides of a
i.e. x a Becomes smaller and smaller as we please but x a 0
1.3.4 Concept of Limit of a Function
(i) By Finding the Area of Circumscribing Regular Polygon
Consider a circle of unit radius which circumscribes a squate ) 4-sided regular polygon)as
shown in Figer (a).
The side of square is 2 and its area is 2 square unit.it is clear that the area of inscribed 4-
sided polygon is less than the area of the circum-circle.
Bisecting the arcs between the vertices of the square,we get an inscribed 8-sied polygon as
shown in Figer (b).its area is 2 2 square unit which is closer to the area of circum-circle.a
furthe
similar bisection of the acrs gives an inscribed 16- sided polygon as shown in the Figer (c)
with area 3.061 square unit which is more closed to the area of the circum-circle. It follows
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 19
that as"n" the number of sides of the inscribed polygon increase , the area of polygon
increas and becoming neare to 3.142 which is the area of circle of unit radius that is
r 2 (1) 2 3.1416...
We express this situation by saying that the limiting value of the area of the inscribed
polygon is the area of the circle ax "n" approachees infinity that is,
area of inscribed polygon area of circle
as n
Suppose the function f ( x ) x 3 the domain of f ( x) is the set of all real numbers.
The table of values of f ( x) for different values of x as x approaches 2 from left and right is
as follows:
f ( x) x3 1 3.375 5.832 6.859 7.8806 7.988 7.9988 8.0012 8.012 8.1206 9.261 10.648 15.625 27
The table show that,as x get closer and closer to 2 (sufficiently close to 2), from both sides,
f ( x) when x approaches 2 and written as:
f ( x) 2 as x2 or lim( x 3 ) 8
x 2
Suppose, f : A R be function define in an open interval near the number a (need not at a)
It is neither desirable nor practicable to find the limit of a function by numerical approach. We
must be able to evaluate a limit in some mechanically way the theorems on limits will be
serve this purpose their proofs will be describes in higher class.
1.3.6 Theorem on Limits of Functions
Theorem 1: The Limit of the sum of two Functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
Example 1: Find the limit lim(6 x 5) Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(6 x2 5x 1)
x 3 x 1
18 5 6 5 1
23 12
Theorem 2: The limit of the difference of two functions is equal to the difference of their
limits.
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(9 x 5) Example 2: Find the limit lim( x2 5x 7)
x 1 x 1
27 5 1 5 7
22 11
Theorem 3: If " k " is any real number, then
lim kf ( x ) k lim f ( x )
x a x a
15(2) 9(4)
30 36
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of two functions is equal to the product of their limits.
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(5 x)( x 3) Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(3 x)( x 6)
x2 x 1
5(2)(2 3) 3(1)(1 6)
10(5) 3(7)
50 21
Theorem 5: The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits
provided the limits of the denominator is non-zero.
f (x) lim f ( x) L
lim x x , where g ( x) 0, M 0
x a g ( x )
lim
x x
g ( x) M
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 21
2x 4 x4
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim Example 2: Find the limit lim
x2
x5 x5
x 1
2 x 4 lim(2 x 4) x 4 x1lim( x 4)
lim x 2
lim
x 2
x 5 lim( x 2
x 5) x 1 x 5
lim(
x 1
x 5)
2(2) 4 8 1 4 5
25 7 1 5 6
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(3x 5)2 Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(3x 5)3
x 4 x 1
lim(3x 5) lim(3x 5)
2 2
lim(3x 5) lim(3x 5)3
3
x 4 x 4 x 1 x 1
2 3
lim(3x 5) lim(3x 5)
x 4 x1
3(4) 5) 3(1) 5)
2 3
(7)2 49 ( 2)3 8
1.3.7 Limits of Important Functions
If, by substitution the number that x approaches into the function, we get then we evaluating
the limits as follows:
We simplify the given function by using algebraic technique of making factors if possible and
cancel the common factors. The method is explained in the following important limits.
1.3.8 Some Special limits questions:
x n a n
Evaluate: lim na n 1 , where n is integer and a 0
x a x a
Here factor of ( x n a n ) is
x n a n ( x a )(a 0 x n 1 a1 x n 2 a 2 x n 3 ..... a n 1 x 0 )
x n a n ( x a )(a 0 x n 1 a1 x n 2 a 2 x n 3 ..... a n 1 x 0 )
lim = lim
x a x a x a xa
0 n 1 1 n 2 2 n 3
= lim( a x a x a x ..... a n 1 x 0 )
x a
x n a n x m a m
Now replacing n by m , we get
xa xa
BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037
Bahauddin zakariya university, Multan (Pakistan)
22 Advance Calculus with Analytical Geometry Mathematics (New 2nd Edition) class xii
x n a n x m a m
lim lim
x a x a x a xa
m
x a m
= lim
xa xa
1 1 a m x m
m
m
= lim x a = lim x m a m
xa xa xa xa
1 a x m m
= lim m m
xa x a
xa
1 x m a m
= lim m m lim
xa x a
x a x a
1 x n a n
lim m m ma m 1 (by case :1) lim na n 1
x a x a
x a x a
1 1
= m m ma m 1 = 2 m ma m 1
a a a
2 m m 1
= na ma m 1
replace m n
x m a m
lim na n 1
x a xa
x n a n
Evaluate: lim
x a x m a m
x n a n
x an n
lim m m lim xm am
x a x a x a x a
xa
(divided numerator and denominator) by ( x a)
x n a n
lim
xa x a na n 1
x m a m ma m 1
lim
xa x a
n
a nm
m
xh x
1.3.9 Evaluate the lim
h 0 h
xh x xh x xh x
lim lim by rationalization
h 0 h h 0
h x h x
( x h )2 ( x )2 xhx
lim lim
h 0 h h 0
h
h
lim
h 0 h
1
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 23
x 3
Example 1: Find lim
x 3 x 3
x3 x3 x 3
lim lim , by rationalization
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
( x 3)( x 3)
lim 2
( x ) ( 3)
x 3 2
( x 3) ( x 3)
lim
x 3 ( x 3)
lim( x 3) 3 3 2 3
x 3
x 3x
Example 2: Find lim
x 1 x 1
x 3 x x 3 x
lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x( x 2 1)
lim
x 1 x 1
x ( x 1) ( x 1)
lim
x 1 ( x 1)
lim x( x 1) 1(1 1) 2
x 1
1
Let f ( x) , x 0 this function has the property that the value of f(x) can be made as close
x
as we please to zero when the number x is sufficiently large. we express this phenomenon
by writing
1
f ( x) , where x 0
x
we can solve this
1 1
lim f ( x) lim 0
x x x
(b) Limit as x
This types of the limits are handled in the same way as limits ax x
1
Let f ( x) , x 0 this function has the property that the value of f(x) can be made as close
x
as we please to zero when the number x is sufficiently large. we express this phenomenon
by writing
1
f ( x) , where x 0
x
we can solve this
1 1
lim f ( x) lim 0
x x x
The following theorem are use full to evaluating the limits at infinity.
a
(a) lim 0
x x p
a
(b) lim p 0
x x
6
Example 1: Evaluate the given lim
x x3
Solution :
6
lim
x x3
case:i ; case:ii
6 6 6 6
lim ; lim
x x 3
( ) 3 x x 3
()3
0 ; 0
4
Example 1: Evaluate the given lim
x x3
Solution :
4 4 4
lim lim 1
1
0
x x x x 2 2
P( x)
(a) lim
x Q ( x )
P( x)
(b) lim
x Q ( x )
In this case first we divide each term of both the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of the x that appears in the denominator and then use the above theorem.
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 25
5 x 4 3 x 2 1
Example 1: Evaluate the limit at infinity. lim
3x 2 x 20
x 3 2
Solution :
5 x 4 3x 2 1
lim
x 3 x 3 2 x 2 20
( and numerator and denominator by x3 )
5 x 4 3x 2 1 3 1
3 3 3 5x 3
lim x x x lim x x
x 3 x 3 2 2
2 x 50 x
3 2 x 20
3 3 3
x x x x3 x3
3 1
5() 3 0 0
2 20
3 3 3 0 0 3
4 x 4 5 x 3
Example 2: Find the given limit lim
3 x 2 x 1
x 5 2
Solution :
4 x 4 5 x 3
lim
x 3 x 5 2 x 2 1
( and numerator and denominator by x5 )
4 x 4 5 x3 4 5 4
5
5
5 x x2 () 2 00
x x
lim lim 0
x 3 x 5
3 0 0
2
x 3 2 1 3
2 x 1 2 1
5 5 5
x x x x3 x5 () ()5
3
5 6x 2 3x
Example 3: Find the following given limits (i): lim (ii): lim
x
3 4x 2 x
3 4x 2
5 6x
(i): lim
x
3 4x 2
Solution :
Here x 2 x x , as 0
5 6x
lim
x
3 4x 2
( and numerator and denominator by -x )
5 6x 5
6
lim x x lim x
x 3 x 3
2
4 4
x x2
5
6
() 06 6
3
3 04 2
4
() 2
2 3x
(ii): lim
x
3 4x 2
Solution :
Here x 2 x x , as x 0
2 3x
lim
x
3 4x 2
( and numerator and denominator by x)
2 3x 2
3
lim x x lim x
x 3 x 3
2
4 4
x x2
2
3
03 3
3 04 2
4
( ) 2
n
1
1.3.12 lim 1 e
n
n
Proof :
By using bionomial theorem
n 1 n(n 1) 1 n(n 1)(n 2) 1
n 2 3
1
1 1 ......
n 1! n 2! n 3! n
1 n 2 n 1 n(n 2 3n 2)
1 1 ......
2! n 2 3! n3
1 1 1 (n3 3n 2 2n)
11 1 ......
2! n 3! n3
n
1 1 1 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 ......
n 2! n 3! n n
take lim on both sides
n
n
1 1 1 1 1 2
lim 1 lim 1 1 1 1 1 ......
n
n n 2! n 3! n n
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 lim 1 lim 1 1 ......
2! n n 3! n n n
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 ......
2! 3!
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 27
1 1 1 1
1 1 ......
2! 3! 4! 5!
1 1 0.5 0.16667 0.04166667 .....
n
1
lim 1 2.718281 (approximate)
n
n
we know that approximate value of e is 2.718281
Hence proved.
n
1
lim 1 e
n
n
1
Deduction: lim 1 x x e
x 0
Proof :
we know that
n
1
lim 1 e (1)
n
n
Suppose that
1 1
n x putting this in (1)
x n
when x 0 then n (1) becomes
1
lim 1 x x e
x 0
hence proved
a x 1
1.3.13 lim log e a
x 0 x
Proof :
a x 1
lim log e a
x 0 x
ax 1
L.H.S lim (1)
x 0 x
Suppose that
y ax 1 when x 0 then y 0
a x 1 y (i)
take log on both sides
log a (1 y ) x
log a (1 y ) x (ii)
putting (i) and (ii) in (1)
y
L.H.S lim
y 0 log (1 y )
a
1 1
lim lim 1
y 0 1 y 0
log a (1 y ) log a (1 y ) y
y
1
1
1
lim 1 x x e
x 0
log a lim(1 y ) y
y 0
1
R.H.S
log a e
ex 1
Deduction: lim log e e 1
x 0 x
Proof :
ex 1
lim log e e
x 0 x
ex 1
L.H.S lim (1)
x 0 x
suppose that
y e x 1 when x 0 then y 0
e x 1 y (i)
take log on both sides
log e (1 y) x
log e (1 y) x (ii)
putting (i) and (ii) in (1)
y
L.H.S lim
y 0 log (1 y )
e
1 1
lim lim 1
y 0 1 y 0
log e (1 y ) log e (1 y ) y
y
1
1
1
lim 1
x 0
x x e
log e lim(1 y ) y
y 0
1
log e e
log e e
1 R.H.S Hence, proved
x
x
Example 1: Express the lim in the term of the number e .
x
1 x
Solution :
x
1 x
x
x
lim lim
x 1 x
x x
x
1
lim 1
x
x
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 29
1
1
x
lim 1
x x
x
1 1
(e)1 lim 1 e
e x
x
2n
3
Example 2: Express the lim 1 in the term of the number e :
n
n
Solution :
3
3
2n
3
2n 3
lim 1 lim 1
n
n n n
6
n
1 3
lim 1
n n
3
n
1
3
(e ) 6 e 6
lim 1 e
n n
3
(1) lim (e x )
x
1
(2) lim (e x ) lim x
x
x e
a
lim 0, where is any real number.
x x
then lim g( x) L
x c
Many limit problems arise that cannot be directly evaluated by algebraic method. they
require geometric arrangements, so we evaluate an important theorem.
sin
1.3.15 if Measure in Radian, then lim 1
0
Proof: To evaluate this limit, we apply a new technique .take a positive acute central angle
of
The circle with radius r 1 as show in diagram. OAB represent a sector of the circle.
given:
D
OA OB 1 (radius of unit circle)
B
BC BC
in right triangle OCB , sinθ = OB 1
OB 1 r 1
AD AD
in right triangle OAD , tanθ = OA 1
OA 1
O r 1 C A
In term of , the areas are expressed as.
case:i
1 1 1
Area of OAB = OA BC (1)(sin ) sin
2 2 2
case:ii
1 1 1
Area of sector OAB = r 2 (1)2 ( )
2 2 2
case:iii
1 1 1
Area of OAD = OA AD (1)(tan ) tan
2 2 2
from the diagram we can see
Area of OAB Area of OAB Area of OAD
1 1 1
sin tan
2 2 2
1 1 1 sin
sin (1)
2 2 2 cos
2
multiplying (1) by ( )
sin
1 2 1 2 1 sin 2
sin ( ) ( ) ( )
2 sin 2 sin 2 cos sin
1
1
sin cos
sin 1 1
1> cos x y
x y
sin
1 cos
by applying lim
0
sin
lim (1) lim( ) lim(cos )
0 0 0
sin
lim( ) 1 Hence proved.
0
Important note: The same result hold for 0
2
sin 7 x
Example 1: Evaluate the lim
x 0 x
Solution :
sin 7 x 7 sin 7 x
lim lim (divided and multipling by 7)
x 0 x 7 x 0 x
sin 7 x sin
7 lim 7(1) 7 lim =1
0
x 0 7 x
sin x
Example 2: Find the lim
x x
Solution :
sin x
lim (1)
x x
Suppose
x if x then 0
x putting this in (1)
sin( ) sin
lim lim 1
0 0
sec x cos x
Example 3: Evaluate the lim
x0 x
Solution :
1
cos x
sec x cos x
lim lim cos x
x 0 x x 0 x
1 cos 2 x
1 cos 2 x
lim cos x lim
x 0 x x 0 x cos x
2
sin x 1
lim .lim
x 0 x x 0 cos x
divided and multipling by x
sin 2 x 1
lim 2
.lim x.lim
x 0 x x 0 x 0 cos x
2
sin x 1
lim .lim x.lim
x 0 x x 0 x 0 cos x
(1) 2 .(0).(1) 0
EXERCISE 1.3
QUESTION 1: Evaluate each limit by using above theorems of limits.
(i) lim(2 x 4) (ii) lim(3 x 2 2 x 4) (iii) lim x 2 x 4 (iv) lim x x 2 4
x 3 x 1 x 3 x2
2 x 5 x 3
(v) lim( x 3 1 x 2 5) (vi) lim (vii) lim( x 5) (viii) lim( x 5)
x2 x 2
3x 2 x 1 x 3
3x 4
(ix) lim 3 x (x) lim(2 x)( x 4) (xi) lim(2 x 3)3 (xii) lim
x2 x 1 x4 x2
x3
Answers:
13
(i) 10 (ii) 5 (iii) 4 (iv) 0 (v) 0 (vi) (vii) 6 (viii) 2 (ix) 6 (x) 10 (xi) 125 (xii) 2
5
QUESTION 2: Evaluates each limit by rationalizing techniques.
x 2 xh x x 5 xa a
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim
x2 x 5
x 2 h 0 h x 5 x 0 x
1 1 1
Answers: (i) (ii) (iii)2 5 (iv)
2 2 2 x 2 a
QUESTION 3: Evaluates each limit by algebraic techniques.
x 3 4 x 3x 3 4 x x3 8 x 3 3x 2 3x 1
(i) lim (ii) lim 2 (iii) lim 2 (iv) lim
x 1 x 2 x 0
x x x 2 x x 6 x 1 x 3x
2 x 2 32 x 3x 2 2 x 2 32 x 2 1
(vi) lim (v) lim 2 (vi) lim (vii) lim
x 4 x 3 4 x 2 x 1
x 1 x 4 x 3 4 x 2 x 1 x 2 x
12
Answers: (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) (iv) 0 (v) (vi) 1 (vii) 2
5
QUESTION 4: Some special questions:
x n a n x n a n
(i) lim , where n is an integer and a 0 (ii) lim m m
x a x a x a x a
n n m
Answers: (i) na n1 (ii) x
m
QUESTION 5: Evaluate the following limits.
a
Answers: i 7 (ii) (iii) iv 0 v 7 vi 1
180 b
QUESTION 6: evaluate the following limits.
1 cos 1 cos 2 x 1 cos x 1 cos p 1 cos
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim (v) lim
0 sin x 0 x2 x 0 sin 2 x 0 1 cos q 0
sin x
(vi) lim
x x
1 p2
Answers: i 0 ii 2 (iii) (iv) v 0 vi 1
2 q2
QUESTION 7: Some special questions.
a x 1 ex 1
n
1 1
(a) lim 1 e (b) lim 1 x x e (c) lim log e a (d) lim log e e
n
n x 0 x 0 x x 0 x
QUESTION 9: express each limit in term of e.
2n n n n
1 1 1 1 4
n
(i) lim 1 (ii) lim 1 2 (iii) lim 1 (iv) lim 1 (v) lim 1
n
n n
n n
n n
3n n
n
x 2n
x 3
(vi) lim (vii) lim 1
x 1 x
n
n
1 1
2 1 1
Answers: (i)e (ii)e 2
(iii) (iv)e 3
(v)e 4 (vi) (vii)e 6
e e
QUESTION 10: express each limits in term of e.
1 1 1
(ii)lim 1 2 x 2 x 2
2
(i)lim 1 3x x (iii)lim 1 2h h (iv)lim 1 2h h
x 0 x 0 h0 h0
Answers: a 1 b 1
QUESTION 12: method for evaluating the limits at infinity.
6 5 1
(i) lim 0 (ii) lim 0 (iii) lim 0
x x 3 x x x 5 x
5 x 4 10 x 2 1 4 x 4 5 x 3
(i) lim
x 3 x 3 10 x 2 50
(ii) lim 5
x 3 x 2 x 2 1
0
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 35
In the defining lim f ( x ) , we restricted x to an open interval containing c i.e. we study the
x c
i.e. for all sufficiently close to c but less than c , the value of f ( x) can made as
close as we please to L.
(b) The Right Hand Limit
lim f ( x) M is read as limit of f ( x) is equal to M as x approaches c from the left
x c
i.e. for all sufficiently close to c but greater than c , the value of f ( x) can made as
close as we please to M .
Example 1: Determined the left hand limit and the right hand limit and also find the limit of
the function f ( x) x 8 at c 2 .
Solution :
f ( x) x 8 , c2
we know that
left hand limit ; right hand limit
L.H.L lim f ( x) ; R.H.L lim f ( x)
x c x c
lim ( x 8) ; lim ( x 8)
x2 x2
2 8 ; 2 8
6 ; 6
limit of a function f ( x)
lim f ( x)
x c
lim f ( x) lim( x 8)
x 2 x 2
2 8
6
1.4.2 Criteria for Existence of Limit of the Function
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
Example 1: Determined whether lim f ( x ) exist, when f ( x ) 7 x if 2 x 4
x4
x if 4 x 6
Solution :
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
f ( x) 7 x if 2 x 4
x if 4 x 6
we know that limit exist mean
left hand limit right hand limit
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x)
x c x c
lim (7 x) ; lim ( x)
x 4 x 4
74 ; 4
=3
So, limits does not exist.
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
Example 2: Determined whether lim f ( x ) exist, when f ( x ) 7 x if 2 x 4
x2
x if 4 x 6
Solution :
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
f ( x) 7 x if 2 x 4
x if 4 x 6
we know that limit exist mean
left hand limit right hand limit
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
x c x c
lim (2 x 1) ; lim (7 x)
x2 x2
2(2) 1 5 ; 72 5
Hence, limits exist.
1.4.3 Continuity of a Function at a number or point
(a) Continuous Function
A function f is said to be continuous at number or a point “c “if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied.
(i) f (c) Defined.
(ii) lim f ( x ) Exist.
x c
(iii)
(iv) lim f ( x) f (c)
x c
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 37
Here,
3x if x 2
2
Example 1: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) x 1 if 2 x 2 ,c 2
3 if x 2
Solution :
3x if x 2
2
f ( x) x 1 if 2 x 2 , c 2
3 if x 2
for continuity we know that
lim f ( x ) f (c )
x c
R.H.S f (c )
f (2)
3
L.H.S lim f ( x)
x c
lim f ( x ) ; lim f ( x )
x2 x2
= lim ( x 1)2
; = lim (3)
x 2 x2
(2) 1 3
2
; 3
Hence L.H.S R.H.S
So, given function is continuous
(b) Discontinuous
If one or more of these three condition fail to hold at “ c ” then the function f ( x) is said to be
discontinuous at “ c ”.
3x if x 2
2
Example 2: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) x 1 if 2 x 2 , c 2
3 if x 2
Solution :
3x if x 2
f ( x) x 2 1 if 2 x 2 , c 2
3 if x 2
R.H.S f (c)
f (2)
6
L.H.S lim f ( x)
x c
lim f ( x) ; lim f ( x )
x 2 x 2
3(-2) ; (2) 2 1
6 ; 3
Here L.H.S R.H.S
So, given function is not continuous
x 2 9
if x 3
Example 3: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) x 3 , c3
6 if x 3
8
Solution : 4, 7
6 3, 6
x 9
2
if x 3 2, 5
Y-AXIS
f ( x) x 3 , c3 4
6 if x 3
0, 3
2
for continuity of a function we know that 0
lim f ( x) f ( c) 0 1 2 X-AXIS 3 4 5
x c
R.H.S f ( c)
f (3)
6
L.H.S lim f ( x)
x c
x 2 9
lim f ( x) lim
x 3 x 3 x 3
( x 3)( x 3)
= lim = lim( x 3)
x 3 x3 x 3
33 6
Hence L.H.S R.H.S
So, given function is continuous
it is noted that there is no break in the graph.
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 39
x 1 if x 3
Example 4: Discuss the continuity of f ( x ) , c3
2 x 1 if x 3
Solution :
x 1 if x 3
f ( x) , c3
2 x 1 if x 3
for continuity of a function we know that
lim f ( x ) f (c)
x c
R.H.S f ( c)
f (3)
7
L.H.S lim f ( x)
x c
lim f ( x) ; lim f ( x)
x 3 x 3
= lim ( x 1) ; = lim (2 x 1)
x 3 x 3
3 1 2 ; 2(3) 1 7
Here L.H.S R.H.S
So, given function is not continuous we can
see that there is a break in the graph when x 3
mx if x 3
Example 5: Find the value of " m " so that given function f ( x) , x 3 is
x
2
if x 3
continuous.
Solution :
we know that function is continuous mean
lim f ( x ) f (c )
x c
3m ; (3)2
9
because given function is continuous.
3m 9
m3
EXERCISE 1.4
QUESTION 1: Determined left hand limit and right hand limit and also find the limits of the
following function:
x 2 9
(i) f ( x ) 2 x 2 x 5 , c 1 (ii) f ( x ) , c 3
x3
(iii) f ( x ) x 5 , c5
Answers:
(i) L.H.L 2 , R.H.L 2 (ii) L.H.L 0 , R.H.L 0 (iii) L.H.L 0, R.H.L 0
lim f ( x ) = 2 lim f ( x ) = 0 lim f ( x ) = 0
x 1 x 3 x 0
QUESTION 2: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at x c
3x 1 if x 1
2 x 5 if x 2
(i) f ( x ) ,c 2 (ii) f ( x ) 4 if x 1 , c 1
4 x 1 if x 2 2 x
if x 1
3 x if x 2 3 x if x 2
2 2
(iii) f ( x ) x 1 if 2 x 2 ,c 2 (iv) f ( x ) x 1 if 2 x 2 , c 2
3 if x 2 3 if x 2
x 2 9
if x 3 x 1 if x 3
(v) f ( x ) x 3 , c3 (vi) f ( x ) , c3
6 if x 3 2 x 1 if x 3
x 2 1 x 2 9
(i) f ( x ) ,c 1 (ii) f ( x) ,c 3
x 1 x3
Answers: (i) Discontinuous (ii) Discontinuous
QUESTION 4: Determined whether
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
(i) lim f ( x) Exist, when f ( x ) 7 x if 2 x 4
x4
x if 4 x 6
2 x 1 if 0 x 2
(ii) lim f ( x) Exist, when f ( x ) 7 x if 2 x 4
x2
x if 4 x 6
Answers: (i) does not exist (ii) exist
x 2 if x 1
QUESTION 5: Find " c " so that lim f ( x) exist. And f ( x) Answer: c 1
x -1
c 2 if x 1
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 41
QUESTION 6: find the value of " m " and " n " so that given function is continuous at x 3.
mx if x 3
mx if x 3
(i) f ( x) n if x 3 (ii) f ( x) 2
2 x 9 if x 3 x if x 3
Answers: (i) m 1, n 3 (ii) m 3
2x 5 x 7
,x 2
QUESTION 7: Find the value of " k " , so that function f ( x ) x2 is
k ,x 2
2x 5 x 7 1
continuous at x 2. (Hint: Solve by Factorization of ) Answer: k
x2 6
Portion 3:
1.5 Graphs of algebraic functions
If f ( x) is a real valued function of real a real numbers, then the graph of f ( x) in xy plane
is defined to be the graph of the equation y f ( x).
The graph of a function f ( x) is the set of points ( x, y ) y f ( x) , x is in the domain of f ( x )
in
The Cartesian plane for which ( x, y) is an ordered pair of f ( x). the graph provides a visual
y y y y
x x x
O
x O O
technique for determining whether the set of points represents a function or not.
If a vertical line intersects a graph in one point, then it shows a function. We can see in figure
1 and 4. Which show the function. On the other hand, if a vertical line intersects a graph in
more than one point, then it does not show a function. We can see in figure 2 and 3. Which
does not show the function.
Method to draw the graph:
To draw the graph of y f ( x) , we give arbitrary values of our choice to x and find the
corresponding values of y. in this way we get ordered pairs ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) etc.
these ordered pairs represent points of the graph in the Cartesian plane. We these points
and join them together to get the graph of the function.
We now learn the method to draw the graphs of the explicit function like y f ( x) , where
f ( x) a x , e x ,loga x and loge x.
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f ( x ) near the origin.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y f ( x) 2x 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
Plotting the points ( x, y ) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we get
the graph of f ( x ) 2 x
From the graph of f ( x ) 2 x , the characters of the graph f ( x ) a x are plotted as follows:
If a 1
13
y-axis
11
9
3, 8
7
5
2, 4
3
1, 2
1 0, 1
-3, 0.125 -2, 0.25 -1, 0.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x-axis
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f ( x ) near the origin.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y f ( x) e x 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
Plotting the points ( x, y ) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we get
the graph of f ( x ) e
x
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 43
From the graph of f ( x ) e x , the characters of the graph f ( x ) e x are plotted as follows:
If e 1
13
11
2, 7.38
7
3
1, 2.718
1 0, 1
-3, 0.05 -2, 0.135 -1, 0.36
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4
For graph of f ( x ) lg x, we find the values of lg x from the common logarithmic table for
several of x 0
x 0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10
y f ( x) lg x 1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1
Plotting the points ( x, y ) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we get
the graph of f ( x) lg x
For graph of f ( x ) ln x, we find the values of ln x from the common logarithmic table for
several of x 0
x 0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10
y f ( x) ln x 2.302 0 0.7 1.3 1.8 2.08 2.302
Plotting the points ( x, y ) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we get
the graph of
15
y-axis
13
11
9
7
5
3
6, 1.8 8, 2.08
1 4, 1.3 10, 1
2, 0.7
1, 0
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.1, -2.302
-3
-5
x-axis
1.5.5 Intervals:
Interval are the natural collection of subsets determined by the order relation on R and
define as follows.
A subset S of (real number) is called an interval if a, b S and a b then every real
number r satisfying a r b is also belong to S where a and b are called end point of the
interval
Value addition Note: the end point of the interval may and may not belong the interval.
Value addition note: the end point of the interval does not belong to the interval
Closed interval:
An interval defines as
Value addition note: the end point of the interval always belongs to interval.
Value addition note: Half open (or half Closed interval) must have only one end-point
1: The interval ( , ) is called both infinite open and infinite closed interval.
1: if the endpoint of an open interval are same then the cross ponding open internal is the
empty set i.e. (a, a)
2: if the endpoint of a closed interval are same then the cross ponding closed internal is the
singleton set i.e. [a, a] a
Range: (, )
X-axis
Sketch: O
1
The function f ( x) is called inverse function.
x
Domain: x 0
Range: f ( x) 0 Graph 2
Sketch:
Y-axis
X-axis
O
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 47
Range: [0, )
Sketch:
X-axis
O
Domain: (, )
Domain: [0, )
Range: [0, )
Y-axis Graph 5
Sketch:
X-axis
O
Domain: (, )
Range: [0, )
Y-axis Graph 6
Sketch:
X-axis
O
Domain: (, )
Y-axis
Range: (0, )
Sketch:
X-axis
O
Y-axis
8: The Natural Log Function:
The function f ( x) ln x is called natural log function.
Domain: (0, )
X-axis
O
Range: (, )
Sketch:
Graph 8
Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 49
Exercise 1.5
QUESTION 1: Find the domain and range of the function of define below.
The Polynomial functions:
Part no Domain Range
(i) : g ( x) x (, ) (, )
(ii) : g ( x) 2 x 5 (, ) (, )
(iii):g ( x) x 2 (, ) 0,
(iv):g ( x) x 2 1 (, ) 1,
(v):g ( x) x 3 (, ) (, )
QUESTION 2: The square root functions:
Part no Domain Range
(i):g ( x) x 0, 0,
(ii):g ( x) x 1 1, 0,
(iii) : g ( x) x 2 4 R (2, 2) 0,
(iv) : g ( x) x 2 9 R (3,3) 0,
QUESTION 3: The absolute value functions:
Part no Domain Range
(i) : g ( x) x (, ) 0,
(ii) : g ( x) x 3 (, ) 0,
(iii) : g ( x) 2
x
, x 2, 2 R 2, 2 (, )
x 4
QUESTION 5:
(ii) f ( x)
1
, x 3 R 0 R 3
x3
(iii) f ( x)
x 1
,x 4 R 1 R 4
x4
(iv) f ( x ) ( x 5) 2 , x 5 [0, ) [5, )