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Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

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Journal of the Energy Institute

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institute

1 Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the

2
3 combustion and emissions characteristics of the petro-diesel and
4
5 hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel
6 engine condition
7
8
Q3 V. Chau a, b, C. Chinda a, *, K. Preechar c, S. Sato d, H. Kosaka d
9
a
10 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, 10520, Thailand
b
11 Faculty of Transportation Engineering, Bach Khoa University (Formerly known as HCMC University of Technology (HCMUT)), Ho Chi Minh City, 700000,
Viet Nam
12 c
International College, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, 10520, Thailand
13 d
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
14
15
16 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
17
18 Article history: This experimental research investigates the effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures
19 Received 3 April 2017 on the combustion and emissions characteristics of the diesel (B7) and the hydrotreated vegetable oil
20 Received in revised form (HVO)-based fuels. The O2 concentrations included 21%, 15% and 10% O2, while the injection pressures
29 June 2017
21 were 80 and 120 MPa. The experimental fuels were the diesel fuel (B7), the neat HVO, the 20%, 50% and
Accepted 4 July 2017
22 Available online xxx
80% HVO (by mass fraction) blended with the diesel. The experiments were carried out in a rapid
23 compression-expansion machine (RCEM) under the direct injection (DI) diesel combustion condition.
The analysis was undertaken using the two-color method. The experimental results indicated that the
24 Keywords:
Diesel combustion ignition delay, the heat release rate, the flame temperature, the soot density-KL factor, the NOx and soot-
25
NOx-soot emissions out emissions were inversely correlated to the HVO fraction in the blend. In addition, the findings
26
Two-color method revealed the similar flame profiles in which the higher flame temperature region and the darker KL
27 Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) density were concentrated around the spray flame upstream, regardless of the HVO mixing ratio. Besides,
28 High injection pressure the decrease in the O2 concentration resulted in the lower heat release rate, integral heat release, flame
29 temperature, KL factor and NOx emissions but the longer ignition delay and higher soot concentration,
30 with the highest soot concentration observed under the 15% O2 environment. Nevertheless, the higher
31 pressure differential (i.e. between the injection pressure and the ambient pressure) contributed to the
32 shorter ignition delay, higher heat release rate, early peak of the flame temperature, wider combustion
33 area, faster soot oxidation rate and higher NOx production.
34 © 2017 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
35
36
37
38
1. Introduction
39
40
Fossil fuels have been the essential source of energy in the global development for centuries. However, along with the continual rise in
41
the fossil fuels consumption come the pollution and the environmental degradation. Thus, attempts have been made to mitigate the fossil
42
fuels-related environmental impacts through the renewable and more environmentally-friendly energy alternatives. Specifically, for the
43
diesel fuel, biodiesel has been successfully formulated and adopted by a number of countries, including Thailand where the commercial
44
diesel fuel is legally required to contain a minimum of 7% palm methyl ester. Despite its low emissions and good lubricity, biodiesel
45
nevertheless suffers from the poor oxidation stability, high NOx emissions, high density and viscosity, and low heating value [1]. Thus,
46
additional research studies have been carried out to further improve the performance of the biodiesel. In fact, hydrotreated vegetable oil
47
(HVO) is one of the second-generation biofuels which could address the problems associated with the conventional biodiesel [2]. HVO is
48
49
50
51 * Corresponding author. Q1
E-mail address: chinda.ch@kmitl.ac.th (C. Chinda).
52
53
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
54 1743-9671/© 2017 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 2/14

2 V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

1
2 Nomenclature
3
4 I(l,T) monochromatic radiant intensity
5 l wavelength
6 T true flame temperature
7 Ta apparent temperature
8 C1 the first Planck constant
9 C2 the second Planck constant
10 ε emissivity
11 K absorption coefficient
12 L optical path length
13 a empirical constant of visible spectrum (1.39)
14 dQ/dt heat release rate
15 g specific heat ratio
16
17
18
derived from vegetable oils, animal fats or used cooking oil through the catalytic hydrogenation process whereby the triglycerides are
19
broken down into various intermediates (i.e. monoglycerides, diglycerides, carboxylic acids), which are converted into alkanes by hydro-
20
deoxygenation and isomerization to improve the temperature properties [3]. Importantly, the HVO's high cetane number, narrow distil-
21
lation, high heating value, no aromatics, ultra-low sulfur content, and excellent oxidation stability [2] collectively contribute to the low
22
emissions and better engine performance [4e6].
23
Sugiyama et al. [7] investigated the spray and combustion characteristics of HVO under the engine dynamometer and vehicle tests and
24
documented that, in comparison with the diesel fuel, the HVO exhibited the similar spray penetration, spray angle, Sauter mean diameter
25
(SMD) and the identical NOx emissions but lower hydrocarbons (HC) and particulate matter (PM). The HC and PM reductions were
26
attributable to the high cetane number and non-aromatics of the HVO. This is consistent with Pflaum et al. [8], who reported that the
27
substitution of the petro-diesel fuel with the HVO fuel could reduce the PM by almost 50% and HC and CO by 50% each; but that NOx
28
remained unchanged in the chassis dynamometer test and was slightly lower in the engine dynamometer test. Kim et al. [9] investigated the
29 engine performance and emissions associated with the use of biodiesel and iso-HVO (HVO); and reported that the iso-HVO exhibited a
30
better engine performance and lower total hydrocarbons (THC) and CO emissions, despite the similar levels of NOx and PM. The findings
31 were attributable to a more complete combustion of the HVO due to its narrow carbon-chain distribution (C15eC18). Aatola et al. [10]
32
examined the effects of variable fuel injection timings in a turbocharged air-cooled common-rail heavy-duty diesel engine on the NOx-
33 PM tradeoff using the neat HVO fuel and the 30% vol. HVO blended with diesel. The results revealed that the HVO reduced the engine
34
emissions without engine modifications or its control; but that, during the early injection timing, NOx increased in the case of the 30%eHVO
35 blend. Interestingly, their findings are consistent with the experiments on the heavy-duty engines and city buses by Kuronen et al. [11] and
36
Murtonen et al. [12], the diesel-powered passenger cars by Kopperoinen et al. [13], the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) vehicles by
37 Somnuek et al. [14], and the heavy duty-typical buses by Erkkila et al. [15]. In addition, Hulkkonen et al. [16] investigated the effects of the
38
HVO fuel on the global spray characteristics under the non-evaporative condition; and documented that the lower final boiling point,
39
viscosity and density of the HVO contributed to the shorter liquid fuel penetration, higher spray tip velocity, and wider spray angle, resulting
40
in the lower spray-cylinder wall interaction and better air-fuel mixing. Furthermore, Somnuek et al. [17] experimented with variable blends
41
of gas-to-liquids (GTL) and HVO on a direct injection (DI) engine and reported that the higher GTL and HVO fractions shortened the ignition
42
delay in both the pilot and main combustion. In addition, the emissions, particularly the PM, and the fuel consumption were lower, but the
43
NOx emissions exhibited an upward trend, regardless of the injection strategies. In regard to the optimal HVO mixing ratio, Lapuerta et al.
44
[18] noted that the HVO fraction in the blend should never exceed 50% to avoid the poor lubricity and excessive cetane number, which could
45
otherwise shorten the engine lifetime and change electronics control of engine. On the soot oxidation and the surface structure, Happonen
46
et al. [19] reported that both the HVO and diesel fuels possessed the similar soot oxidation and surface structure, despite their chemical
47
composition differences (i.e. cetane and aromatics). Moreover, Happonen et al. [20] reported a further 25% reduction in NOx and PM could be
48
achieved by the adjustment of certain engine parameters. Meanwhile, Mizushima et al. [21] investigated and compared the effects of the
49
HVO and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) fuels on the emissions characteristics from a diesel engine; and documented that the HVO out-
50
performed the FAME while the former's NOx emissions were comparable to the ultra-low sulfur diesel. On the other hand, Singh et al. [22]
51
experimented with the hydro-processed renewable diesel (HRD) fuel in the engine dynamometer using the European stationary cycle (ESC);
52
and reported the significant reductions in PM, HC, and CO but that NOx was substantially higher, vis-
a-vis the diesel fuel. Nonetheless, the
53
HRD emitted 29% less NOx than the biodiesel fuel, which is contrary to Westphal et al. [23], who reported the considerably lower NOx from
54
the HVO, according to the EU III threshold limit. In fact, the emissions reduction results are still inconclusive, particularly with regard to the
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effects of variable HVO blends on the NOx emissions.
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NOx and soot are the most strictly regulated emissions that plague the diesel engines. In addition to the use of biofuels, the reduction in
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NOx and soot could be realized through the deployment of modern technologies. Existing research has investigated the effects of the exhaust
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gas recirculation (EGR) on the NOx and soot formation. Specifically, a decrease in the oxygen concentration under the ambient condition
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contributed to the lower flame temperature and the subsequent lower NOx emissions [24,25]. However, the lower oxygen concentration
60
would suppress the soot oxidation and thus elevates the soot concentration [26]. Furthermore, under the EGR, the heat capacity of the
61
ambient gas increases while the heat release declines [27]. In fact, the soot level could be lowered by raising the injection pressure as the
62 faster spray breakup, the higher injection velocity, the better fuel atomization and vaporization, the shorter mixing time collectively
63
contribute to a more complete combustion [28e30]. Surprisingly, existing research on the combustion and emissions characteristics,
64 especially the NOx and soot formation, of the HVO fuel, given the variable oxygen concentrations and injection pressures, is very limited. This
65

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 3/14

V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14 3

1 current research thus investigates the effects of variable oxygen concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emission
2 characteristics of five experimental fuels under the simulated diesel condition in a rapid compression-expansion machine (RCEM). The five
3 experimental fuels were the B7 diesel fuel (7% PME), the neat HVO, the 20%, 50% and 80% HVO by mass fraction blended with the B7. In the
4 study, there were two injection pressures: 80 MPa and 120 MPa, given the identical amount of injection; and three oxygen (O2) concen-
5 trations: 21%, 15% and 10%. In this research, the combustion characteristics include the ignition delay, the heat release rate, and the integral
6 heat release, while the emissions characteristics focus on NOx and soot. The analysis was carried out using the two-color method (the flame
7 temperature and the KL factor).
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9 2. Experimental procedure and method
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11 2.1. Experimental apparatus and conditions
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13 Fig. 1a is a photograph of the two color method setup and Fig. 1b illustrates the streamlined layout of the experimental system. The ex-
14 periments were carried out using a rapid compression-expansion machine (RCEM) [31] of the electrically controlled and hydraulically
15 actuated driving cycle type. The RCEM piston was of the flat type with 86 mm, 151.5 mm and 16.5 mm for the bore, stroke and clearance height.
16 To simulate a diesel engine environment, the synthetic air composed of 79% N2 and 21% O2 was generated in the mixing tank at 453 K and then
17 entrained into the cylinder at the bottom dead center (BDC). The charged gas was then compressed by the piston for 30 ms to increase the
18 temperature and pressure. The piston was subsequently held motionless at the top dead center (TDC) for 150 ms to generate the constant
19 volume combustion chamber (CVCC) condition. The pressurized fuel in the solenoid-single hole injector (0.2 mm in the orifice diameter)
20 connected to the common rail system was injected into the chamber at a constant injection pressure. The pressure in the combustion chamber
21 was measured by a piezoelectric transducer sensor (AVL-GU22CK) and amplified by a charge amplifier (Kistler type 5010). In addition, a
22 cooling-water system was applied to the injector to maintain the nozzle and fuel temperatures at 325 K. During the combustion, the spray
23 flame images were captured by a high speed camera (NAC Memrecam GX-1) at 10,000 fps (frame per second) through the quartz window in
24 front of the chamber. The high speed camera was coupled with a micro-Nikkor 55 mm f/2.8 lens using aperture f/8 and an infrared filter
25 (SIGMA KOKI-HAF-50S-15H) to transmit only the visible wavelengths. The signals from the injector, camera trigger and RCEM were syn-
26 chronized and recorded by an oscilloscope (YOKOGAWA DL 750) with 1
106 sampling/sec. Moreover, the smoke particulates were trapped by
27 filter paper. After flowing out of filter paper, exhaust emissions were led to a pressure reduction pipe to drop gas pressure to 0.1 MPa, then
28 sucked to NOx gas analyzer (NOA-7000). The soot particles trapped by filter paper were measured by a smoke meter (SOKKEN-GSM3).
29 Table 1 tabulates the experimental conditions, in which the ambient pressure was 4.0 MPa at TDC after compression, and the injection
30 pressures were 80 MPa and 120 MPa, given the same amounts of injection for all five experimental fuels (the B7, the neat HVO, the 20%, 50%
31 and 80% blended HVO fuels) by varying the injection duration. The O2 concentrations of the intake gas were varied between 21% (the base
32 condition), 15% and 10% to simulate the EGR condition. The chamber wall temperature remained constant at 453 K. The measurements were
33 taken 10 times under each experimental conditions to verify the repeatability. Prior to each experiment, the fuel filters were replaced and
34 the gas emissions devices were calibrated.
35
36
37 2.2. Research methodology
38
39 The thermal radiation in the diesel combustion could be largely attributed to the soot particles. Meanwhile, the two-color method is a
40 measurement technique based on the intensity of thermal radiation from the incandescent soot particles at two different visible wave-
41 lengths. In fact, the two-color method has been discussed in Refs. [26,32e38] and could be summarized as follows:
42 Let Ib(l, T) be the monochromatic radiant intensity of the black-body. According to Wien's law, the monochromatic radiant intensity of a
43 soot particle is expressed as
44
.

45 I ðl; TÞ ¼ εl I bðl; TÞ ¼ εl C 1 pl5 exp½  C 2 =ðlTÞ (1)
46
47 Assuming Ta an apparent temperature of a black-body with the same radiant intensity of soot as at the temperature T, Eq. (1) is rewritten
48 as
49
.

50 I bðl; TaÞ ¼ I ðl; TÞ ¼ C 1 pl5 exp½  C 2 =ðlT a Þ (2)
51
52 According to Hottel and Broughton [39], the monochromatic emissivity of a soot particle can be expressed as
53 a

54 εl ¼ 1  eðKL=l Þ (3)
55 Then, the KL value could be extracted from the combination of Eqs. (1)e(3) and shown in Eq. (4)
56
   
57 C 1 1
KL ¼ la ln 1  exp  2  (4)
58 l Ta T
59
60 Given the apparent temperatures of Ta1 and Ta2, which are measured at the two wavelengths l1 and l2, the true flame temperature (T)
61 and the KL factor can be determined from Eq. (4).
62 Meanwhile, the rate of heat release is calculated from the first law of thermodynamics [28], as shown in Eq. (5)
63
dQ =dt ¼ ðg=ðg  1ÞÞPðdV=dtÞ þ ð1=ðg  1ÞÞVðdP=dtÞ (5)
64
65

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 4/14

4 V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

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Fig. 1. a. Photograph of the two color method setup. b. Schematic representation of experimental apparatus.
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50 Table 1
51 Experimental conditions.
52 Parameters Value Unit
53 Ambient pressure (Pa) 4.0 MPa
54 Rail pressures (Pinj) 80, 120 MPa
55 Amount of injection (minj) 29.73 mg
56 O2 concentrations (%O2) 21, 15, 10 %
Ambient gas density 19.23; 19.07; 18.94 Kg/m3
57
Single hole nozzle diameter (Dinj) 0.2 mm
58 Wall temperature (Tw) 453 K
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61 2.3. Camera setup and temperature calibration
62
63 In this study, the high speed camera (NAC Memrecam Gx-1) was applied for two color method at 10,000 fps as seen in Fig. 1. An aperture
64 of f8.0 and shutter time of 3.0 ms were selected for camera setup. The high speed camera was coupled with a micro-Nikkor 55 mm f/2.8 lens
65 using an infrared filter (SIGMA KOKI-HAF-50S-15H) to transmit only the visible wavelengths. The optimal visuals of the luminous flames

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 5/14

V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14 5

1 were realized by adjusting the camera-combustion chamber distance which was subsequently used in the calibration of the camera against
2 the blackbody. The blackbody furnace was used as a calibration light source. An interval of 100  C was applied as the rising step for
3 blackbody furnace calibration from 900  C to 2200  C. Both blackbody furnace and pyrometer were used to accurately determine the
4 reference temperatures. The visible light can be converted by CCD-detector in camera into three color band (Red-Green-Blue). With two in
5 three color band, it is possible to calculate flame temperature and KL factor. In addition, the neutral density (ND) filters were utilized to
6 reduce the light intensity of the flames and enhance the visuals. Fig. 2 shows the linearity between RGB value and ND filters transmissivity
7 with R2 value greater than 0.99. Two wavelengths used in this study are blue color (529 nm) and red color (603 nm). The flame temperature
8 and KL factor can be determined by using Matlab code built from on Eq. (4).
9
10 2.4. Experimental fuels
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12 In this research, there were five experimental fuel types: the commercial diesel fuel (B7) as the reference fuel, the neat HVO (HVO), the
13 20% (H20), 50% (H50) and 80% (H80) HVO by mass fraction blended with the B7 [18]. Specifically, the fuels were experimented under the
14 three O2 concentrations (21%, 15%, 10%) except for the H80 whose experiments were carried out solely under the 21% O2 environment to
15 track the developing propensity of result. The fuels were supplied by Thailand's PTT Research and Technology Institute. Table 2 tabulates the
16 properties of the experimental fuels. By comparison, the viscosity, density, surface tension, and distillation temperatures (T50, T90) of the
17 HVO-based fuels are lower than those of the B7. These properties influence the friction flow in the injector, the fuel droplet size, the spray
18 angle, penetration, breakup, atomization and vaporization [40,41]. Meanwhile, the heating value and the cetane index of the HVO-based
19 fuels are higher than those of the B7, indicating the fuel consumption and combustion efficiency. In fact, the compositional disparities
20 between the diesel and HVO-based fuels could be attributed to the latter's branched-chain paraffin and higher ratios of hydrogen and
21 carbon.
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23
3. Results and discussion
24
25
3.1. Combustion characteristics
26
27
In this research, the combustion characteristics focus on the ignition delay, the heat release rate, and the integral heat release. The
28
ignition delay refers to the interval time between the start of injection signal and the start of heat release. It plays a crucial role in the
29
combustion process of the DI engines. Fig. 3 compares the ignition delays of the experimental fuels, given the same injection quantity, under
30
the 80 MPa and 120 MPa injection pressures and the 21%, 15% and 10% O2 concentrations. In the figure, the higher HVO fraction contributed
31
to the shorter ignition delay under all experimental conditions, a phenomenon attributable to the high cetane value of the HVO [42,43]. In
32
addition, the higher injection pressure (120 MPa) led to the shorter ignition delay due to the higher injection velocity and faster breakup,
33
which facilitated the spray atomization and vaporization [44]. However, the lower O2 level prolonged the auto-ignition timing due to the
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lower air entrainment in the fuel spray, resulting in the lower reaction rate [45,46]. By comparison, the HVO's cetane value, surface tension
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and viscosity were respectively 27.2% higher, 5.8% lower, 18.48% smaller than those of the B7 fuel. This led to the HVO's shorter ignition
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delays of about 14.1%, 11.3% and 17.5% (at the 80 MPa injection pressure) and 13.9%, 13.03% and 20% (at the 120 MPa injection pressure), given
37
the 21%, 15% and 10% O2 concentrations, respectively, in comparison with the diesel fuel. Nevertheless, the impact of different injection
38
pressures on the ignition delay was smaller than that of different O2 concentrations.
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Due to the similarity in the heat release rates between the experimental fuels, this research deliberately discussed only the findings
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associated with the neat HVO (i.e. the HVO) and B7 diesel fuels under the three O2 concentrations, given the 120 MPa injection pressure
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(Fig. 4); and the two injection pressures, given the 21% O2 concentration (Fig. 5). Since the longer ignition delay affords a longer residence
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time for the air-fuel mixing, the diesel fuel thus exhibited a slightly higher heat release rate than the HVO. In Fig. 4, the premixed combustion
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65 Fig. 2. Linearity between RGB value and ND filter transmissivity.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 6/14

6 V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

1 Table 2
2 The properties of the experimental fuels.

3 Fuel B7 H20 H50 H80 HVO

4 Derived cetane index 60.43 63.37 68.32 73.33 76.89
5 Viscosity @ 40  C (mm2/s) 3.235 3.088 2.901 2.740 2.637
6 Density @ 30  C(kg/m3) 823.5 814 799.9 786.5 778
Surface tension (mN/m) 26.38 25.89 25.56 24.91 24.84
7
Heating value (Mj/kg) 45.86 46.04 46.38 46.55 46.86
8 Initial boiling point ( C) 157.2 158.8 160.4 159.8 160.8
9 Distillation T10 ( C) 207.7 210.7 216.3 223.1 227.4
10 Distillation T50 ( C) 287.9 284.5 281.4 279.2 278.2
11 Distillation T90 ( C) 352.3 345.2 327.4 303.5 293.2
Sulfur content (%) 0.018 0.0014 e e 0.0001
12
Flash point ( C) 61.3 63 65.8 67.8 69
13 Pour point ( C) 2 5 e e 6
14 Formula C14.28H26.43 C14.23H27.17 C14.16H28.27 C14.09H29.36 C14.03H30.1
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37 Fig. 3. Ignition delay of the experimental fuels under variable injection pressures (80 and 120 MPa) and oxygen concentrations (21%, 15%, 10%).
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40 phase became longer and the heat release weaker as the O2 concentration decreased. The findings are attributable to the less effective
41 collisions between oxygen and the fuel vapor, resulting in the low combustion efficiency [47]. Meanwhile, the reaction rate increased and
42 the diffusion phase became shorter as the injection pressure rose from 80 MPa to 120 MPa (Fig. 5), giving rise to the improved air-fuel mixing
43 [28].
44 The effects of variable oxygen concentrations on the integral heat release of the experimental fuels, given the 120 MPa injection pressure
45 calculated by Simpson's 3/8 rule is illustrated in Fig. 6. In the figure, the higher HVO fraction in the blend minimally influenced the integral
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65 Fig. 4. Heat release rate of diesel and HVO at injection pressure of 120 MPa under various EGR conditions.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14 7

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19 Fig. 5. Heat release rate of diesel and HVO at 21% O2 under different injection pressures.
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42 Fig. 6. Integral heat release of the experimental fuels under variable O2 concentrations given the 120 MPa injection pressure.
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65 Fig. 7. Integral heat release rates of the HVO and diesel fuels under variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
 JOEI354_proof ■ 27 July 2017 ■ 8/14

8 V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

1 heat release, due to the balancing effect between the shorter ignition delay and the higher heating value of the HVO. In addition, the lower
2 oxygen concentration contributed to the lower integral heat release, as a result of the lower reaction rate [45]. On average, the integral heat
3 release rates under the 10% and 15% O2 concentrations declined by 17.3% and 11.5%, respectively, vis-a
-vis under the 21% O2.
4 Fig. 7 compares the integral heat release of the HVO and diesel fuels (B7) under variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures.
5 Generally, the higher injection pressure contributes to the better air-fuel mixing and the subsequent higher heat release. The increase in the
6 injection pressure from 80 MPa to 120 MPa increased the integral heat release, on average, by 4.2%, 5.5% and 14.5%, under the 21%, 15%, and
7 10% O2 concentrations, respectively. Importantly, the significant difference between the total heat release under the 80 MPa and 120 MPa
8 injection pressures, given the 10% O2 concentration, validates the essential role of the high injection pressure in the combustion efficiency.
9 The enhanced combustion efficiency under the higher injection pressure was largely attributable to the improved air entrainment, higher
10 spray velocity, smaller droplet size, wider spray angle and faster breakup [16,30,44].
11
12 3.2. Spatial and temporal distributions of the flame temperature and soot density-KL factor
13
14 Fig. 8 illustrates, as representative, the spatial distribution of the in-chamber flame temperatures of the HVO and B7 fuels under the
15 experimental oxygen concentrations and injection pressures. In the figure, the first flame image could be clearly captured at 1.1 ms after the
16 start of injection signal for the HVO under the higher injection pressure (120 MPa) and 21% O2 concentration. The finding verifies the
17 essential role of the high injection pressure and the HVO's high cetane number and narrow distillation in the rapid realization of the mixture
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65 Fig. 8. The spatial distribution of the flame temperature of the HVO and diesel (B7) fuels under variable injection pressures and O2 concentrations.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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1 homogeneity and the subsequent early premixed combustion phase. Meanwhile, the slow emergence of the flame intensity and the weak
2 flame luminosity were observed under the 15% and 10% O2 concentrations, respectively. This could be attributed to the lower air
3 entrainment under the low O2 concentrations, which subsequently led to the less formed combustible mixture and lower combustion
4 temperature [27,46]. Thus, the NOx production is eliminated and the soot oxidation is suppressed. Moreover, in Fig. 8, the higher injection
5 pressure also contributed to the wider combustion area and slightly darker flame color, due to the larger spray angle, longer lift-off length
6 and faster evaporation [16,29,48]. In addition, since the longer ignition delay induces more accumulative fuel in the premixed combustion
7 phase, the flame of the diesel fuel was darker than that of the HVO. The flame images were subsequently used to predict the NOx-forming
8 propensity.
9 In the combustion, the injected fuel first atomizes and mixes with the surrounding air near the nozzle, where the combustion occurs. The
10 flames then move along the chamber wall following the direction of the nozzle exit. This observation has contrary trend with Heifeng's
11 study [49] which reported that the main combustion occurred at near wall region and followed by flame propagating towards the nozzle. In
12 Fig. 8, the larger areas of the high flame temperature were captured between 2.0 ms and 4.5 ms after the start of injection signal, which was
13 the diffusion combustion phase. Furthermore, the high flame temperature regions were concentrated around the upstream spray flame, due
14 to the higher fuel-vapor concentration in the upstream regions which enhanced the local flame temperature [30]. The spray flame tail trailed
15 off once the injection was terminated (around 4.0 ms). Toward the end of the combustion, the flame split into two parts as a result of the
16 impinging on and rebounding off the wall chamber.
17 Fig. 9 illustrates, as representative, the spatial distribution of the soot density-KL factor of the HVO and diesel (B7) fuels under the
18 experimental oxygen concentrations and injection pressures. In the figure, the soot formation was initially accelerated during the premixed
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65 Fig. 9. The spatial distribution of the KL factor of the HVO and diesel (B7) fuels under variable injection pressures and O2 concentrations.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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10 V. Chau et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (2017) 1e14

1 combustion phase under both the 21% and 15% O2 concentrations. Similar to the flame evolution, the higher soot density regions appeared
2 on the upper section of the spray flame because of the high fuel concentration and low oxygen. In addition, the findings suggested that the
3 soot formation was influenced by the flame temperature [50]. In the figure, the decrease in the KL light intensity and the slow emergence of
4 soot were observed under the lower O2 concentrations, especially under the 10% O2 condition. The findings could be attributed to the poor
5 combustible mixture, low flame luminosity and stagnant auto-ignition timing. Interestingly, given the 21% O2 concentration, the soot
6 density under the 120 MPa injection pressure minimally differed from that under the 80 MPa injection pressure, regardless of the fuel.
7 However, the soot formation and oxidation rates under the 120 MPa were considerably faster than under the 80 MPa, due to the former's
8 higher injection velocity and the subsequent more turbulent spray [30,44]. Specifically, under the 21% O2 concentration, the soot formation
9 appeared earlier and more noticeable under the higher injection pressure (120 MPa) for the HVO than for the diesel fuel, a phenomenon that
10 resembles the flame temperature. The result suggested that the early soot formation was related to the shorter ignition delay.
11 Fig. 10(a)e(b) respectively illustrate the temporal flame temperatures of the HVO and diesel (B7) fuels under the experimental O2
12 concentrations and injection pressures. In Fig. 10(a), the maximum flame temperatures (above 2200 K) were observed at around 2.2 ms after
13 the start of injection signal for both fuels under the 21% O2 condition. By comparison, the flame temperatures associated with the diesel fuel
14 were higher under all experimental O2 concentrations, due to the lengthened ignition delay. However, this could lead to higher NOx
15 emissions for the diesel fuel [51]. In addition, the lower O2 concentration significantly reduced the flame temperature (Fig. 8) as the low
16 oxygen entrainment resulted in the poor combustible reaction. Furthermore, the maximum flame temperatures under the 15% and 10% O2
17 concentrations were approximately 230 K and 424 K lower, compared to that under the 21% O2 concentration, indicating the significant
18 reduction in the NOx emissions under the lower O2 environment. Meanwhile, in Fig. 10(b), the difference in the flame temperatures between
19 both injection pressures under same fuel type was negligible. The higher injection pressure (120 MPa) nevertheless contributed to the early
20 peak of the flame temperature, which subsequently resulted in the high NOx emissions. This is consistent with the heat release rate results.
21 Fig. 11(a)e(b) respectively depict the evolution of the area integrated KL factor of the HVO and diesel fuels under the experimental O2
22 concentrations and injection pressures. In Fig. 11(a), under the 21% O2 environment, the soot formation appeared in the premixed com-
23 bustion phase. The initial peak of the KL factor was attributed to the higher soot formation rate in relation to the soot oxidation rate. The soot
24 formation continued in the diffusion phase until the highest peak was reached, indicating the soot formation-soot oxidation equilibrium,
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65 Fig. 10. The temporal flame temperatures of the HVO and diesel fuels under variable: (a) O2 conditions, (b) injection pressures.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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43 which in turn was influenced by the flame temperature and oxygen entrainment. Nevertheless, the KL summation decreased due to the
44 dominance of the soot oxidation as the flame spread and more air was entrained. The soot evolution of this current research is consistent
45 with [29,47].
46 The soot formation and oxidation rates of the diesel fuel were respectively higher and slower than those of the HVO under all experi-
47 mental conditions. Specifically, under the 15% O2 concentration, the soot formation rate decreased due to the lower flame temperature and
48 lower reaction rate than under the 21% O2, but the process was prolonged due to the increased residence time, consistent with [45,50].
49 Meanwhile, under the 10% O2, the soot density was barely detectable due to the weak flame luminosity. Interestingly, the improved spray
50 atomization and combustible mixture under the 120 MPa injection pressure accelerated the appearance of the first peak of the soot and the
51 soot oxidation rate, in relation to under the 80 MPa (Fig. 11(b)). The substantially shorter soot oxidization process of the HVO under the
52 120 MPa injection pressure was attributable to the enhanced injection velocity and beneficial vaporization characteristics of the HVO.
53 Furthermore, the shorter period of the soot oxidation implies that the soot-out was lower under the higher injection pressure.
54
55 3.3. Soot and NOx concentrations
56
57 Fig. 12 illustrates the soot concentrations of the experimental fuels under the various O2 concentrations and injection pressures. In the
58 figure, the soot level and the HVO percentage were inversely correlated under all experimental conditions. Specifically, given the 21% O2
59 concentration, the HVO lowered the soot concentrations by 9.3% and 10.5% under the 80 MPa and 120 MPa injection pressures, in com-
60 parison with the diesel fuel. This could be attributed to the higher cetane number and lower distillation of the HVO. The improved fuel
61 properties resulted in the less unburned fractions and better evaporation in the combustion chamber [17,43]. In addition, at the 21% O2, the
62 soot levels under the two injection pressures were minimally different (approximately 3%). In fact, the lower oxygen concentration and the
63 subsequent lower air entrainment were largely responsible for the significant rise in the soot-out concentration [50]. This obtained result
64 has different trend with Haifeng's finding which reported that total soot mass for oxygenated biofuels was reduced as declining ambient
65 oxygen concentration (21%, 16%, and 10.5%) under 800 K ambient temperature condition [52]. Moreover, under the 120 MPa injection

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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Fig. 12. Soot concentrations of the HVO and diesel fuels under variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures.
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26 pressure, the soot levels increased by 26.9% and 15.13% for the diesel fuel; and 34.9% and 13.5% for the HVO, given the 15% and 10% O2
27 concentrations, respectively, relative to under the 21% O2. Interestingly, the highest soot concentration was observed under the 15% O2
28 concentration as the lower oxygen concentration induced the incomplete combustion, the low flame temperature and the longer residence
29 time in the soot forming regions [45,46,50]. More importantly, the lower soot concentration as the HVO percentage increased resembles the
30 results on the spatial and temporal distributions of the flame temperature and the KL density. Moreover, under the low oxygen concen-
31 tration, the higher pressure differential increased the air entrainment and enhanced the soot oxidization process. Therefore, the difference
32 in soot reduction was clearly seen between both injection pressures under low O2 concentration.
33 Fig. 13 illustrates the NOx concentrations of the experimental fuels under the various O2 concentrations and injection pressures. In the
34 figure, the NOx concentrations were inversely correlated to the HVO percentage in the blend. In comparison with the diesel fuel, the neat
35 HVO reduced the NOx concentration by 35% and 25% under the 80 MPa and 120 MPa injection pressures, respectively, given the 21% O2
36 concentration. On the other hand, the NOx concentration was positively correlated to the O2 concentration. By comparison, the NOx con-
37 centrations under the 10% and 15% O2 environments were noticeably lower than that under the 21% O2, given the identical fuels and in-
38 jection pressures. In fact, the higher HVO fraction in the mixture and the lower oxygen concentration contributed to the lower flame
39 temperature and the subsequent lower NOx formation [28,51,53]. However, the NOx concentration increased as the injection pressure
40 increased (Fig. 13). Despite the minimal difference in the flame temperatures (Fig. 10b), the early peak of the flame temperature as the
41 differential between the injection pressure and the ambient pressure (i.e. the pressure differential) raised the NOx emissions by 13.5% and
42 32.7% for the diesel and HVO fuels, respectively. Importantly, the findings revealed the relationship between the rapid increase in the heat
43 release rate and the NOx production (Fig. 5).
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65 Fig. 13. NOx concentrations of the experimental fuels under variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures.

Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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1 4. Conclusions
2
3 This research has investigated the effects of variable O2 concentrations (21%, 15%, 10% O2) and injection pressures (80 and 120 MPa) on the
4 combustion and emissions characteristics of the five experimental fuels: the diesel fuel (B7), the neat hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), the
5 20%, 50% and 80% by mass fraction HVO blended with the diesel. The experiments were carried out in the rapid compression-expansion
6 machine (RCEM) under the direct injection (DI) diesel combustion condition. The analysis was undertaken using the two-color method
7 and the experimental results are as follows:
8
9 (1) The higher HVO fraction contributed to the shorter ignition delay, lower heat release rate. Interestingly, the variation in the HVO blend
10 minimally influenced the integral heat release.
11 (2) The lower ambient oxygen concentration induced the longer ignition delay and premixed combustion phase as well as the lower heat
12 release rate and the smaller integral heat release.
13 (3) As the differential between the injection pressure and the ambient pressure (i.e. the pressure differential) increased, the ignition delay
14 became shorter, the integral heat release larger, in addition to the early premixed combustion phase.
15 (4) The flame profile of the HVO resembled that of the diesel fuel in which the higher flame temperature region and the darker KL density
16 were concentrated around the spray flame upstream, regardless of the HVO mixing ratio, in addition to the early appearance of the
17 flame and the KL factor.
18 (5) Under the lower oxygen concentration, the flame became less luminous and emerged slowly, the flame luminosity was barely
19 detectable under the 10% O2 concentration. Meanwhile, the greater pressure differential contributed to the wider combustion area,
20 darker flame color, minimal differences between the KL images, and the increased soot formation and oxidation rates.
21 (6) HVO displayed the lower temporal distributions of the flame temperature and integral KL factor, in comparison with the diesel fuel. In
22 addition, the lower O2 concentration significantly lowered the flame temperature and the soot formation rate. Meanwhile, the greater
23 pressure differential minimally influenced the flame temperature but accelerated the flame temperature peak and the soot oxidation.
24 (7) The soot contamination and the HVO percentage in the blend were inversely correlated. The absence of the soot precursors in the HVO,
25 e.g. the poly aromatics hydrocarbons and sulfur, also contributed to the lower soot formation. However, the lower O2 environment
26 resulted in the higher soot concentrations, especially under the 15% O2 where the soot concentration was highest. Interestingly, an
27 extremely low O2 concentration resulted in excessive unburned fractions and the subsequent soot-out reduction at the expense of poor
28 fuel efficiency. Furthermore, the soot levels under injection pressure differential, given the 21% O2 concentration, were minimally
29 different. On the other hand, the difference was obvious under the lower O2 concentrations.
30 (8) The NOx concentration was inversely correlated to the HVO fraction in the blend. Under the low O2 concentration, the great NOx
31 reduction were achieved. In addition, the higher pressure differential induced the increase in the NOx formation.
32
33 Acknowledgments
34
35 This work was supported by Thailand's King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang's Research Fund (Grant No. KREF125615) and
36 the AUN/SEED-Net program under the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Appreciation also goes to the National Science and
37 Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), the PTT Research & Technology Institute, and the Advanced Thermo-Fluid Dynamics Laboratory,
38 the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan, for their contributions.
39
40
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Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002
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Please cite this article in press as: V. Chau, et al., Effects of variable O2 concentrations and injection pressures on the combustion and emissions
characteristics of the petro-diesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil-based fuels under the simulated diesel engine condition, Journal of the Energy
Institute (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.07.002