CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Pleurotus Fr. Hummer, species are popularly called "Oyster mushrooms"

because of the characteristic fruiting bodies which open up like an oyster shell
during the morphogenesis. Of the several edible Basidiomyceteous fungi
cultivated for their fruiting bodies, Pleurotus occupies second place in the
world. China is leading the production of Pleurotus (Flegg, 1992).

Most of the species of Pleurotus are saprophytes, found growing on dead

branches of trees in nature (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987). Pleurotus
flabellatus (Berk, and Br.) Sacc. was found growing on the dead wood trunks
or on dead wood attached to live trees of Ficus bengalensis L. in Mysore (Bano
and Srivastava, 1962). Some species are reported to be parasitic. Eger
(1970a) reported Pleurotus florida Fovose. as saprophytic and has been found
widely in U.S.A. on dead woods. Pleurotus eryngii (Dc. ex. Fr.) Quel, is a
parasite growing on the roots of Ammiaceae species and Pleurotus cornucopiae
(Paul. ex. Fr.) is found on the woods of oak, beech and elm (Zadrazil, 1978).
Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex. Fr.) Rummer, has been reported as a wood
destroying saprophytic fungus found in Europe (Li and Eger, 1979).

2.1. Pleurotus species

Cultivation of Pleurotus on tree stumps and logs was first reported in
the beginning of the 20th century by Falck (1917, 1919). Later the results of
similar studies were also reported by several workers (Passecker, 1969;
Luthard, 1969; Vessey and Toth, 1970). Kaufert (1935) another early
researcher, reported the fruiting and i > production of asexual spores of
Pleurotus corticatus Fries. In U.S.A., Block and his co- workers (1958, 1959),
isolated P. florida, from subtropical Florida which was later adopted for
large scale cultivation in several parts of Europe. P. flabellatus, isolated from a
ficus tree was cultivated on straw at Mysore (Bano and Srivastava, 1962).
Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer was first isolated from the dead trunks of
Euphorbia royleana Boiss found in the foot hills of Himalaya and cultured on
 12

banana pseudostem, paddy (rice) or wheat straw compost and saw dust
(Jandaik, 1976b; Zadrazil, 1976). Zadrazil (1976, 1978) has described the
cultivation of different species of Pleurotus, viz., P. ostreatus, P. florida, P.
eryngii, P. cornucopiae, P. sajor-caju, Pleurotus salmoneo stramieus and
Pleurotus abalone. In addition to this, Jong and Peng (1975) and Han et al.
(1977) reported the cultivation of Pleurotus cystidiosus in Taiwan. In Nigeria,
some attempts were made to cultivate Pleurotus tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing, a
mushroom used as food as well as in folk medicine (Oso, 1977). Singh and
Rajarathnam (1977) introduced Pleurotus eous for artificial culture on rice
straw. Imbemon et al. (1983) reported the cultivation methods for Pleurotus
pulnionarius (Fr.) Quel, and Pleurotus columbinus. Ghosh and Chakravarty
(1986) successfully cultivated Pleurotus citrinopileatus using paddy straw as
substrate. Marimuthu et al. (1991) reported Pleurotus platypus (Cooke and
Massce) See. as a promising species for cultivation on pady straw. Among
these species of Pleurotus, P. sajor-caju is gaining importance in tropical
climate due to its higher yield potential (Chang et al., 1981). Although
Pleurotus has a fairly extensive history, it has gained prominance only
recently (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987).

2.2. Substrate
Success of mushroom cultivation in a particular situation depends upon
the identification of proper substrate available locally. Pleurotus species have
a remarkable ability to colonize a wide range of natural ligjjo-cellulotic
materials, whether fermented or unfermented (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987).
But it did not grow on preformed synthetic substrates like compost having
relatively high nitrogen content (Bano, 1967; Jandaik, 1976(a); Lelley, 1984).
Pleurotus has a characteristic ability to colonize plant wastes with low
nitrogen content (Jandaik, 1976).

Various cellulotic raw materials have been tried for the cultivation of
Pleurotus species. Decaying wood was found to be the natural habitat of
Pleurotus. Therefore, the earliest workers attempted to culture them on wood
(Falck, 1917; Passecker, 1959; Luthard, 1969; Vessey and Toth, 1970).
 13

Cultivation of Pleurotus on saw dust was first reported by Block et al. (1958)
and then by Kedyk and SmoAtachova (1959). Recently, Kothandaraman et al.
(1991) reported the possibility of using rubber wood saw dust for the
cultivation of P. florida. Block et al. (1959) used compost for the cultivation.
Identification of straw as substrate for commercial cultivation of P. flabellatus
by Bano and Srivastava (1962) was another major break through. In their
trials the mushroom beds measuring 30 x 30 x 22.5 cm were prepared using
cut and soaked paddy straw on raised platform. Multilayered spawning
technique was adopted and the beds were watered twice a day. Schanel et al.
(1966) and Herzig et al. (1968) also used straw for the cultivation of Pleurotus.
Bhattachaijee (1974) and Delmus and Laborde (1974) reported the methods
for commercial cultivation of P. ostreatus and P. flabellatus using straw as raw
material. Park et al. (1975) tried different methods for P. ostreatus cultivation
on rice straw. In India, P. sajor-caju was experimentally cultivated on straw,
banana pseudostem and other cellulotic materials (Jandaik and Kapoor,
1974a, Jandaik, 1976b; Rangaswamy et al., 1975). Different substrate used
for cultivation of P. sajor-caju and the yield obtained in different parts of the
world are given in Table 1.

Based on the trials conducted on the cultivation of P. cystidiosis in the

straw medium/ as well as saw dust medium by casing non composted material,
Jong and Peng (1975) suggested its cultivation as alternate to Agaricus during
the warm weather. Lozovoi (1980) tried several strains of P. ostreatus on a
saw dust based medium and reported 20-30% yield by volume in laboratory
and 10-30% yield on saw dust blocks in glass house.

Cotton waste^ was another raw material tried for cultivation of P

ostreatus and P. florida. Leong (1980) reported the method of cultivation on
cotton waste. In wheat growing areas, wheat straw was found to be a suitable
substrate for P. sajor-caju cultivation. Zadrazil (1980a) reported P. sajor-caju
yield coefficient of 0.11% in wheat straw without any supplements and 0.25%
with alfalfa meal supplement. Compressed wheat straw blocks were used to
grow P. eryngii (Zadrazil, 1980c).
 14

Table 1. Yield of P. sajor-caju on different substrates in different parts of the world

SI. No. Substrate Fresh yield (g) Country Reference

Jandaik and Kapoor
1 Banana pseudo stem 1140* India
(1974b)
Jandaik and Kapoor
2 Rice straw 868* India
(1974b)
3 Rice straw 600* India Singh (1981)
4 Rice straw 1113* India Moorthy (1981)
Sivaprakasam and Kanda
5 Rice straw 163* India
swamy (1981)
Bano and Rajarathnam
6 Rice straw 1118* India
(1982)
7 Rice straw 600* India Garcha etal. (1984)
Wheat straw + paddy
8 980* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
straw
Banana pseudostem +
9 963* India Daniel, et al. (1991)
paddy straw (1:1)
Jandaik and Kapoor
10 Wheat straw 121* India
(1974b)
Jandaik and Kapoor
11 Wheat straw compost 88* India
(1974b)
0.11% yield
12 Wheat straw Germany Zadrazil (1980a)
coefficient
00
o•

13 Wheat straw India Garcha etal. (1984)

Wheat straw with alfalfa 0.25% yield
14 Germany Zadrazil (1980a)
meal suppliment coefficient
Cotton seeds + saw dust
15 1040* Australia Cho etal. (1981)
(75:25)
16 Cotton boll locules 700* Pakistan Khan etal. (1981)
17 Cotton stalks 1505* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
Sivaprakasam and Kanda
18 Waste paper 183** India
swamy (1981)
Waste paper + used tea
19 750* India Mehrotra et al. (1982)
leaves

(Contd...... )
 15

SI. No. Substrate Fresh yield (g) Country Reference

Sivaprakasam and
20 Sugarcane baggasse 176** India
Kandaswamy (1981)
21 Sugarcane baggasse 464* India Garcha et al. (1984)
22 Sugarcane trash 305* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
Sivaprakasam and
23 Maize cob 173** India
Kandaswamy (1981)
24 Maize stalks 550* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
Kraft mill sludge +
25 300* Canada Mueller et al. (1984)
apple pomac (1:1)
26 Mentha stalks 458* India Garcha etal. (1984)
27 Fermented coffee pulp 1758* Mexico Martinez camera (1987)
Pearl millet stalks and
28 705* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
Sorghum stalks and
29 742* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
30 Coconut leaves 582* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
31 Grass 637* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
Green gram stalks and
32 730* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
Black gram stalks and
33 720* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
Soya bean stalks and
34 780* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
Sun flower stalks and
35 480* India Patil and Jadhav (1991)
leaves
Oil palm mescocarp Kochubabu and Nair
36 557* India
waste (1991)
Savalgi and Savalgi
37 Sun flower husk 174* India
(1991)
Groundnut shell and Savalgi and Savalgi
38 164* India
husk (1991)

* grams per kg of dry substrate

** grams per m2 of the mushroom bed in tray method
 16

Attempts were also made to cultivate Pleurotus on tree stumps. Fomina

et al. (1981) tried to cultivate ostreatus using wooden blocks in forest. They
inoculated 22- 24 cm blocks of Populus tremula L. tree stem with mushroom
mycelium and lined them under forest canopy. The yield was the highest in
the second year but were always significantly affected by the weather.
Similarly^ in the other parts of Russia, tree species like Betula pendula Roth,
and Carpines orientalis L. were used for the cultivation of P. ostreatus (Bisko et
al, 198^; Lozovoi, 1982). Tree blocks as substrate are not recommendable for
the reason it would be detrimental to the forest and consequently to the
ecosystem. However, cultivation of Pleurotus on tree stumps could be a novel
way of degrading tree stumps in forest, and at the same time, getting
mushroom fruiting body after cutting the tree above the ground as reported by
Balazs (1985) from Hungary. Studies on the cultivation of P. sajor-caju in logs
of 15 commonly available tree species of Kerala state, India, revealed the logs
of Mangifera indica L. (mango), Anacardium occidentale L. (cashewnut) and
c
Cocos nucifera L. (coconut) were better than other tree speies (Suharban and
Nair, 1991).

Platt et al. (1982) developed a method to utilise cotton straw for the
cultivation of P. ostreatus in Israel. In this method, chopped cotton straw was
soaked in water for two days and then pasteurized at 70°C for eight hours.
The moisture content in the substrate was 70%. The yield obtained was 600-
700 g per kg of dry substrate. Similar studies ware- conducted by Lavie (1988)
and- reported that after utilisation of lignin for mushroom growth^the spent
cotton straw could be used as digestible nutritive feed for cattle and sheep.

When barley and paddy straw were used for the cultivation of P.
cornucopiaef the mushroom yield was 20% of the wet weight of the substrate
(Delmus and Mamoun, 1982). Heltay (1987) also used barley straw for P
ostreatus cultivation.

When P ostreatus (strain INIREB-8) was grown on fermented coffee pulp,

the biological efficiency was 132.1%, whereas it was 113.35% in fresh
 17

pulp (Daniel et al., 1985). Martinez-carrera (1987) also reported the successful
cultivation of P. ostreatus, P florida and P sajor- caju on fermented coffee pulp
with a BE of 128.12, 159.95 and 175.8 per cent respectively. But when
unfermented coffee pulp was used for the cultivation of P. florida BE was 45%
(Pandey and Tiwari, 1991). They also reported 45% BE with tea waste from
factory.

Mueller et al. (1984) reported the successful cultivation of P. sajor-caju

on spent substrate from Agaricus cultivation. In this method, 40-50% spent
alder compost after Agaricus cultivation was mixed with thermo-mechanical
pulp mill sludge, kraft pulp mill sludge and apple pomace in different
combinations. The yield varied from 18.2 to 23.6% of wet substrate. This
study has opened two avenues in the field of mushroom cultivation:
(1) Agaricus cultivation could be linked to Pleurotus cultivation and
(2) cellulotic waste materials produced in industries could be effectively used
for mushroom cultivation. Sharma and Jandaik (1985) have reported another
interesting study. They used air dried P. sajor- caju waste which constituted
40% of the straw contaminated during spawn running and cropping and 60%
of the left over substrate after the cultivation, supplemented with wheat bran
(5 per cent of 40:60 mix) for P. sajor-caju cultivation and obtained 853.33 g
fresh mushroom per kg of air dried materials. Sharma and Jandaik (1991)
also used the spent substrate for the cultivation of P. ostreatus and P. florida
and obtained equally good yield compared to the fresh substrate.

To find out better and cheaper substrates than the conventional ones,
researchers evaluated the performance of different weed plants as substrates
for culturing Pleurotus. Lantana camara L. is a common, profusely growing
weed plant in most part of the tropical countries. Bisht and Harsh (1984) used
chopped Lantana along with waste paper as a substrate for P ostreatus
cultivation. In a similar attempt, Das et al. (1987) conducted preliminary
studies on the cultivation of P. flabellatus and P. sajor-caju on a substrate
prepared from weeds like Parthenium, Hysterophorus, Eupatorium and
Eichornia. In West Germany, Johannes (1987) established the successful
 18

cultivation of P. ostreatus on the residues of fruits and leaves of Cassia spp.

after extraction for drugs.

P citrinopileatus, a latest addition to the list of cultivated species of

Pleurotus, was reported to fruit well at around 30°C, whereas temperature
around 25°C was found to be ideal for the fruiting of P. sajor-caju. The yield
was also higher than P. sajor-caju when cultivated under similar conditions on
paddy straw (Gosh and Chakravarty, 1986). However, more studies may be
required before it is recommended for commercial cultivation.

In Andamans, an attempt has been made to grow P sajor- caju on oil

palm refuse and oil palm bunch refuse. However, mushroom yield was poor as
compared to paddy straw, the conventional substrate (Ramesh and Ansari,
1987). Kochubabu and Nair (1991) have successfully used oil palm mesocarp
waste of palm oil factory for the cultivation of P florida, P. sajor- caju, P.
flabellatus, P. ostreatus and P. pulmonarius.

Peltipher (1988) reported cocoa bean shell, a waste material available in

large quantity from cocoa based industry, along with saw dust as a suitable
substrate for the culture of P. ostreatus. Aslam et al. (1988) studied the
suitability of tobacco stalk and sugarcane baggasse for the cultivation of P
sajor-caju and subsequent use of the spent substrates for enzyme production.

After conducting detailed study of 10 substrates for cultivation of P.

sajor-caju, Sivaprakasam (1986b) reported the +ve yield correlation with
cellulose content and cellulose-lignin ratio of the substrate and -ve correlation
with lignin and ortho- phenolics content.

Among the different waste materials used for the cultivation of

Pleurotus species, paddy and wheat straw, maize cobs, cotton waste and cotton
boll locules were found to be ideal for commercial production, in different
localities (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987).

Selection of a substrate for mushroom cultivation depends on its

availability and cost in each locality.
 19

2.3. Mushroom house

The earliest culture of mushroom was done during 1650 in the open on
the compost used for the melon crops (Delmas, 1978). About 130 years later,
mushroom was grown in caves around Paris. The cultivation of mushroom
inside a building was first reported by Callow (1831). Though, today most of
the mushroom is produced in specially errected mushroom houses, caves are
still popular wherever they are available as in France (Delmas, 1978).

Mushroom houses of various types were used for the cultivation of

Agaricus. But very little information is available on the mushroom houses
designed for the cultivation of Pleurotus. A standard type of house known as
standard double was used for many years for Agaricus cultivation (Edwards,
1978). This consisted of two houses under a single pitched V shaped roof, each
o
house holding 371.6 m“ of bed area in two tiers, each with six shelves. In this
case, the shelves were unmovable and were filled by bringing the compost in
baskets or trolleys. The use of trays for filling compost and different buildings
for different stages of cultivation were introduced by Knaust Brothers in 1932.
In this method, separate buildings for each of the two or three stages of
cultivation were used and compost was carried in trays, instead of filling it in
shelf beds and keeping in one house throughout (Edwards, 1978).

Agaricus mushroom houses of different designs were built with a wide

variety of constructional materials. Many of the early ones were constructed
of timber with cavity between two walls. Lately brick was used, also with a
cavity wall, and concrete blocks were used in similar way. These early houses
usually had a pitched roof and a flat false ceiling which was insulated, at first
with granular cork, later with fiber glass, rock wool vermiculite, or foamed
plastics (Edwards, 1978).

A very popular form of mushroom house was that made of curved

corrugated asbestos sheets; these being joined to form semi circular section of
the house. A house of any length could be built using appropriate number of
these sections and mushroom houses of this kind having 13 to over 30 m
 20

length were used for Agaricus cultivation. Fiber glass or flexible foamed
plastic was used to provide insulation over the outside of the asbestos
structure and that was covered with two layers of black polythene or roofing
felt. The black polythene roof was reinforced with coarse mesh netting or
cords to prevent the sheet being blown away by wind. Oil based aluminium
paint was used to paint the roof to reduce heat loss in winter and solar heat
gain in summer. End walls were built of bricks, concrete blocks or any other
conventional materials (Edwards, 1978).

A low cost polythene house was designed by Allen, at Lee Valley

Experimental Horticulture station, following the method of construction of
polythene glass house (Edwards, 1978). It had a semi circular frame work of
steel tube, which was covered in turn with a layer of plastic netting pulled
tight, a sheet of clear or white 500 gauge polythene, two or three layers of fiber
glass or foamed polythene, a sheet each of clear and black polythene, and
either cords or netting. The outside sheet of black polythene was coated with
aluminium paint. Such houses were also built on side walls to improve head
room at the sides. The two ends of semicircular houses were made of timber
framework with a door. The door was covered with two layers of polythene
with insulation between them (Edwards, 1978).

All the early mushroom houses were designed to have natural

ventilation. Thus, there were openings controlled by shutters near the floor
and in the roof or ceiling of the house. In the late 1950s, fans were used for
more positive control of air and greater fresh air intake in bigger mushroom
houses having fast production (Edwards, 1978).

Most of the mushrooms grown in Taiwan were housed in closed plastic

(Ho’style) mushroom houses. The inside of the house was lined with a
polythene film of 0.4 mm thickness. The whole outside of the mushroom house
was covered with paddy straw, 7.6 cm thick approximately. Thus the house
could be protected from strong solar radiation and heat penetration. A trench
was provided around the house to keep away insects and other pests. Such
 21

houses were used for growing not only the common mushroom A. bisporusfiut
also the paddy straw mushroom and other kinds of edible fungi (Ho et al.,
1968).

In China, two different types of mushroom houses, viz., iron framed

plastic house and permanent industrial building were used for paddy straw
mushroom culture (Chang, 1978). Mushroom houses of the former type,
having about 135 m2 bedding area, were built with iron frames covered with
0.4 mm thick polythene film. It was then covered on top with straw mats or
other materials to prevent strong radiation in summer and to keep the house
warm in winter. The walls of houses of the latter type were constructed with
9
4 cm thick poly forms. Cultivation area of such a house was about 243 m .
Windows and electric blowers were installed in each house for ventilation.

A few types of houses were designed and used for Pleurotus cultivation
in different localities. Moorthy (1981) has described a Pleurotus mushroom
house provided with ventilation holes at the bottom and at the top. Wooden
racks were constructed inside the house to keep mushroom bags. Under each
rack a water channel of 15 cm width was provided to increase the relative
humidity to an optimum level of 80-90%.

Martinez-carrera (1987) has built a mushroom house using wood for

frame work and plastic as covering material. Wooden racks were used to keep
mushroom bags. This mushroom unit was near a dairy farm, and the energy
required for pasteurization was obtained from the biogas produced from
fermented cattle manure.

Rajarathnam and Bano (1987) designed two types of mushroom farms

for the cultivation of P. sajor-caju. A permanent building made of brick and
asbestos roof was used for urban cultivation, with a capacity to produce 100 kg
fresh mushroom per day. In this farm there was separate area for storing and
chopping the straw (6x4 m), for spawn preparation (3x3 m), spawning (6 x
3 m) and cropping (3x3 m). The cropping rooms were provided with two
windows (1.25 x 1.25 m) for cross ventilation. Each of 30 cropping rooms had a
 22

capacity to hold 36 vertical beds with a central perforated pipe for support.
Another farm was designed for P. sajor-caju cultivation in the rural sector. In
this farm thatched huts made of bamboo and coconut leaves were used for
*

P sajor-caju cultivation. The building measurements for all operations except

for cropping were same as that of urban sector cultivation. For cropping, 30
huts each measuring 9 x 6 x 2.4 m (L x W x H) were constructed. There were
four bamboo racks (1.5 x 1.2 m with five tiers). In each hut, polythene bags
(35 x 55 cm) were used for cultivation. Besides polythene bags, cylindrical
beds resting on bamboo structures with a central fluted bamboo support, were
hung here and there. The average yield from such a cropping hut varied from
100 to 140 kg per cropping.

Marimuthu et al. (1989) explained the design of mushroom house for

oyster mushroom cultivation. They recommended separate rooms for spawn
spread and cropping. The smallest unit with capacity to produce one kg fresh
mushrooms per day had a spawn run room ( 4 x 2 m) and a cropping room (4 x
2 m). They suggested proportionate increase in size of sheds for higher
capacity instead of increasing the number of rooms. Thus the unit producing
20 kg fresh oyster mushrooms had two sheds of 27 x 6 m size, one each for
spawn running and cropping. These sheds were thatched and the height of
the shed was four meters. Wooden racks were built inside these sheds to keep
mushroom beds made in poly bags. The sheds were provided with sufficient
ventilation. To increase the humidity, gunny bags were hanged all along the
walls and wetted twice a day.

2.4 Spawn production:

Mushroom spawn can be defined as a medium impregnated with
mushroom mycelium which serves as the seed or inoculum for mushroom
cultivation (Gerda, 1978). Early mushroom cultivators were using fermented
manure or tobacco stems as a substrate for spawn production in Agaricus
culture. In 1931, Siden introduced cereal grains as substrate^ for Agaricus
spawn production (Gerda, 1978). The mycelium around the individual grain
provided a better distribution of inoculum points in the compost. Mycelia from
 23

submerged cultures were also used as spawn, (Toren, 1967; Kligman, 1950;
Dijkstra et al., 1972). Go (1959) has experimentally cultivated paddy straw
mushroom using coffee pulp spawn. Lemke (1971) has introduced another
kind of spawn known as ‘Perlite spawn’, wherein mushroom mycelia were
grown over a substrate prepared by mixing perlite, wheat bran, gypsum, chalk
powder and water at suitable proportions.

Lemke (1972) modified the method for spawn preparation for Agaricus
reported by Stoller (1962). It was found that 50% moisture content in the
grains and a pH of 6.5 to 6.7 were ideal for the better development of
A. bisporus mycelia in spawn bottles. In this method, wheat grains were
boiled in water for 15 min and excess water was drained out. After cooling,
gypsum (CaSo42H20) and lime (CaC03) were added and mixed properly. Thus
mixture was filled in milk bottles and sterilized at 121°C for two hours. These
bottles were inoculated with grain spawn or with pieces of agar medium
colonised with mycelium. Studies were also conducted to evaluate the
suitability of various substrates for Pleurotus spawn production. Bano (1967)
evaluated different substrates viz., soft wood saw dust, hard wood saw dust,
ragi grain, jowar grain and chopped rice straw for P. flabellatus spawn
production and achieved higher yield with chopped rice straw. Hu et al. (1972)
also used paddy straw with amendments for spawn production. Successful
Pleurotus spawn production was achieved by using anaerobically fermented
Vv
wheat grains (Hunke et al., 1973). Szudyya et al. (1973) reported that the
* *>
grain spawn was superior to manure spawn in getting higher yield. Hunke
etal. (1973) reported an industrial method of spawn production based on
fermented substrate. However, wheat, barley, oat, jowar and ragi grains were
found to be the ideal substrates for P. sajor-caju spawn production (Jandaik
and Kapoor, 1974b).

Zarazil (1974b) proposed the use of "active mycelium" as a seed

material. In this study, after spawning, the mycelium was allowed to spread
on the substrate for a few days and the substrate impregnated with mycelia
was used as seed material. In Mysore, Pleurotus cultivation using spent
 24

substrate^has given about 50% of the yield produced by using fresh grain
spawn (Anonymous, 1975). Ravi et al. (1991) have also studied the feasibility
of using spent substrate^as an alternate ; cheap source of cereal based spawn.
■A
The study revealed that the mushroom production was significantly low, and
the time taken for mycelial run as well as for first harvest were more than
that of cereal based spawn.

Detailed studies on the preparation of spawn for P. sajor- caju culture

using jowar grains in 500 ml empty dextrose bottles revealed that 60%
moisture with out any chemical amendments as the best medium.
Sterilization of the jowar grains for 45 min at 121°C gave the maximum
success (Moorthy, 1981). Jowar grain was found to be a cheap and popular
substrate for spawn. Detailed studies were also conducted on the estimation
of cost for commercial production of spawn of P. sajor-caju and P.
citrinopileatus using jowar grains in 500 ml dextrose bottles (Marimuthu et
al., 1989). Polypropylene bag as a container for spawn preparation was found
to be cheap and very convenient for transportation (Rajarathnam and Bano,
1987; BhowmikeJ al., 1991).

It has been reported that the inoculated culture took about 35 to 60

days for complete mycelial ramification when straw was used as a substrate in
500 ml bottles for Pleurotus spawn production,whereas mycelial ramification
was completed within 15 to 20 days on starch bases like jowar and wheat
grains. The spawn raised on natural lignocellulosic wastes took a relatively
longer period of 50 to 60 days, at a temperature range of 20 to 30°C to use it
for cultivation to get optimum yield. Whereas the spawn prepared on starchy
base required only a period of 20 to 25 days for production of optimum yield.
On the other hand, the former could be stored for about six months before its
use for cultivation compared to one month for the spawn grown on starchy
base (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987). Studies on the standardization of quality
spawn production for P. florida, P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju using five cereals
and seven pulses as substrate revealed that all the three species responded
well to cereals but not to pulses and maize grain was found to be the best
 25

spawn substrate for these three mushrooms (Kotwaliwale et al., 1991). But
Sivaprakasam and Ramraj (1991) reported sorghum grain with two per cent
calcium carbonate as the ideal spawn base.

2.5. Container for cultivation

Proper choice of containers is very important for successful cultivation
of mushroom. The container chosen should be cost effective, easy to handle
and at the same time should show best yield performance. Several types of
containers are used for the cultivation of Pleurotus in different parts of the
world. Trays and jars have been used in Japan, Philippines and U.S.A.
(Hashimoto and Takahashi, 1974; Quimo, 1977; Kurtzman, 1978). Wooden
tray, most popular container in Agaricus cultivation, became a natural choice
in quite a good number of early studies on Pleurotus culture (Kaul and
Janardhan, 1970; Jandaik and Kapoor, 1974; Sivaprakasm et al., 1979;
Meharotra et al., 1982). In this method, prepared substrate was filled into
wooden trays of appropriate size along with spawn and covered with old news
paper or plastic sheet. Frequent watering was necessary to make good the
evaporation loss.

Zadrazil (1980b) has explained an ideal container system for large scale
production of Pleurotus. The system involves a self supporting construction.
In this system, the substrate was filled into plastic sacks or forms with a
removable cover, thus forming a piller with a radius of about 30 cm and a
height of about 200 cm which,after permeation,was self supporting and carried
only by a central tube with a metal base. This central tube also helped to
remove heat from the centre of the cylindrical container. This pillar of
compost with relatively large surface,was found to be , ideal form as regards
volume and weight. It was also possible to hang the pillar to an overhead rail.
The other system explained by Zadrazil (1980b) was a high volume container
(30-40 x 220 x 120 cm) or a permanent construction, containing about 400 kg
of compost with solid walls which could be removed for the harvest period. „ A
similar method has also been adopted for P. sajor-caju cultivation wherein
long polythene sacks with a central supporting structure was used (Bano et
 26

al, 1979a; 1979b; Bano and Rajarathnam, 1982). Sathe and Nagarkar (1983)
have explained a method of cultivation of P. sajor-caju wherein a perforated
bamboo stick was placed inside polythene bags.

Another method described by Zadrazil (1973, 1980b) was packing the

substrate in plastic foils and pressing them into rectangular blocks. Kalberer
(1974) wrapped the substrate in polythene foil and packed into boxes for
cultivation of P. ostreatus.

Chakravarty and Sarkar (1978) used earthen trays, soil bed and nylon
nets to cultivate Pleurotus mushrooms. Polythene bag was found to be the
most convenient and cheap container for Pleurotus cultivation. This container
has been widely used in the cultivation of all species of Pleurotus (Bano and
Nagaraj, 1976; Leong, 1980; Shetty and Moorthy, 1980; Moorthy, 1981; Platt,
1982; Singh, 1983; Sivaprakasam and Ramraj, 1991).

Khanna and Garcha (1981) have used bamboo baskets as the container
for Pleurotus cultivation.

An important comparative study of different containers for the

cultivation of P. florida and P. sajor-caju under identical condition was carried
out in Punjab (Garcha et al., 1985). These mushrooms were cultivated on
chopped paddy straw in three different types of containers viz., wooden trays,
bamboo baskets and polythene bags. The yield performance of both these
species in polythene bags was higher than that in wooden trays and baskets.
The three sizes of poly bags viz., 42.5 x 55 cm, 49 x 40 cm, 62.5 x 42.5 cm used
in this study did not show significant difference in yield. Among perforated
and unperforated bags, perforated bags supported better yield (Garcha et al.,
1985; Sivaprakasam and Ramraj, 1991). Studies on the growth and yield
performance of P. flabellatus in different containers revealed transparent
polythene bags as the ideal container (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987). They
have reported three reasons in support of this: 1. Beds did not require any
watering during the spawn run period. 2. After spawn run period when the
bags were cut opened, the blocks offered maximum surface area for mushroom
t,Mv/&r.3VTY
ww r {v. " OTHRI
 27

yield. 3. The restricted number of holes in polythene bags allowed the

maximum growth of fruiting bodies.

2.6. Substrate preparation

The substrates used for Pleurotus cultivation must be soaked in water
to have an initial moisture content around 70%. Based on the studies
conducted so far, it can be inferred that mainly four techniques have been
employed to sterilize the substrate or reduce the substrate borne
contaminants (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987). In the first technique,
substrate was autoclaved at 121°C for one hour or more and cooled to an
ambient temperature before spawning. Pasteurization, aimed to selective
killing of microbes, was another method introduced for large scale cultivation
of Pleurotus. In this method, the substrate was subjected to 60 to 100°C for a
few hours and then cooled before spawning. In the third technique, namely
hot water treatment, the substrate was dipped in water at 65 ± 5°C for a
minimum period of 10 min. In the final technique, wet substrate was allowed
to ferment before its processing. However, several studies on substrate
preparation have been conducted and various workers suggested modifications
of the above techniques.

Pleurotus has the characteristic ability to colonize plant wastes with low
nitrogen content and to produce fruiting bodies of high nitrogen content. But
preparation of substrate into an ideal form, suited for mushroom growth is
important in mushroom cultivation (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987).

Early workers used composted substrate for Pleurotus cultivation

(Block et al., 1959). Later it was found that the cumbersome method of
composting or fermenting the substrate practiced in case of Agaricus
cultivation was not necessary for Pleurotus cultivation. Bano and Srivastava
(1962) used wet paddy straw without pasteurization for cultivation of
P. flabellatus. Pankow (1984) has also tried to culture P. florida and
P. ostreatus on non pasteurized wheat straw. The yield obtained was 4.5 kg
and 3.1 kg respectively per 14 kg dry wheat straw. Zadrazil (1973) reported
 28

that fermentation of substrates was not necessary for Pleurotus cultivation.

In his studies, he found a loss of organic matter (or nutrients) during
fermentation. The Pleurotus species could directly break down cellulose and
lignin bearing materials without chemical or biological preparation. Kalberer
and Vogel (1974) studied relationship of different types of fermentation to
yield. Several workers have reported that Pleurotus could be cultured on
substrates subjected to 80 to 100°C and then cooled to an ambient
temperature before spawning (Junkova, 1971; Zadrazil and Schneidereit,
1972). Lange and Hora (1963) have reported successful cultivation of
Pleurotus on substrate autoclaved at 121°C for one hour or more. In this
method, the substrate was absolutely free of contaminants. Zadrazil (1973)
has explained a method for using a mechanical equipment for mass cultivation
of Pleurotus species. In this method, straw was chopped and mixed with
required additives and moisture was adjusted to 70% by adding water. Then
the substrate was passed through heating devices and subjected to heat for a
short duration. After cooling it was mixed with measured quantity of spawn
and packed into sacks, boxes or other containers. Rajarathnam et al., (1979)
have compared chemical treatment with that of hot water treatment. In the
hot water treatment, straw was dipped in water at 60°C for 10 min to control
weed fungi. Substrates like wheat, ragi or rice straw subjected to hot water/
have been successfully used for culturing P. flabellatus, P. ostreatus and
P. sajor-caju (Kurtzman, 1975,1979; Bano et al., 1979a).

Moorthy (1981) conducted detailed studies on the time of soaking of

chopped paddy straw in water and different methods of heat treatment; such
as (1) pouring boiling water on the substrate and keeping for 30 min, (2)
boiling the substrate in water using fire wood for 30 min and (3) autoclaving
the substrate at 121°C for 15 min. These studies revealed that soaking of
chopped paddy straw in water for 16 h followed by autoclaving at 121°C for
15 min as the best method of substrate preparation for P. sajor-caju
cultivation. Chakravarty and Sarkar (1984) soaked paddy straw for 24 h in
their studies on the cultivation of P. sajor- caju. Based on the detailed studies
 29

on the period of soaking of paddy straw during unfavourable (summer) and

favourable (rainy-winter) seasons, Tiwari (1991) reported that the maximum
biological efficiency of paddy straw was achieved when soaked for 48 h during
summer season and 30 h during rain y and winter seasons.

While preparing cotton straw for the P. ostreatus culture Platt et al.,
(1982) have steeped chopped cotton straw for two days and then pasteurized
at 70°C for eight hours. The yield obtained was 600-700 g per kg of dry cotton
straw. Studies were also conducted on the effect of duration of autoclaving of
«

wheat straw on Pleurotus yield and substrate contamination (Balazsef al.,

1985). In the first treatment, chopped wheat straw with 14% moisture was
steamed for 30, 60, 75, 90 and for 2 x 60 min with 24 h interval. In the second
treatment soaked wheat straw was steamed for 30 - 60 min or 60 - 90 min.
After the heat treatment, straw was inoculated with spawn at three per cent
of substrate weight. In the second treatment the straw was highly
contaminated with pathogenic micro-organism. Among the treatment,
steaming for 60-90 min was the most ideal and gave 2.17 to 2.25 kg of
mushroom per 100 kg straw. When the straw was subjected to steaming for
shorter duration, there was severe post infestation and poor crop yield.

Ziombra and Gupinski (1986) compared the growth of P. ostreatus in 14

different substrates pasteurised at 60°C for 0, 24,48, 72, 96,120 or 144 h. The
study revealed 48-72 h as optimum duration of pasteurization for straw,
96-120 h for alder, poplar and birch saw dusty whereas 120-144 h was ideal for
beech and pine saw dust as well as beech bark.

BanoefaZ., (1975) recommended soaking of rice straw in 25 ppm

benomyl solution for 18 h to prevent the contamination by Penicillium
digitatum. Soaking rice straw in a suspension of five ppm carboxin for 18 h
was found to be effective in controlling Sclerotium rolfsiil and thus it was
advantageous for P. flabellatus cultivation (Rajarathnam et al., 1979).
Rajarathnam et al., (1983) reported that Pleurotus can be successfully
cultivated after treating the substrate with formaldehyde or liquid ammonia
 30

at 100 to 800 ppm and subsequently removing the excess formaldehyde or

ammonia with sodium chloride, elacium hydroxide or urea solution or with
hot air. Poppee etal,, (1985) recommended treatment of substrate with
benomyl to control Trichoderma spp., which was responsible for crop loss upto
40% in Belgium. Spraying of 0.01 or 0.02% benomyl on the substrate
significantly reduced the spawn run time without affecting the yield of
Pleurotus (Balazsef a/., 1985).

Vijay .and Sohi (1987) conducted detailed studies on the cultivation of

R sajor-caju on chemically sterilized wheat straw. The chopped wheat straw
was soaked in carbendazim (bavistin), formalin and copper oxychloride
solutions (blitox) at various concentrations for 18 h, and studied the effect of
various treatments on yield. The highest yield was achieved in the treatment
500 ppm formalin and 75 ppm carbendazim. Subsequent studies also
revealed that good yield can be obtained by cultivating P. sajor-caju on wheat
straw sterilized with a solution of 500 ppm formalin + 75 ppm carbendazim
(Jadhav and Jagtap, 1991; Singh and Dwivedi, 1991). Vijay and Rai (1991)
estimated the carbendazim content in the fruit bodies of P. Sajor-caju
cultivated on wheat straw sterilized with 500 ppm formalin + 75 ppm
carbendazim and found that carbendazim content was much below the
tolerance limit of this chemical in the food stuffs.

Afyon (1988) has evaluated the effect of chemical disinfection in

comparison with autoclaving of the substrate on the yield of P. ostreatus.
Formaldehyde (one, three and five percent) and copper sulphate (1.5, 2.0 and
2.5 g/m kg straw) were used for chemical disinfection of the straw. Mushroom
yield was the highest when autoclaved straw was used for cultivation. All the
six chemical treatments gave satisfactory yield. Based on this study chemical
disinfection of the straw for P. ostreatus cultivation was recommended as it
was cheaper than steam sterilization.

Though fermentation or degradation of the substrate is not essential for

oyster mushroom culture, some researchers found that higher yield can be
 31

achieved by controlled short-time fermentation of the substrate. Stanek and

Bisko (1982) recommended fermentation of wheat straw at 50-55°C for two
days and found the substrate more suitable for culture of P. ostreatus due to
the activity of thermophilic bacteria and or thermophilic fungi on the
substrate. They also reported that the substrate fermented for a longer time
(four/seven days) were not suitable and were colonised by cellulose
decomposing thermophilic actinomycetes. Flick (1983) reports fermentation of
wheat straw for 72 h at 45°C was ideal for P. ostreatus culture. He found this
method effective in discouraging the competing fungi. It has been reported
from Mexico that P. ostreatus could be cultured on coffee pulp fermented for
five days (Daniel et al., 1985).

It has been reported that the yield of P. sajor-caju increased with the
increase in spawn inoculam from I to 4% on wet weight basis of paddy straw
substrate (Sivaprakasam and Ramraj, 1991). Tiwari (1991) also reported the
requirement of high dose of spawn (4%) during summer season whereas 2%
spawn dose was ideal during rainy and winter seasons.

2.7. Additives to the substrate

Various organic and inorganic additives to substrates have been tested
to reduce the spawn run period and to increase the yield of Pleurotus. Bano
and Srivatsava (1962) tested the effect of pulse and cereal grain powders and
also inorganic amendments to substrates on growth and yield of P. flabellatus.
They found the highest yield in beds supplimented with oat meal (two per cent
on dry weight basis) followed by red gram powder whereas NH4NO3 and
(NH4)2S04 were adversely affecting the yield. In further studies on the effect
of addition of different pulse powders to substrates on the fructification of P.
flabellatus, red gram powder was found to give the highest yield (Bano, 1967).
Significant increase in sporophore yield of P. sajor-caju was noticed by the
addition of different pulses to the straw while spawning and the highest yield
was observed in a mixture of straw and horsegram (Bano and Rajarathnam,
1982; Kumuthakalavalli and Daniel, 1991). However, Zadrazil (1980a) found
an yield increase of about 50% by the addition of NH4NO3 at 2.25 g per 100 g
 32

dry straw in P. sajor-caju cultivation. But among the various organic and
inorganic amendments, soyabean meal or alfalfa meal treatments gave the
highest yield in this trial. The increase in yield by these two amendments was
to the tune of about 300% over the control, plain wheat straw. Chakravarty
and Sarkar (1978, 1984) also reported the positive effect of inorganic
amendments on the yield of P. sajor-caju. In this study, addition of a complex
fertilizer, NPK (15:15:15) was found to increase the yield. Based on their study,
they have recommended the use of fertilizer mixed substrate only for the lower
layers of the bed or bag.

Moorthy (1981) reported positive influence of rice bran addition on the

yield of P. sajor-caju. The BE of rice bran added straw was 79.4% and that of
straw alone was 60.6%.

Sivaprakasam (1986a) studied the effect of different organic and

inorganic additives on the yield of P. sajor-caju. According to him none of the
pulses (Vignus mungo, V. radiata, Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp. and others) or
grains (Zea mays L. Sorghum vulgare Pers. Setaria italica Beauv and others)
applied in the powder form as amendments to the substrate had beneficial
effect on sphorophore production. On the other hand, Oat meal (Avena sativa
L.) at 3-5% delayed sphorophore appearence whereas at 1-2% concentration
the time taken for sphorophore production was same as that of unamended
substrate. Addition of inorganic substrate was also not effective whereas
addition of super phosphate or murate of potash (0.5-2%) had an adverse
effect. Gibbrellic acid, indole acetic acid and kinetin, each at 0.1-100 ppm
sprayed to the emerging sphorophore also had no influence on their
development.

Royse and Schisler (1987) reported that the addition of spawn mate-II,
a delayed release nutrient available in U.S.A., increased the yield of P.
sajor-caju. Among the three levels studied, viz., 0, 32 an 63 per cent (w/w) the
maximum yield was reported at 63% level. In subsequent studies, spawn
 33

mate-II was used at much lower level when alfalfa was used in combination
with wheat straw at 20:80 (w/w) (Royse and Bahler, 1988).

Rao (1991) reported that P. florida yield was increased when paddy
straw was supplemented with 4% (on dry weight basis) rice bran or cashew
(Anacardium occidentale) apple waste or brewers grain. Addition of brewers
grain to paddy straw gave the highest yield (72% BE). The yield of P.
sajor-caju, P. sapidus and P. abalone was increased when paddy straw was
supplemented with wheat bran, rice bran, corn meal, soabean meal and oat
meal (Bahukhandi and Chamola (1991).

2.8. Environmental factors

Though Pleurotus was found to grow under a wide range of climatic
conditions, a large number of factors have been found responsible for
governing the production of high or optimum yield.

2.8.1. Temperature: Pleurotus species have the advantage of growing over a

wide range of temperatures from 15 to 35°C. However, in general most of the
species are cultivated at temperature ranging from 20 to 30. Different species
prefer different temperatures to produce high or optimum yield. Studies on
the effect of temperature on mycelial growth of P. ostreatus, P. florida and P.
eryngii revealed that the optimum temperature for the growth of P. ostreatus
and P. florida was 30°C and 25°C, for P. eryngii (Zadrazil and Schnidereit,
1972) whereas Szabo (1978) reported that optimum mycelial growth of P.
ostreatus and P. florida was obtained at 25°C under in vitro condition in
culture medium. Lower temperature was found to be advantageous at the
time of fruiting of Pleurotus (Zadrazil, 1978). P. cornucopiae has been reported
to show the best mycelial growth at 23°C and fruiting at 15-25°C. (Delmas and
Mamoun, 1980). Based on a comparitive study of temperature requirement of
P ostreatus, P. columbinus and P. pu/monaris, . Imbemon et al. (1983)
fKe- o o
reported highest yield at 12 C in case of former two species and at 20 C in
A
case of the latter.
 34

Chang and Miles (1986) reviewed the studies on the effect of

temperature on spawn run and yield of two species of Pleurotus. It was found
that low temperature strain of P. ostreatus prefered 20-27°C for spawn run and
20-35°C by the temperature tolerent strains of same species. The temperature
required for the spawn run of Pleurotus sajor- caju was 25-35°C. The
temperature range recommended for fruiting of the above three strains were
10-15°C, 10-30°C and 20- 30°C respectively. Ghosh and Chakravarty (1986)
reported a newly introduced species, P. citrinopileatus giving higher yield than
P. sajor-caju at 30°C. However, there is wide variation in the temperature
ranges reported for different species and hence detailed studies are required to
fill this gap.

Flegg (1970) carried out series of experiments to study the effect of

temperature and its influence on fruit body development in Agarius bisporus.
Based on the detailed studies on seasonal changes in temperature and its
influence on cropping, Flegg (1972a) has emphasised the importance of
adequate temperature control. In another study, Agaricus was grown on
compost in beakers for 16 days and then cased and maintained at 5-7°C or
22°C for different periods and then at normal temperature of 16.5°C. Though
sporophore initials developed sooner at 22°C, the development was slower
than at 16.5°C and many of them died. Low temperature treatment for one,
two or eight day period after casing delayed sphorophore initiation and growth
(Flegg 1972b). ‘Cold shock’ has been found to initiate the induction of fruits
during first flush of P. ostreatus (Vessey and Toth, 1970; Stanck and Ry sava,
1971).

Studies were conducted on the possibility of temperature induced

synchronization of sphorophore production in A. bisporus. Mushrooms were
grown initially at 24°C until sphorophore initials had reached 2 mm diam and
then the temperature was reduced to 16°C for a period of 2-7 days.
Afterwards, the mushroom beds were maintained either at 24°C or at 16°C.
Reducing the period of exposure to 16°C gave an earlier start to picking,
reduced the number of sporophores harvested in the first flush and either
 35

increased or did not significantly affect the total weight of the first flush crop.
Continuous exposure to 16°C delayed the time of harvest. Exposure to 16°C
for six days which resulted in higher yield than with four days or continuous
exposure was considered optimal (Flegg, 1980). However, such studies on the
possibility of temperature induced syncronization of fruiting body formation or
sudden exposure of the mushroom beds to low temperature for a short period
have not been conducted in Pleurotus cultivation.

Bano and Rajarathnam (1982) studied the seasonal variation in yield of

P. sajor-caju at Mysore, India and found that the maximum yield of fresh
mushroom per kg of dry straw was during rainy season and the minimum
yield was during summer. The mean yield of fresh mushroom per kg of dry
straw was 1118 g during rainy season when the RH was 70-90% and
temperature 20-26°C whereas it was 582 g during summer when the RH was
35-70% and temperature 22-36°C. Studies on the yield performance of P.
sajor-caju in different months at Coimbatore, Tamilnadu revealed that the
yield was good in all the months except during March, April and May. The
highest yield was obtained during the period, September-January with a BE of
76 to 83 per cent. The bioefficiency ranged from 54 to 61 per cent during
March to May (Krishnamoorthy and Marimuthu, 1991).

2.8.2. Carbon dioxide and oxygen: It is a well known fact that bacteria,
yeast and moulds do require carbon dioxide for their growth (Valley and
Rettger, 1927; Hermann, 1963; Broon and Luca, 1973). Complete removal of
C02 from the ecosystem can cause decrease of growth of the microorganisms
(Lafferty, 1963).

Ginterova (1973) has reported that the C02 requirement of Pleurotus is

lower than that of many other fungi. Schanel (1970) found stimulation in the
growth of mycelium of P. ostreatus at high concentration of CO2 in air.
Zadrazil (1974a and 1975b) also reported similar results in respect of P.
florida, P. eryngii and P. ostreatus. CO2 concentration in the air upto 28% (by
volume) was found stimulating the growth of P. ostreatus and P. florida. But
 36

for P. eryngii the limit for stimulation was 22%. On the other hand, a high
concentration of 37.5% (V/V) reduced the mycelial growth in all the three
Pleurotus species by about 40% as compared to that at 0.03%. In contrast to
the behaviour of Pleurotus species, the mycelial growth of Agaricus bisporus
was reduced with the rise in C02 concentration and at 32% (V/V), growth was
completely inhibited (Tschierpe, 1958, 1959, 1972). Many other
Basidiomycetes also exhibited the same behaviour as A. bisporus (Zadrazil and
Sehliemann 1974). High CO2 concentration in the substratum might be acting
as a shield for Pleurotus against the colonization of other microorganisms,
which either can not grow or die off at higher CO2 concentrations. To take
advantage of this character of Pleurotus, tunnel process could be utilised
wherein semi-anaerobic condition with 20% CO2 (V/V), can be created by the
addition of CO2. Thus non-resistant aerobic competitive micro organisms can
be excluded right from the initial stage of cultivation (Zadrazil, 1975).

Awasthi and Mehrotra (1986) established positive effect of CO2 on the

mycelial growth of P. sajor-caju. In their study using desiccators, they found
that the mycelial growth was completed under totally anaerobic condition and
the aerobic condition was most suitable for the highest production of fruiting
body. Thus it has been established that in P. sajor-caju, mycelial growth
develops under semi- anaerobic or complete anaerobic condition and the
development of bftsidiocarps takes place definitely under aerobic conditions.

P. sajor-caju has been reported to have the ability to withstand higher

CO2 level compared to P. flabellatus. Therefore, P. sajor-caju could be
cultivated in 50 pm thick poly bags without any vents (Rajarathnam and
Bano, 1987).

2.8.3. Moisture: Optimum moisture in the substrate throughout the growth

period of the fungus is very much essential. High air humidity to the extent of
90% has been recommended by Schmaus (1972). Zadrazil (1973) has
recommended 70% moisture in the substrate and 60-70% air humidity for the
cultivation of Pleurotus species. Relative humidity of 80-85% in mushroom
 37

house has been recommended for P. sajor-caju cultivation (Jandaik and

Kapoor, 1974b). Rajarathnam and Bano (1987) found 75% moisture in the
substrate as most ideal for Pleurotus cultivtion whereas water content above
A

80% in the substrate adversely affected the Pleurotus mycelial growth and
encouraged bacterial growth.

2.8.4. Light: Positive phototropism in Pleurotus species was determined by

Block et al. (1959). Eger (1970a, 1970b) and Gyurko (1972) during their
studies on Pleurotus, gave more importance to the effect of light. Light is an
initiating factor in the development of primordla, and therefore, lighting is
needed for at least 15 min per day. In Pleurotus florida, increase in the
number of primorida was found with the duration and intensity of light (Eger,
1970a, 1970b, Eger et al., 1974). The amount of light necessary for the
development of the basidiocarp of P. ostreatus was fixed by Gyurko (1972) as
10,000 lx h. Delmas and Mamoun (1982) reported light as an essential factor
for the fruiting of P. cornucopiae. They have recommended a photo period of
18 h and light intensity of 50-75 lx of day light or the artificial light of day
light type.

Based on the studies on visual observation and regular measurement of

growth rate and quantity of the mycelium in the culture of P. sajor-caju at the
photo sensitive stage, Yang (1984) reported strong illumination (600 lx) as
unfavourable to growth, while diffused light intensity (30 lx) and complete
darkness had little effect on growth. Yellow and green light promoted mycelial
growth, whereas the growth was inhibited in the presence of red and blue
light.

Though several workers reported some role or other for light in

Pleurotus culture, light was not found to be a critical factor affecting
mushroom growth and yield. It was also found that certain species like P.
flabellatus produced dull and dark fruiting bodies, when exposed to strong day
light (Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987).
 38

2.9. Eonomics of mushroom cultivation

Many factors like capital investment, labour, raw materials, energy etc.
can affect the cost of production. There is a great variation in the substrate
used for cultivation of different species of mushrooms as well as in the method
of cultivation. It is important to note that the substrate used for P. sajor- caju
cultivation vary from place to place depending on its availability and cost.
Finally, the mushroom yield also varies considerably from place to place.
Hence, the economic of cultivation has to be worked out separately for
different regions of a country.

Several workers have worked out the economics of cultivation of

Agaricus. (Declaire, 1978; Tiwari, 1983; Subramanian and Tiwari 1986,
Anonymous, 1991) Pleurotus being a very recent introduction for artificial
culture, the information available on the economics of its cultivation is very
scanty. Declaire (1978) has collected information on the cost of production of P.
ostreatus using saw dust as raw material in Japan and Taiwan in early 1973.
The total cost of production in Japan was US Dollars 0.46 and in Taiwan US
Dollars 0.83. At that time there were only a few oyster mushroom growers.
Almost during the same period the production cost of Agaricus in Taiwan was
US Dollars 0.43 (Declaire, 1978).

Straw, as a raw material for Pleurotus cultivation, was first introduced

at Mysore, India (Bano and Srivastava, 1962). Later, Bano and Rajarathnam
(1982) made a detailed study of yield of P. sajor-caju in different seasons and
found that the maximum yield can be obtained for 150 days in a year at
Mysore. Based on this information they have worked out the economics of P.
sajor-caju cultivation suitable to both urban and rural sectors for a 100 kg per
day production unit for 150 days using paddy straw (Table 2. and 3.)
(Rajarathnam and Bano, 1987). According, to this projections, the land
A

required for urban unit was estimated as 1750 m and for rural unit as
5000m2. The area of permanent type of building for urban unit was proposed
as 350 m2 and temporary huts for rural unit as 1680 m2. The total project cost
 39

Table 2. Economics of R sajor-caju cultivation in urban sector at Mysore during 1987

(Total production: 151 per annum @ 100 kg per day for 5 months)

Cost per kg
Item Per cent
Rs. Ps.

1. Raw materials 3.90 23.4

(Paddy straw, spawn, chemicals etc.)

2. Utilities 0.33 2.0

3.Labour 6.67 39.0

4. Other cost 3.27 19.6

5. Interest and depreciation 2.53 15.1

Total 16.70 100.0

Ref: Rajarathnam and Bano (1987).

Table 3. Economics of R sajor-caju cultivation in rural sector at Mysore during 1987

(Total production: 151 per annum @ 100 kg per day for 5 months)

Cost per kg
Item Per cent
Rs. Ps.

1. Raw materials 3.00 21.5

(paddy straw, spawn, chemicals etc.)

2. Utilities 0.30 2.2

3. Labour 6.67 47.7

4. Other cost 1.53 10.9

5. Interest and depreciation 2.47 17.7

Total 13.97 100.0

Ref: Rajarathnam and Bano (1987).

 40

Table 4. Break down of production cost of one kg of oyster mushroom in 1986 at Bangalore

(Production: 4.81 per annum)

Cost per kg
Item Per cent
Rs. Ps.

1. Paddy straw 2.33 21.9

2. Spawn 1.67 15.7

3. Fungicides and insecticides 0.10 0.9

4. Polythene/Polypropylene bags 1.35 12.7

5.Labour 2.71 25.4

6. Electricity and water 0.73 6.9

7. Miscellaneous 0.42 3.9

8. Interest, rent and depreciation 1.34 12.6

Total 10.65 100.0

Ref: Subramanian and Tiwari (1986).

Table 5. Economics of oyster mushroom production at Coimbatore in 1989

(Production: 9.51 per annum)

Cost per kg
Item Per cent
Rs. Ps.

1. Paddy straw 1.58 15.6

2. Polythene bags 1.68 16.6

3. Spawn materials 2.51 24.8

4. Energy cost 1.44 14.2

5. Pesticides 0.13 1.3

6. Labour 1.15 11.3

7. Interest and depreciation 1.64 16.2

Total 10.13 100.0

Ref: Marimuthu et al. (1989).

Table 6. Economics of Pleurotus cultivation on a small scale
(Cost pertaining to July 1990 at Solan)

Cost per kg
Item Per cent
Rs. Ps.

1. Wheat straw 0.86 6.4

2. Polythene bags 0.57 4.2

3. Spawn 4.29 31.9

4. Labour 5.14 38.4

5. Water and Electricity 0.57 4.2

6. Pesticides 0.57 4.2

7. Rent and depreciation 1.43 10.7

Total 13.43 100.0

Ref: Anonymous (1991).

 42

in 1987 was estimated as Rs. 3.2 lakhs for urban unit and Rs. 1.25 lakhs for
rural unit. The cost of production per kg of fresh mushroom was Rs. 16.70 for
the urban unit and Rs. 13.97 for the rural unit. Of the different production
inputs, cost of labour formed the msgor part. It was 39% of the total cost in
urban sector and 47.7% in rural sector. The cost of raw material was less than
25% in both sectors whereas the capital input constituted 15.1% and 17.7% in
urban and rural sectors respectively.

Tiwari and Subramanian and Tiwari (1983) (1986) worked out cost of
production for P. sajor-caju cultivation at Bangalore. It was Rs. 6.61 per kg in
1983 and increased to Rs. 10.65 in 1986. Table-3 gives break-down of
production cost of P sajor-caju in 1986 at Bangalore. In this case, raw
material formed the major cost factor in the production followed by labour. In
1986 the cost of production of Agaricus at Bangalore was Rs. 17.41 per kg
wherein more than 50% of the cost was due to capital investments clearly
projecting the capital intensive nature of Agaricus production.

Marimuthu et al. (1989) reported elaborate details of cultivation of P.

sajor-caju and P citrinopileatus. In 1989, the cost of production per kg of fresh
oyster mushroom was Rs. 10.13 at Coimbatore. The cost of the three major
inputs viz., raw materials, labour and capital formed 58.3, 11.3 and 16.2 per
cent respectively of the total cost (Table 5.).

During 1990 the cost of production of Pleurotus species was estimated

as Rs. 13.43 at solan (Anonymous, 1991). During the same period, the cost of
production of Agaricus was Rs. 15.15 per kg. The cost of the three major
inputs viz., raw materials, labour and capital worked out to 42.5,38.4 and 10.7
per cent respectively for Pleurotus cultivation (Table 6.).