THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

RELATION

 A relation is a subset of Cartesian product.

 A connection between the elements of two or more sets.
 It is the relation between the x-values and y-values of ordered pairs.

Symbolically, the notation for a relation Rcan be written as:

Domain

It is the set of all first numbers in an ordered pair. In other words, the domain is all of the x-values.

Co-domain

It is the set of all second numbers in an ordered pair, or the y-values.

From the diagram above, let A and B be sets.A= {1, 3} and B= { 1, 2, 3}. Let us say that an element x in
A is related to an element yin B if, and only if yis divisible by x.
  To find the relation of A to B, let us first identifythe ordered pairs given between A and B(A x B)

A x B= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

 Then, determine the relation R of A and B base on the given ordered pairs. Note that A and B can
only be related if, and only if y(set B) is divisible by x(set A).

1 R 1 since 1(y) is divisible by 1(x)

1 R 2 since 2 is divisible by 1
1 R 3 since 3 is divisible by 1
3 R 1 since 1 is not divisible by 3
3 R 2 since 2 is not divisible by 3
3 R 3 since 3 is divisible by 3

Thus,
1 R 1means that (1, 1) ∈R
1 R2means that(1, 2)∈ R
1 R3means that(1, 3)∈ R
3 R1means that (3, 1)∈ R
3 R2means that(3, 2)∈ R
3 R3means that (3, 3)∈ R

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}

ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION

Base on the previous example, set A= {1, 3} and set B= {1, 2, 3} can only be related if and only if y is
divisible by x.

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to set B. The arrow diagram for Ris obtained as shown below:
FUNCTIONS

Consider the relation

f : {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 5)}

In this relation we see that each element of A has a uniqueimage in B.

This relation f from set A to B where every element of A has a unique image in B is defined as a function
from A to B. So we observe that in a function notwoorderedpairs have the same first element.

We also see that ∃ an element B, ∈ i.e., 4 which does not have its preimage in A. Thus here:

(i) the setB will be termed as co-domain and

(ii) the set {1, 2, 3, 5} is called the range. From the above we can conclude that range is a subset
of co-domain.

Symbolically, this function can be written as:

f:A→B

Examples:

Which of the following relations are functions from A to B. Write their domain and range. If it is not a
function give reason ?

1) {(1,-2),(3,7),(4,-6),(8,1)}, A= {1,3,4,8} = , B= {-2,7,-6,1}

Solution:

It is a function.Since no two ordered pairs have the same element.

Domain= {1,3,4,8}

Range= {-2, 7, -6, 1}

2) {(1,0),(1, -1),(2,3),(4,10)}, A= {1,2,4}B= {0, -1, 3, 10}

Solution:

It is not a function. Because 1st two ordered pairs have same first elements.
EXCERCISES

Determine which of the following relations are functions.

1) {(a,2),(b,3),(c,2),(d,3)}, B= {a, b c, d}D= {2, 3}

2) {(2,4),(3,9),(4,16),(5,25),(6,36)} , A= {2,3,4,5,6}B= {4,9,16}
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Reasoning is the action of constructing thoughts into a valid argument.

INDUCTIVE REASONING

- is reasoning where the premises support the conclusion. The conclusion is the hypothesis, or probable.
This means that the conclusion is the part of reasoning that inductive reasoning is trying to prove.

- Inductive reasoning is also referred to as 'cause and effect reasoning' or 'bottom-up reasoning' because it
seeks to prove a conclusion first. This is usually derived from specific instances to develop a general
conclusion.

Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations.

"In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general. We make many observations, discern a
pattern, make a generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory".

Examples:

An example of inductive logic is,

"The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a
penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies."
Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be
false.
Here's an example:
"Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all grandfathers are bald."
The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements.
Other Examples:
 Every time you eat peanuts, you start to cough. You are allergic to peanuts.

 Jennifer always leaves for school at 7:00 a.m. Jennifer is always on time. Jennifer assumes, then,
that she if she leaves at 7:00 a.m. for school today, she will be on time.

 The cost of goods was $1.00. The cost of labor to manufacture the item was $0.50. The sales
price of the item was $5.00. So, the item always provides a good profit for the stores selling it.
  Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust in the distance.
A new windstorm is coming from the north.
 Bob is showing a big diamond ring to his friend Larry. Bob has told Larry that he is planning to
marry Joan. Bob must be surprising Joan with the diamond ring tonight.

Using Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next three numbers in the pattern (or sequence).
4, −20, 100, −500, . . .

Step 1: Form a Hypothesis:

Step 2: Make observations related to the hypothesis:
Step 3: Come to a conclusion:
The answer is 2,500. The following numbers are multiplied by 5.

Examples: https://brainmass.com/math/geometry-and-topology/inductive-reasoning-predict-
numbers-326041
 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next line in the pattern.

1 × 9 = 9 2 × 9 = 18 3 × 9 = 27 4 × 9 = 36 ?

Answer: 5 x 9= 45

 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next three number in the pattern.
0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, …
Answer: 48

EXERCISES

Use Inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.

1. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ?

2. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ?
3. 3/5, 5/7, 7/9, 9/11, 11/13, 13/15, ?
4. 2, 7, -3, 2, -8, -3, -13, -8, -18, ?
5. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ?
https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

- is a reasoning where true premises develop a true and valid conclusion

- Uses general principles to create a specific conclusion.

- it is also known as 'top down reasoning' because it goes from general and works its way down more
specific.

In deductive inference, we hold a theory and based on it we make a prediction of its consequences. That
is, we predict what the observations should be if the theory were correct. We go from the general — the
theory — to the specific — the observations
Examples:

Deductive reasoning usually follows steps.

First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and finally an inference. A common form of deductive
reasoning is the syllogism, in which two statements — a major premise and a minor premise — reach a
logical conclusion.
For example, the premise "Every A is B" could be followed by another premise, "This C is A." Those
statements would lead to the conclusion "This C is B." Syllogisms are considered a good way to test
deductive reasoning to make sure the argument is valid.
For example,
"All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal."
For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the premises,
"All men are mortal" and "Harold is a man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is logical and true. In
deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of
that class.
Examples:

 All dolphins are mammals, all mammals have kidneys; therefore all dolphins have kidneys.
 It's dangerous to drive on icy streets. The streets are icy now, so it would be dangerous to drive.
 Red meat has iron in it and beef is red meat. Therefore, beef has iron in it.
 All noble gases are stable. Helium is a noble gas, so helium is stable.
 Acute angles are less than 90 degrees. This angle is 40 degrees, so it must be acute.
Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/deductive-reasoning-examples.html
Inductive reasoning is akin to deductive reasoning. The main difference is that, with inductive
reasoning, the premises provide some evidence for the validity of the conclusion, but not all.
With deductive reasoning, the conclusion is necessarily true if the premises are true. With inductive
reasoning, the conclusion might be true, and it has some support, but it may nonetheless be false.
However, your educated guess can become a hypothesis you could consider fleshing out through
research and an abundance of outside sources.
Let's take a look at a few examples of inductive reasoning. After we examine the inductive reasoning,
we'll flip it and see what it looks like in the form of deductive reasoning.
Examples:
 Inductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. The second lipstick I pulled
from my bag is red. Therefore, all the lipsticks in my bag are red.
Deductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. All lipsticks in my bag are
red. Therefore, the second lipstick I pull from my bag will be red too.

 Inductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. She has blond hair. Therefore, everyone from Ireland
has blond hair.
Deductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. Everyone from Ireland has blond hair. Therefore, my
mother has blond hair.

EXERCISES

I. Determine what type of reasoning (Deductive or Inductive Reasoning) are the following
statements.

1. Elephants have cells in their bodies and all cells have DNA. Therefore, elephants have DNA.
2. Every cat that you've observed purrs. Therefore, all cats must purr.
3. The children in that house yell loudly when they play in their bedroom. I can hear children
yelling in that house. Therefore, the children must be playing in their bedroom.
4. All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with a 5, so it must be
divisible by 5.
5. The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the dining room is red. The chair in the bedroom
is red. All the chairs in the house are red.
6. John is an excellent swimmer. His family has a swimming pool. John's sister Mary must also be
an excellent swimmer.
7. Ray is a football player. All the other football players on the high school team weigh more than
170 pounds. Therefore, Ray must weigh more than 170 pounds.
 8. All horses have manes. The Arabian is a horse; therefore, Arabians have manes.
9. Practically every house on South Street is falling apart. Sherry lives on South Street. Her house is
probably falling apart.
10. Cacti are plants and all plants perform photosynthesis; therefore, cacti perform photosynthesis.

II.

III. Change the following statements into inductive or deductive reasoning.

1. Inductive Reasoning: Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. This
snowstorm must be coming from the north.
Deductive Reasoning: ?

2. Deductive Reasoning: Maximillian is a shelter dog. All shelter dogs are happy. Therefore, he is
happy.
Inductive Reasoning: ?

KENKEN PUZZLES