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NOUNS- name of anything that exists or that can be conceived, referring to a person, place, thing or

idea

Common nouns are general


Ex. neighbor, girl, street, country
Proper nouns are specific
Ex. Mr. Reyes, Danica, Commonwealth Avenue, Philippines

Collective nouns name groups


Ex. team, crowd, organization, club

Mass nouns cannot be counted


Ex. hair, sugar, water, sand, stars

Concrete nouns exist in the physical world


Ex. flower, chair, bag, bottle

Abstract nouns refer to ideas and feelings


Ex. love, independence, honesty

Compound nouns are made up of more than one word.

Separated Hyphenated Combined

trash bag sergeant-at- buttonhole


arms
guardian self- control railway
angel

Rules in forming the plural of nouns


1. Most noun add s to the singular form.
Ex. boy + s = boys
room + s = rooms

2. Nouns ending in a hissing sound (s, ch, sh, x or z) add es.


Ex. box-boxes
church- churches
match- matches

3. Most nouns ending in f or fe change f to ve before adding s.


Ex. calf- calves
knife- knives
leaf- leaves
4. Most nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant sound change y to I and add es.
Ex. city- cities
lady- ladies
reply- replies

5. Nouns ending in y after a vowel add s.


Ex. key- keys
alley- alleys
monkey- monkeys

6. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es.


Ex. cargo- cargoes
tomato- tomatoes
hero- heroes

7. A few very common nouns add en or change the vowel or remain unchanged.
Ex. ox- oxen
child- children
sheep- sheep

8. Most
Nominative Objective Possessive

Case Case Case

SINGULAR

First Person I me my, mine

Second Person you you your, yours

Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers

PLURAL

First Person we us our, ours

Second Person you you your, yours

Third Person They them their, theirs

compound nouns add s or es to the principal words of the compound.

Ex. bookcase- bookcases


runner- up – runners- up
9. A few nouns are regularly plural in form but singular in meaning.
Ex. statistics
mathematics
economics
news

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns or for words that take the place of nouns.

Ex. he, they, ours, those

Cases of Pronouns

 Nominative Case:

- Use the nominative case for the subject of a verb

Ex:

He is the conductor of the band.

I will wait only a few minutes.

 Objective Case

- used as objects of the verbs.

Ex:

Our teacher praised her.

Alice gave us the tickets.

 Possessive Case

- Use the possessive case before nouns to show ownership.

Ex:

My shoes do not fit properly.

The principal visited our class.

Reflexive Pronouns
- ends in –self or –selves and adds information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or
pronoun earlier in the sentence

Examples:

Michael taught himself to play the piano.

Gloria bought herself a new pair of jeans.

Intensive Pronouns

- ends in –self or –selves and simply adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same
sentence.

Examples:

The president himself attended the gala opening.

We spliced the film ourselves..

Demonstrative Pronoun:

this (singular) used to point near object


these (plural) used to point near objects
that (singular) used to point far object
those (plural) used to point far objects

Indefinite Pronoun:
singular- any, anybody, nobody, none, no one, anyone, each, everybody, one, someone, somebody,
every, either, neither
plural- all, some, few, both, several, many

Adjectives are words that describe, limit or modify nouns and pronouns. They answer the questions
“Which one?”, “What kind?”, and “ How many?”
Ex. warm, quick, tall, blue, interesting

The Use of Adjectives


A noun modifier is usually placed directly before the noun it describes.
Ex. He is an intelligent man.
The silver ornament was in the
window.

An adjective may also come after the noun or pronoun it modifies.


Ex. The ornament in the window
was silver.

Proper Adjectives
- is a proper noun used as an adjective or an adjective formed from a proper noun.

Ex:

Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives

Vermont Vermont cheddar What kind of cheddar?

Brahms The Brahms symphony Which symphony?

Degrees of Adjectives:
Positive Comparative Superlative
rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

(Only the comparative and superlative show degrees. We use the comparative for comparing two
things and the superlative for comparing three or more things)

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:

Irregular Comparative Superlative


good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much, many more most

Determiners- a, an, the


one, two, three (cardinal)
first, second, third (ordinal)
Observation- beautiful, interesting, difficult
Size - tall, wide, large, high, narrow
Shape - - round, rectangular, circular
Age - young, old, new, ancient
Color - red, black, pale
Origin - French, American, Canadian
Material - woolen, metallic, wooden
Qualifier - rocking chair, passenger car
Possessive Adjectives
- modify a noun by telling whom it belongs to
- answer the question “Whose?”
- include his, her, its, my, our, their and your
e.g. You can share my rice.
Have you seen their house?

2. Demonstrative Adjectives
- include that, these, this, those and answer the question “Which?”
- used to modify a noun or pronoun
e.g.
I’m going to open that present.
Those socks look warm.

Indefinite Adjectives
- gives indefinite or general information
- often, it answers the question “how much?”
- includes all, any, each, every, few, many and some
e.g.
Many children like dinosaurs.
Did you want some bananas?

Adverbs
- modifier of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
- indicates manner, time, place, cause or degree and answers the questions such as “how”, “when”,
“where”, ”how much”

Adverbs of Manner(how)
- provides information on how someone does something
- placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence).
e.g. Jack drives very carefully.
Their teacher speaks quickly.

Adverbs of Time(when)
- provides information on when something happens
(tomorrow, next week, tonight)
e.g. We’ll let you know our
decision next week.
It rained hard last night.

Adverbs of Frequency (how often)


- usually come before the main verb
e.g. He is often late for class.
Do you always eat in a
restaurant?

Adverbs of Place (where)


e.g.
Let us meet in the restaurant.
Conjunction

- is a word used to connect other words or group of words.

 coordinating conjunctions

 subordinating conjunctions

 correlative conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

- connect similar kinds of words.

o and

o but

o for

o nor

o or

o so

o yet

Subordinating Conjunctions

- connect to complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to or less important
than the other.

o after even though

o although if

o as if in order that

o as long as now that

o because unless

o since whenever

Correlative Conjunctions-

- pairs of conjunctions that are used together

both…and
either… or
neither… nor
not only… but also
whether… or
The Simple Present Tense
- is used to describe an action, an event, or condition that is occurring in the present, at the
moment of speaking or writing

To describe an action that takes place in the present:


1. Polong annoys Sara by turning pages too quickly.
2. Grace chews her nails

To express habitual action, event or condition:


1. Allan Peter goes to school everyday.
2. Lenny visits her relatives every summer.

To express general truths such as scientific fact, as in the following sentences:


1. Rectangles have four sides.
2. The earth rotates on its own axis.

The Present Progressive


- emphasises the continuing nature of an act, event, or condition.

Leila is looking for the paperback novels of Sidney Sheldon.


2. Gloria is attending a meeting.

The Present Perfect Tense


- used to describe action that began in the past and continues into the present or has just been
completed at the moment of utterance. The present perfect is often used to suggest that a past
action still has an effect upon something happening in the present.

1.The heat wave has lasted three weeks.


2. Rodrigo has dreamt about frogs sitting in trees every night

The Present Perfect Progressive


- used to describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and continues into the
present.

I have been living here since 1991.


2. Mar has been reading for two hours.

The Simple Past Tense


- used to describe an action, an event, or condition that occurred in the past, sometime before the
moment of speaking or writing. It began and ended at a specific time in the past

1.A flea jumped from the dog to the cat.

2. Antonio went home yesterday.


The Past Progressive
- to describe actions on-going in the past. The on-going actions took place and were completed at
some point well before the time of speaking or writing.

The cat was walking along the tree branch.


2. When the recess bell rang, Noynoy was writing a long division problem on the board.

Subject- Verb Agreement

Rule 1
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.
Example:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

Rule 2
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular verb as in Rule 1.
Examples:
Neither Clark nor Lea is available.
Either Yna or Angelo is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3
When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second and follow
it with the singular verb am.
Example:
Neither she nor I am going to the festival.

Rule 4
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject last
and use a plural verb.
Example:
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.

Rule 5
When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural
subject last and use a plural verb.
Example:
Neither Norma nor the others are available

Rule 6
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Example:
A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

Rule 7
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides,
or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.

Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 8
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and
somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Every one of the cakes is gone.

Rule 9
With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder,
and so forth —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether
to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If
the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Pie is the object of the preposition of.

Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.


Pies is the object of the preposition.

One-third of the city is unemployed.


One-third of the people are unemployed.

Rule 10
The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is
followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.

Rule 11
When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
Examples:
Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.

Rule 12
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place.
In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.

Rule 13
Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
Examples:
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

Rule 14
Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in
the sentence.
Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit here.

Pronoun- Antecedent
Agreement

Indefinite pronouns as antecedents


Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents.
Singular:
each, either, neither, one, no one, nobody, nothing, anyone, anybody, anything, someone,
somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything

Example:
Each of the clerks does a good deal of work around his or her office.

Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.


PLURAL: several, few, both, many

Example:
Both do a good job in their office.

Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be either singular or
plural.
EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most

When the object of the preposition is uncountable- use a singular referent pronoun.
Example
Some of the sugar fell out of its bag

When the object of the preposition is countable- use a plural referent pronoun.
Example:
Some of the marbles fell out of their bag.

2. Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.


Example:
Jones and Smith made their presentation.

3. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with the antecedent
closer to the pronoun.

Example #1 (plural antecedent closer to pronoun):

Neither the director nor the actors did their jobs.

Example #2 (singular antecedent closer to pronoun):


Neither the actors nor the director did his or her job.

4.Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on
meaning.
Examples:
The jury read its verdict.
The jury members gave their individual opinions.

5. Titles of single entities. (books, organizations, countries) take a singular referent.


Examples:
The Grapes of Wrath made its characters seem real.
The United States cherishes its democracy.

6.Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent. (news, measles, mumps,
physics, etc)
Examples:
The news has lost much of its sting two days later.

7. Every or Many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular referent.


Examples:
Every cow, pig, and horse had lost its life in the fire.
Many a girl wishes she could sing like Tina Turner.

8. The number of vs. A number of before a subject:


The number of is singular.
Example:
The number of volunteers increases its ranks daily.
A number of is singular.
Example:
A number of volunteers are offering their help

Fragments

 A fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but is in fact only part of a
sentence. It does not express a complete thought and is generally an error in writing.

Examples:

a box of chocolates

which recalled a time of carefree days

must have abandoned by someone

Run- on Sentence/Fused Sentence

 A run- on sentence is a combination of two sentences without a punctuation to divide the


ideas presented in them. In the example below, notice that there are two sentences that are
merged as one, resulting in a run-on sentence.

Example:

The sun is high put on some sunblock (Faulty)

The sun is high, put on some sunblock.

Compounding
- two base words and affixes that are added before or after the root word.

Ex.

doorway chalkboard

high rise stairway

Blending

- words are shortened and combined

Ex.

brunch (breakfast + lunch)

smog (smoke + fog)

comlab (computer + laboratory)

Shifting

- the meaning or usage of a word is changed

Ex.

host (n) host (v)

record (n) record (v)

present (n) present (v)

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