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Choppers
Introduction
A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output
voltage directly. A chopper can be said as dc equivalent of an AC transformer as they
behave in an identical manner. This kind of choppers are more efficient as they involve one
stage conversion. Just like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step up or step down the
fixed dc output voltage.
Choppers are used in many applications all over the world inside various electronic
equipment’s. A chopper system has a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth control.
The Power semiconductor devices used for a chopper circuit can be Power MOSFET, Power
BJT, GTO or forced commutated thyristor. These devices can be represented by a switch SW
with an arrow on it. When the switch is on, current flows in the direction of arrow only and
voltage drops across these devices is neglected.
DC-DC converter will transfer the DC power from one circuit to another from fixed voltage to
variable voltage & vice-versa depending on application
Application
(1) DC to DC converters are used in speed control of DC Motor specially in position control in
robotics applications
(2) In regulated power supply (SMPS circuit)
(3) To provide input power to inverter
(4) Solar power converter
Note:
We cannot switch ON the switch. So C,L will damage because C is voltage stiff and L is
current stiff elements.
Element Source
Vstiff Istiff
Vstiff X
Istiff X
In Place of S2: It is preferable to use uncontrolled switch i.e. diode in order to provide free
wheeling path for inductor current.
In Place of S1: If we use SCR it is difficult to turn it off as the source is DC and hence
commutation of SCR is difficult. In order to turn it off, it requires additional commutation
circuit. Transistor family devices is most suitable for switches in place of S1, these are IGBT,
BJT, MOSFET. In case of IGBT and MOSFET body diodes are not necessary, in other words
switches are unipolar and unidirectional in nature.
Types of Choppers
Assuming high value of capacitance which maintains almost constant output voltage.
The main working principle of buck converter is that the inductor in the input circuit resists
sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy in the form
of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The capacitor in the output
circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the output stage is
high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures a constant output
voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant)
For R load
SW is on (0<t<DT) SW is on (0<t<DT)
diL diL
KVL: L Vs V0 KVL: L V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C i KCL: C i
dt R L dt R L
Volt-sec balance equation across inductor
diL di
L DT L L 1 D T Vs V0 DT V0 1 D T
dt dt
This should be zero because in one time period change in inductor current is zero
V0 DVs as D<1, V0 Vs
Vs Is V0 I0 => Is DI0
To draw iL
For 0<t<DT For 0<t<DT
V V0 V
diL s dt diL 0 dt
L L
V0
V V0
iL s
t ILmin iL ILmax
L
t DT
L
KCL: iC iL I0
Vs
ILmax
4Lf
The peak-peak ripple current can be minimized by selecting large inductance, once the
circuit is designed the ripple current can be controlled by increasing the switching
frequency i.e. if the switch is operated with high switch frequency then ripple can be
minimized, therefore MOSFET or IGBT are preferable for DC-DC converter.
IL I
ILmax IL and ILmin IL L
2 2
I I
IL Lmax Lmin
2
dV0 1
For maximum value 0 =>1-2D=0 D= or 50%
dD 2
Vs
V0max
32LCf 2
For continuous conduction, waveform will remain same for RL & RLE load
V0 DVS
for R,RL & RLE
V0 DVS
V0 Eb DVs Eb
I0 (For RLE Load)
Ra Ra
DVS
I0 (For R& RL Load)
R
I
0 avg
DI0
I
d avg
I 0 1 D
(i) 0 t TON
S1 ON
di0
VS Eb R ai0 La
dt
i0
V S
Eb t
Ta
t
Ta
1 e Ke
Ra
La
Ta
Ra
i0
V S
Eb t
Ta
t
Ta
1 e Imine
Ra
At t tON ;i0 imax
(ii) Ton t T
S1 OFF,S2 ON
di0
0 i0R a L 0 Eb
dt
di0
Eb i0R a L 0
dt
Eb
i0
Ra
t T
t T
1 e a Ke a
Eb
i0
Ra
t T
t T
1 e a Imax e a
at t toff
Eb
Imax
Ra
t
1 e off
Ta
I max
e
toff Ta
....................(ii)
By solving equations (i) & (ii), we can compute Imax & Imin
T
ON
Vs 1 e Ta Eb
Imax R ....................(iii)
R a T
Ta
1 e
a
TON
Vs e Ta 1 Eb
Imin R ....................(iv)
R a T Ta
e 1
a
Ripple current
T
ON
TON
VS 1 e Ta e Ta 1
I0 Imax Imin T
Ra T
e 1
Ta Ta
1e
TON T TON T TOFF T ON
T
Ta
T
ON e a
1 e a
e a
T
ON 1 e T
VS 1 e Ta
VS 1 e Ta OFF
e Ta
I0
Ra T
Ta T Ta T Ta Ra
T
1 e Ta T
Ta
1e e 1 e 1 e
T
T
T
1 T
ON OFF Ta
Ta
1 e Ta
1 e
Ta
1e 1 e
V V
I0 S S
Ra T
T Ra T
T
1e a 1e a
For getting conduction for maximum ripple current, differentiate above equation w.r.t. D and
equate it to zero
dI0
0 D 0.5
dD
I
Vs 1 e
a
1e
0.5T T
0.5T Ta
0 max
Ra T T
1e a
Vs T
I
0 max
Ra
tanh
4Ta
tanh x x
Vs T V
I
0 max
s
R a 4Ta 4fL a
Vs
I
0 max
D 0.5
4fL a
I0 as f &L a
As load inductive increases, ripple current decreases, smoothly reactors or filter are used.
We can also reduce ripple current by increasing the chopping frequency without
increasing size of filter
SMPS operate on same chopper principle
If D D' (Discontinuous)
D D' (Continuous)
Imin 0 At t=T
TON
VS e Ta 1 Eb
R a T Ta R 0
e 1
a
TON
e
Ta
1 Eb E
m m b (say)
T
Ta Ra Vs
e 1
TON
Ta TT
e 1 m e a 1
TON
Ta TT
e 1 m e a 1
T
Ta ln 1 m e Ta 1
TON
TON
T TT
D' a ln 1 m e a 1
T T
Boundary Condition
Continuous operation
At the boundary between continuous and discontinuous mode, the inductor current iL goes
to zero at the end of the off period.
I C
At this boundary average inductor current is IL
2
Critical Inductance LC
It is the value of inductance at which the inductor current waveform is just discontinuous
IC DVS DT 1 D VS
IL =>
2 R 2LC
LC
1 D R
2f
Critical Resistance RC
2Lf
RC
1 D
Critical capacitance CC
It is the value of capacitance at which capacitance voltage waveform is just discontinuous
VC
V0
2
D 1 D VS
DVS
16f 2L CCC
CC
1 D or CC
1
16f L C
2
8fR
Discontinuous operation
In this mode current through inductor goes to zero i.e. inductor is completely discharged
before the end of switching cycle.
For 0<t<DT
V V0
iL t s t
L
V V0
If t=DT => ILmax s DT
L
For DT<t<βT
V0
iL t ILmax t DT
L
If t= βT => iL t 0
V0
ILmax
L
T DT
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Power Electronics (Choppers)
Vs V0 V0
DT T DT
L L
D
V0 Vs ; T> βT or β<1
In discontinuous mode V0 Vs
Solved Examples
Problem: A dc to dc transistor chopper supplied from a fixed voltage dc source feeds a fixed
resistive–inductive load and a free – wheeling diode. The chopper operates at 1kHz and 50%
duty cycle. Without changing the value of the average dc current through the load, if it is
desired to reduce the ripple constant of load current, the control action needed will be
(a) Increase the chopper frequency keeping its duty cycle constant
(b) Increase the chopper frequency and duty cycle in equal ratio
(c) Decrease only the chopper frequency
(d) Decrease only the duty cycle
V0
Solution: The average d.c. current through the load I0 and V0 DVS .
R
VS
Ripple =
4fL
If duty cycle ‘D’ changes average value of output current and voltage changes. So ‘D’ should
be maintained constant. Current ripple can be decreased by increasing chopping frequency.
Problem: A step down, chopper operates from a dc voltage source Vs feeds a dc motor
armature with a back e.m.f Eb. From oscilloscope traces, it is found that the current increases
for time tr falls to zero over time tF, and remains zero for time to in every chopping cycle, then
the average dc voltage across the freewheeling diode is
V E 60 12
IP = S TON = 3
0.2 10 3 = 0.48A
L 20 10
Problem: Figure shows a chopper operating from a 100 V dc input. The duty ratio of the
main switch S is 0.8. The load is sufficiently inductive so that the load current in ripple free.
The average current through the diode D under steady state is
During chopper operation, switch ‘s’ conducts during Turn ON time (TON) and diode (D)
conducts during turn OFF time (TOFF).
TOFF (1 D)T
Average Current through diode (IDA) =IO = Io Io (1 D) = 8(1-0.8)= 1.6A
T T
The main working principle of boost converter is that the inductor in the input circuit resists
sudden variations in input current. When switch is OFF the inductor stores energy in the form
of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The capacitor in the output
circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the output stage is
high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures a constant output
voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant)
For R Load
SW is ON ( 0<t<DT ) SW is off ( DT<t<T )
VSW 0 ; VD V0 VSW V0 ; VD 0
diL diL
KVL: L Vs KVL: L Vs V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C 0 KCL: C i
dt R dt R L
Volt-sec balance equation across inductor
diL di
L DT L L 1 D T Vs DT Vs V0 1 D T
dt dt
This should be zero because in one time period change in inductor current is zero
Vs
V0 V0 Vs
1 D as D<1 :
Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor
dv 0 dv V V
C DT C 0 1 D T 0 DT IL 0 1 D T
dt dt R R
This should be zero because in one time period change in capacitor voltage is zero
V0 Vs
IL
R 1 D R 1 D
2
V0 I0 I0
Vs Is V0 I0 => Is
Vs 1 D
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Power Electronics (Choppers)
Note:- If the boost converter operates with a duty cycle ratio of 1 then the average output
voltage will be zero because when D=1, the switch will be closed permanently inductor
current will keep on increase and finally it will reach the saturation. In output side capacitor
should deliver power to the load. As capacitor is passive element it can’t deliver power to the
load continuously & finally the output voltage will be zero.
To draw iL
For 0<t<DT For DT<t<T
diL Vs diL Vs V0
dt L dt L
V V
iL
Vs
L
t ILmin iL ILmax
s
L
0
t DT
Vs
iL t ILmin
L
At t=DT, iL ILmax
Vs
ILmax
L
DT ILmin
Vs
IL
L
DT
IL is maximum when D is maximum, that means ripple in inductance current is maximum
when D=1
IL I
ILmax IL and ILmin IL L
2 2
I I
IL Lmax Lmin
2
Boundary conditions
Continuous operation
At the boundary between continuous and discontinuous mode, the inductor current iL goes
to zero at the end of the off period.
I C
At this boundary average inductor current is IL
2
Critical Inductance LC
It is the value of inductance at which the inductor current waveform is just discontinuous
IC VS VSDT
IL =>
2 1 D R 2LC
2
D 1 D R
2
LC
2f
Critical Resistance RC
2Lf
RC
D 1 D
2
Critical capacitance CC
It is the value of capacitance at which capacitance voltage waveform is just discontinuous
VC I DT
V0 => I0R 0
2 2CC
D
CC
2fR
Discontinuous operation
In this mode current through inductor goes to zero i.e. inductor is completely discharged
before the end of switching cycle.
For 0<t<DT
Vs
iL (t) t
L
Vs
At t=DT; iL ILmax
L
DT
For DT<t<βT
V V0
iL ILmax s t DT
L
At t T, iL (t) 0
Vs V V0
0
L
DT s T DT
L
V0 Vs
D
SW is ON (0<t<DT)
diL
KVL : riL L Vs
dt
dv 0 V0
KCL : C 0
dt R
SW is OFF (DT<t<T)
diL
KVL : riL L Vs V0
dt
dv 0 V0
KCL : C i
dt R L
di di
riL DT riL 1 D T L L DT L L 1 D T Vs DT Vs V0 1 D T
dt dt
Average voltage across inductor =o
Vs rIL V0 1 D ............(a)
dv 0 dv V V
C DT C 0 1 D 0 DT 0 1 D T 0.DT IL 1 D T
dt dt R R
average current across capacitor = 0
V0
T IL 1 D T
R
V0
IL
R 1 D
Maximum value of V0
dV0
For maximum value 0
dD
r 2
R 1 D ( 1) 1 D 0 2 1 D 0
r
Dmax 1
R
Vs R
V0 at Dmax => V0max
2 r
Solved Examples
Problem: In the circuit shown in the figure, the switch is operated at a duty cycle of 0.5. A
large capacitor is connected across the load. The inductor current is assumed to be
continuous.
The average voltage across the load and the average current through the diode will
respectively be
Problem: A step up chopper has input voltage of 220V and output voltage of 660V. If the
non-conducting time of thyristor-chopper is 100µs, compute the pulse width of output
voltage and in case pulse width is halved for constant frequency operation, find the new
output voltage.
T'on 100 1
D'= =
T 300 3
220
New output voltage V0 = 330V
1
1- 3
than/less than the input voltage. By law of conservation of energy the input power has to be
equal to output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).
In step up mode Vin < Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current
will be less than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step up mode
Vin < Vout and Iin >Iout
In step down mode Vin > Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be greater than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step
down mode
Vin >Vout and Iin <Iout
The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the input circuit
resists sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy from
the input in the form of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The
capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in
the output stage is high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures that
in steady state a constant output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant) exists across load terminals.
For R load
Vsw 0 ; VD Vs V0 Vsw Vs V0 ; VD 0
diL diL
KVL: L Vs KVL: L V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C 0 KCL: C i
dt R dt R L
Under ideal condition input & output powers are equal Ploss 0
Pin P0
V0 I0 DI0
Vs Is V0 I0 => Is
Vs 1 D
To draw iL
0<t<DT DT<t<T
diL V diL V0
s
dt L dt L
V0
iL (t)
Vs
t ILmin iL t ILmax t DT
L L
Boundary condition
Continuous conduction
At the boundary between continuous and discontinuous mode, the inductor current iL goes
to zero at the end of the off period.
I C
At this boundary average inductor current is IL
2
Critical Inductance LC
It is the value of inductance at which the inductor current waveform is just discontinuous
IC DVs VSDT
IL =>
2 R 1 D 2L C
2
1 D
2
R
LC
2f
Critical Resistance RC
2Lf
RC
1 D
2
Critical capacitance CC
It is the value of capacitance at which capacitance voltage waveform is just discontinuous
VC I DT
V0 => I0R 0
2 2CC
D
CC
2fR
Discontinuous conduction
In this mode current through inductor goes to zero i.e. inductor is completely discharged
before the end of switching cycle.
For 0<t<DT
Vs
iL (t) t
L
Vs
At t=DT; iL ILmax
L
DT
For DT<t<βT
V
iL ILmax 0 t DT
L
At t T, iL (t) 0
Vs V
0
L
DT 0 T DT
L
D
V0 Vs
D
In Buck-Boost converter, also the average output voltage is strongly influenced by internal
resistance of inductor
SW is ON ( 0<t<DT )
diL
KVL : riL L Vs
dt
Cdv 0 V
KCL : 0 0
dt R
SW is OFF ( DT<t<T )
diL
KVL : riL L V0
dt
Cdv 0 V0
KCL : iL
dt R
riL VD
s
V0 1 D ............(1)
Cdv 0 Cdv 0 V V
DT 1 D T 0 DT 0 1 D T 0.DT iL 1 D T
dt dt R R
V0
IL 1 D ................(2)
R
From eq. (1) & (2)
D 1 D
V0 Vin ; If D=1, V0 0
r 1 D 2
R
1
If 0 D V0 Vdc Buck converter
2
1
If D Dmax V0 Vdc Boost converter
2
Maximum value of V0
dV0
For maximum value 0
dD
r r r
Dmax 1 1
R R R
Vs R
V0 (max) 1 1
2 r
Source current is highly discontinuous in Boost & Buck-Boost converter due to presence
of switch at source side because of this source will have more switching harmonics. To
eliminate these harmonics, buck & buck-boost converters require source filter where as in
boost converter, the input itself inductor acts as source filter.
Buck converter
Boost converter
ON state OFF state
diL
L vs diL
dt L vs v0
dt
dv 0 v 0 dv 0 v 0
C 0 C iL
dt R dt R
diL 1 diL 1 1
0 iL 0 v 0 v s 0 iL v 0 v s
dt L dt L L
dv 0 1 dv 0 1 1
0 iL v 0 0 v s iL v 0 0 v s
dt RC dt C RC
0 0 1
0
A1 L
0 1 A2
1 1
RC
C RC
1 1
B1 L & C1 01 B2 C & C2 01
0 0
1 D
0 1
A L B L C 01
1 D 1
0
C RC
Buck-boost converter
dv 0 v 0 dv 0 v 0
C 0 C iL
dt R dt R
diL 1 diL 1
0 iL 0 v 0 v s 0 iL v 0 0 v s
dt L dt L
dv 0 1 dv 0 1
0 iL v 0 0 v s 0 iL v 0 0 v s
dt RC dt RC
0 0 1
A1 0
0 1 A2 L
RC 1 1
C RC
1
B1 L & C1 01 0
B2 & C2 01
0 0
A A1D A 2 1 D B B1D B2 1 D C C1D C2 1 D
1 D
0 D
A L B L C 01
1 D 1
0
C RC
Type A chopper
V0 0,i0 0
S1 OFF
Path A B D1 A
V0 0,i0 0
DT
1
V0
T V
0
dc
dt DVdc
1
1 DT 2 2
Vor
Vdc dt Vdc D
T 0
Vor2 1
RF FF2 1 1 1
V D
2
o
AC ripple voltage = Vor
2
Vo2
2Vdc
v 0 (t) V0
n2 n
sin nD sin n t
sin 2nD
Where V0 DVdc and tan
1
1 cos 2nD
The power flow in Type-A chopper is always from source to load. This chopper is also
called step-down chopper as average output voltage is always less than the input voltage.
Type-B chopper
S2 is ON
V0 0
i0 : B A
S2 is OFF
V0 0
i0 0 : B A D2 Vdc B
The DC machine cannot start from rest conduction with type-B topology. In order to start
the circuit, the machine should have stored energy initially by running in Type-A Topology
In type-B topology, the power will flow back from load to source, therefore, this topology
is preferable for braking application
Type-B considered as Boost converter or step-up chopper
Both Type-A and Type-B chopper configuration have a common negative terminal
between their input and output circuits.
Type-C Chopper
This chopper is obtained by connecting Type-A and Type-B chopper in parallel.
Type B S2 ,D2
Type-A (S1, D1)
Type-D Chopper
In this chopper both switches are operate together.
S3 ,S 4 are ON
V0 0
I0 0 : Vs S3 A B S 4 Vs
S3 ,S 4 are OFF
Since, current through inductor doesn’t change
instantaneously. So it flows in other diode
V0 0
I0 0 : A B D3 Vdc D 4 A
Type-E chopper
It conducts in all four quadrants
2 type D chopper
(1) Vdc ,S1S2 ,D3D 4 load
S1 ,S 4 are ON
V0 0
I0 0 : Vs S1 A B S 4 Vs
S1 ,S 4 are OFF
V0 0
I0 0 : A B D3 Vdc D2 A
S3 ,S2 are ON
V0 0
I0 0 : Vs B A S2 Vs
I0 0 : B A D1 Vs D 4 B
Solved Examples
Problem: For Type-A chopper DC source voltage=230V, load resistance =10Ω. Take a
voltage drop of 2V across chopper when it is ON. For a duty cycle of 0.4, calculate average
and rms value of output voltage and also calculate chopper efficiency
Solution: When chopper is ON, output voltage is (Vs-2) volts and during the chopper is off,
output voltage is zero.
Average output voltage D Vs - 2 0.4 228 91.2V
RMS value of output voltage = D Vs - 2 0.4 228 144.19V
144.19
2
V2
Power delivered to the load P0 0r 2079.07W
R 10
91.2
Power input to chopper Pi Vs I0 230 2097.6W
10
P0 2079.07
Chopper frequency= 100 99.16%
Pi 2097.6
Problem: In a type -A chopper, given that source voltage=100 V d.c. On-period = 100 s,
Off-period = 150 s and load R = 2, L = 5 mH with back emf E = 10 V connected in series
for continuous conduction, average output voltage and average output current will be
respectively
70 90%
Weight is less
Applicable for 700W
The drawback with SMPS is that they will produce electromagnetic interference with
nearby commutate circuits
Uni-directional
1st Quadrant
Fly back converter or Isolated Buck Boost converter [ Buck + Boost + Transformer ]
Forward converters or Isolated Buck converter [ Buck + Transformer ]
These are DC DC converter with isolation transformer
Bi-directional
1st & 3rd Quadrant
push pull converter
full bridge converter inverter circuits
Half bridge converter
In a normal transformer current enter the dot ii primary & leaves the dot in secondary to
generate secondary flux in opposition to primary flux.
When SW is ON
Vpr Vs
N2
Vsec Vs
N1
N
VD V0 Vs 2
N1
Current cannot leave the dot in secondary here as diode will not allow that.
Vsec V0
Vsec Vs Vpr
When switch is OFF, I1 0 & to avoid sudden collapse of flux in the core, the secondary
current should flow in such a way that the flux has to be in same direction as of primary
winding so I 2 also enters the dot in secondary.
Express for V0
V S / turn Pr imary : V S / turn Secondary
Vdc DT V0 1 D T
N1 N2
D N2
V0 Vdc
1 D N1
Solved Examples
Problem: A fly buck converter has to be designed to operate in just continuous mode, when
i/p dc is at its minimum expected voltage of 20V. When the load draws maximum power, the
N1
load voltage is regulated at 16V. What should be of transformer of switch duty ratio is
N2
limited to 80%?
V0 D N N
1 => 1 50 : 1
Vdc 1 D N2 N2
Problem: The average output voltage of a fly back converter is 24V, at a resistive load of 0.8
, D=0.5 & fswitch 1KHz , the ON. State voltage drop of transistor VT 1.2V & Vd 0.7V ,
the turns ratio of transformer is 0.25, then ?
24 30
96%
100 7.5
Ideal, r or im 0
R0
No leakage
When switch is ON
Voltage in primary winding= Vs
N2
Voltage in secondary winding= Vs
N1
di2 N
L VL Vs 2 V0
dt N1
N2
VDF Vs
N1
VL V0
Voltage-sec balance for L
N2
Vs V0 DT V0 1 D T 0
N1
current in addition to i2 & since switch is open, thus energy needs to be recovered from
primary winding through a tertiary winding in fly back topology
When switch is ON
Voltage in primary winding= Vs
N2
Voltage in secondary winding= Vs
N1
N3
Voltage in tertiary winding= Vs
N1
N2 N
VD3 Vs Vs Vs 1 2
N1 N1
N2
VDF Vs
N1
When switch is OFF
Voltage in tertiary winding= Vs
N1
Voltage in primary winding= Vs
N3
Voltage in secondary winding=
N1 N
VSW Vs Vs Vs 1 1
N3 N3
N2
VD2 Vs
N3
N2
V0 Vs D
N1
In forward converter, the duty cycle ratio will be divided based on the turn’s ratio in primary
& tertiary winding as follows
V S / turn Pr imary V S / turn tertiary
D N
1
1 D N3
N1
Dmax
N1 N3
Solved Examples
Problem: Find maximum voltage stress of switch in primary winding & diode in tertiary
winding of forward converter, it has 10 primary turns & 15 tertiary turns & Vin 300V
N 10
Solution: VSW 300 1 1 300 1 =500V
N3 15
Commutation Techniques
Chopper consists of main power semiconductor device together with their turn-on and turn-
off mechanisms. In low power circuits; power transistors, GTOs etc. are being used widely. In
high power levels, however, thyristor are in common use.
Conducting thyristor can be turn off by reducing its anode current below holding current
value and then applying a reverse voltage across the device to enable it to regain its forward
blocking capabilities.
Forced commutation
In forced commutation, external elements L and C which do not carry the load current
continuously, are used to turn-off a conducting thyristor.
Ex. Inverter DC AC
Chopper DC DC
Cyclo converter (Step-down)
2. Current commutation: External pulse of current greater than the load current is passed
in the reversed direction through the conducting SCR. When the current pulse attains a
value equal to the load current, net pulse current through thyristor becomes zero and the
device is turned off. The current pulse is usually generated by an initially charged
capacitor.
Load commutation
In Load commutation, a conducting thyristor is turned off when load current flowing a
thyristor either;
This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative voltage
will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the SCR turns
off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR. That is the reason that
this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation
Ex. Rectifiers AC DC
AC Voltage Controller
Cycloconverters (Step-down)
For π to 2π
T OFF, I0 0
VT VE
tc
Circuit turn off time t c
Classification of Forced Commutation Technique
In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding
current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the
supply voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through
the SCR reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a
capacitor in series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped.
The essential condition in both the circuit is that both should be under damped.
This type of commutation is used in series inverters
4L V t
R2 for under damped oscillations and current I0 s e sin r t
C rL
R
Damping factor,
2L
1 R2
Ringing frequency, r 20 2
LC 4L2
1
If R=0, 0 r 0 I0 Ip sin 0 t
LC
C
Ip Vs
L
Thyristor conducts for a period of
0 t => t
0
Assumption
1. Vc t 0 Vs
2. Load=highly inductive I0 constant
3. TM ON (t<0)
Mode-1
v C VS cos 0 t
C
IP VS
L
Mode-2
I
t2 LC sin1 0
IP
Important formulas
1. i
M peak
I0
C
2. iA peak
IP Vs
L
3. Conduction time of TA LC
I
4. Time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON LC LC sin1 0
I
P
5. Maximum time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON LC
3
6. Maximum time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON LC when I0 IP
2
Capacitor voltage at end of second mode
I
v C VS cos 0 t2 VS cos 0 t2 VS cos sin1 0
IP
If VR is reverse voltage magnitude across the capacitor at the end of 2nd mode
I
VR VS cos sin1 0
IP
Mode-3
Solved Examples
Solution: 2 antiparallel devices cannot conducts simultaneously because the voltage drop of
the conducting devices applies a reverse voltage across the other device
So, D 2 will not turn ON until TM is ON so 1st 2modes are same & hence commutation is
possible
D 2 ON
iC I0 iD2
iD2 iC I0
When iC I0 ;iD2 0 , D 2 turns OFF
Mode-4
IC I0
tCM t3 LC 2t2
I
tCM 2 sin1 0 LC
IP
Application
This type of commutation technique is used in step down chopper. Therefore, it is known as
current commutated chopper.
In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads. Two SCRs
are used and firing of one SCR turns off the other.
Assume
VC t 0 Vs
T2 ON & T1 OFF t 0
Mode-1
At t=0, T1 ON
iT1 iR1 iC
Vs 2Vs t/R2C
iT1 e
R1 R2
Steady Transient
State
VC VS 2et/R2C 1
At t t c2
VC 0
VC VS 2e tc /R2c
2
1 0
tc2 R 2Cln(2)
Mode-2
At t=t2, T2 ON
VS 2VS t /R1C
iT2 iR2 iC e
R 2 R1
VC VS 1 2e t /R1C
At t t c1
VC 0
VS 2e
tc /R1c
1
1 0
t c1 R1Cln(2)
Important Formulas
V 2VS
1. i
T1 peak
S
R 2
R1
V 2VS
2. i
T2 peak
S
R1
R2
3. t C2 R 2C ln(2)
4. t C1 R1C ln(2)
5. C
tc2
& C
tc1
& C
SF tq & C SF tq
R 2 ln(2) R1 ln(2) R 2 ln(2) R1 ln(2)
Here, we get 2 different value of capacitance & we must consider highest value to make
commutation possible
Application:
This type of commutation technique is used in current source inverter & parallel inverter
Assumptions
1. VC t 0 Vs
2. Load highly inductive I0 constant
Mode-1
VC VS cos 0 t
iTM i0 iC
At end of mode-1 VC VS
End time 0 t1 t1
0
C 1
ICP Vs ; 0
L LC
Mode-2
Mode-3
I0 I
VC t VC 0 t VS 0 t
C C
Mode-4
As capacitor is slightly overcharged at t 3 , freewheeling diode gets forward biased. The load
current freewheels through F.D.
VC VS
I0
VC t VC 0 t
C
t c
VS VS I0
C
2VS C
tc
I0
Important Formulae
C
1. i
TM peak
I0 VS
L
2. i
TA peak
I0
3. Without completion of 1st mode, we cannot turn OFF the main thyristor. Therefore,
minimum turn off time of TM is LC sec.
Ton (min) of TM LC sec
LC
Dmin LCf
T
f=chopper frequency
CVS
4. t CM
I0
5. tCA LC
2
2CVS
6. Conduction time of TA =2 t CM
I0
7. Commutation Interval :- It is the time taken to disconnect the load from the source after
main thyristor is turned off.
Commutation interval= 2t CM
8. PIV of FD= 2VS
9. PIV of TM VS
1
VS .Ton
1
2VS 2tCM T 2tCM Vs
10. V0 Vs on Ton eff
avg T T T
T
on eff
Ton 2tCM
V
0 min
Ton LC
Vs
T
LC 2tCM VS f LC 2tCM
Solved Examples
Solution: In mode-3
2VS t /RC
I0 e
R
2VS t /RC
iC e
R
2VS
I0 ; t CM RC ln(2)
R
Problem: Consider the chopper circuit of figure. The chopper operates at 400 Hz and 50%
duty cycle. The load current remains almost ripple free at 10A. Assuming the input voltage to
be 200V and the devices to be ideal, the turn off time available to the thysistor TM is ____s.
The given circuit is voltage commutated chopper. The negitive voltage across capacitor acts
as reverse voltage to the Th M, when Auxiliary thyristor is ON.
Exactly at this time load current passes through C, Auxiliary thyristor to load. Now capacitor
C VS
tc
I0
2 106 200
tC 40 sec
10
Problem: Figure shows a chopper. The device S1is the main switching device, S2 is the
auxiliary commutation device. S1 is rated for 400 V, 60 A. S2 is rated for 400 V, 30A. The load
current is 20A. The main device operates with a duty ratio of 0.5. The peak current through S1
is
Problem: A voltage commutated chopper operating at 1 kHz is used to control the speed of
dc motor as shown in figure. The load current is assumed to be constant at 10 A. The
minimum time in sec for which the SCR M should be ON and average output voltage of
the chopper will be
Solution: The minimum time is required for change the polarity of capacitor form Vs to – Vs
i.e. t1 LC 2103 1106 140.49msec
o