The following order of arithetic operations is used in R (operators of The precedence 优先 in logical operators (from the highest to the

ghest to the  favorite$title[which(favorite$year>2000)]

equal precedence are evaluated from left to right): 1) Parentheses 括
号 2)exponents 3) multiplication/division 4) addition/substraction
Default numeric type in R is called double.
If Integer numeric type is desired, it can be done by explicitly
putting L after the number.
typeof () is a base R function which display the data type of the
argument passed.
> my_age <- 40. > number_of_children <- 2L
> typeof(my_age) [1] "double"
> typeof(number_of_children) [1] "integer"
“Hasan”, “Adam”, “COMM 205”, “$%ˆ&” are examples of
character. Any string is of character data type. (Note that character data
type should be within quotes, either double quotes or single quotes. But, in the
environment, character data type is stored within double quotes.)
TRUE and FALSE are the two possible values of logical data.
lowest) : NOT (i.e., !) AND (i.e., &) OR (i.e., |)
Vectors: You can think of a vector as a collection of observations or
measurements of a single variable.
c() function with desired elements as its arguments creates the
vector.
 x<- c(“apple”, “orange”, 66)
 typeof(x)
[1] “character”. #the reason is implicit coercion
Coercion from lowest to the highest data type:
Logical < integer < numeric(double) < character
A data type is coerced into the other daya types when entered in an
arithketic operation as follows:
Logical: logical-> integer-> double
Integer: interger-> double
length () Function: This is a function to determine how many
elements exists in an R object specified within the parenthesis (i.e.,
passed on as its argument). length(x) where x is an R object. if x is a
vector, length(x) will output the number of elements in x.
suppose I wang to update the informstion for Troy, its rating is 7.2
now: favorite $rating[which(favorite$title== “Troy”)] <- 7.2
Some R functions, like mean(), have an argument na.rm.
na.rm is a logical value indicating whether NA values should be
ignored before the computation proceeds.Any arithmetic or
logical operation involving NA would result in NA
By default, na.rm is set to FALSE in many functions. By explicitly
setting na.rm to TRUE, you can instruct R to do the calculation only
with the non-NA values.
is.na () function: allows us to check if elements of an R object is
NA or not. The output indicates which elements of the object are
missing. TRUE indicates missing element FALSE indicates non-
missing element.

which () Function: gives the indices of TRUE’s of the vector in its

argument.

Select () Function: extracts colummns specified from a data frame.

The output is a data frame.

Filter () Function: keeps rows/observations where condition(s)

specified are satisfied.
Subsetting and Element Extraction from a vector:

Logical Operators are typically used with logical values. They

return a logical value.
AND: & OR: | NOT: !
Logical AND : & is the logical AND operation. & returns TRUE %>% (short cut: shift command M) read as “and then”
only when both values it connects are TRUE.
Logical OR: | is the logical OR operation. | returns TRUE when $ operator extracts a column of a data frame as a vector. That is, the
either value is TRUE outcome of the column extraction is a vector.
Logical NOT: ! is the logical NOT operator. ! negates the logical Suppose you want to find the title(s) of the movies which were
value it proceeds. released after 2000 in our favorite data frame

Mutate () Function: adds new column(s) into a data frame and
preserves the existing ones.
Summaries () Function: is used to create an aggregate statistic over
the observations.
group_by () Function: creates groups of observations based on one
or more variables.{ Observations (i.e., rows) in the same group are not
collated (collected) together. The original locations of the observations do not
change. }
Counting with n(): n=n() means that a variable named n will be
assigned the number of rows(think number of observations) in the
summarise data  summarise(n=n())
Can only 在 summarise(), mutate(), filter() 里面用
n(): a count of the number of rows/columns in each group
if_else(condition, true, false)
condition is a logical vector
arrange (column name(s)): orders the rows of the data frame by
variable(s) specified. (The default is ascending order of the variable) as.character() is used to convert a numerical object into a character
arrange (desc(column name)) object.
duplicated () Function: creates a logical vector with the same size
of the number of rows in data frame, and returns TRUE for each
row which is the duplicate of an ealier row.
inner_join (x,y):
as.numeric() is used to convert a character object into numeric
object.
Please note that if character object does not contain a number,
as.numeric() will produce NA.
The numeric column is right-aligned while the character object is left-
aligned
readRDS() function to load data from an RDS file
use read_csv() from readr which comes with tidyverse
Exporting a data set from R -saveRDS(data object,"file name")
Exporting to a CSV file: write_csv(data_name, path_filename)
where data_name is a data frame and path_filename is a relative path
and file name
Left_join(x,y):