Lesson 3.

01 Nervous System
Parkinson’s disease begins with the death of cells in the part of the brain that directs motor
functions. Doctors don’t know what causes the disease.

-Main parts of central nervous system are brain & spinal cord. They are protected by the
cranium (skull), 24 vertebrae, sacrum & coccyx of the spine.

-Brain & soft tissues of the spinal cord are also protected by the meninges (a 3 layered
section of connective tissues, blood vessels, and spinal fluid (cerebrospinal fluid, CSF) - it
circulates through the spaces between the meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid protects the CNS
from injury by spreading the force of an impact over a larger area. Cerebrospinal fluid
removes metabolic wastes from the CNS.

-Dura Mater—This layer of the meninges is closest to the bone. It is composed of tough
connective tissues.

-Arachnoid Mater—This is the middle layer of the meninges. This netlike membrane includes a
subarachnoid space that contains the cerebrospinal fluid.

-Pia Mater—This layer is attached to the surfaces of the CNS. It supports and nourishes the
underlying layers of brain and spinal cord.

Tissues of the central nervous system

The nervous system is composed of a network of fibers called
nerves that send and receive signals for the body. Bundles of these
nerve fibers make white matter, which covers the outside of the
spinal cord and parts of the brain. White matter is white because it is
covered with a fatty protein called myelin. These coverings are often
referred to as myelin sheaths. The inner material of the brain and
spinal cord is called gray matter. It is made of the cell bodies of
neurons and interneurons, two types of cells found in nerves. It is
gray due to the absence of myelin coverings.

Nerves of the peripheral nervous system

The cranial and spinal nerves of the peripheral nervous system lead in and out of the brain
and spinal cord. Peripheral nerves also extend into the extremities of the body.

3 types of nerves: sensory nerves, motor nerves, and mixed nerves

Lesson 3.02 The Spinal Cord
-Is part of the central nervous system
-It coordinates our reflexes and it transfers messages between the brain and the
body
Reflex action- reduces the time it takes for a response

Spinal Regions
- The spinal cord starts at the base of the cranium, at the occipital bone, runs through
the central canal of the vertebrae, and ends between the first and second lumbar
vertebrae. There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves that leave the spinal cord and
move out to the body. The spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system
and are divided into five regions: the cervical nerves, thoracic nerves, lumbar nerves,
sacral nerves, and the coccygeal nerve
- If the spinal cord is damaged in an accident, the regions below the injury will be
disconnected from the brain and the rest of the spinal cord. For example, if a person
sustained an injury to the L3 spinal nerve of the lumbar region, all the nerves below
that point, and all the body parts linked to them, would stop functioning.
 Structures of the spinal cord

-Spinal nerves are attached to spinal cord by two roots: the posterior dorsal root & the
anterior ventral root.
-The dorsal root is composed of sensory neurons and the ventral root consists of motor
neurons.
-Grey matter of the spinal cord consists of interneurons. They are unique because they can
move signals in both directions, and are only found in the central nervous system.

Sensory neurons carry messages, which are initiated by stimuli. Interneurons relay
impulses from one neuron to another in the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons carry
messages from the brain and spinal cord to glands or muscles.

Reflex- in involuntary response of the nervous system to an internal or external stimulus.

Knee-jerk flex- reflex you can see
Lesson 3.03 The Brain
For protection, it floats in fluid, it’s wrapped in 3 layers of supporting membranes,and
incased in bone, the skull

Brain stem- automatic control center for many such involuntary actions of the body & is a
pathway for impulses travelling back & forth between the body & the rest of the brain

Is part of your central nervous system, signals that travel to and from the brain can reach
speeds to as fast as 170 mph

-Average human brain weighs about 3 pounds & looks like a large pinkish gray walnut
-can be divided down the middle lengthwise into 2 halves called the cerebral hemispheres
-each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes by sulci & gryri
-sulci(fissures) are the grooves
-gyri are the bumps that are visible on the surface of the brain
-The folding by the sulci and gyri increases the amount of cerebral cortex that can fit into the
skull. The total surface area of the cerebral cortex is approximately 324 square inches
-each person has a unique pattern of gyri & sulci

left & right hemisphere communicate with each other through a thick band of 200-250 million
nerve fibers called the corpus callosum
Right side of the brain controls muscles on the left side of the body, the left side of the brain
controls muscles on the right side of the body
- Sensory information from the left side of the body crosses over to the right side of the
brain, information from the right side of the body crosses to the left side of the brain.
- Damage to one side of the brain will affect the opposite side of the body

Right brain is dominant for spatial abilities, fave recognition, visual imagery, & music
Left brain is dominant for language, calculations, math, and logical abilities

Major parts of brain & functions

CEREBRUM -is the largest region of the human brain. It is responsible for voluntary, or
conscious, body activities and emotions. It is also the site responsible for intelligence,
learning, and judgment. A deep groove divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres.

CEREBELLUM -is located behind the hindbrain and is tucked partially beneath the
cerebrum. It is responsible for the coordination of movement. It receives sensory information
from nerves near joints and muscles, as well as information from visual and auditory
systems. It uses this information to provide unconscious coordination of movement and
balance. Hand-eye coordination is one example of the cerebellum's function.

CEREBRAL CORTEX -The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. It is
made up of densely packed nerve cell bodies often called gray matter. The cerebral cortex
controls body movements and processes information from the sense organs, thoughts,
plans, and learning abilities. Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex deals mainly with the
opposite side of the body: Impulses from the left side of the body are processed in the right
hemisphere, and those from the right side of the body are processed in the left hemisphere.
Both hemispheres of the cerebrum can be divided into four lobes, each associated with
different functions.

CORPUS CALLOSUM -is a bundle of fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres of
the brain, allowing communication between the two.
PONS -is located just above the medulla oblongata, and they work together to relay sensory
information and regulate blood and oxygen flow. The pons has roles in your level of arousal
or consciousness and sleep and is important to keep the body alive and functioning.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA -is found in the lowest part of the brain stem, just above the spinal
cord. It is responsible for controlling several autonomic body functions that occur even
without you thinking about them. These functions include breathing, heartbeats, blood vessel
activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.

THALAMUS -is a pair of egg-shaped masses lying beneath each cerebral hemisphere in the
brain. This region of the brain is a major relay station for information on its way to the
cerebrum from the spinal cord. It sorts sensory information by type and then sends it on to
the appropriate area of the higher brain for further processing.

HYPOTHALAMUS -is the central area on the underside of the brain. It is important for
regulating homeostasis, hunger and eating, thirst and drinking, emotions, and many other
functions of basic survival. This section of the brain is the major link between the nervous
system and the endocrine system.

PITUITARY GLAND -is a small oval gland at the base of the brain that is controlled by the
hypothalamus. This gland secretes many of the hormones that regulate the endocrine
system.

BRAIN STEM -is located at the bottom of the brain, connecting the brain to the spinal cord.
It includes three regions: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these regions
helps regulate the flow of information between the brain and the rest of the body. This region
of the brain controls some of the body's most important functions, such as blood pressure,
heart rate, breathing, and swallowing.

FRONTAL LOBE -is the front part of each hemisphere. This lobe processes information from
all other areas of the brain. This area of the brain is our emotional control center and the
area we use for problem solving, judgment, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior.
The frontal lobe in a human does not fully develop until around 25 years of age.

PARIETAL LOBE -is the middle region of each hemisphere, lying beneath the crown of the
skull. It is the cognition part of the brain. The parietal lobe works by instinct as it receives
signals of different sensations—such as pain, warmth, cold, pressure, and movement—from
the skin.

OCCIPITAL LOBE -is found at the back of each hemisphere. Although it is located farthest
away from the eyes, this lobe of the brain deals with visual interpretation. It receives
measurements taken from the eyes' lenses and processes those signals into information
about what the eyes are seeing.

TEMPORAL LOBE - is located on the side of each hemisphere, behind the ears. It is
associated with speech, hearing, and memory skills. It houses the hippocampus (the area of
the brain associated with memory) and contains the auditory centers responsible for hearing.

Lesson 3.04 Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Peripheral nervous system is divided into the sensory somatic nervous system & the
automatic nervous system
Sensory somatic nervous system- controls voluntary actions of our skeletal muscles (# of
neurons from the CNS to the effector: 1, effect of nerve impulse on muscle: excites muscle)

Automatic nervous system- controls involuntary actions of our cardiac muscles, smooth
muscles, and glands (# of neurons from the CNS to the effector: 2, effect of nerve impulse
on muscle: excites or inhibits muscle)

Automatic nervous system is split into 2 divisions: sympathetic & parasympathetic (divided
due to their function)
Sympathetic nervous system- prepares body for emergency or to react to a
stressful situation, sympathetic nerve impulses can increase heart rate, constrict your
arteries to increase blood pressure, or dilate your pupils to increase sensory input from your
eyes

Parasympathetic nervous system- responsible for bringing body back to a state of

equilibrium and calms your body after a crisis & reestablishes homeostasis, it slows the
heart rate & decreases the release of hormones into the bloodstream

Nerve Pathways
The nerve pathways of the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems consist
of one group of sensory neurons & 2 groups of motor neurons with a set of ganglia lying
between them

Ganglia-clusters of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

First set of motor neurons sit in the central nervous system called
Preganglionic motor neurons- come before the ganglia in the nerve pathway, their
nerve fibers extend into the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system

2nd set of motor neurons are called

Postganglionic motor neurons- extend from the ganglia to the body organs

In Sympathetic nervous system

ganglia are grouped in a long chain just outside the spinal cord. When the ganglia
receive the right “emergency” impulse from the spinal cord, the entire body reacts. All organs
are on alert & ready at the same time
In Parasympathetic nervous system
ganglia are located in groups along certain cranial nerves. The most distinct cranial
ganglion is the Vagus nerve- transfers impulses to the heart, lungs, digestive track, liver,
and bladder. Since the parasympathetic response is meant to bring the body back to
homeostasis, it is only specific to certain tissues and organs. It does not affect the whole
body at once.

Neurotransmitter- a chemical that transfers the nerve impulse from the axon at the end of
one neuron to the dendrites of another neuron.
In the sympathetic nervous system, postganglionic motor neurons release the
neurotransmitter norepinephrine(effect depends on tissue; it can excite or inhibit organ
functions

In the parasympathetic nervous system, postganglionic motor neurons release the

neurotransmitter acetylcholine(excites organ functions because it’s attempting to bring
these organs back to homeostasis after an emergency) exception is the cardia muscle, it
slows the heart rate after a crisis instead of speeding it up

Lesson 3.05 Nerve Conduction

There are many substances that can mimic the messages sent by the nervous system. For
example, a chemical called MDMA, which is found in some psychoactive drugs, disrupts
communications in neurons that use the chemical serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates
mood, aggression, sexual activity, sleep, and sensitivity to pain.The drug causes confusion,
distortion of time, blurred vision, high temperature, increased blood pressure, increased heart
rate, nausea, and even death. It can also affect neurons that contain dopamine and
norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters control coordination and movement, heart rate,
circulation, the rate of metabolism, and regulate the flow of information to different areas of the
brain.
Nerve pathways include sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. These nerve
pathways are often referred to as neural circuits because they transmit electrical impulses in a
way similar to an electrical current of a computer or other electrical device
-neurons that make up nerve fibers must have a way to conduct a charge. Neurons create
electrical impulses using action potentials.
- An action potential is a temporary change in electrical potential that occurs between the inside
and the outside of a nerve or muscle fiber. It generates a nerve impulse that moves across the
axon of a neuron. Once the signal reaches the end of the axon, a chemical called a
neurotransmitter moves the signal to the next neuron in the nerve pathway.

Lesson 3.06 Senses

The sensory organs are specialized components of the nervous system that are
responsible for processing sensory information. These organs have sensory receptors that
process a specific type of stimulus.

Receptors can be classified as either simple or complex. Simple receptors are fairly small
and are widely distributed throughout the body. Complex receptors govern the five special
senses of taste, smell, hearing, balance, and vision. Sensory receptors can also be
classified by what it is they are detecting.

Lesson 3.07 Endocrine System

The endocrine system works with the nervous system to support homeostasis within the body.
It does so with the use of chemical secretions called hormones. Unfortunately, there are
chemical substances that can disrupt normal hormone production or imitate the composition of a
hormone in a way that adversely affects the body. When this happens, diseases such as
diabetes or cancers can take over and cause significant illness and even death

Endocrine refers to all the glands and various tissues that secrete hormones into the blood to
promote growth and regulate metabolism and reproduction. The term exocrine is similar to
endocrine because it involves the use of glands. However, exocrine glands secrete their products
through ducts to external epithelial surfaces, like your skin or the exposed surfaces of your
nostrils, lungs, or ears. They do not secrete their products into the bloodstream.

Both the nervous system and the endocrine system induce physiological changes throughout the
body. They often work together within the same organs or tissues to help the body react to its
environment or maintain homeostasis. For example, the hypothalamus of the brain, which is
part of the central nervous system, stimulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland,
which is part of the endocrine system. The hypothalamus is important for regulating homeostasis,
hunger and eating, thirst and drinking, and many other functions of basic survival. It is the major
link between the nervous system and the endocrine system.

The nervous system and the endocrine system serve similar functions but are different in the way
they deliver their "message." Simply put, the nervous system reacts quickly, using nerve
impulses to communicate with body systems. The hormones of the endocrine system take a
slower route through the blood stream. They control responses that don't need to be immediate
but longer-lasting.