REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discuss findings of related literature that have delved into development of late

childhood.
LATE CHILDHOOD
The beginning of late childhood is marked by the child's entrance into first grade compulsory at

six years at America today. For most young children, this is a motor change in the pattern of their

lives, even when they have had a year or more experience in some preschool situation. While

adjusting to the new demands and expectations of first grade, most children are in the state of

disequilibrium; they are emotionally disturbed and, as a result, difficult to live and work with.

Entrance into first grade is a milestone in every child's life, therefore it is responsible for many of

the changes that take place in attitudes, values, and behavior. (Bergner, 1982) This unit deal with

the late childhood stage. Every stage of development of human life has its own unique qualities and

significance. Each stage is interlinked with the later one. The previous stage glides into another

quietly and smoothly. But when we reach the end of one-stage, we find it different from that of the

previous one. The stage of late childhood is a sort of pseudo maturity, because at this stage, the child

has achieved a good degree of adaptation to his or her environment as compared with the children

of the early childhood stage. We have discussed earlier the distinction between the quantitative

aspect of growth and the qualitative aspect of development. Regarding the quantitative aspect, the

later childhood or late childhood stage covers the age group of 6 to 12 years. The purpose of this

unit is to familiarize you with the late childhood stage, its important characteristics, common

hazards of this stage as well as some guiding principles that the parents and the teachers must

follow in order to handle the children belonging to this period. Late Childhood extends from the age

of 6 years to 12 years, beginning with the child’s entry into formal schooling and ending in the

advent of puberty. This is the period of excellence and pseudo - maturity. New interests develop for

the child and besides some maturity in sex; the child also develops certain amount of physical and

mental growth. As regards sex, it remains dormant, but it emerges with great force at the end of this

stage. This stage, is therefore, called ‘latency period. At both its beginning and end, late childhood is

marked by conditions that profoundly affect a child’s personal and social adjustments. The

beginning of late childhood is marked by the child’s entrance into first grade in school. For most of

the young children, this is a major change in the pattern of their lives, even when they have had a

year or more of experience in some pre-school institution. Entrance into first grade is a milestone in

every child’s life; therefore it is responsible for many of the changes that take place in terms of

attitudes, values and behaveour. Although it is possible to mark off the beginning of late childhood
fairly accurately, one cannot be so precise about the time when this period comes to an end because

sexual maturity - the criterion used to divide childhood from adolescence - comes at varying ages.

This is because there are marked variations in the ages at which boys and girls become sexually

mature. As a result, some children have a longer - than - average late childhood, while for others it is

shorter than the average. Parents, educators and psychologists apply various names to the late

childhood and these names reflect the important characteristics of the period. Parents’ name this

period as – the troublesome age and quarrelsome age; educators call it as - elementary school age

and critical period, and psychologists named the late childhood as - gang age, creative age and play

age. (KKSOU 2011) On the other hand, their are developments that happened during late childhood

namely physical development, cognitive development and socio-emotional development. It will

discuss later on what are the challenges and changes happened during each development.
1.Physical Development on the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of

boys in terms of physical maturity. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls- which is the

initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some

as late 13. Many of the bodily structures like liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a

normal curve of development of both girls and boys. Other structures like the brain, intestine and

other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time, thus, affecting growth patterns. (Borabo,

2015)
1.1 Height and Weight physical development, Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight,

and average of 2 1/2 inches in height. Children at this stage have growth spurts - sudden boost in

height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in apetite and food intake. Increase

in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs during adolescence. The body fat

increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.

1.2 In addition to the developments happened in this stage, it is good to consider on what are the

changes in Physical Structure for girls, the years of late childhood development can be exciting and

confusing, and even a bit disillusioning. A 12-year-old girl may have a hard time understanding why

her 9-year-old neighbor has already developed breast buds while she doesn't have slightest hint of a

protruding chest. A preteen as young as 10 years old may experience her first menstrual period.

However, the average starting age is 12. For boys, in late childhood may notice an enlargement of

the testicles and scrotum, possibly as young as age 9. A boy's penis generally starts to grow around

age 12. Also around this time, boys will begin to grow pubic hair, as well as armpit, leg, chest and

facial hair. (LIVESTRONG,2019)

1.3 Motor Abilities is also a factor in physical development. During late child room the child

gains greater control over their body and motor skills develop as a result. As the child’s size and
strength increases, children can perform more complex physical activities such as playing

basketball. They also had years to develop speed, agility and balance which are useful or sports and

games. Gross motor skills are refined during this time such as skipping; also fine motor skills are

developed. By the end of late childhood, writing becomes more legible and the writing style may

also be more established. (Developmental Milestone) Children may become more interested in

physical activities where they can interact with friends and family. Activities which they can share

with parents (e.g. biking, running, playing basketball) show children that exercising can be fun.
Physical development is a gradual process it takes energy to do so.
1.4 Nutrition the energy requirements of schoolchildren are still high because of growth and

activity. Therefore, there should be a progression towards an adult-style healthy diet but with

continued emphasis on foods with a high energy and nutrient content. The progression should be

gradual with an increase in fiber, reduction in fat and increase in starch content in the diet.

Schoolchildren should eat a healthy, varied diet and this should be combined with regular physical

activity in order to maintain a healthy body weight. It is recommended that children and young

people should participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity each day.

The diet should include a good supply of protein, vitamins and minerals. The same principles apply

for schoolchildren as for preschool children, as summarized above. The Food Standards Agency has

provided guidance on the safe maximum consumption levels for oily fish. It recommends that boys

and girls under the age of 16 should not eat marlin, shark or swordfish. Boys aged under 16 can

have up to four portions of oily fish a week and girls up to two portions. The Challenges will takes

place in this development, since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must

be very consious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be designed

so that children will be guided into the right direction. Children must be given opportunities to

engage themselves in worthwhile activities. (Borabo, 2015)

2. Cognitive Development this is an age of intellectual advancement. Intellectual activities are

clearly visible at this stage. The child is in a position to exercise his or her power of memory,

attention, thinking and imagination and can solve problems intelligently. His knowledge and

experience not merely remain receptive but gradually take the creative turn in the late childhood

stage. The child is intellectually an alive and active individual. I.Q. at this stage developed

considerably and by the end of this stage it becomes stable. (KKHSOU, 2011)
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now utilize. Their

thinking skills have become more effective as compared. Reading texts have become longer;

problem-solving has become an everyday part of their lives. Their ability to use logic and reasoning

give them chances of thinking about what they want and how to get it. They now become very
interested in talking about what they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in

talking about the future or even their potential cares. They develop special interest in collections,

hobbies and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts without having direct hands-

on experiences. (Borabo, 2015)

2.1 In addition, late childhood spent their time more in school on what grade level do this stage

belongs Educational Level. The ecological systems model that we explored previously helps us

understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and

indirect influences on that person's life. School becomes a very important component of children's

lives during late childhood, and parents and the culture contribute to children’s experiences in

school as indicated by the ecological systems model through their interaction with the school.

(Libretexts) Most late childhood children are under Grade 4. As fourth graders, students deepen

their skills in all subjects to prepare for middle school. That being said, they still learn like

elementary school students do. Most fourth graders are developmentally very much still children —

they enjoy and learn from play, and they thrive in nurturing and warm environments. However, the

content of most 4th grade curricula pushes students to think, analyze, and learn in more

sophisticated and structured ways than they did in the “lower” grades. In 4th grade, students learn

how to deeply think about and make connections in new material, and grasp more complex

concepts across all subjects. They also write with clarity, flow, and structure similar to that of

traditional essays. Fourth graders are encouraged to be more independent in how they learn, and

depend less on their teacher's guidance. They research, plan, and revise their work more by

themselves — setting the foundation to be lifelong, self-starting learners. The 4th grade classroom

is structured like most elementary school classrooms, with desks or tables for the students and

typically an area for lessons, class meetings, and discussions. There are often also areas or centers

dedicated to different subjects of learning. For instance, there may be an area with all of the math

tools and supplies, as well as a class library dedicated to reading. Technology is a crucial part of the

4th grade classroom, as students use it for extensive writing and research. (Ackerman and Kloss,

2019) The Guide to 4th Grade Review general curricula for 4th Grade, including what to expect for

each subject. Plus, discover at-home activities to support learning in the classroom. Grade 5.
5th grade is an extremely important time for students to cement the skills they have gained

throughout the upper grades and lay a solid foundation for the years ahead. In short, this year is all

about helping students practice, refine, and grow their skills. Students build on what they learned in

4th grade by analyzing material in deeper ways, and write structured, clear, and detailed pieces

about a variety of subjects. They are encouraged and expected to be more independent in their
learning, and to require less guidance and support from teachers and other adults. For instance,

when a student is asked to research a topic, he should know what to do to accomplish that (even if

he needs a little help from a teacher along the way). A 5th grade classroom is structured like most

elementary school classrooms, with desks or tables for the students and usually an area for lessons,

class meetings, and discussions. There are also often areas dedicated to different subjects of

learning — say, a section of the room for math tools and supplies, and a class library area dedicated

to reading. Technology is used extensively for writing and research in 5th grade, and it's often an

integral part of the curriculum across many subjects. (Ackerman and Kloss, 2019) The Guide to 5th

Grade Review general curricula for 5th grade, learn what to expect for each subject, and discover

the books and activities you can use at home to support learning in the classroom. Grade 6. In their

first year of middle school, 6th graders embark on a new journey in their schooling, and with that

come new challenges and changes. In many ways, 6th grade is a year of significant transition for

students as they use the skills they have previously learned and apply them to more complex and

independent learning in deeper and more rigorous ways. The specific texts and topics studied in 6th

grade vary across states, districts, and sometimes schools. Consult your local state standards,

school, or teacher for more details regarding the texts and topics your child will be studying. In

addition, see the guide below for sample texts recommended by the common core for 6th-

8thgraders. Often, the structure of a school day for 6th graders varies greatly from that of

elementary school. Rather than being taught by one (or mainly one) teacher, teachers in middle

school usually vary by subject, and the students switch classrooms. With this new structure,

students must be more aware of their own schedules and belongings than they ever were in

elementary school. While collaboration and group work may still be an important part of the

curriculum, students are often required to produce more extensive independent work, specifically

in writing, as they will write formal essays for both Social Studies and English class. This calls for

greater independence and organizational skills, and it may certainly require some adjustment and

practice in the beginning of the school year. Some may need the whole year to adjust, and that's

alright — even this one change can be a major one for middle-schoolers. In addition, students in

middle school often transition from being the oldest kids in school to the youngest. (Although this

certainly doesn’t apply to all middle schools, as some begin in 5th grade and others in 7th). Again,

this one fact may require a big adjustment as 6th graders interact with and are perceived differently

by the other students in the school. (Ackerman, 2019) The Guide to 6th Grade
Review general curricula for 6th grade, including what to expect for each subject. Plus, discover at-

home activities to support learning in the classroom.

 2.2 In Jean Piaget theory of cognitive development, late childhood is under stage three.

Concrete- Operational Stage this stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically

but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the

elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following. Decentering

this refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No

longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more

logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations. Reversibility during the stage of concrete

operations, the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. For example,

they can already comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the

reverse of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be

rolled back into a ball of clay. Conservation this ability to know that certain properties of objects like

numbers, mass, volume or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of

the development lf the child's ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete operational

child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrow container is still the

same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain

conversation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.

Seriation this refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension

such as weight, volume or size. (Corpuz, Lucas, Borado and Lucido,2015)

2.3 Also in Lev Vygotsky theory of Socio-Cultural Development Theory, social interaction plays a

very important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be

understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which development happens.

Scaffolding is Vygotsky's term for appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner

accomplish a task. Social Interaction gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to

the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment or the community takes

on a major role in one's development. Cultural factors Vygotsky looked into the wide range of

experiences that a cultural would give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education,

how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the children.

Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that orders already have. Learners can

use language to know and understand the world and solve problem. Language serves a social

function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflects

on his own thinking. For Vygotsky this "talking-to-oneself" is an indication of the thinking that goes

on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of

self-talk that guide the child's thinking and action. Zone of Proximal Development when a child
attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient at it, perform at certain

level of competency. More Knowledgable Other (MKO) competent adult or a more advanced peer,

child can perform at a higher level of competency. Scaffolding is the support or assistance that lets

the child accomplish a task cannot accomplish independently. As the learners become more

proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without assistance,

the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade- away technique.
2.4 What are the changes happened in Language of a late childhood child/ren. Those in middle

and late childhood are also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, if asked for the

first word that comes to mind when one hears the word "pizza", the younger child is likely to say

"eat" or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the older child is more likely

to place pizza in the appropriate category and say "food". This sophistication of vocabulary is also

evidenced by the fact that older children tell jokes and delight in doing do. They may use jokes that

involve plays on words such as "knock- knock" jokes or jokes with punch lines. Young children do

not understand play on words and tell "jokes" that are literal or slapstick, such as "A man fell down

in the mud! Isn't that funny?" Grammar and Flexibility: Older children are also able to learn new

rules of grammar with more flexibility. While younger children are likely to be reluctant to give up

saying "I goed there", older children will learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.

(Libretexts)
2.5 Reading Development children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack.

Because of the presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary which enables

them to understand the meaning of unknown words through context clues. They are no longer into

fairy tales and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex reading

materials. (Borabo, 2015)

2.6 In addition to the cognitive development is Attention older children have longer and more

flexible attention span compared to yourger children. Their span of attention is dependent on how

much is required by the given task. In term of school works, older children can concentrate and

focus more for longer period of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.

(Borabo, 2015)
2.7 Cognitive development also enhances Creativity of a child/ren, at this stage are open to

explore new things. Creativity is innate in children, they just need a little guidance and support from

parents, teachers and people around them. They are usually at their best when the work is done in

small pieces. Creativity in children is encouraged when the activities: encourage different responses

from each child, celebrate uniqueness, break stereotypes, value process over product, reduce stress

and anxiety in children, support to share ideas, not only with the teacher/ parent but also with
other chidren, minimize competition and external rewards. (Borabo, 2015). Late childhood is the

stage then we can identify the creative talent in a child’s individuality. The native talent, potentiality

and prospect inherent in the child may find expression through the suitable outlets provided to him.

He no longer remains a blind imitator but gives evidence of his creative ability in thought, feeling

and action. He is now in a position to observe anything through the exercise of reasoning and

understanding. (KKHSOU, 2011)

2.8 Issues or Challenges faced during late childhood, along with these changes, are changes in

the way the brain processes rewards and pleasure, intensifying the feeling associated with each. An

unfortunate by-product to this shift is an increase in risky, sensation seeking behaviors over the

teen years. Mental development seems to drop off during the teen years, suggesting that less new

skill are learned as children integrate what has already been learned. For example, further

development of executive function skills mitigates risk-taking behaviors in teens, but such

developments occur gradually and are not complete until children are in their mid-20’s. During this

time, the pleasure seeking system and the impulse regulation system learn to work together to

better coordinate feeling with thinking, allowing better long-term impulse control. (Anthony)
3. Socio- Emotional Development at this period of socio-emotional development, children are

spending less time in the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or

with other children, rather than with adults. Other children have already familiarized themselves

with other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For many

of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but also different forms of

learning.
3.1 Descrption of Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable

soon after birth. A child's personality has several components: temperament, environment, and

character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's

approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify

personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn

controls behavior. A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a

child's specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and

environment—influence the development of a person's personality the most. Temperament, with its

dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental

factors are called "nurture." While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in

affecting personality development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a critical role

in the development of a child's personality. When parents understand how their child responds to
certain situations, they can anticipate issues that might be problematic for their child. They can

prepare the child for the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation

altogether. Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach to the particular temperament

of their child can best provide guidance and ensure the successful development of their child's

personality. Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive,

and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and

behaves. A person's character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on

inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person's moral development.

In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how personality develops

based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with children and adolescents from low, upper,

and middle-class backgrounds. According to Erikson, the socialization process of an individual

consists of eight phases, each one accompanied by a "psychosocial crisis" that must be solved if the

person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily. The stages significantly influence

personality development, with five of them occurring during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little knowledge is available on

the type of specific environment that will result, for example, in traits of trust being more developed

in a person's personality. Helping the child through the various stages of emotional and personality

development is a complex and difficult task. Searching for the best ways of accomplishing this task

accounts for most of the research carried out in the field of child development today. Renowned

psychologist Carl Rogers emphasized how childhood experiences affect personality development.

Many psychologists believe that there are certain critical periods in personality development—

periods when the child will be more sensitive to certain environmental factors. Most experts believe

that a child's experiences in the family are important for his or her personality development,

although not exactly as described by Erikson's stages, but in good agreement with the importance of

how a child's needs should to be met in the family environment. For example, children who are

toilet trained too early or have their toilet training carried out too strictly may become rebellious.

Another example is shown by children who learn appropriate behavior to their sex lives when there

is a good relationship with their same-sex parent. Another environmental factor of importance is

culture. Researchers comparing cultural groups for specific personality types have found some

important differences. For example, Northern European countries and the United States have

individualistic cultures that put more emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments. In

contrast, Asian, African, Central American, and South American countries are characterized more by

community-centered cultures that focus on belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation.
In these cultures, cooperation is considered a more important value than competitiveness, which

will necessarily affect personality development.

3.2 Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept. One of the most widely

recognized characteristics of this period of development is the acquisition of feelings of self-

competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he described the developmental task of

middle childhood- the social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the driver to

acquire new skills and do meaningful work. The child should have growing sense of competence.

The child's definitions of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the

surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a

sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along with sincere

feedback and support. During late childhood, children can no describe themselves with internal and

psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social comparison-

distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other children, they show increase

perspective taking. This ability increase with age. Perspective taking enables the child to: (a) judge

others' intentions, purposes and actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and

to (c) increase sketicism of others' claim. (Borabo, 2015)

3.3 Emotional Development similar to the other areas of development, children in this stage,

show improved emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can

be experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show or conceal

emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy. Another milestone in

this stage is the development of the children's emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the

ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others and use this guide and motivate behavior. (Borabo,

2015)
3.4 Building Friendships as a children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in

peer interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The approval and

belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional development.

Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this stage, children prefer to

belong to same-sex peer groups. These are five types of Peer Status: Popular frequently nominated

as the bestfriend and one who is rarely disliked by peers. Average receives an average number of

positive and negative nomination from peers. Neglected very seldom nominated as bestfriend but is

not really disliked. Rejected infrequently nominated as a bestfriend but one who is also disliked by

peers. Controversial frequently nominated as a bestfriend but at me same time is disliked by peers.

(Borabo, 2015)
3.5 Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure. If children
do not find a supportive family when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or

playing a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If families are seen as a primary

support system, failure and setbacks become temporary and surmountable rather than something

that is attributed to personal flaws or deficits. This time is critical time for children to develop a

sense of competence. A high- quality adult relationship, specifically, family relationship enables

them to successfully go through this stage of development. (Borabo, 2015)

3.6 Freud’s Stage of Psychosexual Development late childhood is under Latency Stage wherein,

this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and

academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage. The

superego develop during this stage, it embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what

the parents, teachers, and other persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The

superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one consider right and wrong.

(Lucas 2015)

3.7 Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory Developmnent this task is to develop a capacity for industry

while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must tame the imagination and dedicate

themselves to education and to learning the social skills their society requires them. They are

constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving. This is a very

active time, and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with

peers. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavors, they

will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If not, a sense of inferiority can be particularly

haunting during late childhood. Too much industry leads to maladaptive tendency called narrow

virtuosity. Much more common is the malignancy called interia. This includes all of us who suffer

from inferiority complex. A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority

—that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have

the virtue called competency. (Lucas, 2015)

The developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg expanded and refined Piaget's earlier work

resulting in the development of his well known stage theory of children's moral development.

Kohlberg's moral theory is summarized in our Overview of Child Development, which may make

sense to review at this time.

3.8 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development pre-conventional moral reasoning according to

Kohlberg, children early in their middle childhood stage of development will typically display "Pre-

conventional" moral reasoning. Children displaying pre-conventional moral reasoning have

internalized basic culturally prescribed rules governing right and wrong behavior. For instance, they
will appreciate that it is considered immoral to steal from others; that you must earn or be given

things and not simply take them. Children will tend to live in accordance with these rules but

primarily for selfish reasons, as a way of avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for themselves.

At this point in time, they will appreciate their ability to make different kinds of choices, and also

the reality of consequences associated with those choices. They realize that morally good behaviors

attract praise and positive regard from peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring about

unpleasant consequences and negative regard. They act accordingly, in a hedonistic manner so as to

maximize their personal pleasant consequences.

Ideal Reciprocity later on in middle childhood, approximately between ages 10 and 12, children

begin to show a dawning appreciation of "ideal reciprocity", which is a method for determining

what is "fair" based on an appreciation of equality between relationship partners, and a desire to

treat others well because ideally, they would similarly want to treat you that well too. People are

more familiar with the idea of ideal reciprocity when it is phrased as the "golden rule" (e.g., "Do

unto others as you would have done unto you"). Using ideal reciprocity, older children start to make

moral decisions based more on how they would like others to treat them if the tables were turned,

than based on what they can gain for themselves.

As children think about how rules are negotiated, and how they can benefit other people, they

begin to understand and appreciate that there are different types or categories of rules, some of

which are more negotiable than others. Moral rules involve the most basic and socially strict

guidelines and societal prohibitions that may never be broken. An example of a moral rule is the

basic prohibition against murder and unprovoked assault. It is never okay to harm another person

in a physical manner unless in self-defense. Social mores or conventions are moral beliefs that

change across social contexts and social groups. These rules are more strictly enforced in some

places, and less strictly enforced in others. The idea that it is a sin to disobey one's parents is an

example of a social more. In some families, this rule is taken very seriously indeed, while in other

families, it is considered to be a guideline at best with many exemptions present. Finally, Personal

Choices involve rules that do not have fixed socially prescribed answers at all, but instead are left up

to personal preference. An example of a personal choice might be one family's ritual of having a

pizza dinner on Friday nights. At an earlier stage of their development, children might mistake a

personal choice for a moral imperative, but by middle childhood, such choices will be recognized for

what they are.

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate

environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children. Interactions within the

microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers

and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will affect how they

grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the

children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will

understandably foster they children’s improved development. One of the most significant findings

that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems is that it is possible for

siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience very different

environments. Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not

impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular

personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological

factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others. The mesosystem encompasses

the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a

system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer

group and family, and between family and community. According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a

child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, for example they invite their

child’s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time with them, then the child’s

development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness. However, if the child’s

parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences

disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development. The

exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may

not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless. Based on the findings of

Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact with may still have an

impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family

members, and the neighborhood the children live in. For example, a father who is continually

passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and

mistreat them at home. The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and

places to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is

composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and

ideas, as well as political and economic systems. For example, children in war-torn areas will

experience a different kind of development than children in peaceful environments. The

Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The

chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as

well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars. By studying the various

ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the

diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts that

children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings. For

example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified

victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child

should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type

of connections that exist between these settings. (The Psychology Notes HQ Online Resources for

Psychology Students)

Have you ever wondered how you learned to crawl and then walk? How about language? How in the

world do human beings learn to talk? Developmental psychologists seek to answer these types of

questions. Child development refers to the process through which human beings typically grow and

mature from infancy through adulthood. The different aspects of growth and development that are

measured include physical growth, cognitive growth, and social growth. Child development focuses

on the changes that take place in humans as they mature from birth to about age 17.
REFERENCES
Hurlock Elizabeth Bergner (1982) Developmental Psychology A Life-Span Approach. McGraw-Hill

International Book Company

Personality Development Retrieved from http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Personality-

Development.html#ixzz63gNcUqbP
Krishna Kanta Handiqui State University (2011) Retrieved from

http://www.kkhsou.in/main/education/late_childhood.html
Brenda B Corpuz Ph.D Ma. Rita D. Lucas Ph.D Heidi Grace L. Borado Ph.D Paz R. Lucido (2015) Child

and Adolescent Development Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages Lorimar Publishing INC. 776

Aurora Blvd, cor Boston Street Cubao, Quezon City, Manila

LIVESTRONG (2019) Retrieved from https://www.livestrong.com/article/88282-late-childhood-

physical-development/
Developmental Milestone Retrieved from https://hchealthbrookiiee.weebly.com/late-

childhood.html.
Libretexts Retrieved from https://socialsci.libretextsorg/Bookshelves/Human_Development/Map

%3A_Lifespan_Development_-_A_Psychological_Perspective_(Lally_and_Valentine-

French)/5%3A_Middle_and_Late_Childhood/5.08%3A_Measuring_Intelligence

%3A_Standardization_and_the_Intelligence_Quotient.
Shira Ackerman and Kelsey Kloss, (2019) Retrieved from

https://www.scholastic.com/parents/school-success/school-success-guides/guide-to-4th-

grade.html
Shira Ackerman and Kelsey Kloss, (2019) Retrieved from

https://www.scholastic.com/parents/school-success/school-success-guides/guide-to-5th-

grade.html.
Shira Ackerman Retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/parents/school-success/school-

success-guides/guide-to-6th-grade.html
Libretexts Language Development Retrieved from

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Development/Map

%3A_Lifespan_Development_-_A_Psychological_Perspective_(Lally_and_Valentine-

French)/5%3A_Middle_and_Late_Childhood/5.06%3A_Language_Development
Michelle Anthony, Phd Cognitive Development in 11-13 Year Olds Retrieved from

https://www.scholastic.com/parents/family-life/creativity-and-critical-thinking/development-

milestones/cognitive-development-11-13-year-olds.html
Personality Development Retrieved from http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Personality-
Development.html#ixzz63gNcUqbP

Kohberg’s Stages of Moral Development Retrieved from https://www.mentalhelp.net/middle-

childhood-development/kohlberg-s-stages-of-moral-development/
What is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory? Retrieved from
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/
A Case Study About Developments of Late Childhood

School Year: 2019-2010

Presented To

Mr. Leenard Nino O. Mateo, LP

Presented By

David, Leonora

Gaborni, Shaira

Lacaba, Rose Ann

Nevaliza, Nemesio Jr.

Tadia, Rosalinda

SF 1-1 TF 9:00- 10:30 am