January 2014

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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CONTENTS January 2014 • Volume 93 • Number 1
AWS website www.aws.org

Features Departments
38 Spot Welding Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges Editorial ............................4
Ways to improve the cross-tension strength of spot welds in
high-strength steel are examined Press Time News ..................6
E. Biro et al. International Update ..............8
News of the Industry ............10
44 FABTECH 2013
Experience the highlights of this largest-ever exhibition Business Briefs ..................14
A. Cullison et al. Stainless Q&A ....................20
RWMA Q&A ......................22

44 52 What Is the Best Method for Preheating 4130?

Three different methods of preheating are compared and
evaluated
J. Walker et al.
Product & Print Spotlight ......28
Coming Events....................64
Certification Schedule ..........68
58 In-Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal Conferences ......................70
Assembly Welding Workbook ..............72
A real-time ultrasonic monitoring system is used to track
Society News ....................75
expulsion events, electrode life, and quality problems
R. Gr. Maev et al. Tech Topics ......................77
Guide to AWS Services ........95
Personnel ........................96
Classifieds ......................102
Advertiser Index ................104

Welding Research Supplement

52 1-s Visualization of Gas Flows in Welding Arcs by the
Schlieren Measuring Technique
Optical analysis of gas flow is simplified with the Schlieren
method
E. Siewert et al.

6-s Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization, and Brazing

of Barium Titanate Ceramics
A detailed investigation is conducted on the wettability, adhesion,
and interaction of perovskite-type ceramics
T. V. Sydorenko et al.

15-s Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal

Containing Mg-Bearing Inclusions Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

38 A novel flux cored electrode formulation produces a tensile

strength of 825 MPa without the addition of titanium or the
formation of acicular ferrite
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
A. P. Gerlich et al. $10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
23-s Weldability of Niobium-Containing High-Strength Steel Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
for Pipelines 443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla.,
The investigation of high-strength Nb-containing steels reveals an and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send
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Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608
Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip Interna-
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Canada.

Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of

articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.

WELDING JOURNAL 3
 EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding

Improving through Innovation Officers

President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
The focus of my presidency is “continuous improvement through innovation.”
Innovation comes in many forms and can be experienced through inventive, revolution- Vice President David J. Landon
ary, trial-and-error, borrowed, and even subtle changes that are difficult to notice but Vermeer Mfg. Co.
result in continuous improvement.
Look to the birth of the American aircraft industry for a good example of trial-and- Vice President David L. McQuaid
error innovation. During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson promised to produce D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
8000 American fighter planes, but there wasn’t a single American-made engine that had Vice President John R. Bray
enough power.
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
This challenge was on par with the Manhattan Project and the race to the Moon. It
would be called the “Liberty” aircraft engine, and most of the young Detroit auto facto- Treasurer Robert G. Pali
ries cooperated to build it. In doing so, their innovations would establish America’s place J. P. Nissen Co.
as a world leader in manufacturing.
Many welding puzzles had to be solved for the Liberty aircraft engine to be produced in Executive Director Ray W. Shook
large numbers. The joining of intake and exhaust elbow fittings to piston cylinders was an American Welding Society
immense challenge. Early welding engineers struggled with dangerous backfiring from the
welding torches through the gas lines. The oxyfuel process was unsuccessful and a process
Directors
of manual arc welding, rigged to a servo-controlled motor to feed the electrode also proved
unsuccessful. Finally, they tried the resistance welding process, building a complex fixture U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
for flash welding the elbows to the cylinder. The result was a resounding success. R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
By war’s end, 18 months later, more than 20,000 Liberty engines were produced at D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
half the cost of European aircraft engines. American ingenuity and the future of welding
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
were both validated, and the aircraft helped bring the war to a quick end.
At my company, Wilson Industries, we borrowed technology that led to an inventive G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
innovation: the see-through welding curtain. T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
In 1968, a welder working behind a canvas welding screen had a heart attack and P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
remained there, unnoticed, for hours. This tragedy led to a movement to bring visibility
into the welding booth. S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
At the time we were developing the Wilson Spectra curtain, NASA was developing K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
new chemical coatings used to filter light for satellite camera lenses, based on their stud- J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
ies of the sharp eyes of eagles. A major breakthrough was achieved by incorporating the J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
NASA lens coating technology into sheet vinyl, allowing us to develop the Spectra cur-
tain, which has been honored as a NASA spin-off product. T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
Today, every part of our lives is influenced by welding, and AWS influences every part D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
of welding. AWS is currently developing online training, mobile apps, a skills certifica- C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
tion system featuring stackable credentials and digital badges, recognition of a Master
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
Welder status, and an extensive video library.
AWS has opened the door to lifelong professional development of all welding per- K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
sonnel via American Welding Online (AWO). AWO focuses on the science, economics, W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
and higher knowledge skills from which welders and others can benefit. We are on the W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
verge of creating the most empowered welding workforce in history through our devo-
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
tion to innovation.
Our Society is a partner in the Manufacturing Institute’s Skill Certification System. D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
Soon, AWS will document, archive, and validate the career achievements of welding pro- R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
fessionals on all levels with secure online transcripts, a national certification registry, new N. Samanich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
ID cards, and a certified welder passport.
We are on a mission to approve community colleges nationwide as Accredited Test K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Facilities. This accreditation will enable schools to train and certify welders for the needs T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
of their local industries, with transferable, stackable, nationally recognized AWS J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
credentials. H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
The American Welding Society is devoted to
advancing the science, technology, and people of weld- R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
ing, by providing for the lifelong professional develop- J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
ment of welders, educators, welding engineers, and M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
inspectors around the world. In doing so, AWS aims to
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Wright Welding Technologies
improve everyone’s safety, productivity, and career
satisfaction, by dedicating ourselves to continuous
improvement through innovation.

Dean R. Wilson
AWS President

4 JANUARY 2014
For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
 PRESS TIME
NEWS
Praxair to Fund Welding Scholarships through Publisher Andrew Cullison
AWS Program and SkillsUSA Competition Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Praxair, Inc., Danbury, Conn., a leading industrial gases company, recently an- Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
nounced the company’s global giving program will fund more than $200,000 in schol- Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
arships over the next five years for the American Welding Society (AWS) and Skill- Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
sUSA. They will support education and hands-on training for student welders in the Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
United States.
An applicant must be a minimum of 18 years old, at least a high school senior who Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
will be applying (or has applied) to a certificate welding program or to a college/uni-
versity for a two- or four-year degree focused on welding. Information on additional Design and Production
qualifications is available at www.aws.org/foundation. Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Twenty-six awards will be made to students who reside/attend school in the areas Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
in which the following AWS Sections are located: Chicago, Ill. (Section 002); Cleve- Manager of International Periodicals and
land, Ohio (Section 006); Dallas, Tex. (North Texas Section 053); Detroit, Mich. (Sec- Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
tion 011); Fox Valley, Wis. (Section 074); Houston, Tex. (Section 022); Kansas City, Advertising
Mo. (Section 016); Los Angeles, Calif. (Section 008); North Dakota (Northern Plains National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Section 117); Portland, Ore. (Section 052); Salt Lake City, Utah (Utah Section 059); Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Tulsa, Okla. (Section 034); and North Carolina (Charlotte #140 and Triangle #151). Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
BMT to Support Welding Research Project for Subscriptions
Shipbuilding Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
BMT Fleet Technology Ltd.’s latest research project with the National Shipbuild-
ing Research Program will evaluate recent advancements in Integrated Cold Elec- American Welding Society
trode (ICE) welding technology. Jointly funded by industry and the U.S. Navy through 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
the program, it will look at how this technology can improve productivity rates and (305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
reduce construction costs of both commercial and naval vessels.
As project lead, BMT will work with Huntington-Ingalls Industries; Newport News Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
Shipbuilding; Marinette Marine Corp.; ESAB; American Bureau of Shipping; Naval D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
Surface Warfare Centre – Carderock Division; and Defence R&D Canada.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
“Our main objectives for this project are to assess ICE’s ability to enhance the ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
welding production rates, decrease distortion and costly rework, improve the proper- J. D. Weber, Secretary
ties of welds in high-strength steels and therefore reduce costs, whilst increasing the American Welding Society
integrity of the ship’s structure,” said Darren Begg, project manager at BMT Fleet D. Brown, Weiler Brush
Technology. T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
Northwest Florida State College Starts Welding Program D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
Northwest Florida State College, Niceville, Fla., has launched a new vocational
D. Levin, Airgas
certificate program in welding technologies. It is funded by a federal Department of E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
Labor grant to meet the demand for high-skill, high-wage jobs in Northwest Florida. R. Madden, Hypertherm
Welding classes started in September. The program runs 12 months, divided into D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
three semesters, and consists of six courses covering shielded metal arc, gas metal J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
arc, flux cored arc, and gas tungsten arc welding on plate/pipe. Welding instructor S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
Scottie Smith, an AWS Certified Welding Inspector and Certified Welding Educator, D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
stated the program follows the National Center for Construction Education and N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
Research curriculum. J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
Currently, the college’s welding lab is 2000 sq ft and features 15 welding booths L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
containing Miller Electric multiprocess power sources and wire feeders, but the col- D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
lege has plans to double the welding lab’s size. The program will receive a mobile S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
welding lab this month to facilitate industry training for local businesses as well.
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
Koike Aronson, Miller Electric Enter Strategic Agreement R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society

Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y., and Miller Electric Manufacturing
Co., Appleton, Wis., have entered into a strategic partnership agreement. Koike will
act as a distributor of certain Miller welding products throughout North and South
America, including Mexico and Central America. Also, Miller will act as a distributor
of the Koike Aronson welding positioning equipment and portable welding and cut-
ting equipment in the same areas. The Miller products covered by the agreement are
equipment used in submerged arc and electroslag, automated gas metal arc, and au-
tomated flux cored arc welding. The companies’ distributorships are nonexclusive.◆
6 JANUARY 2014
Copyright © 2014 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
MEMBER
For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
 INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Lincoln Electric Opens Automation The Edradour complements the company’s existing fleet, which
includes daughter craft, The Aberlour, a mother vessel, The SIEM
Facility in Brazil Stork, and three dive intervention craft. The vessel has the same
design specification as The Aberlour, which will allow both to be
Lincoln Electric Co. recently opened its new Automation Cen-
interchangeable with the existing twin davit system.
ter of Excellence in Brazil, a 5000-sq-m facility that includes
“We are very pleased to welcome The Edradour to our fleet.
demonstration, integration, training, and office space. The newly
The shared design specification allows compatibility with our ex-
built facility, located in the city of Indaiatuba, features a training
isting launch and recovery system and will bring familiarization
lab with six robot systems, a station for orbital welding process
to all our crews, resulting in a greater safety recovery and effi-
development and system instruction, and eight additional demon-
ciency in our diving operations,” said Roddy James, senior vice
stration systems for robotic and mechanized applications. Two
president of Stork Technical Subsea.
classrooms can accommodate up to 40 students.
Lincoln held a grand opening event, where a welcome was ex-
tended by Indaiatuba Mayor Reinaldo Nogueira, who stressed
the importance of creating an environment for business to grow Kemppi and ABB Announce Robotic
and in which their employees could feel comfortable making their Welding Systems Collaboration
home. George Blankenship, president of Lincoln Electric’s North
American operations, delivered the keynote presentation. He
said, “Our responsibility to our customer must be more than just
a provider of product. Their expectations of us are greater today
because they have escalated demands from their customer. When
we can improve their welding and fabrication procees, we be-
come a partner rather than a vendor.”
Leonardo Sabedot, business manager for the ASG-Brazil
group, closed out the presentation. “We are excited by the op-
portunity that this facility represents, and look forward to forg-
ing strong partnerships with the many customers in the region,”
he said.
Lincoln Electric has grown its automation offerings over the
last few years to include preengineered robotic systems, CNC
plasma cutting equipment, fixturing and tooling, engineered line
builds, robotic integration, laser systems, weld fume control, and
fire prevention.

Stork Technical Invests in New

Daughter Craft
Stork Technical Services, a global provider of management
services for the oil and gas, chemical, and power sectors, recently
announced an investment of more than $3.2 million in its new
daughter craft, The Edradour. The craft, which will provide addi-
tional operational support to meet the expanding needs of Stork’s
diving operations, has additional lifting capability for four-point
lifting, providing vessel crane launch and recovery capabilities,
and increased generator capacity.
Through an agreement between the two companies, Kemppi Oy
welding equipment will be paired with ABB robots such as in this
FlexArc® robotic welding cell.
Kemppi Oy, a manufacturer of industrial arc welding equip-
ment, and ABB Robotics, a supplier of industrial robots and mod-
ular manufacturing systems, have established a collaboration to
develop fully equipped robotic welding packages. ABB indicated
the “technologically innovative” welding packages would be de-
signed as modular, cost-effective projects for companies to eas-
ily install or upgrade into a robotic system. The joint business
covers Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
Kemppi equipment will be featured at all certified ABB Ro-
botics welding lab locations, where customers will be able to con-
duct robotic welding trials on the latest equipment.

Pema to Supply Two Robotic Profile

Processing Lines
Pemamek, a manufacturer of automated welding and produc-
The Edradour, which represents a more than $3.2 million invest-
tion systems, has received another contract to supplement
ment, will provide additional operational support of Stork’s diving
operations.
— continued on page 100

8 JANUARY 2014
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 NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY

Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy Awarded $2.2 Million Grant

The Waco Independent School District, Waco, Tex., has been awarded a $2.2
million grant from the U.S. Department of Education to further enhance the
Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy. The school opened its doors
in August and is now teaching welding skills to students from Waco and the sur-
rounding area.
The grant is part of the federal government’s $89.8 million in Magnet School
Assistance Program grants featuring a goal to promote courses within magnet
schools that will strengthen knowledge of academic subjects and attainment of
tangible vocational skills.
“Our vision for the Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy is to pre-
pare Waco area students for productive employment, success in postsecondary
education, or both,” said Waco Independent School District Superintendent Dr. Welding is taught at the Greater Waco Advanced
Bonny Cain. “Right now, we know that many of our local manufacturing busi- Manufacturing Academy, and this substantial
nesses need welders, so we’re trying to meet that demand.” grant will be used in many ways, including to
The school district plans to use the grant awarded to the academy for purchas- purchase extra equipment and consumables.
ing additional equipment and consumables, provide professional development
staff and students, plus expand the school’s curriculum.

GE Researchers Experiment with 3D Northwest Pipe Co.’s Tubular Products

Painting to Build Up and Repair Parts
Group Earns Largest Project in Its History
Northwest Pipe Co., Vancouver, Wash., will provide about 400
miles of 123⁄4-in. line pipe for the Double H Pipeline project to
transport crude oil from Dore, N.Dak., to Guernsey, Wyo.
“The ability for Northwest Pipe Co. to participate on projects
like Double H is the result of $35 million of investments that have
been made in our Atchison [Kansas] facility over the last several
years. These investments have allowed us to continue to expand
our product offering both in wall thickness and strength level
on line pipe up to 16 in. in diameter,” said Scott Montross,
company CEO.

Apple Secures Patent for New FSW Method

GE researchers are developing new ways to repair and build up
parts using a process called cold spray. Here, GE Materials Engi-
neer Leo Ajdelsztajn prepares a test in one of the company’s spray
booths.
GE researchers recently announced they are using a process
called cold spray where metal powders are sprayed at high ve-
locities to build a part or add material to repair an existing part.
Also known as 3D painting, cold spray demonstrates a blend
of materials, process, and product function that can — in the im-
mediate future — transform repair processes for industrial and
aircraft components such as rotors, blades, shafts, propellers, and
gear boxes. Future benefits include extended product lifespan and
reduced manufacturing time along with material costs.
To view a demonstration, visit the following link:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=NXGOZ5ns3Zo&feature=youtu.be.
The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has published a series
of 41 newly granted patents for Apple, Inc., Cupertino, Calif.
Included is an invention relating to friction stir welding (FSW).
U.S. Patent 8,556,156 — dynamic adjustment of FSW process
parameters based on weld temperature — lists the inventor as
Shravan Bharadwaj, San Jose, Calif., with the assignee as Apple,
Inc. The abstract states that a method for FSW is provided, and
it may include beginning an operation by directing a rotating
FSW tool along a joint between two parts; a temperature of the
resulting weld may be measured; a controller may adjust process
parameters associated with this process to decrease a difference
between weld desired and measured temperatures; desired tem-
perature may correspond to a temperature at which parts are
plasticized; and process parameters may include rotational speed
of the FSW tool, feed rate, axial force along the FSW tool length,
and tilt angle of the FSW tool.
Sheet Metal Work Gets Efficiency Boost
Through New Technology
After receiving feedback from members, the International
Training Institute (ITI), Fairfax, Va., put a new web-based

10 JANUARY 2014
The International Training Institute has launched a web-based
e-reader and new website (shown above) at www.sheetmetal-
iti.org.

e-reader into development. With the launch of this method of

viewing texts and class assignments, apprentices and journey per-
sons in courses can see their books from any device with an In-
ternet browser. The option is also useful for individuals on the
go or those who don’t have a home computer or an iPad.
On the Windows-based e-reader, students can print pages
from texts; with the iPad application, they can store books on the
device from the application; on the web-based e-reader, saving
and printing functionality is limited to specific versions; and a
mobile version of the web-based e-reader is available as well.
According to David Collins, software development manager
for ITI, the general look and feel of the website will allow for
easier navigation. “About a year ago, we started traveling around
the county taking original photos to update nearly all the im-
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WELDING JOURNAL 11
agery on the site, so the members will be able to really see them-
selves in the new design,” Collins added.
ASM International Celebrates 100 Years
Pictured at the gala for ASM International’s 100th anniversary,
from left, is ASM President (2013–2014) Ravi Ravindran and the
evening’s emcee, Dave Kelly, a Canadian radio/TV personality.
ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, commemorated its
100th anniversary with a gala on Oct. 27 in Montreal, Quebec,
Canada. Nearly 400 guests, including members, past presidents,
dignitaries, and partners from around the world, came together.
“For more than 100 years, in large part because of volunteer
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12 JANUARY 2014
commitment and involvement, ASM has remained relevant and
focused in materials science. The gala was a wonderful way to
express our gratitude for a century of greatness,” said Thom
Passek, ASM managing director.
Founded in 1913, ASM began as the Steel Treaters Club in
Detroit, Mich., with fewer than 20 members. Today, it has more
than 30,000 members and 80 worldwide chapters.
Along with historical tributes of the organization’s past and a
look to the future, the event featured a keynote speech by Dr.
Peter Diamandis, chair and CEO of the X Prize Foundation.
Industry Notes
• The Böhler Welding Group, Vienna, will become an integrated
part of the voestalpine Group, a steel-based technology and
capital goods group with about 500 group companies and lo-
cations in more than 50 countries and on five continents. Its
name now also changes to voestalpine Böhler Welding.
• Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., has consolidated the
gas tungsten arc torch and accessory lines from Weldcraft under
its brand. The only change will be the addition of the Miller
name on products, labels, and packaging. Torch bodies have
also transitioned from red to black (excluding Redhead™
series).
• A $95,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Energy will allow
Aiken Technical College, Graniteville, S.C., to purchase an or-
bital welding machine and Bevelmaster beveling machine for
use in both advanced manufacturing and nuclear training.
— continued on page 100
Our Customers Receive these
Benefits at NO Additional Cost:
Recognized as Construction Industry’s
Highest Training Requirements
Ironworker Qualified Welding Certifications
meet AWS D1.1 Structural Code &
AWS D1.5 Bridge Code Standards
Complete Welder Portability
110 Classroom/Hands-on Hours Minimum
Performance Verified by AWS Certified
Welding Inspectors
State-of-the-Art Training Materials
Easy Online Verification
Network of over 150 Training Centers
in the USA & Canada
Certified by the U.S. Department of Labor
F o l l ow u s o n F a ce b o o k , Twi t t e r & Yo u Tu b e
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 BUSINESS
BRIEFS
Ford Adds Jobs, Invests Millions
in Buffalo Stamping Plant
Ford Motor Co. will invest $150 million and add approxi-
mately 350 new jobs at its Buffalo Stamping Plant in New
York.
The venture is for more than 25 new subassemblies, in-
cluding hoods, doors, and fenders; more than 500 new dies
and a new blanking line; as well as equipment upgrades and
refurbishing to support future product programs. The plant
will also add a third shift to its press room.
“These additional jobs are the direct result of the dedi-
cated effort our United Automobile Workers (UAW) mem-
bers display every day at facilities all across the country, and
serve as another reminder of the resilience of American
workers and our nation’s manufacturing sector,” said Jimmy
Settles, UAW vice president and director of the National
Ford Department.
Recent Acquisitions
At FABTECH 2013, Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleve-
land, Ohio, announced the company acquired an ownership in-
terest in Burlington Automation Corp., Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, a designer and manufacturer of 3D robotic plasma cut-
ting systems. Rob Tyler serves as its president. In addition, the
company has entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Robo-
lution GmbH, based outside of Frankfurt, Germany, a European
provider of robotic arc welding systems. Wolfgang Koenig is its
managing director.
Victor Technologies™, St. Louis, Mo., has acquired Gas-Arc
Group Ltd., a privately held manufacturer of gas control equip-
ment in the United Kingdom, for approximately $40 million in
cash, subject to post-closing adjustments. Its portfolio includes
branded gas control products that meet specialty gas application
requirements as well as cutting and welding equipment for the
industrial, laboratory, and medical gas control markets. In addi-
tion, Gas-Arc will continue to operate under its own name.
Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co., Los Angeles, Calif., recently
announced that, through its wholly owned subsidiary American
Metals Corp., the company has acquired all of the capital stock
of Haskins Steel Co., Inc., Spokane, Wash. Founded in 1955,
Haskins processes and distributes carbon steel and aluminum
products of various shapes/sizes. In-house processing capabili-
ties include shearing, sawing, burning, and forming. Haskins will
operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of American Metals Corp.,
and current management will also remain in place.
Antelope Oil Tool & Manufacturing Co., LLC, Mineral Wells,
Tex., has acquired WearSox, L.P., Houston, Tex. Founded in 2004,
WearSox is a developer of thermal spray-on casing centralizers
14 JANUARY 2014
Ford Motor Co. will invest $150 million and add approximately 350
new jobs at its Buffalo Stamping Plant. (Photo courtesy of Ford.)
and stop collars, as well as stabilizers for the deep water/offshore
segment of the oil and gas industry. WearSox’s patent-protected
process allows for shapes to be built directly onto casing without
affecting the casing’s metallurgical properties. George Ribble,
Antelope’s CEO, will oversee the combined business.
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has completed acquiring the assets
and operations of The Encompass Gas Group, Rockford, Ill.,
one of the largest privately owned suppliers of industrial, med-
ical, and specialty gases/related hardgoods in the United States,
with eleven locations and more than 130 associates in Illinois,
Wisconsin, and Iowa.
Automation International, Inc., Danville, Ill., has acquired
Hess Industries’ Rim and Wheel Intellectual Property. Hess In-
dustries was located in Niles, Mich., and ceased operations in
June 2012. The purchase aligns with the company’s role as a
provider in the design and manufacture of automated wheel pro-
duction equipment, including welding, metal forming, assembly,
and spinning.
Keen Compressed Gas Co., Wilmington, Del., has acquired
the assets of Urie & Blanton Welding Supply Co., including all
assets associated with the industrial gas and welding supply busi-
ness. Urie covered New Castle County, Del.; southeastern Penn-
sylvania; the Philadelphia area; some of South Jersey; and had
two retail locations that Keen will take over.
Mistras Group, Inc., Princeton Junction, N.J., has acquired
Carmagen Engineering, Inc., a professional engineering consult-
ing and technical training services provider serving the hydrocar-
bon processing and other energy-related industries. Since 1986,
Carmagen has provided services focused on the oil and gas in-
dustry that includes plant operations support; turnaround plan-
ning/execution programs; and technical training.♦
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Friends and Colleagues:

I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2014. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2015
consideration.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
 (please type or print in black ink)
CLASS OF 2015
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE

SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________

Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________

Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2014

 Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
∗ Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
∗ Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
∗ Innovative development of welding technology
∗ Society and chapter contributions
∗ Professional recognition

RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year

NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.

AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-
tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).

1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy — particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy — support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.

Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.

Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.

Return completed Fellow nomination package to:

Wendy S. Reeve
American Welding Society
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
Miami, FL 33166

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2014

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 STAINLESS
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q&A

Q: We welded the flange of a 304 stainless steel pipe fitting that the minimum sensitization tempera-
ture can be reduced to 840°F (400°C). If
(female threads), after hammering the flange to approximately that temperature is exceeded anywhere
fit the tank curvature, to the cylindrical surface of a 304 tank. during local heating, there must be a tran-
Unfortunately, the fitting was not aligned correctly, so the pipe sition in temperature to the cold tank
inserted into the fitting does not take off from the tank in the shell so there will be a considerable region
of the tank shell that will be sensitized.
correct direction. The welder suggested that we could locally Water quenching cannot prevent that and
heat the fitting and the tank, then thread a pipe into the fitting may cause distortion, which could make
and bend the fitting and tank shell slightly to get the correct the pipe alignment problem worse, not
better. I have to assume that the extent of
direction for the pipe. Is this a good idea? sensitization you already have is accept-
able, but local heating above 840°F is
A: There is some logic in the welder’s sug- corrosion, depending upon the severity of likely to make it much worse.
gestion. Locally heating the fitting and the corrosive environment inside and out- If the extent of sensitization already
tank shell will reduce the yield strength of side the tank. See the November 2007 present due to welding is acceptable and
these materials, making them easier to Stainless Q&A column for details of sen- you don’t want to make matters worse,
bend. But things are not so simple. As- sitization and intergranular corrosion. then local heating needs to be limited to a
suming that the fitting and tank are really Local heating, improperly applied, can peak temperature anywhere in the tank
304, not 304L, sensitization needs to be severely sensitize the tank shell and fit- shell and fitting to about 750°F (400°C) to
taken into account. Welding the fitting to ting. The sensitization temperature range provide some margin of safety. Some sig-
the tank shell will already have somewhat for welding is generally considered to be nificant reduction of yield strength occurs
sensitized the fitting and tank shell. So 900° to 1600°F (480° to 870°C). But local- when 304 is heated, which would be help-
both could be damaged by intergranular ized heating is a much slower process so ful in your proposed bending operation. I

AWS PROFESSIONAL PROGRAM

ABSTRACT SUBMITTAL
AT FABTECH 2014 ®
Atlanta • Nov. 11-13, 2014
Submission deadline: Mar. 29, 2014

The AWS Professional Program is an annual three-day program of sessions

on technical topics featuring the most recent welding research and best practices
in manufacturing and construction from around the world.

Submit your Professional Program abstract online by March 28 at

http://awo.aws.org/professional-program-abstract-form
or contact Martica Ventura at (800) 443-9353 ext 224 (mventura@aws.org)

20 JANUARY 2014
Table 1 — Effect of Temperature on 304 Stainless Steel Yield Strength
Temperature, °F (°C) 68 (20)
AK Steel Typical YS, ksi (MPa) 36 (241)
AISC Reduction Factor 1.00
expect that the stainless steel shell is
quite a bit thicker than the fitting, and the
shell’s cylindrical shape will give it con-
siderable stiffness, so most or all of the
yielding will have to be in the flange of
the fitting. The AK Steel online Data Bul-
letin provides typical yield strength of 304
as a function of temperature, as shown in
Table 1. Also included in Table 1 are the
reduction factors (ratio of elevated-tem-
perature yield strength to room-temper-
ature yield strength), from the AISC De-
sign Guide 30: Structural Stainless Steel, to
be applied to the design of stainless steel
construction. The two sources provide
similar information.
Local heating with a torch would be
very risky in this case because of the
temptation to direct the heat on the sur-
face for a while, then withdraw the torch
and test the surface temperature with a
temperature-indicating crayon. You can
200 (93) 400 (204)
— 23 (159)
0.80 0.65
easily exceed the suggested temperature
limit before you realize it. I suggest you
use electric strip heaters for the heating,
and use thermocouples or an optical py-
rometer to measure temperature contin-
uously to be sure that 750°F is not ex-
ceeded.
Table 1 indicates that the yield
strength of 304 stainless steel at 750°F is
likely to be about one-half of that at room
temperature. So there will be some help
in your attempt to realign the fitting. But,
because the flange diameter is greater
than the pipe diameter, there will also be
a tendency for the pipe to bend more eas-
ily than the flange, even if the pipe is kept
cold. I suggest you put a sleeve (a larger-
diameter pipe that just fits over the neck
of the fitting) to stiffen your lever arm
when trying to bend the flange of the
fitting.
In summary, your welder’s idea is not
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
600 (316) 750 (399) 800 (427)
20 (134) — 17 (114)
0.59 0.55 0.54
a bad idea, but its execution is not with-
out risk. If you follow the guidelines
herein, I think you can be successful,
though I would not guarantee it.♦
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.
He is treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain-
less Steel Structural Welding; and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and
Allied Materials, and served as AWS presi-
dent (2005–2006). Send questions to
damian@ damiankotecki.com, or mail to
Damian Kotecki, c/o Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 NW 36th St. # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672.
WELDING JOURNAL 21
 RWMA
Q&A
Q: One of our resistance welding ma-
chine operators recently lost part of his
finger when it was crushed between the
electrodes of the machine. How can we
protect our operators from similar in-
juries in the future?
A: Forging forces ranging from several
hundred to several thousand pounds are
required to properly resistance weld metal
together, so resistance spot and projec-
tion welding machines can be dangerous
if care is not taken to protect the
operator.
For example, a welding machine oper-
ating at 600 lb of forging force with an
electrode contact area of ¼ in. will pro-
duce more than 12,000 lb of force per
square inch on a finger or anything else
caught between them.
Having witnessed an operator crush his
finger while on a factory tour years ago, I
certainly share your desire to avoid this
unfortunate situation in the future.
While not necessarily simple, the safest
way to ensure operator safety on a resist-
ance welding machine is to tool the ma-
chine to hold and clamp the part, which
avoids the need for an operator to posi-
22 JANUARY 2014
BY TOM SNOW
tion and hold the part during the process
— Fig. 1.
In a welding machine with proper tool-
ing and guards, the operator manually
loads the parts and then completely clears
out of the welding/pinch point area before
the machine closes the tips.
That being said, it is not always possi-
ble to accomplish. Following are outlined
some other ideas that can help ensure op-
erator safety.
You did not specify whether the ma-
chine involved in the accident was a rocker
arm-type spot welding machine or a ver-
tical action press-type machine, so en-
hancing the safety of both is addressed.
Rocker Arm Spot
Welding Machine
These machines are typically used to
weld sheet metal parts that are held with
both hands while the operator manipu-
lates the part in the throat of the machine
to access all the weld locations.
Initiation of the machine should be
with a shrouded foot switch, and a pinch
point warning sign should be prominently
displayed — Fig. 2. In addition, the oper-
ator should be instructed verbally and in
writing to keep his hands away from
the tips.
Although using both hands to hold the
part usually ensures that the operator’s
fingers are not in the pinch point area,
management can augment safety by se-
lecting the right machine for the job and
setting it up properly.
A simple way to reduce the potential
for a spot welding machine pinch point in-
jury is to position the machine’s electrode
tips so close together (typically about a ¼-
in. gap) that a finger cannot get between
the tips prior to the weld stroke.
To overcome clearance problems
caused by such a short working stroke, an
optional feature for the welding machine
called an adjustable and retractable stroke
air cylinder can make it much easier to
load bulkier parts, such as those with
flanges or lips, into the welding machine’s
throat prior to welding.
When using retraction, the operator
typically steps on a separate shrouded foot
switch to activate the adjustable retrac-
tion stroke, also called “high lift,” which
gives the operator extra clearance to load
the part in the throat prior to reverting to
a minimal stroke for welding.
— continued on page 25
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— continued from page 22

However, if an operator is not prop-

erly trained in the operation of a retrac-
tion feature, or if it’s not properly ad-
justed, additional pinch point dangers can
result when the machine comes out of
retraction.
OSHA requires guarding against pinch
point injury to be passive. This means that
there can be no way to defeat the protec-
tion system and that safety of the welding
machine cannot be dependent upon op-
erator adjustments. Since the gap between
electrodes can vary depending on the
setup, at present the only way to meet this
OSHA requirement is by use of a system
called “Soft Touch.”
A B

Fig. 2 — A — A rocker-arm spot welding machine with a prominently displayed pinch

point warning sign; B — a close-up view of a warning sign.

rocker arm and initiation with a shrouded
foot switch is generally acceptable if both
hands are used to hold the part being
welded — Fig. 3.
Again, using the Soft Touch system
and/or reducing the gap between the tips
to ¼ in. are recommended, as are ad-
justable and retractable stroke welding
machine cylinders to make loading and
unloading easier.
Hand-loading projection welded nuts
or weld studs exposes the operator to

Fig. 1 — A growing trend is to completely

guard the pinch point of a resistance weld-
ing machine. In addition to a physical en-
closure, this vertical-action pedestal-type
spot welding machine includes a light cur-
tain to ensure that the operator’s hands are
outside the pinch point area after loading
the assembly to be welded into a tooling
nest. When the operator initiates the ma-
chine with a foot switch, a door automati-
cally closes the opening in the enclosure and
shields the operator from weld flash.

Press-Type Resistance Welding

Machines

A vertical-action press-type spot weld-

ing machine can be operated much like a
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WELDING JOURNAL 25
pinch point injury every time a part is stalled on the opening
welded, since the gap between electrodes ensure that the operator
must be greater than ¼ in. to clear the is completely outside the
part. One solution is to place the nuts or work area when the ma-
studs on the part prior to placing the part chine is initiated (see
between the electrodes. The part can then Fig. 1).
be supported by a table and the welding Zone scanners are
machine initiated by use of dual hand but- also now available that
tons installed with an anti-tie-down safety sense if someone is in-
circuit. If this method is not practical, use side the guarded area.
of the Soft Touch system will provide the Using a robot to re-
required protection. place the operator and
Another highly recommended solution manipulate a fixtured
is to use an automated bowl feeder and part inside the throat of
placement mechanism to load the nuts or a rocker arm or press-
studs being welded. type resistance welding
Projection welding machines with tool- machine is also a good
ing mounted to T-slotted platens in the way to enhance safety. Fig. 3 — Standard spot welding machines, both vertical action
throat of the machine are considered to We applaud your de- and rocker arm types, can be operated safely if an operator
be much like a sheet metal stamping press sire to learn from this ac- holds the parts with both hands outside the pinch point area.
when it comes to ensuring safety, since the cident and to help pro- Safety can be enhanced by minimizing the opening between the
parts being welded are typically loaded by tect your operators from tips and by a control feature called Soft Touch.
hand into a locating fixture directly under similar injuries in the fu-
the ram in the pinch point. ture. It is also encourag-
Dual palm buttons connected to an ing to see that a growing number of com-
anti-tie-down and anti-repeat circuit have panies are becoming proactive by adding TOM SNOW is CEO of T. J. Snow Co.,
long been the standard initiation means protection systems to their spot welding Chattanooga, Tenn., a resistance welding
for projection welding machines, and op- machines before accidents occur. machine manufacturer and a member of
tical-touch devices are rapidly replacing As we’ve explained, there are numer- the Resistance Welding Manufacturing Al-
the old-style palm buttons that require ous ways to enhance the safety of resist- liance (RWMA). Send your comments/
physical force to depress. ance welding machines, but proper oper- questions to Tom at TomSnow@
Guarding of the welder’s pinch point ator training, especially of new hires tjsnow.com, or to Tom Snow, c/o Welding
with wire mesh or Plexiglas is also more or temporary workers, should be top Journal, 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami,
prevalent than ever, and light curtains in- priority.♦ FL 33166.

y
A ST
STANDING
TANDING
A COMMITTEE OF
Vinoy
inoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla.

Coommitted to advanncingg resistance weeldingg technology,

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Registration opens mid-December.
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26 JANUARY 2014
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centration of diamonds and a strong bond,
the wheels feature fast cutting speeds and
the need to change wheels frequently is
reduced. The shape of the wheel does not
change over time, keeping the size of the
wheel consistent from the first to last cut.
Sizes available are 4½, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, and
14 in.
Pearl Abrasive Co.
www.pearlabrasive.com
(800) 969-5561
Brochure Features Dust
Collector Specifications
The company’s full-color brochure
showcases its line of dust collectors. Pho-
tos and illustrations show how the dust
collectors protect workers from smoke,
fumes, and other pollutants in metalwork-

28 JANUARY 2014
 Fixturing Devices Suited Corporate Video Highlights
for Tack Welding Waterjet Technology

The manufacturer of waterjet systems

ing, plastics, painting, powders, and other
manufacturing industries. The brochure
also contains detailed specifications to de-
termine the correct configuration for ap-
plications, including welding, grinding,
painting, sanding, cutting, finishing, and
more. This brochure may be downloaded
at the website shown.
Micro Air Clean Air Systems
www.microaironline.com
(866) 566-4276
The company’s Radius™magnetic fix-
turing tools can be used to position steel
for tack welding or other pre- or postweld
operations. They also are suited for cut-
ting and grinding applications. Three dif-
ferent models, all compact and light-
weight, intended for various material
thicknesses or applications, are available.
The company is also offering a manual
hand lifter designed for small steel part
lifting and sheet dragging. The hand lifter
does not require batteries or electricity.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
has produced a new corporate video fea-
turing a behind-the-scenes look inside its
manufacturing facility in St. Michael,
Minn. The video includes an overview of
the company’s capabilities and products as
well as testimonials from customers. The
video explains how water is pressurized up
to 90,000 lb/in.2 to create a stream that can
cut precise parts from virtually any mate-
rial, from huge steel parts to intricate stone
inlays. Also highlighted is how customers
are using waterjet technology to solve man-
ufacturing challenges. The video is now
showing on the company’s YouTube chan-
nel at www.youtube.com/jetedgewaterjets.
Jet Edge, Inc.
www.jetedge.com
(800) 538-3343

Magnetic Travel Carriage

Offers 25-lb Pull Capacity

The K-BUG 4000, a digital, magnetic

travel carriage, produces continuous or
intermittent fillet welds while traveling on
a vertical wall. The constant travel speed
produces high-quality, uniform welds.
Programming of travel pattern and weld
control eliminates excessive deposition
and reduces defects. The guide wheels
track the workpiece to provide precise
weld placement and have a pull capacity
of 25 lb.

Bug-O Systems
www.bugo.com
(800) 245-3186

For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 29
Collection Arm Provides
Source-Point Dust Removal
The E-Z Arm® High Flow series of
contaminant extractor arms provides
source-point collection as well as removal
of dusts, powders, fumes, smoke, odors,
and other contaminants. Capable of han-
dling air flow rates up to 1500 ft3/min, its
design delivers an energy consumption
level of 0.35 kW/h at 800 ft3/min. The high-
capacity air flow volume with the low en-
ergy consumption level is made possible
by the company’s patented pawl-and-
sprocket, friction-release, external arm
support system. The extractor arm has a
6.75-in. diameter and is available in 7-,
10-, and 14-ft lengths.
Airflow Systems, Inc.
www.airflowsystems.com
(800) 818-6185
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
30 JANUARY 2014
Refractometer Determines Mobile App Allows Users
Coolant Concentration to Share Auto Restoration
Photos
The company’s automatic temperature
compensating refractometer allows plant
operators to quickly determine the con-
centration of metalworking coolants and
cleaners, heat-treating fluids, water-based
hydraulic fluids, and plating baths. The
device is portable and requires no batter-
ies. Its large scale is available in two
ranges, 0–10° and 0–32° Brix. These fluid
recycling instruments are designed for
most metalworking operations, including The company has introduced its new,
cutting, grinding, and synthetic machin- free mobile app for iPhone and Android
ing fluids; plating, acid, and cleaner baths; smartphones. The app provides instant ac-
water-based hydraulic fluids; die lubri- cess to the company’s video library, tech
cants; and chromating systems. library, blog, live chat, social media, and
in-app coupons. The Car Cam feature al-
Eriez® HydroFlow®
www.eriez.com lows users to submit pictures of their proj-
(888) 300-3743 ect, cars that were spotted at a car show,
or shots of products in action. The app
provides a convenient way to get informa-
tion to solve problems that are encoun-
tered while working in the garage. The
iPhone version of this mobile app is avail-
able at the Apple iTunes store, and the
Android version is available on Google
Play.

Eastwood Co.
www.eastwood.com
(800) 343-9353

Laser System Quickly

Cuts Aluminum, Brass
programmable gas pressure, high-pres-
sure cutting heads, 4- or 8-in. travel
The Sigma XY fiber laser cutting sys-
tem enables high-speed cutting of thin Z-stage axes of motion, and a control
pendant.
Manufacturing
metals using a rigid linear drive, gantry-
based motion system. The fiber laser tech-
nology offers high-resolution cutting, with
Miyachi Unitek Flux Cored
www.miyachiunitek.com
optical spot sizes down to 10 microns, and
high linear-speed cutting made possible
(626) 303-5676
Welding Wire
through high pulse repetition rates. Fea-
Document Guides Installing
tures include up to 500 W of available
laser power for a range of materials, in- Gas Transfer Connectors Cobalt
cluding aluminum, steels, and brass. The
laser system is available with many op- A new version of the company’s Instal- Nickel
tions, including class 1 or 4 operation, sev- lation Procedures Document LP-105 has
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WELDING JOURNAL 31
 ing to stay up-to-date on the latest instal-
lation procedures. To order a copy, visit
the website listed.

WORK
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follows:

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32 JANUARY 2014
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Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individual’s career of
outstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2014. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2015 consideration.

Sincerely,

Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
 (please type or print in black ink)
CLASS OF 2015
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidate’s Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.

SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
 Nomination of AWS Counselor

I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individual’s career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.

Return completed Counselor nomination package to:

Wendy S. Reeve
American Welding Society
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
Miami, FL 33166
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2014

 (please type or print in black ink)
CLASS OF 2015
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidate’s Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.

SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Spot Welding
Different Sheet Metal
Grades and Gauges
A study looks at improving the welding of automobile body parts involving joints of
mild and high-strength steels of varying thicknesses
n order to design lighter automotive structures, to improve
I fuel economies and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the use
of new advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) is expanding,
allowing weight savings through thinner sheet gauges.
Spot welding remains the main joining process for body-in-
white construction. Most spot welds in automotive structures
are dissimilar configurations (i.e., different sheet thicknesses
and grades are welded together), but AHSS-to-AHSS configu-
rations have become more common.
Shear Load Testing
The design of automotive body-in-white structures is usu-
ally based on simulated crash behavior. In this case, the frac-
ture behavior of the welds has a major influence on the whole
structure’s performance. Spot weld loading is usually divided
into several individual loading scenarios, among which shear
and opening modes are usually considered the most important
(Ref. 1).
Practically, shear and opening maximum loads are obtained
through simple laboratory tests, i.e., cross-tension (Ref. 2) and
tension-shear (Ref. 3). These tests are usually carried out dur-
ing steel grade qualification for spot weldability. When upgrad-
ing the steel from soft drawing quality to high-strength and to
AHSSs, the trend for tensile shear maximum loads is known
and is consistent with the increase of base metal strength (Refs.
4, 5). However, in cross-tension tests there is not a clear trend
between base material and cross-tension strength (CTS) (Ref.
6), but it is well known that AHSSs may show rather low CTS.
These periodic poor strengths are usually attributed to the
high alloying content of AHSS, leading to martensitic mi-
E. BIRO (elliot.biro@arcelormittal.com), L. CRETTEUR, and T. DUPUY are with ArcelorMittal Global R&D, based in Hamilton, Ont., Canada;
Montataire, France; and Maizières-lès-Metz, France, respectively. This article is based on a paper presented at the Sheet Metal Welding
Conference XV, Livonia, Mich., Oct. 2–5, 2012.
38 JANUARY 2014
BY E. BIRO, L. CRETTEUR, AND T. DUPUY
crostructure in the spot weld, which is sensitive to the notch ef-
fect when testing is performed in opening mode. However, most
of these observations and conclusions are based on standard
steel qualification results, i.e., tests on homogeneous welding
configurations. When these data are then applied to dissimilar
configurations, the most common approach in the automotive
industry is to consider that the fracture behavior of a dissimilar
configuration can be deduced from the corresponding two ho-
mogeneous configurations through a “minimum rule,” i.e., the
load-bearing capacity of the heterogeneous configuration is
supposed to be equal to the minimum strength of both homo-
geneous assemblies. This assumption is verified experimentally
on material combinations using thin mild steels, as illustrated
in Fig. 1. The mild steel sheet is the weakest point of the assem-
bly and fails during the mechanical test, leading to the forma-
tion of a plug around the weld.
Dissimilar Welds
Studies on heterogeneous or dissimilar configurations are
much fewer, although several studies have been published re-
cently (Refs. 8–12). However most of these studies consider
only tensile-shear testing of dissimilar welds. Only the work
from Khan et al. (Ref. 9) considers cross-tension testing of a
DP600-HSLA similar-thickness configuration, obtaining a load-
bearing capacity almost equal to that of the maximum level
among the similar configurations results, i.e., almost equal to
that of DP600. This result does not agree with the minimum
rule described above, which is attributed by the authors to the
difference in microstructure and hardness of the spot weld
nugget due to the dilution effect. This article focuses on AHSS

Fig. 1 — Example of dissimilar configuration with CTS matching
the “minimum rule” (Ref. 7).
Fig. 2 — Three-sheet configurations based on 1-mm DP980 LCE
sample.
Fig. 3 — Cross-tension strength for TRIP800 configurations.
Fig. 4 — Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+2, and 2+2
configurations.
dissimilar configuration spot welds tested in cross-tension. It
shows that the CTS for such configurations are greater than
predicted by the minimum rule, largely due to changes in the
solid mechanics governing joint failure.
Materials and Procedure Used
for the Investigation
The materials chosen for this study are a low-carbon equiv-
alent 980-MPa dual-phase (DP980 LCE) cold-rolled steel with
a hot-dip galvanized coating, and a 800-MPa transformation-
induced plasticity (TRIP800) steel.
Each steel grade was obtained in different thicknesses. Ma-
terial details are given in Table 1. It can be seen that although
there are slight differences in chemistry or mechanical proper-
ties from sample to sample, due to slightly different processing
parameters, the metallurgical concept remains the same for
each grade. Experiments were carried out on two- and three-
sheet stackups. Both the DP980 and TRIP800 were used for the
two-sheet stackups and only the DP980 was used for the three-
sheet stackups. All of the joints were made using similar grade
material of both similar and dissimilar material thickness to
focus on geometrical effects. The material thickness combina-
tions for all of the two-sheet joints are shown in Table 2.
All three-sheet stackups were made using the 1-mm DP980
LCE. These configurations were designed to study what hap-
pens in such cases, knowing that three-sheet welding is very
common in car body manufacturing. The four configurations
tested, shown in Fig. 2, are as follows: A — a square DP980
coupon (patch) is inserted between the two classical cross-ten-
sion coupons for welding (1+patch+1 mm); B — two coupons
oriented the same way welded with one coupon oriented
in the transverse direction to form a cross-tension sample
(1+[1+1] mm); C — same configuration as A but the external
coupon is removed by manual torsion before cross-tension
testing (1+1+0 mm); D — same configuration as A, but the
two coupons oriented the same way are first spot welded to-
gether strongly (with several spots) in the extremities, before
the actual three-sheet spot weld is done ([1++++1]+1 mm).
Spot welding was carried out based on using the procedure
and parameters described in ISO 18278-2 (Ref. 13). For each
welded configuration, a welding current range test was carried
out using a pedestal spot single-phase 50-Hz welding machine,
with the welding parameters chosen to correspond to the
thinnest sheet in the assembly (Table 3).
Each three-specimen cross-tension test was welded at the
multiple current levels using 38- × 125-mm coupons as speci-
fied by ISO 18278-2. Cross-tension testing was then carried out
with a tensile machine equipped with a special hydraulic clamp-
ing system, allowing the cross-tension specimens to be held with-
out sliding. After testing, the maximum load was recorded, and
the weld diameter was measured according ISO 14329 (Ref.
14), using a caliper gauge for button diameters and a magnify-
ing glass for weld diameters in case of partial or full interfacial
failures. Only welds without expulsion are considered in the fol-
lowing analysis.
Information Obtained from Testing
Cross-tension strength is strongly dependent on weld diame-
ter — Fig. 3. In spite of the scatter, the CTS for the dissimilar con-
figuration is clearly above that of the similar 1-mm configuration,
rather in the trend of the thicker similar 2-mm configuration.
WELDING JOURNAL 39
Table 1 — Steel Sheet Samples

Grade Coating Sample # Thickness YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) C (%) Mn (%) Si (%) Cr (%) Al (%)
(mm)
DP980 Hot Dip
LCE Galvanized AR1084 1 650 995 0.08 2.49 0.27 0.28 0.14
AS160 1.25 833 1076 0.08 2.44 0.26 0.29 0.15
AN2157 2 704 1037 0.07 2.54 0.25 0.31 0.14

TRIP Electrogalvanized AL761 1 520 828 0.19 1.67 1.63 0.02 0.03
800
Bare AL351 2 546 832 0.19 1.71 1.68 0.03 0.04

Table 2 — Welded 2-Sheet Configurations

Grade Thickness DP980 LCE TRIP800

(mm) 1 1.25 2 1 2

1 AR1084/ AR1084/ AR1084/

AR1084 AS160 AN2157
DP980 1.25 AS160/ AS160/
LCE AS160 AN2157
2 AN2157/
AN2157

1 AL761/ AL761/
TRIP800 AL761 AT351
2 AT351/
AT351

The CTS for the main DP980 configurations are shown as a
function of the weld diameter in Figs. 4 and 5. Other DP980 re-
sults (i.e, 1+1.25-mm configuration) have been left out of
the figures for the sake of clarity, but are considered in the
discussion.
As in the case of the TRIP800 steel welds, these results show
the CTS is mainly dependent on weld diameter. Again, the dis-
similar configurations performances appear obviously above the
minimum rule assumption. Three-sheet configurations based on
1-mm DP980 LCE results are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, and again
show that the CTS obtained for these configurations are higher
than expected from the minimum rule.
Figure 6 shows that compared to the standard similar 1-mm,
two-sheet configuration, both the patch and the 1+1+0-mm con-
figurations bring an improvement in CTS. Figure 7 shows that
the [1+++1]+1-mm configuration shows a performance very
close to the 1+2-mm two-sheet configuration, whereas the
1+[1+1] configuration shows a more limited improvement, high-
lighting the importance of restraint in the case of three-sheet
assemblies.
The observation that the CTS is greater than predicted by
the minimum rule has been called a “positive deviation” from
the expected strengths. This positive deviation turns out to be
almost systematic when AHSSs are welded together. In the fol-
lowing discussion, a detailed analysis of this phenomenon is de-
scribed, and a tentative explanation for it is proposed.
Analysis of Results
Several hypotheses can be proposed to explain the “positive
deviation”:
1. Dilution Effect: when spot welding an AHSS sheet to a low-
carbon sheet, the dilution (mixing of both chemistries) reduces
the carbon content of the molten nugget, which may improve its
mechanical behavior. Although this explanation is probably true,
it cannot explain the results of the present study, since they were
obtained with similar grades joined together (Ref. 9).
2. Thermal Effect: when comparing 1+2-mm to 1+1-mm con-
figuration, the overall assembly thickness is increased, leading
logically to increased thermal mass slowing the cooling rate. Re-
ducing the cooling rate can, in turn, reduce the brittleness of the
microstructures formed during welding (bainite may be tougher
than autotempered martensite, which may be tougher than
quenched martensite).
3. Notch Effect: in the case of dissimilar thickness spot welds,
the solidification plane, where the columnar grains in the weld
nugget meet, is assumed to be roughly at the midthickness of
the whole assembly, which is away from the notch end at the fay-
ing surface. As the solidification plane may be weaker than the
bulk of the molten nugget, a dissimilar thickness joint may be
stronger in opening mode than a similar thickness joint.
4. Mechanical Effect: in the case of dissimilar thickness spot
welds, the stress concentration at the notch will be different than
in a similar thickness joint due to uneven loading. This will in
turn influence the cross-tension strength. As this effect is not
obvious it will be shown further in the discussion. The analysis
of three-sheet configurations results helps in understanding the
relative importance of these effects — Fig. 8.
The 1+1+0-mm configuration is especially interesting as the
loading conditions during cross-tension are strictly identical to
the reference 1-mm similar configuration, but its CTS perform-
ance is greater than the strength of the similar gauge joint —
Fig. 6. This positive deviation can only be attributed to the ther-
mal (since overall thickness during welding was 3 mm instead of
2) and notch effects. However, the positive deviation for this
1+1+0-mm configuration is limited compared to the 1+2,

40 JANUARY 2014

Fig. 5 — Cross-tension strength for DP980 1.25+1.25, 1.25+2, and
2+2 configurations.
Fig. 6 — Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+1+0, and
1+patch+1 configurations.
Fig. 7 — Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+2, 1+[1+1], and
[1+++1]+1 configurations.
Table 3 — Welding Parameters
Minimum Sheet Thickness
in the Assembly (mm)
1 G0 - 16 - 40 - 6
1.25
2 G0 - 20 - 50 - 8
Electrode acc. ISO 5821
(type-shank diameter-tip
curvature radius-tip diameter)
G0 - 16 - 40 - 6
1+patch+1, and [1+++1]+1-mm configurations, which have
the same thermal and notch effects, highlighting that a mechan-
ical effect is also present.
To better analyze this mechanical effect, the CTSs were nor-
malized with respect to their weld and sheet dimensions. A pa-
rameter α was developed equaling the CTS divided by the prod-
uct of the weld diameter and the thickness of the thinnest sheet
used in the stackup. Although the parameter is not perfect, this
normalization turns out to be the most robust for a wide vari-
ety of cases, and has already been used in a study by Dancette
et al. (Ref. 6). After the α parameter was calculated for each
weld, the values for each configuration were averaged resulting
in a value for each stackup. It should be noted that the units
N/mm 2 are used for αand not MPa. This choice was made as
in most cases αis not a stress; however, α is close to the shear
stress in case of full button pullout. Instead, this parameter is
meant as only an equivalent stress to be used to compare the
various joint configurations. The average α obtained for each
configuration is given in Table 4.
First, theseαvalues confirm the qualitative analysis for
three-sheet configurations. From Table 4, theαvalues of the
1+1+0 joint are slightly higher than the 1+1 configuration. As
well, both values for these joints are lower than those for the
1+2, 1+patch+1, and the [1+++1]+1 joints. This is all in
agreement with Figs. 6 and 7. This again confirms the strength
of the mechanical effect when compared to when only the ther-
mal and notch effects are present. The α values of the two-sheet
stackups were plotted in Fig. 9 as a function of the sheet thick-
ness ratio. Even if some scatter can be seen for the similar con-
figurations (thickness ratio of 1), there is a clear increase (“pos-
itive deviation”) in α value for dissimilar configuration, which
is correlated to thickness ratio.
To better understand the influence of thickness ratio, a de-
tailed mechanical analysis was found in literature (Ref. 15). In
this work, the authors developed an analytical theory of elastic
loading of spot welds. The stress intensity factors at the notch
around the spot weld are derived as a function of the material
elastic properties, the sheet thicknesses and the “nominal stress”
(i.e., global loading) applied to the spot weld. Of course, in the
present study the loading during cross-tension testing was not
fully elastic. As this assumption may be reached locally around
the notch, the elastic analysis from Ref. 15 was considered here
as a means of understanding the mechanical effect on positive
deviation.
For the cross-tension case (opening mode), the nominal
stress, proportional to the cross-tension global load, is called
σbu++, and the relevant stress intensity factors able to explain
the spot weld failure are KI (stress intensity factor in opening
mode I) or K res (a resulting stress intensity factor taking into
account the mode I and mode II stress intensity factors), which
turn out to be close to each other since the contribution of mode
Welding Force (kN) Welding Time (ms) Holding Time (ms)
3.5 260 260
4 320 320
5 720 (four 180 ms 400
pulses separated by
40 ms cold times)
WELDING JOURNAL 41
II is limited in this case. Therefore, Equations 52 and 54 from
Ref. 15 are considered,δbeing the sheet thickness ratio (thin-
ner/thicker) and tu being the thinnest sheet thickness.

K I = 0.1012 + 0.0233δ + 0.1615δ 2 + 0.0473δ 3

σ b u ++ t u Equation 52 from Ref. 15

Kre s = 0.1668 – 0.0097δ + 0.0302δ 2 + 0.1461δ 3

σ bu ++ t u Equation 54 from Ref. 15

Fig. 8 — Schematic view of the thermal, notch and mechani-

The following analysis relies on three main assumptions: cal effects for the main configurations.
1. Spot weld fracture occurs when the maximum load (CTS,
proportional to the maximum nominal stress σbu++) is reached,
this assumption being supported by observations by Dancette
et al. (Ref. 6).
2. Spot weld fracture occurs when a critical K I or K res is
reached, corresponding to the toughness of the spot weld
nugget.
3. The critical KI or Kres is constant throughout the nugget
independent of the welded configuration. Although, it is ac-
knowledged that to consider the notch and thermal effects would
imply distinguishing different critical KI or Kres depending on
cooling rate or location inside the nugget.
Based on these assumptions, the equations above can be
written at the failure onset, both for similar and dissimilar con-
figurations with the same minimum sheet thickness t u. Divid-
ing one by the other yields the following expressions for the
Fig. 9 — α as a function of the thickness ratio for two-sheet
ratio between CTS for dissimilar and similar configurations,
configurations.
based on KI and Kres, respectively.

CTS dis s imilar 0.1012 + 0.0233 + 0.1615 + 0.0473

=
CTS s imilar 0.1012 + 0.0233δ + 0.1615δ 2 + 0.0473δ 3
from Equation 52

CTS dis s imilar 0.1668 – 0.0097 + 0.0302 + 0.1461

=
CTS s imilar 0.1668 – 0.0097δ + 0.0302δ 2 + 0.1461δ 3
from Equation 54

These computed ratios can be directly compared with the

average experimental ratios obtained from Table 4; all the data
being plotted in the same graph — Fig. 10.
Clearly, the order of magnitude of the mechanical effect, as
computed through the elastic analysis from Ref. 15, appears
very consistent with the experimental data. Further work by
Dancette et al. (Ref. 16) also supports the evidence of a strong
mechanical effect explaining the positive deviation. This study
used finite element modeling to predict the failure of the
TRIP800 spot welds presented here. In that study, two differ-
ent numerical approaches are considered for failure prediction
1. Similar to the above analysis from Radaj and Zhang (Ref.
15), the onset of fracture is predicted through a critical frac-
ture mechanics parameter, but in this case the J-integral, com-
puted through finite element analysis. A critical J-integral level
of 22.5 kJ/m² is found to be appropriate for the TRIP800 spot
weld molten zone. This critical level is reached for a cross-ten-
sile load of 3.3 kN in the case of a 5-mm-diameter weld in 1+1-
mm configuration, and for a cross-tensile load of 5.1 kN in the
Fig. 10 — Comparison between CTS dissimilar and similar joint
strengths as function of the thickness ratio for two-sheet con-
figurations.
case of a 5-mm-diameter weld in 1+2-mm configuration. These
results in predicted CTS are fully consistent with the experi-
mental results displayed in Fig. 3 (Ref. 16).
2. In a second part of their study, a cohesive zone model was
used to predict the spot weld failure during cross-tension test-
ing. Although the predicted CTS for the same configurations
(5-mm-diameter weld, 3.86 kN in 1+1-mm similar configura-
tion and 5.39 kN in dissimilar 1+2-mm configuration) are
slightly high compared to the experimental results in Fig. 3, they
are still in the range and their ratio is clearly consistent with
the positive deviation effect.

42 JANUARY 2014

Table 4 — Average α Levels
Configuration Average α (N/mm2)
TRIP800 1+1 mm 747
TRIP800 2+2 mm 639
TRIP800 1+2 mm 1146
DP980 LCE 1+1 mm 929
DP980 LCE 1.25+1.25 mm 823
DP980 LCE 2+2 mm 913
DP980 LCE 1+1.25 mm 1014
DP980 LCE 1+2 mm 1220
DP980 LCE 1.25+2 mm 1180
DP980 LCE 1+patch+1 mm 1179
DP980 LCE 1+[1+1] mm 1004
DP980 LCE 1+1+0 mm 1039
DP980 LCE [1+++1]+1 mm 1277
Conclusions
While material qualification tests are frequently based on
similar welding configurations, real car body applications are
quite systematically dissimilar configurations. For spot welds
failing in plug mode, the strength of the assembly only depends
on the weakest material strength. In the case of AHSS+AHSS
welded combinations, however, things turn out differently. Sim-
ilar-grade but dissimilar-thickness high-strength-steel configu-
rations have been spot welded and tested in cross-tension.
The following main conclusions can be highlighted:
1. For dissimilar-thickness configurations, the cross-tensile
strength is above the standard “minimum rule” assumptions,
this phenomenon being called a “positive deviation.”
2. Limited thermal and notch location effects can explain
part of this positive deviation, but the main reason is
mechanical.
3. As evidenced through several analytical and numerical
studies, this mechanical effect is due to the less severe local
stresses at the notch in case of uneven thickness, and improves
the positive deviation when the thickness ratio increases.
Although widely used for material qualification and scien-
tific purposes, similar configurations appear as the worst case
in terms of cross-tension performance for high-strength steels.
Actual vehicle design should consider positive deviation in dis-
similar configurations to maximize the potential strength of
spot welds in high-strength steels.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Savine Henrion, Sylvain
Dancette and Florent Krajcarz for their help in this study and
ArcelorMittal for granting us permission to publish this work.
References
1. Seeger, F., Feucht, M., Frank, Th., Keding, B., and Haufe,
A. 2005. An investigation on spot weld modeling for crash sim-
ulation with LS-DYNA. LS-DYNA Anwenderforum, Bamberg.
2. ISO 14272:2000, Specimen dimensions and procedure for
cross tension testing resistance spot and embossed projection welds.
3. ISO 14273:2000, Specimen dimensions and procedure for
shear testing resistance spot, seam and embossed projection welds.
4. Pouranvari, M., and Marashi, S. P. H. 2010. Key factors
influencing mechanical performance of dual phase steel resist-
ance spot welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
15(2): 149–155.
5. Dancette, S., Fabrègue, D., Massardier, V., Merlin, J.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2012. Investigation of the tensile
shear fracture of advanced high strength steel spot welds. Engi-
neering Failure Analysis 25(10): 112–122.
6. Dancette, S., Fabrègue, D., Massardier, V., Merlin, J.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2011. Experimental and modeling
investigation of the failure resistance of advanced high strength
steel spot welds. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 78(10):
2259–2272.
7. Internal ArcelorMittal data.
8. Baltazar Hernandez, V. H., Kuntz, M. L., Khan, M. I., and
Zhou, Y. 2008. Influence of microstructure and weld size on
the mechanical behavior of dissimilar AHSS resistance spot
welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 13(8):
769–776.
9. Khan, M. S., Bhole, S. D., Chen, D. L., Biro, E., Boudreau,
G., and van Deventer, J. 2009. Welding behavior, microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties of dissimilar resistance spot
welds between galvannealed HSLA350 and DP600 steels. Sci-
ence and Technology of Welding and Joining 14(7): 616–625.
10. Pouranvari, M., Marashi, S. P. H., and Mousavizadeh, S.
M. 2010. Failure mode transition and mechanical properties of
similar and dissimilar resistance spot welds of DP600 and low
carbon steels. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
15(7): 625–631.
11. Marashi, S. P. H., Pouranvari, M., Salehi, M., Abedi, A.,
and Kaviani, S. 2010. Overload failure behavior of dissimilar
thickness resistance spot welds during tensile shear test. Mate-
rials Science and Technology 26(10): 1220–1225.
12. Safanama, D. S., Marashi, S. P. H., and Pouranvari, M.
2012. Similar and dissimilar resistance spot welding of marten-
sitic advanced high strength steel and low carbon steel: Metal-
lurgical characteristics and failure mode transition. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining 17(4): 288–294.
13. ISO 18278-2:2004, Resistance welding — Weldability —
Part 2: Alternative procedures for the assessment of sheet steels for
spot welding.
14. ISO 14329:2003, Resistance welding — Destructive tests of
welds — Failure types and geometric measurements for resistance
spot, seam and projection welds.
15. Radaj, D., and Zhang, S. 1991. Stress intensity factors
for spot welds between plates of unequal thickness. Engineering
Fracture Mechanics 39(2): 391–413.
16. Dancette, S., Fabregue, D., Estevez,R., Massardier, V.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2012. A finite element model for
the prediction of advanced high strength steel spot welds frac-
ture. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 87(6): 48–61.
Dear Readers:
The Welding Journal encourages an exchange of ideas
through letters to the editor. Please send your letters to
the Welding Journal Dept., 8669 NW 36th St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166. You can also reach us by FAX at (305)
443-7404 or by sending an e-mail to Kristin Campbell
at kcampbell@aws.org.
WELDING JOURNAL 43
 FABTECH 2013

This year’s show set marks as the biggest ever, both in terms of
square footage of exhibit space and in the number of attendees

FABTECH 2013 will take a place
in history as the most successful
metal forming, fabricating, finish-
ing, and welding exhibition ever in
North America. A record 650,000
sq ft total of exhibition space was
utilized by a total 1573 exhibitors.
Also, a record 40,667 visitors
streamed onto the exhibition floor
see the latest technology that in-
dustry has to offer. The exhibition
space was 191,565 sq ft for 505
welding companies. This year, the
exhibition was a four-day event
that filled both the North and South
Halls of McCormick Place in
Chicago, Ill. This impressive event
is cosponsored by the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers; Ameri-
can Welding Society; Fabricators
& Manufacturers Association, In-
ternational; Precision Metalform-
ing Association; and Chemical
Coaters Association International.

BY ANDREW CULLISON, KRISTIN CAMPBELL, AND MARY RUTH JOHNSEN

ANDREW CULLISON (cullison@aws.org) is publisher, KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org) is associate editor, and MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
(mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor of the Welding Journal.

44 JANUARY 2014
Beginning with AWS
Business
The American Welding Society Presi-
dent Nancy Cole called to order the 94th
annual business meeting on Nov. 18.
Dawn Young, director of Association
Sales for McCormick Place, greeted the
gathering. “We are so appreciative of
AWS and FABTECH,” she said. “Every
other year you have a $62-million impact
on the economy of Chicago.”
President Cole went on to give a brief
synopsis of the state of the Society dur-
Fig. 1 — Dean Wilson, 2014 AWS presi-
dent, talks of the exciting future of the
Society.
Fig. 2 — Professor DuPont details his re-
search into welding high-alloy Ni steels.
Fig. 3 — Dr. Rick Polanin gave the Plum-
mer Memorial Education Lecture.
ing her tenure in 2013. Some of the ac-
complishments included translations of
technical standards to expand the AWS
reach around the world; the Women in
Welding initiative that has encouraged
women to get into the field of welding
with career-promoting programs, videos,
and scholarships; the expansion of online
courses through American Welding On-
line; the AWS use of social media to
reach the digitally connected audience;
the opening of business opportunities
around the world; and record revenues
and membership.
Throughout her travels both domes-
tically and internationally, she was en-
couraged to see how many people believe
in welding. She also saw much enthusi-
asm in schools for the profession.
Dean Wilson (Fig. 1), the incoming
2014 president, offered the theme of his
presidential year as “continuous im-
provement through innovation.” He
noted how improvement can be subtle
and one might not even know it is hap-
pening. As an example, he recounted how
during World War I the United States had
no reliable manufacturing process for
airplane engines and production was
zero. Through a series of experiments
with welding and other processes, man-
ufacturing was producing 20,000 engines
by 1919.
Wilson also related how his company,
Wilson Industries, introduced the first
see-through welding screen in 1968. Its
introduction was the culmination of trial
and error improvements and the utiliza-
tion of technology from NASA of a
lens coating that filtered out harmful
radiation.
He is looking forward to all the proj-
ects for AWS that are in the works for
2014. Some of those include stackable,
transferable certification credentials; se-
cure online transcripts and a national cer-
tification registry for all levels of weld-
ing professionals; producing a video li-
brary for welding; development of a mas-
ter welder program; a certified welder
passport; expanding American Welding
Online; continued collaboration with
Weld-Ed; and individual support through
scholarships. “I am overwhelmed and ex-
cited about what is going to happen in
2014,” he said.
Adams Lecture
Dr. John DuPont (Fig. 2) delivered
the 2013 Adams Lecture titled “Welding
of Nickel Alloys in Energy Applications.”
DuPont is a professor at Lehigh Univer-
sity, an AWS Fellow, has authored more
than 140 technical papers, and is
presently the R. D. Stout Distinguished
Professor.
“In less than 30 years there will be a
50% increase in demand for energy,”
noted DuPont, “and 80% of that demand
worldwide will be met by fossil fuels.” A
way to increase the efficiency of coal-
burning operations is to improve the
thermal efficiencies of materials used in
the process. One way to do that is to use
alloys that retain their properties in high-
temperature environments. Nickel al-
loys, especially superalloys, are of great
interest for these applications. DuPont
has done extensive research in the weld-
ing of these alloys and observed precipi-
tate-free zones, which actually are detri-
mental soft zones in the weld. Creep
voids that contribute to weld failure have
been observed in these areas. Preheat
and controlled weld temperature don’t
seem to help, but postweld heat treat-
ment that stays below 1100°C does. Fur-
ther research has shown that the addi-
tion of gadolinium (Gd) to the Ni alloy
within a certain range improves cracking
resistance. It appears to promote back-
filling of the crack.
DuPont feels one of the biggest chal-
lenges with these alloys is long-term
creep characteristics, and solutions are
going to be found only through a coop-
erative effort among the user, producer,
and researcher of the alloys.
The full Adams Lecture will be pub-
lished in the February issue of the Weld-
ing Journal.
Plummer Lecture
Dr. Rick Polanin, professor and pro-
gram chair of the manufacturing engi-
neering technology and welding technol-
ogy programs at Illinois Central College,
presented this year’s Plummer Memorial
Education Lecture — Fig. 3.
Polanin’s topic, “The Future of Weld-
ing Education,” focused on looking to
the past for guidance and inspiration for
the future; understanding what welding
education is about; describing the devel-
opment of effective welding courses; con-
sidering the role of technology both in
equipment and teaching; why manufac-
turing is vitally important to the United
States; and attempting to predict the fu-
ture of welding education.
“With welding, you can individualize
instruction and achieve life-long learn-
ing,” Polanin said.
Also included during his talk was the
complexity of issues affecting American
education — for which there are no easy
WELDING JOURNAL 45
answers — but in welding education, the
diversity, size, culture, economic con-
straints/cycles, and technology advance-
ments require the diligence of continu-
ous improvement.
To provide for a bright future, weld-
ing education must combine sound cur-
riculum development utilizing advance-
ments in learning theory and modern
content delivery; incorporate welding
technology advancements; listen to input
from local and national industry; and en-
sure accountability through evaluating
competency, including nationally recog-
nized qualification testing (AWS).
Polanin concluded by explaining the
application of HEAT — Honesty (pro-
viding students with an honest assess-
ment of job availability, earning poten-
tial, working conditions), Enthusiasm
(teachers need to impart an enthusiasm
for learning to students at all levels), At-
titude (the general public’s attitude
about manufacturing jobs and specifi-
cally welding jobs has to change), and
Teaching (teachers remain the key to suc-
cess of the American education system
and welding education).
Product News
Following are just a few of the prod-
ucts that drew the attention of the Weld-
ing Journal editors at this year’s show.
Ensitech demonstrated its TIG Brush
(Fig. 4) for removing heat tint stains on
stainless steel. The system combines elec-
tricity, chemistry, and heat to clean the
weld surface. A conductive brush at-
tached to a 40-A electrical motor applies
a cleaning fluid that is heated up to
200°C. The electrochemical reaction that
occurs cleans and passivates the stainless
steel. The company offers a choice of flu-
ids depending on whether a satin or mir-
ror finish is desired as well as whether a
heavy or medium stain must be removed.
The company exports to 12 different
countries, but this is the first introduc-
Fig. 4 — Heat tint is removed from a weld
through an electrochemical reaction.
46 JANUARY 2014
tion of this product in the United States.
Ensitech, www.tigbrush.com
The Norzon Plus grinding wheel by
Norton was reformulated to reduce
grinding time. The ceramic and zirconia
grit works well on stainless and high-alloy
steels (Fig. 5) and, in fact, is more suited
for tougher-to-grind steels. The wheel is
claimed to be durable in difficult grind-
ing applications and can be used with
high-horsepower grinders. This particu-
lar product is new, having been intro-
duced to the market this past October.
Norton, www.nortonabrasives.com
Fig. 5 — A reformulated grinding wheel
takes on hard-to-finish steels.
ITW Muller demonstrated its Yellow
Jacket Orbital Stretch Wrap Machine —
Fig. 6. The machine accepts a standard
pallet of heavy parts or fabrications
placed inside its cylinder. The machine
is then activated and a roll of polyethyl-
ene wrap is rotated around the palette
tightly securing the parts. The whole op-
eration takes one person about 90 sec-
onds to complete. The wrapped pallet re-
quires no other means of securing its load
for shipping. This unit costs approxi-
mately $25,000, accepts objects 118 in. in
diameter, and operates on 110 AC power.
Muller, www.yellowjacket110.com
Fig. 6 — This orbital wrap machine
secures loose parts in seconds.
TRUMPF used FABTECH to intro-
duce its TruLaser 5030 fiber laser for cut-
ting operations — Fig. 7. This 5-kW solid-
state laser is touted to produce cut qual-
ity very similar to a CO 2 laser with the
speed of a fiber laser. It reaches maxi-
mum efficiency when cutting thin mate-
rial, but can cut mild steel up to 25 mm
thick. The unit can handle nonferrous
metals such as copper and brass, as well
as stainless steel and aluminum. It has a
working range of 3000 mm, X axis; 1500
mm, Y axis; and 115 mm, Z axis.
TRUMPF, www.us.trumpf.com
Fig. 7 — A fiber laser cuts steel up to 25-
mm thick.
The Trans Process Solution (TPS/i)
welding platform provides a more accu-
rate and stable arc, better penetration,
and less spatter — Fig. 8. Available mod-
els include 300, 400, and 500 A. The prod-
uct offers a 7-in., plain-text, touch-sensi-
tive display and a user interface that al-
lows welders/maintenance technicians to
organize system settings. Internal com-
munications include job memory and
wire regulation with penetration stabi-
lization to automatically change wire
feed speed. The process control system
routes arc feedback and control at 100
Mb/s. Additional benefits are the dip-
transfer arc process low spatter control
and pulse multi control. Fronius USA,
LLC, www.fronius-usa.com
Fig. 8 — The touch-screen interface on
the TPS/i, as simple to use as operating
a smart phone, can be used even while
wearing gloves.
 The Elite Series of manual, straight
cutting torches offer the ability to cut up
to 10 in. when using acetylene and up to
12 in. with alternate fuel gases — Fig. 9.
The patented Elite Swirl Head Injector
design mixes high-pressure preheat oxy-
gen and lower pressure fuel gas to create
a vacuum-producing “entrainment zone”
that pulls gas through the torch. The se-
ries also moves from a positive pressure
universal mixer to a universal injector by
changing the cutting tip from acetylene to
any alternate fuel gas. In addition, the
torches feature a three-tube, in-line
design; internal tip nut that keeps the cut-
ting tip seated; and color-coded pressure
adjustment knobs for identifying gases.
The series includes the Oxweld SCT-1500
and Purox SCT-4200 families. ESAB Weld-
ing & Cutting Products, www.esabna.com
Fig. 9 — The Elite Series of manual,
straight cutting torches have an inter-
nal tip nut.
The women’s Arc Armor® apparel,
engineered with feedback from women
welders, features the Indura® cloth
jacket as well as GMA and GTA gloves
— Fig. 10. The jacket, made from Indura
Fig. 10 — The line of women’s Arc
Armor® welding protection includes a
tailored welding jacket and GMA and GTA
glove styles.
R. D. Thomas Jr. International Lecture
— Recommendations. Zhao’s recent Thomas lecture, “ISO Standards for Welded Hol-
low Section Joints,” highlighted the histories, scopes, tables of contents, and major
sections in these ISO 14346 and 14347 standards.
flame-resistant cotton, provides less re-
striction for better movement and in-
creases safety with a tailored fit. The
GMA and GTA gloves are available in X-
small and small. In particular, the GMA
glove (lined) has a dual-padded palm;
fleece-insulated palm, foam-insulated
back; and original wraparound keystone
thumb design. The GTA glove is unlined
for heightened feel and dexterity; has a
triple-padded palm; and contains goat
grain leather. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.,
millerwelds.com/arcarmor
Design enhancements have been
made to Versagraph Extreme, the most
advanced integrated thermal cutting ma-
chine in the company’s line of cutting sys-
tems — Fig. 11. It features improved
gearbox resolution, increased torque and
low backlash, plus a larger and stiffer
main beam for less z deflection and
greater load-carrying capabilities. The
Fig. 11 — The Versagraph Extreme ther-
mal cutting machine is offered in a range
of cutting widths from 72 to 288 in.
Professor Xiao-Ling Zhao (center) of
Monash University, Clayton, Australia,
this year’s R. D. Thomas Jr. Award re-
cipient, is pictured with Warren Migli-
etti of Power Systems Mfg., LLC,
Jupiter, Fla., and AWS President Nancy
Cole. Zhao has chaired the Interna-
tional Institute of Welding’s Subcom-
mission XV-E on Tubular Structures
since 2002. Under his leadership, the
XV-E Subcommission wrote two ISO
standards — 14346:2013, Static design
procedure for welded hollow-section
joints — Recommendations; and
14347:2008, Fatigue — Design proce-
dure for welded hollow-section joints
machine has heavy-duty rails and a rack.
The module design allows the operator
to add a bevel or other equipment with-
out making major changes. It is available
in a range of cutting widths from 72 to
288 in. Up to ten oxyfuel stations and four
plasma stations, including dual full-con-
tour plasma bevel stations, can be con-
figured. Maximum rapid traverse speed
is 1400 in./min. Koike Aronson, Inc./Ran-
some, www.koike.com
The impetus for the Stoody 155FC
and 160FC hardfacing wires (Fig. 12)
came from a Nebraska oilfield customer
who was experiencing spalling with the
product he had been using. The two al-
loys were specifically developed to pro-
vide excellent weldability and abrasion
resistance with weld deposits comprised
of special blends of tungsten carbides in
a nickel-silicon-boron matrix. While both
gas metal arc welding wires could be use-
Fig. 12 — The Stoody 155FC and 160FC
hardfacing products were designed to
handle such applications as building up
the stabilizer shown in the center of the
bottom row of parts.
WELDING JOURNAL 47
 With this seventh generation of ABB’s
Women in Welding largest robot, the IRB 6700 (Fig. 14),
total cost of ownership has been reduced
“Girls don’t take off their tiaras for a welding helmet, but they do want a re- by 20%, much of that through reduced
warding career,” said AWS President Nancy Cole during the Women in Welding power consumption. The robot family is
reception held Nov. 19 at the FABTECH Theatre. available in payloads from 150 to 300 kg
She discussed how she had been traveling across the United States throughout and reaches from 2.6 to 3.2 m. The ro-
her presidential year talking about welding and brazing, and had seen the excite- bots were designed with lighter compo-
ment women she spoke to had regarding manufacturing and the opportunities nents throughout and a smaller base.
available in the welding field. “We need to encourage those women to be the man- Since the robots move less weight, they
ufacturing workforce of tomorrow,” she said. use less power. The smaller base and
Speaking first was Brenda Ryan, owner and president of Ryan Industries, longer reach allow the robots to work in
Wixom, Mich., and a partner of SME, who noted that the number of women in tighter spaces. They were designed for
manufacturing has declined in recent years. “We need to offer recommendations spot welding, material handling, and ma-
for change to bring more women into manufacturing,” she said. “It is important chine tending. Maintenance has been op-
that we speak with one voice. Women represent 48% of the working population, timized, doubling the time between
but only 24% of manufacturing jobs.” service intervals. They are available with
It is expected that there will be an additional 5 million manufacturing jobs LeanID, an integrated dressing package
available by 2020, Ryan said. “Women offer the biggest opportunity to fill these designed for easier programming
jobs.” and more efficient movement. ABB Ro-
“The statistics (Ryan) talked about should be a loud call to industry,” Cole botics — North America, www.abb.com/
said. robotics
Gretchen Zierick of Zierick Manufacturing and a past president of the Preci-
sion Metalforming Association said the only areas at her company where the num-
ber of women have not declined is customer service and general office. She
lamented the elimination of classes such as high school shop that gave students
an introduction to manufacturing and the trades.
She noted that hers is a third-generation family business. “My company could
go out of business just because the workers won’t exist.”

ful for any type of metal-to-earth engage-
ment tool, the 155FC wire was designed
for multipass operations where cross
checking is undesirable and to offer
greater resistance to spalling. It exhibits
a matrix hardness range of 35–45 HRC.
Applications include process screw flight
edges, drill bit and stabilizer buildup, and
hardbanding. The 160FC was designed
for use as an overlay, and its matrix hard-
ness range is 40–50 HRC. It is well suited
for upstream oil and gas production ap-
plications such as drill bit holders, kicker
pads, stabilizers, and mud motors. Vic-
tor Technologies™, www.victortechnolo-
gies.com
automatically make changes to weld pa-
rameters and to track the operator’s ac-
tions to confirm each weld was per-
formed. The software can also be tied
into other equipment such as position-
ers. The Lincoln Electric Co., www.lin-
colnelectric.com
Fig. 14 — The IRB 6700 robot family was
designed to use less power, have a longer
reach, and reduced maintenance
requirements.

The Lincoln Electric Weld Sequencer
software shows a picture of a workpiece
and then explains to the welder step by
step where to place each weld — Fig. 13.
It is especially useful for applications
where there is a large number of parts,
but not necessarily high volume. It elim-
inates the need for the welding operator
to rely on his/her memory of where each
weld is needed and the parameters for
each weld. The system on display at the
show was set up for 140 different welds.
The software automatically sets welding
power source parameters such as voltage
and wire feed speed. It also can be set to
Fig. 13 — The company’s Weld Sequencer
software informs the operator where to
place each weld.
The Exact pipe-cutting system, which
features patented technology from Fin-
land, only recently has entered the North
American market. The machines pro-
duce straight, clean cut ends on steel,
plastic, copper, cast iron, stainless steel,
and multilayer pipes. Demonstrated dur-
ing the show were models Pipecut 220E
and Pipecut 280E — Fig. 15. The 220E
can handle pipe diameters from ½ to 8
in., while the 280E cuts pipe from 1½ to
11 in. in diameter. The machines can cut
6-in. Schedule 40 pipe in 40 s. The cold
cutting process produces no sparks, de-
bris, or fumes. The systems include a

48 JANUARY 2014
shoulder bag, pipe saw, four pipe sup-
ports, saw blade, Allen wrenches for
changing the blade and adjusting the saw,
operating instructions, and a DVD with
demonstrations and instructions. Model
220E retails for approximately $1500 and
the 280E for $2500. Exact Tools Oy,
www.exacttools.com
Fig. 15 — The Exact pipe-cutting system
uses a cold process to produce clean,
ready-to-weld cut ends on steel, plastic,
copper, cast iron, stainless steel, and
multilayer pipes.
AWS Names 2013 Image
of Welding Award
Winners
AWS and its Standing Committee
WEMCO, An Association of Welding
Manufacturers, honored the recipients
of the 11th Annual Image of Welding
Awards (Fig. 16) at a ceremony Nov. 20.
Details about the winners are highlighted
below.
• Individual Category, Dennis A.
Wright, Olathe, Kans. Wright is a plant
manager at Zephyr Products, Inc.; runs
his own business, Wright Welding Tech-
nologies; and is a Certified Welding In-
spector as well as Certified Welding Ed-
ucator who trains his employees at
Zephyr how to weld. His employees are
minimum security inmates from a local
correctional institute. Also, Wright’s par-
ticipation in community services is shown
by his involvement on many welding ad-
visory committees and as AWS District
16 director.
• Educator Category, Nanette
Samanich, Las Vegas, Nev. Since learn-
ing to weld in 1994, Samanich has be-
come certified in various welding
processes and is an AWS CWI and CWE.
Three years ago, she left her welding in-
spection career to be a full-time high
school welding instructor at Desert Rose
Adult High School. Additionally, she sits
on several educational advisory boards
and was the lead advisor for her school
Fig. 16 — The 2013 Image of Welding Award winners (from left) are Ned Lane (Dis-
tributor, Cee Kay Supply); Nanette Samanich (Educator); Levi Crusmire and Bob Rich-
wine (AWS Section, Ivy Tech Community College Student Chapter); Dennis A. Wright
(Individual); Woody Cook (Large Business, SME Steel); and Rick McCartney (Small
Business, Bay State Industrial Welding & Fabrication, Inc.). Not pictured: Dr. Patricio
Mendez (Educational Facility, Canadian Centre for Welding and Joining, University of
Alberta).
at the Nevada State Skills-USA Compe- tural steel fabrication and erection in a
tition 2011–2013; volunteered at Boy variety of industries. With a core belief
Scout Welding Merit Badge clinics; and in giving back to the community, it has
is currently the AWS District 21 director. provided the West Jordan Rotary Club
• Educational Facility, Canadian with funding to complete a baseball field
Centre for Welding and Joining, Univer- for disabled youth named SME Steel
sity of Alberta, Alb., Canada. This facil- Field of Dreams. The company has also
ity opened in 2010 at the University of provided material and labor support to
Alberta and currently operates under the maintain the Veterans Cemetery in Salt
supervision of Dr. Patricio Mendez. A Lake City.
graduate-level research center, the • Distributor, Cee Kay Supply, Inc.,
school also offers undergraduate and St. Louis, Mo. Cee Kay Supply is the
graduate students a fundamental to weld- largest independent supplier of gases,
ing course. Graduate students also work welding, and cutting equipment supplies
with high school students to educate in Missouri. It has hosted and helped
them on robotic welding. The facility is sponsor the AWS St. Louis Section’s
home of an AWS Student Chapter, too. Mini Weld Show for the past 11 years. In
• Small Business, Bay State Indus- addition, it partners with local colleges
trial Welding & Fabrication, Inc., Hud- and technical schools, and was a major
son, N.H. This company was founded in contributor in helping fund the AWS St.
1992 by Rick McCartney after years of Louis Section’s Hil Bax Memorial Schol-
working as a welder. With 23 employees, arship. Recently, the company held a Boy
Bay State has donated time and materi- Scouts of America Welding Merit Badge
als to construct the Benson Park 9/11 Me- clinic where eight local scouts earned
morial, plus teamed up with Building their badges.
Dreams for Marines to renovate homes • AWS Section, Ivy Tech Community
for local Marines who need improved ac- College Student Chapter, Anderson, Ind.
commodations after war-related injuries. This Student Chapter has only been in
In the near future, it is looking to wel- existence for a little more than a year and
come apprentice and internship oppor- a half, but its first major project involved
tunities for individuals in local welding making a steel sculpture representing a
classes. graduating student that now stands in
• Large Business, SME Steel, West front of Anderson Ivy Tech. Other proj-
Valley City, Utah. Since 1992, this com- ects include rebuilding a pontoon trailer,
pany has provided comprehensive struc- repairing a cast iron farm tractor wheel
WELDING JOURNAL 49
for the Frankton, Indiana, Heritage
Days, fund-raising to buy Christmas pres-
ents for needy children, and building ta-
bles for the Ivy Tech Engineering De-
partment. It has also raised enough to
present $1000 to the AWS Indiana Sec-
tion scholarship fund.

Welding Wars
Groups battled it out during the first
Welding Wars Competition (Fig. 17) held
at FABTECH Nov. 19 and 20.
First place went to Jeff Anderson,
Garrett Harris, and Austin Raetz with
Kankakee Community College, Kanka-
kee, Ill — Fig. 18. They prepared for this
competition before coming to the show
and were excited to win. “It was tough,”
Anderson said. “It looks easy but was
hard,” Harris added.
Second place was awarded to Anthony
Godinez, Ryan Crandal, and Brad
Williamson with Ferris State University, Fig. 17 — Students from Moraine Valley Community College display teamwork while
Big Rapids, Mich. competing at the Welding Wars event.
Third place was earned by Jeffrey
Kubic, Matthew Zohfeld, and Robert
Stephens with Moraine Valley Commu-
nity College, Palos Hills, Ill.
Prizes included welder backpacks with
supplies from BSX; gas metal arc, gas
tungsten arc/shielded metal arc, and
plasma cutting machines from Lincoln
Electric; and three-in-one gas metal arc,
shielded metal arc, and gas tungsten arc
machines from Tweco.
Given a 2-h time limit in which to
work, the three-member teams were
given a project drawing to interpret and
materials for creating it. Gas metal arc
and gas tungsten arc welding with plasma
arc cutting were used. Among the addi-
tional sponsors were NI Steel for donat-
ing steel and Bessey Tools for providing
clamps.
A panel of AWS Certified Welding In-
spectors evaluated all weldments to the
requirements of the current AWS D1.1, Fig. 18 — The Welding Wars winners present at the awards gala were (from left)
Structural Welding Code — Steel, based Matthew Zohfeld, Jeffrey Kubic, and Robert Stephens (third place, Moraine Valley
on project accuracy to print specifica- Community College); Anthony Godinez (second place, Ferris State University); and
tions, weld size and overall weldment ap- Jeff Anderson, Austin Raetz, and Garrett Harris (first place, Kankakee Community
pearance, craftsmanship, professional- College).
ism, and safety.

Professional Welders
Contest
A record number of welders, 206 to
be exact, put their skills to the test to see
who would earn the bragging rights as
America’s best welder by winning the
Professional Welders Contest at
FABTECH. The two-day event attracted
contestants from all over the United
States including California from one end
of the country and Massachusetts from
the other.
The competitors were required to
weld a ¼-in. square tube at a 60-deg skew
onto a ¼-in. plate all around with 1⁄8-in.
7018 electrode — Fig. 19. A time limit of
five minutes was given, which included
cleaning the weld. All the welds were ex-
amined by AWS Certified Welding In-
spectors according to D1.1 criteria. To
eliminate any question in determining
the winners, in addition to the visual in-
spection, the weld profiles of the final-
ists were examined with Wiki-Scan, a
laser scanning inspection system (Fig. 20)
that accurately measures the weld bead
within the set limits.
The winner of the $2500 first-place

50 JANUARY 2014
Fig. 19 — Contestants were required to weld all around a
1
⁄4-in. tube set at a 60-deg skew.
prize was Brian LaRou, a pipefitter from
Morris, Ill. The $1000 prize for second
place was taken by William DeBold, and
the $500 third-place winner was Robert
Hacker from Hurricane, Utah. In addi-
tion to the three money winners, there
were nine others who received prizes of
welding-related items. Those winners
were Larry Clark, George Rolla, Keith
Cusey, Thomas Fassier, Nick Lerma, Tim
Kinnaman, Mark Mitchell, Greg Larson,
and Tanner Thompson.
The competition was organized and
run by the Indiana Section with Tony Bro-
sio acting as the chairman of the Profes-
sional Welders Competition Committee.
He was assisted by fellow Section mem-
bers, wives, and volunteers from a local
educational facility. Personnel from
Servo-Robot assisted in laser scanning
the welds.
Robotic Arc Welding
Contest
Nineteen contestants entered the
first-ever AWS Robotic Arc Welding
Contest held Nov. 19 and 20. Entrants
had to take a 20-min multiple-choice test
on welding fundamentals and robotic arc
welding systems, then undergo a timed
performance test in which they had to
demonstrate familiarity with the compo-
nents of a robotic arc welding cell, pro-
gram the machine to weld a test coupon,
weld the coupon, and visually verify the
coupon’s quality. A team of AWS CWIs
judged the competition according to the
criteria of AWS D16.4, Specification for
the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding
Personnel.
Fig. 20 — In addition to visual inspection, a laser scanning device
was used to determine the final winners.
The top three finishers were
Jennifer Hildebrandt (gold) (Fig.
21), a welding technology student
at Milwaukee Area Technical Col-
lege; Jeff Steiner (silver), a weld-
ing engineering technology student
at Ferris State University who also
works for Polaris Industries; and
Mike Kimball (bronze), an AWS
CWI and robot programmer for
Jay Mfg., Oshkosh, Wis. In an-
nouncing the winners, Vern Man-
gold, D16 Committee vice chair,
commented that sometimes a per-
son gets a chance at redemption,
noting that Hildebrandt had placed
second in June during a similar
contest held during the AWS Mil-
waukee Section’s National Robotic
Arc Welding Conference.
Miller Welding Automation and
Wolf Robotics provided the robotic
welding cells for the competition.
In addition, ServoRobot provided
personnel and equipment used for
scoring the coupons. The purpose Fig. 21 — Jennifer Hildebrandt and Mike Kimball
of the event was to draw attention placed first and third, respectively, in the first-
to the AWS Certified Robotic Arc ever AWS Robotic Arc Welding Contest.
Welding (CRAW) program.
Hildebrandt said she initially training and the complimentary oppor-
wasn’t going to participate because she tunity to sit for an actual CRAW certifi-
hadn’t touched a robot since June, but cation exam. The three top finishers also
her instructor and classmates urged her received AWS duffle bags.
to compete. “I entered for the possibil-
ity of training,” she said. “It was chal- Plan Ahead for Next Year
lenging. There was pressure with the time
limits with the practical exam.” FABTECH 2014 will be held Nov.
Kimball said he found the written por- 11–13 at the Georgia World Congress
tion the most challenging. As a relatively Center in Atlanta. It will once again be
experienced programmer, he was more North America’s largest welding, metal-
comfortable with the practical exam. forming, and fabricating event. For more
Hildebrandt will receive AWS CRAW information, visit www.aws.org/expo.◆
WELDING JOURNAL 51
What Is the Best Method
for Preheating 4130?
A study compares three preheat
methods based on time required,
efficiency, safety, and cost
n the oil and gas industry, AISI 4130
I steel is a widely used material. This
material is quenched and tempered for
strength and other specific properties.
Once the material has been welded, the
properties of the heat-affected zone are
adversely affected. In order to lessen the
effects of welding on 4130, preheating is
an essential requirement of the welding
procedure. While the use of direct flame
is the most prevalent, other commonly
used methods include induction and
resistance heating, with resistance being
the next most commonly employed
technique.
The purpose of this study is to com-
pare induction, resistance, and direct
flame preheating methods on multiple
levels. This comparison is based on ac-
tual test data derived from preheating
the same part with each method. No sales
nomenclature or assumed data are used.
The final result determined the most ef-
fective and efficient preheating method.
Methodology
A single valve body was chosen for the
study because of its mass and its similar
configuration to valves typically used in
the oil and gas industry. The valve was
preheated to an industry minimum of
500°F using typical industry practices for
all three methods. Throughout each test,
the temperatures on the inside and out-
side of the valve were monitored and
recorded on a data recorder. The ther-
52 JANUARY 2014
mocouples used with the data recorder
remained in the same place for all three
tests. Elapsed time was recorded in rela-
tion to power used and temperature
readings. For each trial, once a tempera-
ture of 500°F was attained, the tempera-
ture was maintained for one hour and the
energy used was recorded. Then, the tem-
perature drop was recorded for one hour
with no additional heat input. A Fluke®
power meter was installed onto the pri-
mary input line just after the fuses at the
wall disconnect to measure and record
the active energy (in kilowatt-hours) used
by the induction and resistance power
sources. For the direct flame tests,
propane fuel gas was used. The amount
of propane consumed was determined
using a scale to measure the before and
after weight of the propane cylinder.
Test Procedures
Induction
The induction heater uses water-
cooled cables to conduct high-frequency
electric current to electromagnetically
induce eddy currents within the material.
The electromagnetic currents in the ma-
terial cause the molecules to excite which
generates the heat. As such, the heat is
generated within the material compared
to the other two methods where the heat-
ing sources are applied to the external
surface and the heat must then be con-
ducted through the part. This results in
BY J. WALKER, D. HEBBLE,
AND R. HOLDREN
J. WALKER, D. HEBBLE, and
R. HOLDREN are with Arc Specialties
Engineering & Consulting,
Houston, Tex.
more uniform heating through the part
thickness and less radiated heat from the
preheated component.
First, all valve surfaces were covered
by wrapping the valve with an insulating
ceramic fiber blanket. Next, an induction
heating cable was wrapped around the
valve over the blanket — Fig. 1. The cable
was not in contact with the block at any
point. Since the cables are water cooled
they remain approximately at room tem-
perature when properly insulated from
the part. The induction heating machine
uses thermocouples to monitor the tem-
perature and control the machine’s out-
put. Two control thermocouples were
placed on the valve, one on the inside and
one on the outside, each within 1⁄4 in. (6
mm) of the thermocouples used with the
data recorder.
The induction heater controller was
programmed to preheat the part to 500°F
as quickly as possible, and then maintain
that temperature for one hour. The data
recorder was turned on, the power meter
was set to record, and the induction ma-
chine was set to preheat. Both the data
recorder and the power meter record
time along with the other measurements.
Once both thermocouples reached 500°F,
the machine was set to maintain for one
hour and the time on the data recorder
and power meter were noted. After one
hour, the machine was turned off and the
temperature was recorded for another
hour after making note of the time on the
data recorder. Throughout the test, the

Fig. 1 — Position of induction heating coil, and measurement and control
thermocouple cables.
Fig. 2 — Placement of resistance heating pads and thermocouple cables.
Fig. 3 — Direct flame preheating setup.
amount of time required to set up and tear
down was also recorded.
Resistance
The resistance heater uses resistance pads
made up of a resistant element woven through
ceramic tiles. This construction results in a
heating pad with enough flexibility to allow
for contouring the pad around or inside com-
ponents with varying profiles. The element
consists of a conductor having high resistance,
so when electrically energized, the element
heats up. The ceramic tiles both conduct this
heat to the component as well as electrically
insulate the heating element from the com-
ponent. The heated tiles only transfer heat to
the valve through radiant heat and conduc-
tive heat where the pads are in contact with
the valve.
The resistance heating pads were first fas-
tened to each other with wire and to the valve
to keep them in place — Fig. 2. Next, the
whole assembly was covered with an insulat-
ing ceramic fiber blanket. Two preheating
zones (with separate control) were used with
each zone using two resistance heating pads.
The pads were arranged such that each of the
two zones was on opposite sides of the valve.
The resistance heating controller uses one
thermocouple per zone to monitor the tem-
perature and control the output to that zone.
Each zone had a thermocouple resistance
spot welded onto the outside of the valve. The
control thermocouple was connected to the
valve within ¼ in. (6 mm) of the location for
the measurement thermocouple. The second
thermocouple was on the other side, on the
outside of the valve. A thermocouple placed
on the inside of the valve ¼ in. (6 mm) away
from the one used for the data recorder was
plugged into the machine for reference only.
The resistance machine was programmed
to preheat the valve to 550°F as quickly as
possible, and then maintain the temperature
for one hour. A previous test showed that
when setting the machine to preheat to 500°F,
it required more than six hours for the inside
to reach 500°F after the outside had attained
this temperature, so programming the con-
troller to reach the higher temperature on the
outside was used as a means to through-heat
the part more rapidly. This is believed to have
happened because there was not a large
enough temperature differential between the
inside surface and the outside surface. Be-
cause the pads were touching the valve so
close to the thermocouple, the temperature
did not rise high enough above 500°F to cre-
ate that differential. The data recorder was
then turned on, the power meter was set to
record, and the resistance heating power
source was set to preheat. Both the data
recorder and the power meter record time
WELDING JOURNAL 53
along with the other measurements.
Once both the internal and external A
measurement thermocouples reached
500°F, the machine was set to maintain
the temperature for one hour and the
time on the data recorder and power
meter were noted. After one hour, the
machine was turned off and the temper-
ature was recorded for another hour after
making note of the time on the data
recorder. Throughout the test, the
amount of time required to set up and
tear down was recorded.

Direct Flame
A 100-lb cylinder of propane was used
with a Belchfire® fuel gas and com- B
pressed air torch. The valve was rotated
on a turntable while the flame impinged
on the exterior surface of the valve —
Fig. 3.
The valve was not insulated at all,
which is in accordance with typical indus-
try practices. The data recorder was
placed on top of a piece of pipe tacked
to the valve so as to not tangle the ther-
mocouple leads. Only the two data
recorder thermocouple leads were used
for this test.
The data recorder was turned on and
the flame and rotation were started.
Once both thermocouples reached 500°F,
the time was noted and the maintenance
time started. Preheat maintenance was C
determined by monitoring the tempera-
ture and cycling the torch on and off man-
ually. This human element can add some
degree of inconsistency. After one hour
of preheat maintenance, no additional
heat was applied and the temperatures
were recorded for one hour after mak-
ing note of the time on the data recorder.
Throughout the test, the amount of time
required to set up and tear down was
recorded.

Experimental Results
Fig. 4 — Comparison between the temperature rise on the inside and outside vs. the en­
Time ergy used. A — Propane heating; B — resistance heating; C — induction heating.

Time was evaluated based on time to

preheat to 500°F, time difference be-
tween inside and outside reaching 500°F,
500°F in only 0.5 h. There was minimal through-thickness preheating. Overall,
time to set up, and time to tear down.
difference in the results from flame and the method that brought the inside and
resistance preheating. Achieving 500°F outside to the target temperature the
Preheat Time
on the outside with the propane required fastest was induction.
1.02 h, while the inside required 1.1 h.
When analyzing preheat time, induc-
The outside with the resistance required Setup and Tear­Down Time
tion produced the best results with both
0.78 h, while the inside required 1.75 h.
the inside and outside of the valve reach-
Therefore, resistance heating required The flame method required the least
ing the minimum 500°F in 0.6 h. The out-
the greatest amount of time to achieve amount of setup and tear-down time,
side of the valve reached the minimum

54 JANUARY 2014

Fig. 5 — Cost per part while paying off the preheat equipment (1.5 years).
Fig 6. — Cost per part after the preheat equipment is paid off.
only taking 0.25 h for each. The induc-
tion method was next with 0.58 h to set
up and 0.6 h to tear down. Resistance re-
quired the longest time with 1.5 h to set
up and 0.37 h to tear down. Ease of setup
and tear-down was also considered, and
direct flame was the easiest. The direct
flame method only required the valve to
be rotated with a torch pointed at it, while
the other methods required more com-
plicated preparation. The only constraint
with the propane method is if the part is
too heavy for a turntable. The most dif-
ficult method was the resistance; with the
reality that the operator must wire tie the
pads to each other and in the desired po-
sition, as well as deal with hot pads once
the part is preheated. Induction was sig-
nificantly easier than resistance to set up,
with the self-supporting coils and the ad-
ditional advantage that the coil does not
get hot. The quickest method of the three
was propane, with induction a close sec-
ond, and resistance a lagging third.
Energy Efficiency
Each method’s efficiency was ana-
lyzed based on energy (generated and
consumed) as well as total energy used.
For resistance and induction, the kilo-
watt-hours (kWh) were recorded. For the
flame test, the pounds of propane used
were recorded for the preheat and pre-
heat maintenance stages. In order to
compare all three methods, the pounds
of propane were converted to BTU1 and
then to kWh2. The amounts of electric-
ity used in the other tests were converted
to BTU2 so that all three tests have kWh
and BTU as values in relation to the tem-
perature increase.
Flame preheating was the least effi-
cient, using 171 kWh and 585,000 BTU.
Flame also had the quickest temperature
drop once heat was removed, with a 12°F
difference between the inside and the
outside. The quick temperature drop was
easily predicted because there was no in-
sulation used for the propane test. The
induction method was the most efficient,
using 21.5 kWh and 73,000 BTU and had
the smallest temperature drop once heat
was removed, with only a 4°F difference.
The resistance used 24.5 kWh and 84,000
BTU. The outside temperature dropped
34°F more than the inside. The differ-
ence can be linked to the requirement
that the outside needed to be heated to
550°F in order for the inside to reach
500°F. Once the heat was removed, the
outside and inside temperatures were
still equalizing, and once the tempera-
tures were the same they both started
dropping. One of the most significant dif-
ferences was the observation that the
propane used 585,000 BTU compared to
73,000 BTU for induction. Therefore,
512,000 BTU (87.5%) of energy was
wasted. Also, theoretically all 512,000
BTU went into heating the environment,
meaning that in production situations,
the wasted energy resulted in greater
heat exposure to welders and other work-
ers in the area. Induction proved to be
the most efficient, using the least energy
and having the slowest temperature drop
— Fig. 4A–C.
Safety
Each method was analyzed to deter-
mine its level of safety based on the
amount of handling and potential haz-
ards. Safety was evaluated because it is
one of the primary concerns in shop en-
vironments. Induction is the safest
method out of the three. The part does
not need to be on a turntable, which elim-
inated one part-handling operation.
Also, the induction coils remain at room
temperature at all times and with the part
wrapped in an insulating blanket, the
user has a very small chance of getting
burned by the 500° F part.
Resistance and propane are haz-
ardous for multiple reasons, but propane
is slightly more dangerous. With resist-
ance and propane, the heating elements
and torch are extremely hot during and
immediately after preheating, and are
only cooled by the air. With resistance,
the pads are covered with an insulating
blanket, but once the part is preheated
it is difficult to move the hot pads. With
WELDING JOURNAL 55
Table 1 — Summary of Test Results

Method Induction Resistance Flame

Equipment Miller Pro Heat 35 PDS Bartech Belchfire torch
Total propane used, lb N/A N/A 27
Total electricity used, kWh 21.6 24.6 N/A
Total energy used, BTU 73,000 84,000 585,000
Avg. temperature drop in 1 h/outside diameter vs. 36/4 56/34 76/12
inside diameter temperature differential, °F
Time to preheat inside to 500°F, h 0.60 1.75 1.10
Set up time, h 0.58 1.50 0.25
Tear­down time, h 0.60 0.37 0.25
Total time, h 1.78 3.62 1.60
Total cost* $150.34 $287.57 $187.69

*Costs based on the following values: labor @ $65/h; electricity @ $0.064/kWh; propane @ $0.652/lb.

direct flame, the part is not covered at
all so there is a large part that will be at
the preheated temperature that the op-
erator has no protection from. Also, with
direct flame, there is an open flame as
well as hoses filled with combustible gas
leading to a cylinder of gas or a manifold
system. The torch can be knocked over
or inadvertently pointed at something or
someone that could be burned. Also, the
propane torch heats the room creating a
less desirable work environment. Induc-
tion is the safest method, having a heat-
ing element that does not get hot, heat-
ing the valve while it is wrapped in insu-
lating blanket, and requiring no part han-
dling. Furthermore, since the part is
heated from the inside, induction heat-
ing results in less radiant heat exposure.
Cost
The cost of each method was analyzed
based on cost of labor, electricity,
propane, and personnel usage. An analy-
sis using $65/h for labor, $0.064/kWh for
electricity, and $0.652/lb of propane re-
vealed that resistance preheating costs
the most to preheat a valve, costing
$287.57. That breaks down to $164.67 in
labor to preheat the valve, $121.33 in
labor to set up and tear down, and $1.57
in electricity. Direct flame preheating
was the next most expensive, costing
$187.68; $137.58 in labor to preheat the
valve, $32.50 in labor to set up and tear
down, and $17.60 in propane. Finally, in-
duction preheating was the cheapest,
costing $150.34. That breaks down to
$72.04 in labor to preheat the valve,
$76.92 in labor to set up and tear down,
and $1.38 in electricity.
If the shop is air conditioned, there
will be extra electricity used to dissipate
the 512,000 BTU put in the room by the
propane, $4.29 of electricity if the unit is
specifically sized for this amount of heat.
Also, if preheat labor is not taken into
account when the shop preheats offline,
preheating one part while at the same
time welding another, direct flame be-
comes the cheapest method, followed by
induction.
The induction method proved to be
the most efficient. With induction mak-
ing the best use of the operator’s time,
using the least electricity, and having a
very fast uniform heating pattern.
Cost of the unit is another factor in
calculating the cost to preheat each valve.
The induction unit costs $39,000 while
the resistance unit costs $15,000, and the
flame torch costs $1,200; but with the
time savings with induction, the cost is
offset. Preheating with induction will
save the user $37 per part over direct
flame and $137 per part over resistance,
once the equipment has been paid for.
Conclusions and
Recommendations
Based on this study, the induction
method was the best in most categories
(Table 1). Induction heating required the
least amount of time to preheat, was the
most energy efficient, safest, and most
cost-effective. It used less energy than
the resistance and the electricity cost less
than the propane used. Induction heated
the valve the fastest and was quicker to
set up than the resistance. The induction
method also was the safest for the user,
with the whole valve being insulated and
heating coils that do not get hot.
If offline heating is employed,
propane is the cheapest, but with an open
flame this adds heat to the room that
adds extra cost, more safety concerns,
and creates a less-desirable work envi-
ronment. With preheat labor not in-
cluded, induction was the second cheap-
est. Resistance was the slowest and most
expensive in every scenario, due to setup
time and the amount of time it took to
preheat.
Perhaps the most important result
from this study is the fact that many vari-
ables need to be evaluated. While the
cost of induction heating equipment is
greater than that for either the resistance
or direct flame method, the efficiencies
offered will offset the added cost. Per-
haps more importantly, the fact that the
induction method creates a safer envi-
ronment for the worker will help to op-
timize both productivity and quality.♦
References
1. www.flameengineering.com
2. Google® calculator
Change of Address?
Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address in-
formation — (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.

56 JANUARY 2014
For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
In-Line Inspection of
Resistance Spot Welds
for Sheet Metal Assembly
Chrysler’s Windsor Assembly Plant tries
out an ultrasonic real-time monitoring
system to track expulsion, electrode life,
and weld problems
sing a built-in ultrasonic sensor
U provides a new approach in qual-
ity inspection of resistance spot
welds. With real-time quality monitor-
ing, every weld can be instantaneously in-
spected as it is made. By knowing the
quality of each weld joint, the welding
control system user has the advantage of
correcting problems before producing
unacceptable products. It also becomes
possible to collect data and infer infor-
mation regarding the process stability
that has been unavailable before. As a
stand-alone unit or in tandem with adap-
tive control welding systems, the real-
time ultrasonic inspection technology
permits quality measurements, instead
of just quality forecasting. The dynamics
of spot weld size, instantaneous quality
changes, electrode cap degradation, and
other otherwise difficult-to-determine
parameters become readily available to
weld control engineers. This article pres-
ents a case study of an installation at
Chrysler’s Windsor Assembly Plant
where real-time monitoring is used to
track weld quality, expulsion events, elec-
trode life, and detect problems. With
ever-increasing production volumes and
new metals being introduced every year,
R. Gr. MAEV, A. M. CHERTOV, W. PEREZ REGALADO, and A. KARLOFF are with Institute for Diagnostic Imaging Research, University of Windsor, Wind-
sor, Ont., Canada. A. TCHIPILKO is with Tessonics, Inc., Windsor, Ont., Canada. P. LICHAA, D. CLEMENT, and T. PHAN are with Chrysler Windsor As-
sembly Plant, Windsor, Ont., Canada.
This article is based on a paper presented at the Sheet Metal Welding Conference XV, Livonia, Mich., Oct. 2–5, 2012.
58 JANUARY 2014
BY R. Gr. MAEV, A. M. CHERTOV,
W. PEREZ REGALADO, A. KARLOFF,
A. TCHIPILKO, P. LICHAA,
D. CLEMENT, AND T. PHAN
the use of a nondestructive automatic in- have been introduced to speed up the
spection system is necessary for the sheet
assembly industry to stay competitive and
provide quality products at a low cost.
process and increase the percentage of
validated welds. Today, nondestructive
inspection of resistance spot weld qual-
ity is a subject of high interest in auto-
Real-Time Inspection motive and other sheet metal assembly
Technology industries. Still, with new inspection tech-
nologies, only a small fraction of resist-
Resistance spot welding is currently a ance spot welds get tested. The proce-
dominant joining technology in the sheet dure remains quite time consuming as
metal assembly industry, especially in au- parts must be removed from the produc-
tomotive manufacturing. A recent auto- tion line, or production needs to be sus-
motive roadmap suggests that this trend pended for inspection.
is not likely to change any time soon (Ref. For this reason, many efforts have
1). The average car contains 3 to 4 thou- been made to develop a real-time spot
sand spot welds, which ensure its struc- weld quality assurance system. Most of
tural integrity. For decades, the main the existing systems employ some kind of
quality assurance method in
production was destructive
testing: peel test, chisel test,
and metallographic analy-
sis. These methods are
quite costly and time con-
suming. Beside, destructive
testing is only a periodic
procedure that selectively
inspects a small random
portion of the sample pool.
Different nondestruc- Fig. 1 — Schematic setup of ultrasonic in-process spot
tive inspection techniques weld analyzer.
Fig. 2 — Two electrodes squeeze steel plates before
welding (left). Gated A-scan (right).
indirect quality assurance by measuring
some related parameters. Some measure
electrode force dynamics and electrode
displacement, others study welding cur-
rent and voltage changes to predict weld
quality based on models of the welding
process. Such methods allow one to only
predict the weld quality, not measure
it, due to the indirect nature of these
methods.
Ultrasound methods use ultrasonic
waves that easily penetrate the metal
sheets and bring back information about
the internal structure of the spot weld.
For this reason, ultrasonic testing was
traditionally used for offline weld inspec-
tion. From the 1960s, different research
groups attempted to develop real-time
ultrasonic testing technology (Refs. 2–7).
With the relatively recent use of robots
for spot welding, along with the introduc-
tion of servo motors and tip dressers, spot
welding has become a much more stable
process to implement real-time ultra-
sonic inspection inline with production.
Today, our research group advanced to
the level of installation of half a dozen
prototype inline ultrasound units at sev-
eral assembly plants around the world.
The biggest progress has been achieved
with our long-term partner Chrysler
Corp. at one of its plants in Windsor,
Ont., Canada.
This aricle describes the current level
of technology along with the particular
Fig. 4 — Schematic M-scan of the resist-
ance spot welding process.
Fig. 3 — Two electrodes squeeze steel plates during
welding (left). Gated A-scan (right).
problems and advancements of the sys-
tem installed at an industrial facility.
Inline Ultrasonic Inspection
of Spot Welding
In resistance spot welding, the metal
sheets are joined by means of melting the
base metal with high electric current. The
current is delivered by two electrodes,
which squeeze the sheets together thus
developing Joule heat. As the welding
gun makes hundreds of welds, the elec-
trodes experience deformation and for-
eign material pick up. This leads to grad-
ual degradation of the original welding
conditions and eventually to the produc-
tion of unacceptable welds. Periodic cur-
rent stepping, tip dressing, and electrode
cap replacements are routinely used in
production. Still, with the introduction
of new materials, it becomes harder to
predict the tip conditions and to imple-
ment timely adjustments. Some means of
real-time control become a necessity.
In the current inline ultrasound setup,
the piezoelectric transducer is installed
in the cooling water stream inside the
welding electrode — Fig. 1. Sound waves
propagate through the cooling water and
copper electrode to reach the welded
plates. Cooling water is used as a cou-
plant to deliver sound from the trans-
ducer to the copper electrode cap. The
dry contact between the electrode and
metal sheets allows ultrasonic waves to
penetrate further due to the high pres-
sure exerted by the electrodes. The sound
experiences partial reflections at every
boundary, including the solid-liquid
boundary of the molten nugget. In mild
steel around the melting temperature,
the solid metal has an acoustic imped-
ance of 32.7 MRayl, while its liquid state
shows 26.5 MRayl. Calculations and ex-
periments show that this impedance mis-
match at the liquid nugget’s boundary re-
flects enough sound energy to be reliably
detected.
The transducer, which works as both
emitter and receiver, collects informa-
tion from every reflecting boundary on
the wave path and forms an A-scan.
Proper time gating of the A-scan allows
software to analyze the information from
the area of interest; the metal sheets and
spot weld itself — Figs. 2, 3.
Figure 4 shows a schematic view of the
ultrasonic signature of the spot welding
process, represented as an M-scan. Such
an M-scan is composed of multiple A-
scans of the same point on the weld cap-
tured successively in time. Every A-scan
is simply a time-voltage graph acquired
by the receiving transducer. The first A-
scans begin to shoot before welding
starts. In this case, the system works as a
simple ultrasonic thickness gauge, receiv-
ing reflections from every sheet. One can
see interfaces 1, 2, and 3 appearing hori-
zontally and parallel to each other since
these are stationary in time. These are
reflections off of the copper-steel, steel-
steel, and steel-copper boundaries. Scan-
ning continues throughout the welding
process (Fig. 4) and some time after it
with a time interval of 3 ms between
A-scans.
When current is turned on, the metal
sheets’ temperature increases, which
leads to sound velocity reduction. Thus,
the back wall reflections from both sheets
begin to arrive later in time as tempera-
ture increases. When the base metal be-
gins to melt, the steel-steel boundary dis-
appears and so does sound reflection off
of it. The liquid metal nugget then grows
from the steel-steel boundary into both
sheets. Impedance mismatch between
solid and liquid steel allows the sound
waves to reflect off the top and the bot-
tom of the nugget and thus make them
visible on the A-scan and correspond-
ingly on the M-scan (lines 4 and 5 in Fig.
4). The two reflections continue to move
apart as the nugget grows. When weld-
ing current is shut off, the system begins
to cool and the process reverses.
Figure 5 presents real ultrasonic scans
of underwelded and properly welded spot
WELDING JOURNAL 59
 A
Fig. 6 — Relating ultrasonic M-scan to real spot weld
geometry.
time of flight (TOF) through the
welded sheets is directly propor-
B tional to the amount of heat devel-
oped in the stackup. It has been
shown that there is a strong corre-
lation between TOF and nugget di-
ameter (Refs. 8, 9). Special software
analyzes the M-scan and extracts
these parameters automatically.
The decision whether the weld is ac-
ceptable or not is made right after
the weld is made and before the
robot moves to the next weld posi-
tion. This allows the implementa-
tion of feedback to the robot to ei-
Fig. 5 — Real M-scans of the resistance spot ther stop the line or perform
welding process. A — Low welding current; B — rewelding of the unacceptable weld.
high welding current.
Expulsion Detection
Expulsion detection in welding
is a strong area of interest, particu-
larly for the inline system where the
effects of a physical expulsion can
make the ultrasound scans of a good
weld appear to be undersized. In
some cases, expulsion can have a
significant effect on the quality of
the weld and is undesired.
The main problem with expul-
sion in the ultrasound M-scans in
applications where thick sheets and
3T stacks are welded is that the heat
loss during expulsion may appear as
Fig. 7 — Interface changes at a moment of if insufficient heat was generated to
expulsion. produce a significant nugget, when
in fact more than enough heat was
produced. For this reason, expul-
welds. In case A, welding current was too sion events must be detected so that
low, and the intermediate interface did the future decision of the weld’s quality
not fully disappear (melting did not hap- can consider this effect.
pen) during welding. In B, welding cur- Currently, there are a number of
rent was high enough and the intermedi- methods used to detect expulsion, pre-
ate interface disappeared (melting began dominately using feedback from servo
approximately halfway through welding motors to record the displacement of the
time). electrodes. However, setups not using
Several parameters are used to make servo motor feedback (e.g., pneumatic
a decision about the weld quality, includ- guns) require additional hardware to de-
ing the presence of a liquid nugget and tect expulsion events. For systems al-
its penetration into the sheets to deter- ready using the inline ultrasound device,
mine the weld height — Fig. 6. Ultrasonic expulsion detection is possible without
60 JANUARY 2014
additional hardware or communication
with servo motor controllers.
The simplest form of expulsion detec-
tion is performed by monitoring sudden
changes in TOF from the front wall and
back wall reflections (lines 1 and 2 in Fig.
7). The back wall, or lower interface,
shows the greatest change when an ex-
pulsion occurs, since the position of this
reflection in the M-scan depends on both
the total heat in the weld zone, as well as
the total thickness of the workpiece. Dur-
ing an expulsion, both the total temper-
ature and thickness of the workpiece de-
crease as heated material is ejected from
the weld zone. As a result, there is a sud-
den decrease in the TOF of the lower
interface.
The front wall, or upper interface, also
exhibits a small perturbation during an
expulsion. The TOF of this surface gen-
erally increases as a result of localized
heating at the contact point between the
electrode and plates. This arises when
substantial indentation results from a
large expulsion. At this moment, reduced
contact between the electrode and plate
surface increases the current density at
this interface, which generates a great
deal of heat at the surface. This momen-
tary increase in temperature increases
the TOF at the front wall reflection;
this is a strong indicator of a substantial
expulsion.
Figure 7 shows an example of both the
front wall and back wall shifts in time of
flight that make expulsions detectable in
real-time M-scans. When an expulsion is
detected, the quality decision can com-
pensate for the reduced time of flight to
ensure that good welds are not consid-
ered bad.
Real-Time Integrated Weld
Analyzer
A real-time integrated weld analyzer
(RIWA) was developed to use this tech-
nology in an industrial environment. This
device is a small unit installed on each
welding robot where the quality control

Fig. 8 — User interface.
of welding spots is desired. An ultrasonic
sensor built into one of the weld gun elec-
trodes is connected with the RIWA by
coaxial cable. The RIWA unit has the
fieldbus connection to the weld and robot
controller. Once installed, the RIWA
unit works as an unsupervised device au-
tomatically testing weld quality and send-
ing feedback to the robot.
A state-of-the-art algorithm has been
developed for automated analysis of M-
scans. It processes the weld “image” and
recognizes the features of the nugget for-
mation. Morphological analysis of ex-
tracted features allows the geometrical
parameters of the liquid nugget to be de-
termined and makes a decision about the
weld quality. Figure 8 shows a user inter-
face with multiple registered parts and
one of the selected M-scans with auto-
matically recognized features. Date/time
stamps on the left mark every welded
Fig. 9 — Statistics over the last 24 h.
part. Each part has nine welds. As weld-
ing through the part progresses, welds
are scanned and automatically character-
ized. At a certain part, the purpose fail-
ures were made by dropping the welding
current. The system has successfully rec-
ognized undersized welds and stopped
the robot.
At its current state, the system per-
forms unsupervised testing of weld qual-
ity and qualifies the results using a three-
level grading: acceptable, marginal, and
unacceptable. Processing time of a sin-
gle M-scan is about 150–250 ms for a 3
GHz Pentium D processor. It depends
on the stack thickness and welding time,
which determine the width and height of
the M-scan. Special algorithms for effi-
cient M-scan processing have been ap-
plied (Refs. 12, 13). The processing time
requirements are strict since average
cycle time is around 1.5–2.5 s/weld. The
Fig. 10 — Weld quality dynamics over 24 h with cool-
ing water tube failure at around 22 h.
robot needs to receive feedback before
it advances to the next weld. If needed,
the operator can have access to the sta-
tistics of the production equipment per-
formance — Fig. 9.
Besides determining weld quality, the
system proved to be useful in detecting
nonstandard conditions such as cooling
water tube failure shown in Fig. 10. The
plot shows ultrasonic TOF through the
stack at different production times. In
Ref. 8, we have shown a strong correla-
tion of this parameter with nugget diam-
eter. At around 22 h, the cooling water
tube was damaged (notice the sudden dip
in average diameter) and production
continued for a few hours with some
welds being made undersized. The sys-
tem was currently working in a passive
mode, but it was able to track back every
single weld and identify problematic
products for fixing.
As a robot makes hundreds of welds,
the electrode tip surface experiences de-
formation and continuous contamina-
tion. This leads to excessive heat devel-
oped at the copper tip and could possi-
bly lead to cooling water overheat and
boiling. The ultrasonic system is capable
of monitoring the cooling condition. Fig-
ure 11 shows abrupt improvement of the
cooling after a tip dressing (cleaning)
event. Usually, with bad tip conditions,
the last three welds in every row are
shown as grey. Grey stands for the welds
that for some reason were not inter-
preted by the software. Additional analy-
ses have shown that those last three greys
are due to the water overheat. After tip
dressing, those welds become recogniza-
ble and turn green. This information can
be used to issue recommendations on the
tip dressing frequency to optimize pro-
duction process quality.
The ultrasonic testing system commu-
nicates with the PLC using discrete I/O,
DeviceNet, or other means of communi-
cation. The robot tells which part is being
loaded, which weld on the part is welded,
and when exactly to start ultrasonic scan-
ning. In its turn, the ultrasonic system
WELDING JOURNAL 61
tells the robot if the weld is acceptable
or not.
Conclusions
Ultrasonic in-process characteriza-
tion of resistance spot welds has many
advantages over off-line methods, par-
ticularly adding the ability to inspect
more than 99% of the parts that would
otherwise go unchecked. In addition,
real-time monitoring of the process can
identify problems that occur and allow
control engineers to correct these prob-
lems before additional bad parts are pro-
duced. An example of a damaged water-
cooling pipe is illustrated in this article.
Use of the RIWA system provides an
opportunity to automatically correct bad
welds and prevent them in the future
product.
The inline ultrasound inspection sys-
tem installed in the Windsor Assembly
Plant provides the capability to observe
the process of weld formation as well as
identify expulsion. Parameters such as
the moment of melting, liquid metal pen-
etration depth, solidification, and cool-
ing rates are used for quality characteri-
zation of every weld done at the installed
unit. In addition, statistics of weld qual-
ity over time are monitored from which
data regarding electrode wear and
process degradation can be inferred.
Such a tool is proving to be effective in
the harsh industrial environments of the
automotive assembly plant, and the ben-
efits of such thorough quality inspection
are immediately clear.♦
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council of Canada (NSERC) for
support of this research together with
Chrysler Canada, through the
NSERC/Chrysler Canada, Inc./ Univer-
sity of Windsor Industrial Research Chair
IRCPJ 260901-07 in Applied Physics and
Material Characterization.
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Brand Awareness
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2005. A one-dimensional numerical
model of acoustic wave propagation in a By Placing YYour
our Product
Product Video
Video
multilayered structure of a resistance on the AWS
W Website
AWS Website
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Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
52(10).
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For more information visit our website at
expulsion detection and indentation http://videos.aws.org
http://
/videos.aws.org
v or please contact:
measurement in resistance spot welds.
Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval. 29(7): Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
1609–1614.
11. Regalado, W. P., Chertov, A. M., Lea Paneca
and Gr. Maev, R. 2009. Real-time ultra- lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
sonic aluminum spot weld monitoring
Sandra Jorgensen
system. Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval.
sjorgensen@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 254
29(7).
 COMING
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ♦) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
EVENTS
Assoc. for Manufacturing Excellence Values Veterans (AMEV2)
Conf. Jan. 14. Virginia Beach, Va. AME, www.ame.org.
♦United States-European Welding Standards Conference. Jan.
26–28. AWS World Headquarters and Staybridge Suites, Miami,
Fla. Cosponsored by AWS and GSI (Gesellschaft für Schwis-
stechnik, Int’l.). Topics to include welding standards covering
structural fabrication, pressure vessels, railway vehicles, and com-
pany certification. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
♦Energy Conference. Feb. 5, 6. Hotel Monteleone, New Orleans,
La. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include superior hybrid welding
processes, filler metals, and cladding procedures for use in nu-
clear and coal-fired utilities and oil and natural gas pipelines.
Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 25–27. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. Society of Manufacturing Engineers;
(800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
♦Pipelines Conference. March 4, 5. Sheraton Houston Brookhol-
low, Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
Topics to include current and future pipeline welding trends. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ABB Robotics Technology Days and Open House. March 13, 14.
1250 Brown Rd., Auburn Hills, Mich. Offering workshops, train-
ing, and demonstrations. To register, visit www.abb.com/robotics;
call (800) 435-7365.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
64 JANUARY 2014
♦FABTECH Canada. March 18–20. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. Cosponsored by the American Welding
Society. www.fabtechcanada.com.
♦Stainless Steel Conference. March 25, 26. Loews Philadelphia
Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include
welding of austenitic, duplex, and other grades of stainless steel
including dissimilar metals, and repair welding, cladding, clean-
ing, and coping with stress corrosion cracking. Contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Metal & Steel Saudi Arabia 2014. April 7–10. Riyadh, Saudi Ara-
bia. Visit www.metalsteelsaudi.com.
♦Weld Cracking Conference. April 15, 16. Hilton Garden Inn
Denver Downtown, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to
include impact tests, control of moisture in welding consumables,
and information for welding engineers to ensure higher-quality
welded products. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
ITSA — International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 24–26. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
JOM, 18th Int’l Conf. on Joining Materials. April 26–29. Kon-
ventum LO-Skolen, Helsingør, Denmark. In association with the
Int’l Institute of Welding, cosponsored by American Welding So-
ciety, Japan Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of
Australia, Brazilian Welding Society, and others. E-mail
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk; download brochure at www.aws.org/wj/
JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf.

♦Aluminum Conference. April 28–30. Hotel Monteleone, New

Orleans, La.. Sponsored by AWS. Aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353,
ext. 215.

♦First Int’l Symposium on Advances in Resistance Welding.

April 28–30. Atlanta, Ga. Sponsored by AWS and the Resistance
Welding Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA), an AWS Standing
Committee. Topics will include research results, projects, and in-
dustrial experiences that describe significant advances in resist-
ance welding technology. Visit www.aws.org/rwma, or contact
Patrick Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 215.

♦AWS Weldmex, FABTECH® Mexico, METALFORM Mexico.

May 6–8. Centro Banamex, Mexico City, Mexico. www.fabtech-
mexico.com.

JOIN-TRANS3 — Third European Conf., Joining and Construc-

tion of Railway Vehicles. May 6, 7. An IIW associated event.
Welding Training and Research Centre, SLV Halle GmbH, Halle
(Saale), Germany. www.jointrans.eu.

mfg4® colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.

May 6–8. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.

Int’l Laser Technology Congress AKL ’14 and Expo. May 7–9.
Aachen, Germany. Visit www.lasercongress.org/en/home/.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index

For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 65
 MMTS — Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 12–14. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.

Composites Manufacturing. May 13–15. Northern Kentucky

Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.

Metal & Steel Middle East 2014. May 15–17. Cairo, Egypt. Visit
www.metalsteeleg.com.

THE BIG M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and

Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 9–12. Cobo Cen-
ter, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.the-
bigmevent.com.

♦Welding Education, Skills, and Certifications Conference. July

23–25. Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by AWS. This program an-
swers questions on the requirements to become an AWS Accred-
ited Testing Facility (ATF), including skills training and curricu-
lum. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.

♦Heat Treatment Conference. Aug. 12, 13. Sheraton Arlington

Hotel, Dallas, Tex. Sponsored by AWS. Attendees will get a bet-
ter understanding of the impact of welding and heat treatment
practices to optimize weld quality and reliability. Contact P.
Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.

♦Additive Manufacturing Conference. Sept. 9, 10. Renaissance

Orlando Airport Hotel, Orlando, Fla. Sponsored by AWS. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.

7th Offshore Energy Expo and Conf. Oct. 28, 29. Amsterdam RAI,
The Netherlands. Visit www.offshore-energy.biz.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index — continued on page 100

Weld Smarter With

Total Welding Management
Implementing the principles and
concepts in this book could save
you $15,000 to $25,000 annually
per welder.
Drawing on more than 50 years
of welding experience, author Jack
R. Barckhoff, P.E., gives you a solid
step-by-step plan to manage your
welding operations for maximum
productivity and cost efficiency.
Specific recommendations and
real-life production examples
illustrate how your welding team
can realize productivity gains of 20 percent to 50 percent.
Total Welding Management explains the management
principles, structure, and details you need to transform your
welding operations from a cost center into a profit center. A
must-read for supervisors, managers, and executives who
seek to make their welding operations more efficient and
more productive. 185 pages, 35 figure, 20 tables, hardbound.

Order yours today: 888-WELDING (935-3464).

Outside North America: 305-824-1177.
Online: www.aws.org/standards
Order code: AWS TWM, $49.50
© American Welding Society 2006 WJS1235
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index

66 JANUARY 2014
For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
 CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)

LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
New Orleans, LA Feb. 9–14 Feb. 15 New Orleans, LA Mar. 31–Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Waco, TX Feb. 9–14 Feb. 15 Minneapolis, MN July 14–18 July 19
Seattle, WA Feb. 9–14 Feb. 15 CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
San Diego, CA Feb. 23–28 Mar. 1
Atlanta, GA Feb. 23–28 Mar. 1 9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
Mobile, AL Mar. 2–7 Mar. 8 (No exams given.)
Kansas City, MO Mar. 2–7 Mar. 8 For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
Houston, TX Mar. 2–7 Mar. 8 ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
Norfolk, VA Mar. 2–7 Mar. 8 listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Milwaukee, WI Mar. 2–7 Mar. 8 LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Birmingham, AL Mar. 9–14 Mar. 15 Denver, CO Feb. 9–14
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 9–14 Mar. 15 Dallas, TX Mar. 9–14
Boston, MA Mar. 9–14 Mar. 15 Miami, FL Mar. 23–28
Portland, OR Mar. 9–14 Mar. 15 Sacramento, CA Apr. 27–May 2
Rochester, NY Exam only Mar. 22 Boston, MA Apr. 27–May 2
York, PA Exam only Mar. 22 Charlotte, NC May 4–9
Miami, FL Mar. 23–28 Mar. 29 Pittsburgh, PA June 1–6
Chicago, IL Mar. 23–28 Mar. 29 San Diego, CA July 13–18
Springfield, MO Mar. 23–28 Mar. 29 Miami, FL July 27–Aug. 1
Dallas, TX Mar. 23–28 Mar. 29
Minneapolis, MN Mar. 30–Apr. 4 Apr. 5 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Las Vegas, NV Mar. 30–Apr. 4 Apr. 5 LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Syracuse, NY Mar. 30–Apr. 4 Apr. 5 Seattle, WA Feb. 24–28 Mar. 1
San Francisco, CA Apr. 6–11 Apr. 12 Houston, TX Mar. 31–Apr. 4 Apr. 5
New Orleans, LA Apr. 6–11 Apr. 12 Las Vegas, NV May 5–9 May 10
Nashville, TN Apr. 6–11 Apr. 12 Miami, FL June 2–6 June 7
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Apr. 12 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 17 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 19
Annapolis, MD Apr. 27–May 2 May 3 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Detroit, MI Apr. 27–May 2 May 3 The seminar dates (S:) are followed by the exam dates (E:)
Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 27–May 2 May 3 S: Feb. 10–13, E: Feb. 14; S: July 28–31, E: Aug. 1; at
Knoxville, TN Exam only May 3 ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421
Fresno, CA May 4–9 May 10
Miami, FL May 4–9 May 10 S: Feb. 24–26, E: Feb. 27, 28; S: Apr. 21–23, E: Apr. 24, 25;
Albuquerque, NM May 4–9 May 10 S: Oct. 20–22, E: Oct. 23, 24; at
Oklahoma City, OK May 4–9 May 10 OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only May 31
Birmingham, AL June 1–6 June 7 S: Mar. 3–5, E: Mar. 6; S: Oct. 20–22, E: Oct. 23; at
Hutchinson, KS June 1–6 June 7 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Spokane, WA June 1–6 June 7
Bakersfield, CA June 8–13 June 14 S: Feb. 17–20, E: Feb. 21; S: Apr. 7–10, E: Apr. 11;
Pittsburgh, PA June 8–13 June 14 S: Aug. 11–14, E: Aug. 15; S: Oct. 13–16, E: Oct. 17; at
Beaumont, TX June 8–13 June 14 Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Miami, FL Exam only June 19
Hartford, CT June 22–27 June 28 S: Mar. 17–19, E: Mar. 20, 21; S: May 19–21, E: May 22, 23;
Orlando, FL June 22–27 June 28 S: July 21–23, E: July 24, 25; S: Sept. 22–24, E: Sept. 25, 26;
Memphis, TN June 22–27 June 28 S: Nov. 17–19, E: Nov. 20, 21; at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified On request at
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).

Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)

CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-
inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline
dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to
confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register
online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to
avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.

68 JANUARY 2014
 www.aws.org
www
w.aws.org
.

The AWS Foundation

is pleased to announce

for the 2013-2014 school

20013-2014 scho
ool year
Donald J. Beneteau Scholarship Colorado Section Scholarships confidence by my section. This scholarship goes
beyond myself, it goes to show there is support for
"W ith hard work and dedication, all
"With “Thank you to the Colorado section those who wish to carry on our trade in as skilled and
goals, no matter where they are along of the AWS
AW
WS for selecting me as theth educated a manner as possible.”
the horizon, will be obtained." recipient for the 2013-2014 Diego Ulibarri
Zachary Courtright scholarship. Y oour generosity helps
Your help me Red Rocks Community College
The Ohio State University to achieve a lifelong goal of mine. Weelding
Welding
W eelding Engineering
Welding Engine That being having a degree in welding
technology
technology.. It also shows my daughter
that having a sense of commitment to your goals,
your dreams can come true. Having great instructors Leo D.. Veal
Veeal
AWS
AW
WS International
Internationa Scholarship like Christy Dvorsky and Herb Beaven and the rest Memorial Scholarship (Mobile)
of the stafff at Front Range Community College has
staff
"Thank you selecting me as a made it possible for me to sharpen my skills as a “I am honored and very grateful to be
2013-2014 recipient of a A W
WS
AWS welder
welder.. Thank you again for your support in my selected to receive the Leo D. V
Veal
eeal
International Scholarship. This continuing education.” Memorial Scholarship. I know this
scholarship not only provides financial Joel Hinze award will help me further my
support, it is also a source of Front Range Community College education. I thank the Mobile Section
encouragement because of the W eelding
ldi T
Welding echnology
e h l
Technology of the American WWelding
elding
eldi S Society
i t ffor
irreplaceable role A W
WS plays in my
AWS their generosity and support.”
field of study
study,y, W elding
e
Welding Engine
Engineering Technology
e
Technology.. I
Mark Murphy
will use this scholarship to continue my education as
every semester I am one step closer to making my “My name is Amber Metheny.
Metheny. I Reid State T
Technical
echnical
e College
Colleg
career aspirations a reality
reality.. Thank you for your received two awards from the Welding Technology
Weelding Technology
e
American Welding
Welding
e Society (AAW WS)
WS and
(AWS)
generosity
generosity."."
I can not express how greatful I am for
Isira U. Abeyagunawardana this generosity and honor
honor.. I am feel so
Ferris State University blessed to be acknowledged for this William
William H. Harrison
W eelding Engineering T
Welding echno
echnology
e
Technology honor as a welding degree student. I Jr., Scholarship (Mobile)
Jrr.,. Memorial Sch
am a full time student, full time mother of three
boys, and I find such joy in my academic Brown
Zackery Br own
accomplishments. I love what I do and enjoy the
Turner
James A. Turner
u great people I have met along this journey
journey.. It's years
Ferris State University
Jr.
Jr
r. Memorial Scholarship
Sc Welding
Weelding Engineering
Enggineering
g gTTechnology
echnology
e gy
from where I want to be but I am so proud of myself,
my talent. Thank you so very much to all those in
“It is truly an honor to be chosen as The American W elding
e
Welding Society for helping me
the 2013-2014 recipient for the James accomplish more of my goals. Respectfully Yours”Yoours”
ou
A. Turner,
Turner
u Jr.. Memorial Scholarship.”
, Jr Amber M Metheny
Catrina Fox James WW.. Gardner
Aims Community College
University of South Alabama W eelding T
Welding echnology
e
Technology Ozark Section Scholarship
Business Administration
"Being selected as a recipient for the
W. Gardner
James W. Ga - Ozark Scholarship
“I am extremely honored to be one of is an honor
honor.. I really appreciate this
Hil Bax Scholarships WS
the first ever recipients of the AWS
AW award and will continue to work hard
Colorado Section Named Scholarship. in my pursuit of the Associate of
Joe Grinston III This scholarship not only helps to Applied Science Welding
Welding
e Technology
e
Technology
make my education more af ffordable
fordab
f
affordable it degree and the Associate of Applied
Southwestern Illinois College
also shows the support of the Science Drafting and Design degree, from Ozarks
professional community towards the Technical
Technical
e Community College,
Coll to prove my
Brandi Phelps upcoming generation of welders. For what is appreciation. This will all help me someday achieve
Vaatterott College
Vatterott considered an alternative educational path it is my long term goal of a career in the industry of
comforting to have the support and backing of the engineering."
community of my peers who see the value of Brie H. Jenkins
learning welding as a lifelong skill. I am extremely
proud to say I am welding for the strength of Technical
Ozark Technical
e Community
Commun College
America and to be honored with such a show of Weelding T
Welding echnology
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Technology
 CONFERENCES
U.S./European Welding Standards
January 26–28
Miami, Fla.
The American Welding Society (AWS) and Germany’s
Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International (GSI) have part-
nered to deliver a unique conference at which U.S. and European
welding standards will be presented, compared, and discussed.
This conference will benefit engineers, inspectors, supervisors,
and quality control personnel who are familiar with only one set
of standards. Topics include welding standards covering structural
fabrication, pressure vessels, railway vehicles, and company certi-
fication. The format of the conference will be one expert presen-
tation on the U.S. standards followed by an expert presentation
on the comparable European standards for each topic. There will
be open discussion allotted for each topic period.
Energy Conference
February 5, 6
New Orleans, La.
The demand for new and improved welding technology from
the expanding energy markets is starting to pay off in the devel-
opment of superior hybrid welding processes, new filler metals,
and hosts of cladding procedures. The technologies are showing
up in nuclear power plants, coal-fired utilities, and especially in
the new 1700-mile-long pipelines designed to bring oil and natu-
ral gas to American markets.
Pipelines Conference
March 4, 5
Houston, Tex.
Welding has always been an integral part of pipeline construc-
tion, going all the way back to the days when hand-held oxyacety-
lene torches were used to connect pipes in the field. Current and
future pipeline welding trends will be discussed.
Stainless Steel Conference
March 25, 26
Philadelphia, Pa.
This conference will bring together some of industry’s most
outstanding experts to discuss the welding of austenitic, duplex,
and other grades of stainless steel. Topics will include dissimilar
metal welds between stainless and steel, repair welding, cladding,
cleaning, and the pitfalls involved in stress corrosion cracking.
Weld Cracking Conference
April 15, 16
Denver, Colo.
This conference will help welding engineers and others avoid
mistakes and turn out high-quality products. Topics range from
impact tests and how they relate to potential weld cracking as
well as the control of moisture in welding consumables.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 223, or e-mail
ablanco@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department website at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences
and registration information.
70 JANUARY 2014
International Symposium on Advances
in Resistance Welding
April 28–30
Atlanta, Ga.
This is a technical conference on resistance welding topics
presented by AWS and the Resistance Welding Manufacturing
Alliance (RWMA).
Aluminum Conference
May 28, 29
New Orleans, La.
The 17th Aluminum Welding Conference will feature a dis-
tinguished panel of aluminum-industry experts who will survey
the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and prac-
tice. This conference also provides several opportunities for you
to network informally with speakers and other participants, as
well as to visit an exhibition showcasing products and services
available to the aluminum welding industry.
Welding Education, Skills, and
Certifications Conference
July 23–25
Indianapolis, Ind.
The American Welding Society has created a conference pro-
gram that answers questions on the essential requirements to be-
come an Accredited Testing Facility. Conference topics include
skill training, curriculum strategies, advanced e-learning strate-
gies, and many others. Educational institutions, corporate train-
ers, and educators are all encouraged to attend.
Heat Treatment Conference
August 12, 13
Dallas, Tex.
The thermal effects from welding and heat treatment influ-
ence the microstructure and mechanical properties of welds. Var-
ious materials, such as carbon steels and other alloy grades, are
affected by heat treatment, which changes the weld metallurgy
and influences the final welded product. Better understanding
of the impact of welding and heat treatment practices can allow
for optimization of weld quality and reliability.
Additive Manufacturing Conference
September 9, 10
Orlando, Fla.
Come and learn about additive manufacturing processes such
as powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directed energy depo-
sition, and material jetting. These are just a few of the topics that
will be discussed.♦
 www.aws.org

765463210/.0-1,1+*)1('6&%463$'3#1"1! 6 13 &6

What do you and your company need to

know about European welding standards
and how they compare with U.S. standards?
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THIS CONFERENCE IS A MUST FOR ANYONE INVOLVED IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

' #$'316$1www.aws.org/conferences
 WELDING
WORKBOOK
Protecting the Eyes and Face
When selecting equipment for eye and face protection, keep
in mind that all such equipment shall comply with ANSI/ISEA
Z87.1, Occupational and Educational Personal Eye and Face Pro-
tection Devices.
Arc Welding and Cutting with Open Arcs
When arc welding and/or cutting with an open arc, operators
and any nearby personnel shall use helmets or hand shields with
filter lenses and cover lenses when viewing the arc. They also
need to wear protective spectacles with side shields, arc goggles,
or other approved eye protection.
Welding helmets with filter lenses are intended to protect
users from arc rays and from weld sparks and spatter that im-
pinge directly against the helmet. To protect the user from im-
pact hazards when the welding helmet may be raised during use,
spectacles with lateral protection or goggles should also be worn.
The spectacles or goggles may have either clear or filtered lenses,
depending upon the amount of exposure to adjacent welding or
cutting radiation. Others in the immediate welding area should
wear similar eye protection. Welding helmets will not protect against
the severe impact of fragmenting grinding wheels, abrasive discs,
or explosive devices.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting and
Submerged Arc Welding
Welding goggles, or welding helmet or welding faceshield over
spectacles or goggles shall be worn during all oxyfuel gas weld-
ing and cutting, and submerged arc welding operations.
It is recommended that such eye protection offer lateral (side)
coverage.
Resistance Welding and Brazing
Operators of resistance welding or brazing equipment and
their helpers are to wear welding goggles, or welding helmet or
welding faceshield over spectacles or goggles for eye and face
protection.
Large Area Viewing
If there’s a large area viewing, such as for training, demonstra-
tions, shows, and certain automatic welding operations, it is per-
missible to use a large filter window or curtain in lieu of eye and
face protection. The radiation transmission of the window or cur-
tain material shall be equivalent to that in ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 for
shade number appropriate to the welding or cutting operation.
Additionally, suitable arrangements shall be provided to
prevent direct viewing of the arc without filter protection and
to protect viewers from sparks and chipped slag.
Requirements for Eye and Face Protection
Filter Lenses. Filter lenses shall be in accordance with
Excerpted from ANSI Z49.1: 2012, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
72 JANUARY 2014
Datasheet 345
ANSI/ISEA Z87.1, and the shade shall be selected in accordance
with AWS F2.2, Lens Shade Selector.
Filter lenses should be free from any flaws that may distract,
block, or otherwise impair vision. People with special eye con-
ditions should consult their physician for specific information
on protective equipment.
Material Properties. Helmet and hand shield bodies are to
be made of material that is thermally and electrically insulat-
ing, noncombustible or self-extinguishing, and opaque to visi-
ble, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation. They also must comply
with the requirements of ANSI/ISEA Z87.1.
Welding helmets, hand shields, and goggles that comply with
ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 are limited in combustibility.
Area of Protection. When there is a possibility of hazardous ex-
posure, helmets and hand shields shall protect the face, forehead,
neck, and ears to a vertical line in back of the ears, from direct ra-
diant energy from the arc, and from direct weld spatter.
Some low-current processes, such as with micro plasma arcs,
may not present a hazardous radiation exposure, but may have
a spatter exposure. Therefore, operators should be provided
with safety glasses even if there is no radiation hazard.
Effect of Materials on Skin. Materials in contact with the
body shall not readily irritate or discolor the skin.
Goggle Ventilation. Goggles are to be vented to deter fog-
ging of the lenses in accordance with ANSI Z87.1.
Outer Cover Lenses. Outer lenses are to be provided to pro-
tect the filter lens in goggles, helmets, or hand shields from
welding spatter, pitting, or scratching. Outer cover lenses should
be made of clear glass or self-extinguishing plastic, but need
not be impact resistant.
Inner Lenses or Plates. If you are using a “lift front” type of
welders’ helmet, there should be a fixed impact-resistant safety
lens or plate on the inside of the frame nearest to the eyes to pro-
tect the welder against flying particles when the front is lifted.
Marking. Filter lenses shall bear some permanent distinc-
tive marking by which the manufacturer may be readily identi-
fied. In addition, all filter lenses shall be marked with their
shade number and in accordance with the requirements of ANSI
Z87.1.
Radiation Transmittance Properties. All filter lenses are to
meet the “Ultraviolet, Luminous and Infrared Transmittance”
requirements of ANSI Z87.1.
Maintenance. Helmets, handshields, and goggles shall be well
maintained, and should not be transferred from one employee
to another without being cleaned. Refer to the manufacturer’s
instructions to learn the methods of cleaning these items.
Selecting a Lens Shade
As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see
the weld zone. Then go to a lighter shade that gives sufficient
view of the weld zone without going below the minimum.
In oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, or brazing where the torch
and/or the flux produces a high yellow light, it is desirable to use
a filter lens that absorbs the yellow or sodium line of the visible
light spectrum.♦
Pipelines Conference
Mar 
W








back to the days when hand-held oxyacetylene torches wer



r

re pipeline welding trends will be



AWS-sponsored confer 


Highlights

Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments

in pipeline welding.


business growth.

AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional

Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.

and renewals.

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 223.
 SOCIETYNEWS
AWS Elects National and District Officers for 2014
Dean R. Wilson David J. Landon
president
The American Welding Soci-
ety has elected its incoming slate
of national and District officers,
effective Jan. 1, 2014.
Dean R. Wilson was elected
president. He is president of
Welldean Enterprises, a provider
of health, safety, and welding
products and industry consulting.
Earlier, he was director of weld-
ing business development at
Jackson Safety Products and
president of Wilson Industries
from 1987 to 2007. He has
worked on numerous AWS
standing committees, including
WEMCO, An Association of
Welding Equipment Manufac-
turers, where he served as chair
in 2005.
David J. Landon was elected
to a third term as a vice president.
Since 1992, he has worked as
manager of welding engineering
and missions support at Vermeer
Mfg. Co. and is an AWS Senior
Certified Welding Inspector.
Previously, he operated Lan-
don’s Welding Services perform-
ing failure analyses, inspections,
and welder training and worked
as a welding engineer for
Chicago Bridge and Iron Co. He
has served on many AWS techni-
cal committees and as a Delegate
to the IIW Commission XIV,
Welding Education and Training.
David L. McQuaid was
elected to his second term as a
vice president. He heads D. L.
McQuaid and Associates, Inc.,
David L. McQuaid
vice president vice president
which he founded in 1999. He has
chaired the D1 Structural Weld-
ing and the Technical Activities
Committees. At American
Bridge Div. of U.S. Steel Corp.,
he served as senior welding en-
gineer and corporate engineer.
In 2009, he received the Ameri-
can National Standards Institute
Finegan Standards Medal for his
many contributions to industrial
standards.
John Bray was elected to
serve his first term as a vice pres-
ident. A past chair of the Hous-
ton Section, he most recently
served as Dist. 18 director. Bray
is with Affiliated Machinery,
Inc., in Pearland, Tex., where he
has served as president for the
past 18 years.
W. Richard Polanin, a recent
Dist. 13 director, was elected to
serve as a director-at-large.
Polanin is a professor and pro-
gram chair of Manufacturing En-
gineering Technology at Illinois
Central College and president of
WRP Associates. He is an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector,
Welder, and Welding Educator,
and is a SME Certified Manufac-
turing Engineer. He has served
as chair of the Peoria Section,
and a member of the AWS D16
Committee on Automated and
Robotic Welding, and AWS Ro-
botic Technician Certification
Committee.
Robert Roth, president and
CEO of RoMan Mfg., Inc., was
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
John Bray W. Richard Polanin
vice president director-at-large
elected to serve as a director-at-
large. Roth serves on the Finance
Committee, is a past chair of
WEMCO (An Association of
Welding Equipment Manufac-
turers), and serves on a number
of RWMA (Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance) sub-
committees.
Harland Thompson was
elected to serve a second term as
Dist. 2 director. Thompson is Robert Roth
senior project engineer and director-at-large
welding supervisor for Under-
writers Laboratories (UL), Inc.,
in Melville, N.Y. Prior to joining
UL in 2006, he worked in engi-
neering and quality assurance
positions at Belle Transit Div.,
the Long Island Railroad,
Thompson Transit Services,
Ronkonkoma, N.Y.; and LTK
Engineering Services.
Carl Matricardi was elected
to continue serving as Dist. 5 di-
rector. He is founder and presi- Harland Thompson
dent of Welding Solutions, Inc., Dist. 2 director
in Lawrenceville, Ga. In the
welding industry for 38 years, he
is an AWS Certified Welding In-
spector and Welding Educator,
and vice chair of the Atlanta Sec-
tion. Matricardi worked as a
shipyard welder before earning
his master’s degree in education.
He has taught welding and man-
ufacturing processes in colleges
and state universities, and served
as an expert witness.
D. Joshua Burgess was Carl Matricardi
elected Dist. 8 director. He has Dist. 5 director
WELDING JOURNAL 75
 D. Joshua Burgess Robert Wilcox Robert Richwine Jerry Knapp John Stoll
Dist. 8 director Dist. 11 director Dist. 14 director Dist. 17 director Dist. 18 director

served as Dist. 8 deputy director since 2009.
Burgess holds a Master’s in welding metallurgy
and expects to defend his PhD dissertation this
year. An AWS certified Level III Expert welder,
he competed in the VICA welding contests where
he was a two-time Tennessee State Champion and
ranked third in the nation at the SkillsUSA com-
petition. Currently a consultant engineer for Ma-
terials Applications, Inc., he will begin work as a
welding engineer at Alstom in Chattanooga, Tenn.,
in March.
Robert Wilcox, an AWS member since 1974,
was elected to a second term as Dist. 11 director.
He has served in many Detroit Section officer po-
sitions, including chair. He has worked in the au-
tomobile industry as a cost estimator, buyer, and
quality manager. Currently, he owns and operates
Warriors of Faith Martial Arts Academy.
Robert Richwine, an AWS Distinguished Mem-
ber with the Indiana Section, was elected to a sec-
ond term as Dist. 14 director. With Ivy Tech Com-
munity College since 1994, he serves as director
of its new Welding Institute. He has received the
District CWI of the Year, Meritorious, Private Sec-
tor Educator, and the District Educator and Dis-
trict Director Awards, the National Meritorious
and the National Image of Welding Awards.
Jerry Knapp, an AWS member for more than
35 years, was elected Dist. 17 director. Knapp has
served as Tulsa Section chair for two years and is
presently a board advisor. He has extensive expe-
rience as a salesman in the gas and welding sup-
ply industry. He has worked for Alloy Welding Sup-
ply, Arkansas Specialty Co., Jimmie Jones, Na-
tional Welding Supply, Bell Helicopter, Adair
Sheet Metal, Hobbs Trailers, and American Mfg.
of Texas.
John Stoll, an AWS Life Member, was elected
Dist. 18 director to fill the last year of John Bray’s Pierrette Gorman
second term. Active with the Houston Section, he Dist. 20 director
served as chair 2009–2010 and assisted with its lier, she worked as a re-
CWI exams and welding contests. He currently search and applications
serves on API technical committees. Recently, he engineer at Optomec,
joined The Bohler Welding Group North Amer- Inc.; welding engineer at
ica as industry segment manager, Power and Petro- Wilson Greatbatch, Ltd.;
chemical, Technical Services. and a research technician
Pierrette Gorman was elected Dist. 20 direc- at EWI where she ex-
tor. She has chaired the New Mexico Section twice plored resistance welding
and received the Section and District Meritorious of dissimilar materials.
Awards. She served ten years at Sandia National She holds two patents on
Laboratories as a lead process engineer involved forming structures from
with lean manufacturing and laser processing. Ear- CAD solid models.

AWS Headquarters Campus Lauded by the City of Doral

Shown at the Doral City Council meeting Nov. 13 are (from left) Adam Temple, Sandra Ruiz, Hidail Nuñez, Jim Lankford, Mayor Luigi
Boria, Bettina Rodriguez Aguilera, Ana Maria Rodriguez, and Vice Mayor Christi Fraga.
The American Welding Society’s The citation noted the American Welding managing director, and Hidail Nuñez, di-
World Headquarters campus was voted to Society campus, which houses the offices rector, of AWS Administrative Services.
receive the 2013 Keep Doral Beautiful of Sen. Marco Rubio and Congressman The Doral City Council members in at-
Award during a meeting of the Doral City Mario Diaz-Balart, has undergone major tendance included Vice Mayor Christi
Council Nov. 13. The Society was nomi- construction, renovations, and a beautifi- Fraga and Councilwomen Bettina Ro-
nated for the recognition by Adam Tem- cation facelift. Receiving the award from driguez Aguilera, Ana Maria Rodriguez,
ple, interim director of code compliance. Mayor Luigi Boria were Jim Lankford, and Sandra Ruiz.

76 JANUARY 2014
 Tech Topics
A2 Committee Meets at EWI in Columbus
Shown during the Oct. 29, 30 A2 Committee meeting at EWI in Columbus, Ohio, are (from left) Richard Holdren, Secretary Stephen Bor-
rero, Chris Lander, Chuck Ford, Dave Beneteau, Bob Anderson, Mike Ludwig, Chris Thurow, Pat Newhouse, Ben Finney, Bryan Worley, J.
P. Christein, and Brian Galliers. The Committee members met to discuss the revisions for AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Defini-
tions, and A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination.
Standard for Public Review
D10.17M/D10.17:201X, Guide for
Welding Tubular Steel Vehicle Structures.
$35. Review expired 12/16/2013. E-mail B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org, to order a
copy. AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute in
1979. AWS rules require that all standards
be open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun to revise
the following standards. Affected individ-
uals are invited to contribute to this work.
F4.2:201X, Safety Guidelines for Proper
Selection and Safe Use of Welding Cables.
This document provides guidance on the
safe and proper selection of welding ca-
bles. This includes identifying specific cri-
teria including minimum copper content,
gauge sizing, electrical performance, and
resistance for welding cable sizes. Stake-
holders: Personnel involved in welding.
Contact Steve Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
E-mail Chelsea Lewis, clewis@aws.org,
for information on the following projects.
C4.1:201X, Criteria for Describing Oxy-
gen-Cut Surfaces. This set consists of a
plastic gauge with samples of oxygen-cut
surfaces, and a document including de-
scriptive terms and illustrations of surface
cuts. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas cutters and
inspectors as an aid to identify acceptance
levels of oxygen-cut surfaces. C4.1 is ref-
erenced in several AWS D.1 structural
welding documents.
C4.2/C4.2M:201X, Recommended
Practices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Torch
Operation. This document includes the
procedures to be used in conjunction with
oxyfuel gas cutting equipment and the lat-
est safety requirements. Complete lists of
equipment are available from individual
manufacturers. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas
operators involved with cutting steel plate
and tooling fabrication, equipment man-
ufacturers, and building construction.
C4.3/C4.3:201X, Recommended Prac-
tices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torch
Operation. The document includes the lat-
est safety requirements and procedures
to be used in conjunction with oxyfuel gas
heating equipment. Stakeholders: Oxy-
fuel gas heating and welding operators,
and steel mill, fabrication, and tool shop
personnel.
C4.4/C4M:201X, Recommended Prac-
tices for Heat Shaping and Straightening
with Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torches. This edi- David Trees (left) receives his Silver Mem-
tion covers the shaping of metal products ber Certificate from Lee Kvidahl, a past
by prudent use of heat to obtain a desired AWS president, during the Membership
configuration. The text reviews the theory Committee meeting Oct. 23 at AWS World
and analytical calculations that explain Headquarters in Miami, Fla. The Silver
how heat shaping and straightening occur. Member Certificate is presented for 25
Sample calculations and tables are pre- years of service to the Society.
sented for typical materials. General heat-
ing patterns and heat shaping and straight- tion of nozzles by torch operators. Stake-
ening techniques are discussed. Specific holders: Members of the oxyfuel gas weld-
heating applications are illustrated for var- ing and cutting community.
ious sections. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas C7.2M:201X, Recommended Practices
heating torch operators and users of oxy- for Laser Beam Welding, Cutting and Allied
fuel gas welding systems. Processes. This document can be used for
C4.5M:201X, Uniform Designation Sys- welding, cutting, drilling, and transforma-
tem for Oxyfuel Nozzles. This document tion hardening of various materials. These
recommends identification markings to be recommended practices stress the process
permanently applied to the torch nozzle basics, parameters, and applications.
to identify its intended application and to Stakeholders: Members of the laser beam
improve the safe operation and applica- welding industry.
WELDING JOURNAL 77
 C7.3M/C7.3:201X, Process Specification
for Electron Beam Welding. This publica-
tion discusses applicable specifications,
safety, requirements, fabrication, quality
examination, equipment calibration and
maintenance, approval of work, and deliv-
ery of work. It addresses processing and
quality control requirements for electron
beam welding with both high- and low-volt-
age welding equipment in high- and
medium-vacuum variations. Stakeholders:
Manufacturers, welding engineers, and ma-
chine operators.
D18.3/D18.3M:201X, Specification for
Welding of Tanks, Vessels, and Other Equip-
ment in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications.
This specification provides the require-
ments for welding tanks, vessels, and other
U.S. Experts Sought to Develop ISO Standard on Micro Melting Diffusion Bonding
The U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory
Group) that serves as the United States
National Committee to ISO/TC 44/SC 10,
Unification of Requirements in the Field
of Metal Welding, seeks United States ex-
Opportunities to Serve on Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
Methods of Weld Inspection, The B1
Committee seeks educators, general interest,
and end users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee seeks edu-
cators, users, general interest, and consult-
ants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest, and
end users. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L Sub-
committee seeks professionals. R. Gupta,
gupta@aws.org.
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed are the members participating in the June 1–Dec. 31, 2013, campaign. Members receive 5 points for each Individual and 1 point for
each Student Member recruited. Standings as of Nov. 20. See page 85 of this Welding Journal for campaign rules and prize list or visit
www.aws.org/mgm. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 480, for more information.
20+ Points
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley — 85
J. Morris, Mobile — 75
M. Anderson, Indiana — 57
D. Ebenhoe, Kern — 50
G. Fudala, Philadelphia — 45
M. Box, Mobile — 42
B. Scherer, Cincinnati — 40
K. Rawlins, Columbia — 31
M. Pelegrino, Chicago — 30
S. Siviski, Maine — 29
B. Trankler, West Tennessee — 27
78 JANUARY 2014
equipment used in food-processing and
other areas where hygienic applications are
required. Addressed are qualification, fab-
rication, extent of visual examination, ac-
ceptance criteria, and documentation.
Stakeholders: Suppliers of medical and
food-service equipment.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meetings
are open to the public. To attend a meet-
ing, e-mail the program manager listed.
Jan. 29, 30, Technical Activities Com-
mittee. Miami, Fla. Contact A. Alonso,
aalonso@aws.org.
Jan. 29, International Standards Activi-
ties Committee. Miami, Fla. Contact A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org.
perts to serve on a newly created subgroup
dealing with micro melting diffusion
bonding.
The group is curently working on a new
ISO standard concerning micro joining
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and educa-
tional members. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@
aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Commit-
tee seeks professionals. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee seeks
volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcommit-
tee seeks members. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
D. Wheeler, Oklahoma City — 25
R. Richwine, Indiana — 25
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 24
D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 22
F. Babish, Lehigh Valley — 20
C. Daon, Israel — 20
R. Jones, Atlanta — 20
11–19 Points
M. Kress, Chattanooga — 19
J. Vincent, Kansas City — 18
D. Bastian, NW Pa. — 16
Nominations Sought for
Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is presented
to one person, 40 years old or younger,
who has made significant contributions
to the advancement of materials joining
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidate’s expe-
rience, publications, honors, awards, and
at least three letters of recommendation
from fellow researchers to Todd Palmer,
tap103@psu.edu, associate professor,
The Pennsylvania State University. The
award is sponsored by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Dept. of Ocean
Engineering.
of second-generation high-temperature
superconductors.
For complete information, contact An-
drew Davis, managing director, technical
services, adavis@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum alloys
for aerospace applications, D17J Subcom-
mittee seeks members. A. Diaz, adiaz@
aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest, and
users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive weld-
ing, The D8 and C2 Committees seek educa-
tors, general interest, and end users. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and surfacing
and reconditioning of industrial mill rolls,
D14 Committee and D14H Subcommittee
seek professionals. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
P. Kreitman, Chicago — 15
S. Lathrop, Puget Sound — 15
S. Lindsey, San Diego — 15
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh — 15
S. Schulte, Kansas City — 15
J. Terry, Greater Huntsville —15
R. Riggs, Tulsa — 14
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 13
J. Goodson, New Orleans — 12
R. Poirier, Tidewater — 11
J. Carney, West Michigan — 11
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 11
 SECTIONNEWS

Shown during the Boston Section’s tour are (from left) Dist. 1 Director Tom Ferri, Fitz Acheson, John Hamel, Kevin Noel, Dave Aubin, and
Jeff Mannette, Section chair.

Biazzio Giordano, Student Chapter advisor, Students participating in the Philadelphia Section program are (from left) Trace Say, Nick
is shown at the Philadelphia Section event. Parrish, Malik Downing, Jacob Doll, and Daniel Fillipelli.

District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
see members of the Student Chapter
demonstrate their welding skills and learn
about the school’s welder education pro-
(508) 527-1884 (631) 546-2903 gram. Leading the event was welding in-
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com structor and Student Chapter Advisor Bi-
azzio “Bill” Giordano.
BOSTON
NOVEMBER 4 PHILADELPHIA/Parkside
CTE Student Chapter
Activity: The Section visited Climax
Portable Machine and Welding Systems in
Amherst, N.H. Conducting the tour were
OCTOBER 9
Activity: The Section members met at
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
Fitz Acheson, John Hamel, Kevin Noel, Parkside High School Career and Techni- (610) 820-9551
and Dave Aubin. cal Education Center in Salisbury, Md., to mike@welderinstitute.com

AWS Member Counts Actions of Districts Council

December 1, 2013
On Nov. 17, 2013, after due consider- West Seattle (Dist. 19).
ation, Districts Council approved the Approved: Disbanding the following
Sustaining ......................................601
Monterrey Section charter (Dist. 18). Student Chapters: North Montco Tech-
Supporting .....................................344
Approved: Transferring Jackson, Lee, nical Career Center (Dist. 2); Central
Educational ...................................664
Pulaski, and Rockcastle Counties from Westmoreland Career and Technical
Affiliate..........................................545
the NE Tennessee Section (Dist. 8) to the Center (Dist. 7); and Kent Meridian High
Welding Distributor........................50
Lexington Section (Dist. 14). School, Lake Washington Technical Col-
Total Corporate ..........................2,204
Approved: Student Chapter charters lege, Olympic College, South Sound,
Individual .................................59,225
for York Tech Welding (Dist. 4), Bradley Spokane Community College, and Tri-
Student + Transitional .................9,670
Central High School (Dist. 8), NE Wis- Tech Skills Center (Dist. 19); and the
Total Members .........................68,895
consin Technical College (Dist. 12), and Wilmington Skills Center (Dist. 21).

WELDING JOURNAL 79
The York-Central Pennsylvania Section members are shown at Legacy Innovations in November.

SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
OCTOBER 17
Speaker: David McQuaid, AWS VP
Affiliation: D. L. McQuaid & Associates
Topic: Welding repairs and heat straightening
Activity: Following the talk, the Section
members toured the Altec Industries, Inc.,
facility in Daleville, Va. Stewart Harris,
Dist. 4 director, attended the event.

Shown at the SW Virginia Section tour are (from left) David Owens, Greg McQuaid, Chair
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
Bill Rhodes, speaker David McQuaid, Dist. 4 Director Stewart Harris, and David Cash. (770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com

ATLANTA
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Section members toured the
Applied Technical Services facility in Ma-
rietta, Ga., to study its weld testing and
training operations. Jason Loy led the tour
assisted by Jeff George and David Mock.

FLORIDA WEST COAST

Southwest Virginia Section members are shown during their tour of Altec Industries.
YORK-CENTRAL PA.
OCTOBER 17
Activity: The members visited York
County School of Technology in York, Pa.,
to compete using the VRTEX® virtual re-
ality arc welding trainer. Dave Watson,
Lincoln Electric sales engineer, conducted
the contest. Jay Covert won the event.
NOVEMBER 14
Activity: The York-Central Pa. Section
members visited Legacy Innovations, Inc.,
in York, Pa., to study the manufacture of
custom-made automobiles.
OCTOBER 16
Activity: The Section members joined
members of the Society of Naval Archi-
tects and Marine Engineers, headed by
Chair Alexandra Anagnostis, to tour the
Tampa Yacht Mfg. LLC facilities in Pinel-
las Park, Fla. The tour was conducted by
CEO Bob Stevens and Timothy Chalfant,
chief naval architect.
NOVEMBER 13
Speakers: Jessica McRory, Arehna Engi-
neering, Inc.; and John Watson, L.R.E
Ground Services, Inc.
Topic: Detection and repair of sinkholes
Activity: Al Sedory received his Life Mem-
ber Certificate for 35 years of service to
the Society. This Florida West Coast Sec-
tion program was held at Spaghetti Ware-
house in Tampa, Fla.

Shown at the York-Central Pennsylvania

Section Oct. 17 event, speaker Dave Watson
(left) presents Jay Covert with a welder’s hel-
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
met for winning a competition using virtual (919) 824-0520 (315) 218-5297
reality arc welding training equipment. stewart.harris@altec.com kenneth.phy@gmail.com

80 JANUARY 2014
Lawson State Community College Student Chapter members are shown at the November meeting.

Shown at the Atlanta Section tour are (from left) Jeff George, Dist. 5 Director Carl Matri-
cardi, David Mock, Jason Loy, and Chair David Ennis.
Life Member Al Sedory (left) is shown with
Charles Crumpton III, Florida West Coast
Section chair, at the Nov. 13 meeting.

NIAGARA FRONTIER
OCTOBER 24
Speaker: Michael Tracy
Affiliation: Hypertherm
Activity: The Section members met at Erie
1 BOCES Workforce Development Cen-
ter in Cheektowaga, N.Y., for a talk and
demonstration of plasma cutting. Twenty-
seven members and students attended the
program. Shown Oct. 16 during the Florida West Coast Section tour are (from left) Bill Machnovitz,
Ray Monson, Chair Charles Crumpton III, Bob Stevens, Alexandra Anagnostis, and Timo-
thy Chalfant.
NORTHERN NEW YORK
NOVEMBER 5
Activity: Chuck Furman, terminal man-
ager, gave a talk then conducted the Sec-
tion members on a tour of Global Termi-
nal, Port of Albany, N.Y. The facility is a
distribution center for ethanol, gasoline,
and crude oil.

District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director Presenter Chuck Furman (right) is shown John Watson (center) and Jessica McRory
(786) 473-9540 Nov. 5 with Doug Tanner, Northern New are shown Nov. 13 with Charles Crumpton
uwe@miamidiver.com York Section vice chair. III, Florida West Coast Section chair.

WELDING JOURNAL 81
The Birmingham Section and Lawson State C.C. Student Chapter members are shown at the November students’ night program.

The incoming Lawson State C. C. Student Chapter officers are (from left) Edward Lovell, Mobile Section Chair Michael Zoghby (left)
P. J. Phillips, Chair Caroline Cotton, Ryan Duke, Roderick Jemison, and Greg Anderson. is shown with speaker Chip Fonde.

Shown at the Nov. 14 Mobile Section pro-

Shown at the New Orleans Section program are (from left) Chair Aldo Duron and presen- gram are (from left) Ryan Harrison, Johnny
ters Eddie Harper, District 17 Director J. Jones, and Todd Taranto. Dedeaux, and Chair Michael Zoghby.

New Orleans Section meeting participants are (from left) Vernon Delaune, Al Theriot, Chair Aldo Duron, John Marcade, host Rickey Fabra,
Mike Eilers, Ed Dixon, and Neal Keller.

82 JANUARY 2014
COLUMBUS
OCTOBER 9
Speaker: David Cook, team leader
Affiliation: Venturi Buckeye Bullet, The
Ohio State University Center for Automo-
tive Research
Topic: Developing high-speed electric cars
Activity: The program was held at La Scala
Restaurant in Columbus, Ohio.

District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
joshburgess1984@gmail.com
Some of the participants are shown at the District 10 CWI Roundtable event.
BIRMINGHAM/Lawson State
C. C. Student Chapter
NOVEMBER 12
Activity: The Section held its students’
night program at Lawson State C. C.,
Bessemer Campus, for 55 attendees. Re-
cruiters David Cobb, Carlos Lett, and
Erica Fleming discussed job openings and
worker benefits at Ingalls Shipbuilding in
Pascagoula, Miss.

Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
OCTOBER 29
Activity: The Chapter held its election of
officers. Elected were Chair Caroline Cot-
ton, Vice Chair P. J. Phillips, Secretary Ed-
ward Lovell, Treasurer Ryan Duke, Pub-
licity Chair Roderick Jemison, and Pro-
gram Chair Greg Anderson.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
MOBILE
OCTOBER 10
Speaker: Chip Fonde, safety director
Affiliation: Taylor-Wharton Cryogenics
Topic: Welding and cutting safety
Activity: The Section, in recognition of
breast cancer awareness, presented a pair
of pink safety glasses to each attendee. The
program was held at The Original Oyster
House in Spanish Fort, Ala.
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: Johnny Dedeaux, senior fixed
equipment engineer
Affiliation: Hargrove Engineers + Con-
structors, Mobile, Ala.
Topic: “Engineering before the Arc”
Activity: Dedeaux was assisted by
coworker Ryan Harrison in his presenta-
tion detailing a new high-pressure separa-
tor used in an oil refinery. The Mobile Sec-
tion has a new presence at www.face-
book.com/awsmobilesection.
Shown are Drake Well Section members (from left) front row: Robert Fugate, Ronald Lang,
Jim Shore, Erick Speer, and speaker Ron Stahura; back row: Rolf Laemmer, Ward Kiser,
Mike Owens, and Delayne Jacobs.
NEW ORLEANS
OCTOBER 15
Speakers: Eddie Harper, district manager;
Todd Taranto, local representative; and J.
Jones, district director and AWS District
17 director
Affiliation: Harris Products Group
Topic: Brazing and soldering filler metals
Activity: The program was held at
Plumbers & Steamfitters UA Local 60 in
Metairie, La., hosted by Business Manager
Rickey Fabra.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
DISTRICT 10
NOVEMBER 9
Activity: The District held its third Certi-
fied Welding Inspector (CWI) roundtable
for CWIs to share their experiences and
opinions. The 17 attendees discussed weld-
ing procedure specifications, simplified
forms, CWIs’ value to production, and
quality and interpretation issues. Partici-
pating were former Dist. 10 Director
Richard Harris, Bob Gardner, Travis
Crate, Mike Owens, Dan Donaldson, Don-
ald Baize, Phillip Schmidt, Tom Kostreba,
Adam Webb, Mike Barrett, Jason Neff,
Lance Besse, Donna Bastian, Don Adams,
Jim Meyers, John Gorski, and Bob Dis-
sauer. The event was held at The Lincoln
Electric Co. in Euclid, Ohio.
DRAKE WELL
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: Ron Stahura, sales manager
Affiliation: ESAB
Topic: Plasma arc cutting
Activity: The program was held at The
Commons at Franklin, Pa.
MAHONING VALLEY
OCTOBER 17
Activity: The Section held an executive
committee meeting at Rachel’s Restaurant
in Austintown, Ohio.

WELDING JOURNAL 83
Madison-Beloit Section members and students are shown at the October event.
Shown at the Madison-Beloit event are (from left) Chair Tony Stute, Dave Gilbertson, Rob
Stinson, James Chapman, Ben Newcomb, Chris Wierschke, and Jim Maynard.
David Havrilla conducts an automotive laser
welding class for the Detroit Section mem-
bers in November.
NOVEMBER 7
Speaker: Galen White, welding engineer
Affiliation: Hobart Brothers
Topic: Trends in welding aluminum
Activity: This Mahoning Valley Section
program was held at Columbiana County
Career Center in Columbiana, Ohio.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rwilcox1@ford.com
84 JANUARY 2014
Speaker Will Brick (right) is shown with Wes
Doneth, Detroit Section chair, at TechShop
Detroit.
DETROIT
NOVEMBER 5
Speaker: David Havrilla, manager, prod-
ucts and applications
Affiliation: TRUMPF, Inc.
Topic: Fundamentals of automotive laser
welding
Activity: Havrilla led this 2-h class as part
of the Section’s welding education series.
Forty attendees participated in the lecture
and demonstrations held at TRUMPF,
Inc., in Plymouth, Mich.
Speaker Galen White (left) is shown with
Chuck Moore, Mahoning Valley Section
chair.
NOVEMBER 7
Speaker: Will Brick, manager
Affiliation: TechShop Detroit
Topic: Introduction to TechShop
Activity: The program was held at
TechShop Detroit in Allen Park, Mich.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
MADISON-BELOIT
OCTOBER 16
Activity: The Section members attended
the Madison Area Technical College open
house in Madison, Wis. They toured its re-
cently expanded welding facilities and saw
its new waterjet cutting machine demon-
strated by Instructor Jon Christian. Man-
ufacturing representatives included Rob
Stinson (Lincoln), James Maynard and
Chris Wierschke (Miller), Dave Gilbert-
son (Encompass Gas of Madison), Ben
Newcomb (Badger Welding Supplies), and
Jim Chapman (Airgas).
 AWS MEMbERShIp ApplICATIOn
4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480 8669 NW 36 St, # 130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership Telephone (800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-5647
Visit our website: www.aws.org
contact information
Type of Business (Check ONE only)
q New Member q Renewal A q Contract construction
B q Chemicals & allied products
q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print • Duplicate this page as needed
C q Petroleum & coal industries
D q Primary metal industries
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________ E q Fabricated metal products
F q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______ G q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodes
H q Transportation equip. — air, aerospace
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________ I q Transportation equip. — automotive
J q Transportation equip. — boats, ships
Cell Phone ( )__________________________ Secondary Phone ( )______________________ K q Transportation equip. — railroad
Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If “YES,” give year________ and Member #:____________________ L q Utilities
M q Welding distributors & retail trade
Company (if applicable):___________________________________________________________________ N q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)
O q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)
Address:________________________________________________________________________________ P q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)
Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
_______________________________________________________________________________________ R q Government (federal, state, local)
S q Other
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________ Job Classification (Check ONE only)
01 q President, owner, partner, officer
Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________ 02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Member’s name:_______________________Member’s # (if known):________ 03 q Sales
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefits, savings opportunities and events. 04 q Purchasing
05 q Engineer — welding
inDiViDUaL mEmBErSHiP 20 q Engineer — design
21 q Engineer — manufacturing
è Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service you’d like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment. 06 q Engineer — other
q AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp (One Year)..................................................................................................$84 10 q Architect designer
12 q Metallurgist
q AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp (Two Years) SAvE $25 New Members Only....................................$143 13 q Research & development
22 q Quality control
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
07 q Inspector, tester
OpTIOnS AvAIlAblE TO AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERS OnlY: 08 q Supervisor, foreman
14 q Technician
A.) OPTIONAL book Selection (Choose from 25 titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling) 09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator
q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35 11 q Consultant
15 q Educator
q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85 17 q Librarian
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit www.aws.org/membership 16 q Student
q Jefferson’s Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only) q Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding q Welding Metallurgy 18 q Customer Service
19 q Other
Welding Handbook Selections: q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1)
Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW) Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
A q Ferrous metals
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal hard Copy (for Members outside North America) B q Aluminum
q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50 C q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
D q Advanced materials/Intermetallics
IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp TOTAl pAYMEnT..................................................................................$_____________ E q Ceramics
NOTE: Dues include $18.70 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation. F q High energy beam processes
G q Arc welding
StUDEnt mEmBErSHiP H q Brazing and soldering
I q Resistance welding
è Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service you’d like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment. J q Thermal spray
q AWS STudEnT MEMbERShIp (One Year)...................................................................................................................$15 K q Cutting
L q NDT
q OPTIONAL Welding Journal hard Copy (Only available to students in the U.S., Canada and Mexico)...........................$20
M q Safety and health
Note: Hard copy option applies to students in U.S., Canada and Mexico. Digital delivery of magazine is standard benefit for all student members.
N q Bending and shearing
STudEnT MEMbERShIp TOTAl pAYMEnT......................................................................................$_____________ O q Roll forming
P q Stamping and punching
PaYmEnt information Q q Aerospace
R q Automotive
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card. S q Machinery
q Check q Money Order q AMEX q Diners Club q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q Other T q Marine
U q Piping and tubing
CC#:____________ / ____________ / ____________ / ____________ Expiration Date (mm/yy) ________ / ________ V q Pressure vessels and tanks
W q Sheet metal
X q Structures
Signature of Applicant:_________________________________________ Application Date:_______________________
Y q Other
Z q Automation
officE USE onLY Check #:_______________________________ Account #____________________________________ 1 q Robotics
Source Code: WJ Date:_________________________________ Amount:_____________________________________ 2 q Computerization of Welding
REV. 11/13
St. Louis Section members are shown during their tour of AmerenUE.

Gary Dugger is shown with Bennie Flynn,

Indiana Section chair. Attendees are shown at the Racine-Kenosha Section tour of Wisconsin Oven Corp.

RACINE-KENOSHA
OCTOBER 23
Activity: The Section met at Wisconsin
Oven Corp in East Troy, Wis., to study its
operations. James Stewart, shop manager,
and Diana Dalgren, head of human re-
sources, conducted a tour. Members of
Gateway Technical College Welding,
Elkhorn Campus, participated in the
event.

District 13
John Willard, director Indiana Section awardees are (from left) Jack Laudig, Martina Miller, Erin Fromson, Gary
(815) 954-4838 Dugger, and Steve Gillig.
kustom_bilt@msn.com
ceived the District Director Certificate
Award, Gary Dugger the District Private District 15
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
Sector Educator Award, Jack Laudig the
Section CWI of the Year Award, and Mar-
tina Miller the Section Appreciation
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
(765) 606-7970 Award.
rlrichwine2@aol.com NORTHWEST
JULY 13
INDIANA ST. LOUIS Activity: The Section visited the 3M facil-
NOVEMBER 7 NOVEMBER 7 ity in St. Paul, Minn., for a presentation on
Activity: The Section held its annual Activity: The Section members toured the new metal-removal products. Guiding the
awards night hosted by Chair Bennie Flynn AmerenUE training facilities in St. Louis, tour were Brad Johnson, Scott Barnett,
of Flynn Welding Inspection in Solsberry, Mo. The guides were John Baima, Laurie Marv Schifsky, Nick Manor, Nate Herbst,
Ind. Erin Fromson and Steve Gillig re- Kutz, and Steve Zaitz. Jim Olson, and John Barry.

WELDING JOURNAL 87

AWS President Nancy Cole (center) is surrounded by the ladies attending the Northwest
Section dinner meeting.
Shown during the Northwest Section tour are (from left) Anna Wald, Traci Tapani, AWS
President Nancy Cole, and Lori Tapani.
The Iowa Section members are shown during their tour of Kinze Mfg. in Williamsburg, Iowa.
Ric Eckstein (left), Northwest Section chair,
is shown with Brad Johnson at 3M in July.
88 JANUARY 2014
OCTOBER 14
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: In the afternoon, Cole and the
Northwest Section members toured
Wyoming Machine in Stacy, Minn., a
company owned by two sisters, Co-Pres-
idents Lori and Traci Tapani. CWI Anna
Wald serves as the company’s QC man-
ager. Afterward, Cole presented her talk
to more than 30 members and guests at
a dinner program held in Shoreview,
Minn.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
IOWA
OCTOBER 24
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: The program was held at Ver-
meer Mfg. Corp. in Pella, Iowa.
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Iowa Section members and
guests toured Kinze Mfg., Inc., in
Williamsburg, Iowa, for a presentation
on its planter assembly area.
KANSAS
OCTOBER 5
Activity: The Section and Hutchinson C.
C. personnel coached six Boy Scouts from
Troop 301 to earn their welding merit
badges. The event was held at the college
in Hutchinson, Kan.
OCTOBER 10
Activity: The Kansas Section members
toured the Caterpillar Work Tools facil-
ity in Wamego, Kan., led by Mike Jones,
plant manager.
OCTOBER 19
Activity: The Section members coached
eight Boy Scouts from Arkansas City,
Kan., to earn their welding merit badges.
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: David Landon, AWS vice presi-
dent and manager of welding engineering
Affiliation: Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Topic: Virtual reality welding
Activity: Following the talk, Jamie Kap-
pler (Lincoln Electric) demonstrated the
VRTEX®360 virtual arc welding train-
ing system. Dennis Wright, Dist. 16 di-
rector, presented Diane Steadham the
District Meritorious Award. Chair Greg
Siepert presented Bob Simon his Silver
Member Certificate for 25 years of serv-
ice to the Society. The meeting was held
at WATC National Center for Aviation
Training in Wichita, Kan.
KANSAS CITY
OCTOBER 22
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: Cole and the Section members
toured the new welding facilities at
Kansas City Kansas C. C. Cole presented
Dist. 16 Director Dennis Wright the 2013
Image of Welding Award.
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 622-8600
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
AWS President Nancy Cole poses with the Kansas City Section members.

Shown Oct. 19, the Kansas Section members and Boy Scouts celebrate the young welders earning their merit badges.

AWS President Nancy Cole is shown with Grant Von Lunen, chair, Kansas City Sec- Bob Simon (left) receives the Silver Mem-
Dennis Wright, Dist. 16 director, at the tion, presents a speaker plaque to Nancy ber Certificate Award from Greg Siepert,
Kansas City program. Cole, AWS president. Kansas Section chair.

Kansas Section program helped six Boy Scouts earn their welding merit badges Oct. 5.
Diane Steadham receives the District Meri-
torious Award from Dennis Wright, Dist. 16
director.

DISTRICT 17 Conference
Activity: Dist. 17 Director J. Jones pre-
sented Donnie Williams, North Texas Sec-
tion chair, the District CWI of the Year
Award, and District Director Awards to
Caterpillar Work Tools & Services, Lumi-
nant Academy, Red Ball Oxygen, and Lin-
coln College of Technology for their sup- The Kansas Section members are shown during their tour of Caterpillar Work Tools.

WELDING JOURNAL 89
 OCTOBER 23
Activity: The Tulsa Section members vis-
ited Sherry Laboratories in Broken Arrow,
Okla., to tour the facility and learn about
its metallurgical and mechanical testing of
materials. Don Bunn, special projects en-
gineer, conducted the program.

District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com

Shown at the Dist. 17 conference are (from left) Bill Hall, Donnie Williams, Candace Or- CORPUS CHRISTI
tega, Dist. 17 Director J. Jones, AWS Director of Member Services Rhenda Kenny, and Ernest OCTOBER 17
Levert, a past AWS president. Speaker: Jason Czajkowski, CWI, CWE
Affiliation: Applus RTD
Topic: Infrared thermographics
Activity: Czajkowski discussed and demon-
strated infrared thermographic camera
technology and took room-light and ther-
mal photos of the attendees. The meeting
was held at Craft Training Center of the
Coastal Bend in Corpus Christi, Tex.

HOUSTON
OCTOBER 26
Attendees are shown at the District 17 conference in Waco, Tex. Activity: The Section held a seminar for
49 attendees at NCI Training Center. The
topics were welding procedure specifica-
tions and procedure qualification records.
The presenters were George Baldree, Ron
Theiss, Charles W. Patrick, and Scott
Witkowski. The class was arranged by
James Hansford, education chair.

Joe Melendez (left) receives the Central Texas
Section Educator Award from J. Jones, Dist.
17 director.
Shown during the Tulsa Section tour are
(from left) Jerry Knapp, presenter Don Bunn,
and Charles Griffin.
OCTOBER 31
Activity: The Houston Section toured
Forged Components, Inc., in Humble,
Tex., to study the fabrication of ASME
pressure vessels and numerous other prod-
ucts. Chris Heitman and David Allen ex-
plained how forgings are made and con-
ducted the tour.

EAST TEXAS LAKE CHARLES

CWI Ryan Rummel (left) is shown with J.
Jones, Dist. 17 director.
port of AWS activities. Ryan Rummel, a
CWI and CWE, received the Section Mer-
itorious Award for his support of the Cen-
tral Texas Section and serving as advisor
to the Texas State Technical College Stu-
dent Chapter. Joe Melendez received the
Central Texas Section Educator Award.
OCTOBER 24
Activity: The Section members toured
Southwest Fabrication and Coatings in
White Oak, Tex. Jerry Newman, executive
VP and general manager, conducted the
program.
TULSA
OCTOBER 12
Activity: The Section sponsored a week-
long Certified Welding Inspector seminar
and weekend exams for 36 attendees. Abio-
dun Akinnibosun from Niger Delta Petro-
leum Resources, Ltd., traveled from Nige-
ria to take the exam. Test supervisors in-
cluded Melissa Howard, Ethan Howard,
Barry Lawrence, Jim Otte, Tim Smith, and
Rich Howard. The activity was held at
DoubleTree Hotel in Tulsa, Okla.
AUGUST 21
Activity: Drew Fontenot shared his expe-
riences as the Section’s representative at
the Dist. 18 conference. The meeting was
held at Logan’s Roadhouse Restaurant in
Lake Charles, La., for 24 attendees.
Fontenot noted John Stoll was elected to
fulfill John Bray’s last year as Dist. 18 di-
rector effective Jan. 1 when Bray is in-
stalled as an AWS vice president.
SAN ANTONIO
OCTOBER 15
Speaker: Brian Parrish, strike construc-
tion foreman
Affiliation: Eagle Ford Shale Area
Topic: Automatic pipe welding in the field
Activity: John Bray, Dist. 18 director, pre-
sented several awards.

90 JANUARY 2014
Shown are the Houston Section members who braved the elements Oct. 31 to tour the Forged Components plant.

Shown at the Lake Charles Section meeting Shown at the Houston Section seminar are George Baldree, Charles Patrick, Ron Theiss,
are (from left) Kermit Babaz, Gary Wag- Scott Witkowski, and James Hansford.
goner, Chair Tac Edwards, and presenter
Drew Fontenot.

Brad Moe (left) is shown with speaker Scott

Stanley at the British Columbia Section Lake Charles Section members are shown at the August meeting.
event.

District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorindustrial.com
BRITISH COLUMBIA
SEPTEMBER 25
Speaker: Scott Stanley, technical sales rep-
resentative
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Virtual reality arc welding training
Activity: The meeting was held in Delta, Abiodun Akinnibosun (left) is shown with
B.C., Canada. Rich Howard at the Tulsa CWI seminar.

OCTOBER 22
Speaker: Colin Stewart, senior welding in-
spector
Affiliation: SKC Engineering
Topic: Removing the Port Mann Bridge
Activity: At this British Columbia Section
program, the Bruce Third Memorial Weld-
ing Scholarship was awarded to Lorenzo
Webb, a welding student and a new Sec-
tion member. Attending were Bruce
Third’s widow Violet, son Rob Third, and
Adriana Webb.
Corpus Christi Section members pictured by
room-light (top) and infrared cameras.
OLYMPIC/PUGET SOUND
NOVEMBER 5
Activity: The Sections hosted a 9-year CWI
recertification class at CK Worldwide in
Auburn, Wash. Ron Theiss taught the sem-
inar, assisted by Sjon Delmore, Olympic Colin Stewart (left) is shown with Scott Stan-
Section chair. ley at the British Columbia Section program.

WELDING JOURNAL 91
Shown at the Olympic/Puget Sound-sponsored seminar at CK Worldwide are (from left) Braidy Fernandez, Leonard Olson, John Jaques,
Eric Murray, Joseph Gallagher, Zeki Gokle, Jeffrey Rice, presenter Ron Theiss, Coby Bounds, William Gentry, Patricia Yates, Stephen Schef-
fle, Olympic Section Chair Sjon Delmore, David A. Vallejo, and Jeff Tuttle.

Robert Hollingsworth receives his Silver Attendees observed Jared Satterlund (green Jeff Bailey (left) described applications for
Member Certificate from Nancy Cole, AWS shirt) bending welder qualification coupons one of the furnaces used at Wear-Tek
president, at the Puget Sound Section event. at the Spokane Section Oct. 24 event. Foundry during the Spokane Section tour.

New Mexico Section members are shown during their tour of Horizon Trikes.

Nancy Cole, AWS president, receives a

speaker gift from Ken Johnson, Dist. 19 di-
rector, at the Puget Sound Section program.

PUGET SOUND
APRIL 4
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: Robert J. Hollingsworth received
Shown at the British Columbia Section are (from left) Violet Third, Rob Third, Lorenzo his Silver Member Certificate for 25 years
Webb, Adriana Webb, and Brad Moe, Scholarship Committee chair. of service to the Society.

92 JANUARY 2014
Shown during the Arizona Section tour are (from left) Daniel Hurst, presenter Ivan Insua, Robert James, Richard Pell, Jerry Siko, Paul
Moreno, Karl Kammerzell, Richard Moreno, Alan Gaiser, Nick Martinez, Keith Winchester, James Benjamin, Jordan Potterfield, and Fran
Johnston.

The Sacramento Valley Section members are shown during the Praxair tour.

SPOKANE ARIZONA
OCTOBER 24
Speakers: Phil Zammit, Brooklyn Iron
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
OCTOBER 11
Activity: The Section members toured Salt
Works; and Jared Satterlund, Oxarc (505) 284-9644 River Project Kyrene Generating Station
Topics: Welding to AWS codes and non- phgorma@sandia.gov in Tempe, Ariz. Ivan Insua, engineer, led
destructive evaluation techniques the tour and discussed where welding is
Activity: The program was held at Pullman used in the plant.
High School welding facility for more than NEW MEXICO
90 attendees including local industry mem- OCTOBER 17
bers and students from North Idaho Col- Speaker: Adolph Romero, CEO
lege. Equipment demonstrations were Affiliation: Horizon Trikes
conducted by Karl Susz (Lincoln Electric)
and Paul Stone (ESAB). Attendees par-
Topic: Fabrication and DOT requirements
for road-worthy vehicles
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
ticipated in bending welder qualification Activity: The meeting was held in Albu- (925) 866-5434
coupons and NDE techniques. querque, N.Mex. kesi@pge.com
NOVEMBER 13
Activity: The Section members toured SACRAMENTO VALLEY
Wear-Tek Foundry in Spokane, Wash. Jeff
Bailey and Bob Underhill conducted the District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
OCTOBER 16
Activity: The Section members toured the
tour of the facility that specializes in man- Praxair Gas Production Facility in Pitts-
ufacturing and heat treating parts for the (702) 429-5017 burg, Calif. Bill Bright, general manager,
mining, power, and agriculture industries. nan07@aol.com conducted the program.

WELDING JOURNAL 93
 New AWS Supporters
SUSTAINING
Babcock & Wilcox Euclid Facility
24703 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44117
Representative: Brett Bercaw
www.babcock.com
DIS-TRAN Steel, LLC.
529 Cenla Dr.
Pineville, LA 71360
Representative: Thomas S. Malo
www.distran.com
Since 1965, DIS-TRAN Steel has pro-
vided transmission and substation steel
structures, tapered tubular poles, wide
flange, square tube, and lattice structures
to the utilities industry. It provides in-house
engineering and detailing capabilities with
Lean manufacturing to provide flexible
scheduling to handle quick-turn projects.
Durum USA
11133 I-45 S., Bldg. I
Conroe, TX 77302
Representative: Daniel Brotsch
www.durumusa.com
Skyline Steel, LLC
9 International Way
Longview, WA 98632
Representative: Juan Rodriguez
www.skylinesteel.com
WEMCO, Inc.
2823 S. Craig Rd.
Airway Heights, WA 99001
Representative: Jared Satterland
www.wemcoinc.com
SUPPORTING
Dearing Compressor & Pump Co.
3974 Simon Rd.
Youngstown, OH 44512
Derby Trailer Technologies, LLC
449 N. Water, Derby, KS 67037
Rode Welding Service, LLC
1211 Louis Ave.
Elk Grove Village, IL 60007
AFFILIATE
A1 Fence & Welding
PO Box 279
Marble Falls, TX 78654
Axenics Corp.
4 Townsend W., Ste. 5
Nashua, NH 03063
Diversified Metalworking, Inc.
106 E. Grant, Republic, MO 65738
Jogler, LLC.
6646 Complex Dr.
Baton Rouge, LA 70809
Kimball Midwest
4800 Roberts Rd.
Columbus, OH 43228
May Tool and Die, Inc.
9 Hackett Dr.
Tonawanda, NY 14150
MT Rigmat LLC
PO Box 190, Charlo, MT 59824
MWD Steel Fabrication
6140 McCormick Dr.
Lincoln, NE 68507
Patersonlabs, Inc.
8714 S. 222nd St.
Kent, WA 98031
Precise Welding Services
3561 Delta Height Rd.
Wallace, SC 29596
Semic S.A. De C.V.
Andre Marie Ampere # 3
Parque Industrial Cuamatla
Cuautitlán Izcalli 54730, Mexico
Steelpipe, Ltd.
224 Neilson St., PO Box 13514
Onehunga 1643, New Zealand
Superior Joining Technologies, Inc.
11047 Raleigh Ct.
Machesney Park, IL 61115
TA Process Systems, LLC
3650 Kennesaw 75 Pkwy., Ste. #100
Kennesaw, GA 30144
Technology Development Group, Inc.
41901 Wolverine Rd., Shawnee, OK 74804
Upright Steel, LLC
1335 E. 171st St., Cleveland, OH 44110
Wartsila Defense, Inc.
26264 Twelve Trees Ln.
Poulsbo, WA 98370
Welder Testing, Inc.
502 W. 13th St., Deer Park, TX 77536
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Ballinger High School
802 Conda Ave., Ballinger, TX 76821
Central Arizona College
8470 N. Overfield Rd.
Coolidge, AZ 85128
Cypress Creek High School
9815 Grant Rd., Houston, TX 77070
Cypress Ranch High School
10700 Fry Rd., Cypress, TX 77433
Cypress Ridge High School
7900 N. Eldridge Pkwy.
Houston, TX 77041
Cypress Woods High School
13550 Woods Spillane Blvd.
Cypress, TX 77429
Cy-Fair High School
22602 Hempstead Hwy.
Cypress, TX 77429
Hico ISD
PO Box 218, Hico, TX 76457
Jersey Village High School
7600 Solomon St., Houston, TX 77040
Joint Professionals & Support Int’l, Ltd.
2 Tokunbo Alli St., Ikeja, Lagos
Nigeria
Langham Creek High School
17610 FM 529, Houston, TX 77095
Mobridge-Pollock High School
1107 1st Ave. E., Mobridge, SD 57601
New Mexico State University Alamogordo
2400 N. Scenic Dr.
Alamogordo, NM 88310
Pulaski County High School
5414 Cougar Trail Rd., Dublin, VA 24084
Poth High School
506 N. Dickson
Poth, TX 78147
Salinas Valley Welding School
1520-A Meridian Rd.
Salina, CA 93907
Stanly Community College
141 College Dr.
Albemarle, NC 28001
Terrell Independent School District
400 Poetry Rd.
Terrell, TX 75160
Venus Independent School District
100 Student Dr., Venus, TX 76084
Warren County Career Center
3525 N. State Route 48
Lebanon, OH 45036
Waubonsee Community College
Rte. 47 at Waubonsee Dr.
Sugar Grove, IL 60554
Welding Greek Institute
Training Excellence Center
Panepistimiou 44, 6th Fl.
Athens, Attiki 10679, Greece

94 JANUARY 2014
 Guide to AWS Services
American Welding Society
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.

AWS PRESIDENT INTERNATIONAL SALES TECHNICAL SERVICES

Dean R. Wilson
deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Circle
Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuñez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA — International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA — Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO — Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers’ Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA — Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette O’Brien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS head-
quarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Accreditation Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Coun-
selor nominations.
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
Associate Director, Operations
Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qual-
ification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation
established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundation’s work with your fi-
nancial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.

WELDING JOURNAL 95
 PERSONNEL

Intelligrated® Hires VP changes to its board. Former Vice Chair uct manager — sepa-
Layle “Kip” Smith was elevated to chair- ration. With the com-
Intelligrated®, Cincinnati, Ohio, an man, replacing Pat Franc. Garney B. Scott pany since 2006, Con-
automated material-handling solutions was named vice chair and chair of the Ex- fer has served as a
provider, has named ecutive Committee. Smith is president of technical sales repre-
David Erickson vice Noranda Aluminum, Franc is president of sentative and a team
president, software Tri-Arrows Aluminum, and Scott is presi- leader and project
development, for its dent of Scepter, Inc. The new board mem- manager for the
New York-based sub- bers include Marco Palmieri, president, Eriez Orange Uni-
sidiary company, Novelis North America; Kevin Person, versity® mobile
Knighted®. Erickson CEO, Wagstaff, Inc.; and David Hazelett, Bill Dudenhoefer training and educa-
previously held prod- president, Hazelett Strip-Casting. tion center. Since
uct development and 2006, Dudenhoefer has served as separa-
performance engi- tion product manager.
neering positions for Eriez® Appoints Two
David Erickson RedPrairie. Managers
EB Industries Hires
Eriez®, Erie, Pa., a supplier of mag- Business Director
Aluminum Association netic lift and separation equipment, and
Makes Board Changes metal-detection and materials conveying EB Industries, Farmingdale, N.Y., a
technologies, has promoted Bill Duden- provider of electron beam and laser beam
The Aluminum Association, Arling- hoefer to market manager-heavy indus- welding services, has appointed John De-
ton, Va., has announced the following try, and promoted Eric J. Confer to prod- Lalio director of new business develop-
ment. DeLalio, with 23 years of experi-
ence in mechanical engineering and in-
formation technology positions, most re-
cently served as senior director of enter-
prise architecture for NYC Health and
Hospitals.

Selective Soldering
Academy Names Director
The Selective Soldering Academy, Elk
Grove Village, Ill., has appointed Eddie
Groves director. In the soldering and se-
lective soldering field for 25 years, Groves
worked with AT&T/Lucent Technologies
as a soldering process engineer and later
as a sales engineer for a soldering equip-
ment manufacturer and soldering materi-
als suppliers.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index

Weldcote Metals Names

Midwest Sales Rep
Weldcote Metals,
a supplier of welding
alloys, electrodes,
helmets, and acces-
sories, has named
Dave Colwell mid-
west regional sales
representative. Col-
well, with 30 years’ ex-
perience in the weld-
Dave Colwell ing, brazing, and sol-
dering industries, is
an AWS Certified Welding Inspector who
has judged SkillsUSA contests for 15
years.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
— continued on page 98
96 JANUARY 2014
PERSONNEL ABB Appoints Executive tonio, Tex., area. He served in both the
Committee Member U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force with active
— continued from page 96 duty in Iwo Jima.
Following dis-
Caterpillar Names ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, a power
and automation technology group, has charge from serv-
Project Manager ice, he received
appointed Greg Scheu as an executive
committee member responsible for the his degree in met-
Caterpillar, Inc.,
group’s acquisition integration efforts allurgy from
has assigned Jacob
and to take over responsibility for the Oklahoma State
Shorey to Sosnowiec,
North American business portfolio. En- University. He
Poland, to serve as
rique Santacana, currently country man- worked at Brown
project manager for
ager in the United States and regional and Root, Liv-
the expansion of a
manager in both the North and South ingston Shipyard,
heavy fabrications
America regions, will focus on growth in Ingalls Shipyard,
and welding factory.
South America. and J. Ray Mc-
Shorey, an AWS James Walker Dermott where he
Jacob Shorey member, was hired
traveled many
into Caterpillar’s
Obituary times to Russia to consult on pipeline
Manufacturing Professional Develop-
welding projects. He also served as an ac-
ment program in 2006 as its first welding
count executive with Miller Electric Mfg.
engineering technology graduate. Prior James H. Walker Co., in Houston, Tex.
to this assignment, he has held several
roles and assignments in welding engi- James H. Walker, 86, AWS president
neering and manufacturing. 1986–1987, died Nov. 21 in the San An-

Member Milestones

WeiJie Zhang
WeiJie Zhang has received the prestigeous IIW Henry Granjon Prize in Category D,
Human-Related Topics, in recognition for his paper, Modeling of Human Welder Behav-
ior. Zhang received his master’s degree in electrical engineering/control from Harbin In-
stitute of Technology, China, in 2007, then joined the University of Kentucky at Lexing-
ton in 2008 as a research assistant and PhD candidate in the Welding Research Labora-
tory. His research interests include sensors, arc welding processes, and system identifica-
tion and control. He has published more than 20 papers in peer-reviewed publications
WeiJie Zhang including the Welding Journal, Measurement Science and Technology, and Manufacturing
Science and Engineering Transactions of ASME. Five of his papers studying human behav-
ior during welding operations have been published in the Welding Journal Research Sup-
plement. The paper he submitted at 2012 IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics
was ranked in the top ten of more than 300 papers submitted. His biography as a promis-
ing welding researcher was featured in the May 2012 Welding Journal.

Damian J. Kotecki
Damian J. Kotecki, AWS president 2005–2006, has received the International Insti-
tute of Welding Yoshiaki Arata Award. This lifetime achievement award “is presented to
a person who has made extraordinary achievements in fundamental research in welding
science and technology and its allied processes, which have been recognized as signifi-
cant contributions to the progress of welding engineering and related fields.” The award,
sponsored by the Japanese Delegation to the IIW, has been presented annually since
1994 to pay tribute to the career of Prof. Dr. Yoshiaki Arata who devoted years to the
Damian Kotecki development of ultrahigh energy density heat sources and their applications to welding,
cutting, and other thermal materials processing.

98 JANUARY 2014
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
— continued from page 8
Keppel FELS’ Singapore yard upgrading. Keppel FELS, which
designs, constructs, and repairs mobile offshore rigs, has fre-
quently invested in increasing productivity and capabilities of its
rig production process. This contract is the third between
Keppel and Pemamek in a year.
The new contract consists of two PEMA high-capacity robotic
profile processing lines. The lines include cutting and marking
features and automatic palletizing systems. The new profile pro-
cessing system supports the modern panel line, but also provides
profile processing capacity to various other needs of the yard.♦
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
— continued from page 12
• ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Florence, S.C., has added
an enhanced distributor locator to www.esabna.com and
www.esab.ca. It will also be the exclusive welding sponsor of
LetzRoll Offroad Racing and a racing team in Europe.
• To highlight the introduction of a plasma cutting line for man-
ual and mechanized plasma processes, and its evolvement into
a full line thermal cutting original equipment manufacturer,
Thermacut, Inc., Claremont, N.H., has changed its corporate
logo and the slogan to “The Cutting Company.”
• The new welding program at Chipola College, Marianna, Fla.,
begins Jan. 7. It is 1170 clock hours, which can be completed
in about one year. The welding instructor is Patrick Kennedy.
Eastern Ship Builders in Panama City hires numerous welders
and is also expected to expand its operation in the near future.
• An endowed welding scholarship has been established at North
Georgia Technical College in memory and honor of Chris Mc-
Curry who earned his welding certification there and started
his own business. Preference will be given to residents of Banks
County, followed by Habersham County. As an employee of
Johnson & Johnson subsidiary Noramco in Athens, his wife
Tracy applied for the company’s matching grant program.
COMING EVENTS
— continued from page 66
Educational Opportunities
LAM® Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop. March 12, 13.
Houston, Tex. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;
www.lia.org/lam.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials,
interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, and blogs. Visit
www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of Welds.
Online video courses taken at one’s own pace offer certificates of
100 JANUARY 2014
An example of a Pema profile cutting line. The company has
recently received a contract to deliver two of its robotic profile
processing lines to Keppel FELS.
• Local nexAir professional, Patrick Galphin, recently gave a
L.A.B.S. (Living And Breathing Science) presentation at White
Station Middle School, Memphis, Tenn. The program uses
real-life examples to reinforce science principles students learn
in class, including elements such as dry ice, argon, and
nitrogen.
• The Association for Manufacturing Excellence, Rolling Mead-
ows, Ill., is honoring Bombardier Aerospace with a 2013 Man-
ufacturing Excellence Award. When evaluating its Toronto
site, the assessment team was impressed by the use of tools
that drive continuous improvement.
• ThomasNet.com®, New York, N.Y., has launched its new job
board. The employment and career-building website focuses
on engineering, procurement, manufacturing/production op-
erations, and sales/marketing. Visit thomasnetjobs.com.
• CHRG Metals, Hamilton, Ohio, a supplier of corrosion and
heat-resistant stainless with nickel alloy sheet and plate, has
officially become a division of United Performance Metals.
The company previously operated as a division of O’Neal Steel.
• Joining Technologies, East Granby, Conn., now offers capa-
bilities in both laser beam and electron beam welding. The
company is using its expanded capabilities to take on
more welding projects in the medical device and aerospace
industries.♦
completion and continuing education units. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; hiwt@welding.org; www.welding.org.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian
Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial
Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI Z136.1,
Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customer’s site. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.♦
 AWS Conference on

Energy
 
 

   

The demand for new and improved welding technology from expanding and established
energy marketsis
tsis starting to pay offf in the development of superior hybrid welding processes,
off
new filler metals, and cladding procedures. The technologies are showing up in nuclear power
plants, in coal-fired utilities, renewable sources, and especially in the new 1,700-mile-long
pipelines designed to bring oil and natural gas to world markets.

Earn PDHs toward your AWS

AWS recertification when you attend the conference.
conference.

For the latest conference information and registration, visit our web site
at www.aws.org/conferences
www.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223.
 CLASSIFIEDS

EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT CERTIFICATION

& TRAINING

MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
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Ellijay, GA Feb. 17–28 Apr. 7–18
Shreveport, LA Mar. 3–14
Marksville, LA Apr. 28–May 9
Waco, TX May 12–23
Loveland, CO June 2–13
Used Equipment for Sale Ardmore, OK June 23–July 4
www.mitrowskiwelding.com Searcy, AR July 7–18
Temple, TX July 21–Aug. 1
+ Includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:
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Also offering: RT Film Interpretation,
MT/PT/UT Thickness, CWS, SCWI,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
And Advanced Inspection Courses

sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
Professionals Sought for
IIW Training Courses

The American Welding Society, the

JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
Gesellschaft für Schweisstechnik
International (German Welding
Institute, GSI), and the National
Center for Welding Education and
Training (Weld-Ed) are seeking
candidates interested in obtaining
the IIW International Welding
Engineer or International Welding
Technologist diploma. Courses are
being planned that will blend
Internet-delivered training with
classroom training conducted in the
United States.

The 440-hour course will be offered

email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
during the next two summers and
is designed to promote career
development for busy welding
professionals.

Please contact Jeff Hufsey at:

hufsey@aws.org for more details.

102 JANUARY 2014

 CERTIFICATION SERVICES
& TRAINING

Showcase Your Products

and Services in the
April 2014
Welding Marketplace

Win Potential Clients

Spread the word on your company around
the world by promoting a full-color photo of by Showing Them Videos on
How to Save Money and Time
your newest and hottest welding products
or services to more than 80,000 AWS
members and customers in this famous
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As an extra bonus your ad will be posted on
the AWS website with an active link to your
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Closing date is
February 14, 2014
Call the AWS sales team at:
(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein at ext. 243
salty@aws.org For more information
Lea Paneca at ext. 220 visit our website at http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
lea@aws.org
Rob Saltzstein Lea Paneca Sandra Jorgensen
Sandra Jorgensen @ ext. 254 salty@aws.org lea@aws.org sjorgensen@aws.org
sjorgensen@aws.org (800) 443-9353, ext. 243 (800) 443-9353, ext. 220 (800) 443-9353, ext. 254

WELDING JOURNAL 103

 ADVERTISER
INDEX
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
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104 JANUARY 2014

 SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JANUARY 2014
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

Visualization of Gas Flows in Welding Arcs

by the Schlieren Measuring Technique
The influence of typical welding parameters on the gas flow for the GTAW, GMAW,
and PAW processes is demonstrated using the high-speed Schlieren technique

BY E. SIEWERT, G. WILHELM, M. HÄSSLER, J. SCHEIN, T. HANSON,

M. SCHNICK, AND U. FÜSSEL

image velocimetry (PIV) can be used. By

ABSTRACT Zschetzsche (Ref. 2) the applicability of
both methods for the measurement of gas
Gas flows in and around welding arcs have a strong influence on the welding process. flow in arc welding was tested and the PIV

Atmospheric gases reach the arc due to turbulences and diffusion mechanisms and this af-
fects the arc and the weld pool. Using optical analysis of the gas flow during welding with
and without the arc present reveals possible mixing and thus the causes of contamination
can be determined. The Schlieren method offers a simple way to do this. In this paper, the
setup of a Schlieren measuring system and the influence of the most relevant setting pa-
rameters are described as well as their influence on the Schlieren images.
Introduction
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
the arc and the weld pool are protected
against the influence of atmospheric gases
by a shielding gas. Contamination of the
shielding gas leads, among other things, to
arc instability, oxidation, porosity, and
spatter. Furthermore, atmospheric gases
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, or nitro-
gen affect the characteristics of the plasma
and influence the arc spots at the cathode
and anode. Therefore, one important goal
of welding torch development is to gener-
ate an optimal gas flow through the weld-
ing torch in order to guarantee a stable
and protective shielding gas coverage. To
achieve this, it is most important to avoid
flow separation and turbulence in the
shielding gas nozzle.
In order to minimize the experimental
effort by performing numerous welding
experiments, computational fluid dynam-
ics and gas flow diagnostics can be used.
Dipl.-Ing. E. SIEWERT, Dr.-Ing. G. WILHELM,
M. HÄSSLER, Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. SCHEIN, and Dr.
T. HANSON are with Center of Excellence AAP
(advanced arc processes), a coop of Linde AG Co.
and the Lab of Plasma Technology, University of the
German Federal Armed Forces, Munich, Germany.
Dipl.-Ing. M. SCHNICK and Prof. Dr.-Ing. U.
FÜSSEL are with the Department of Joining Engi-
neering and Assembly Technology, University of
Technology, Dresden, Germany.
In prior work, attempts were made to
follow this route. As described in Refs. 5
and 13, the computational fluid dynamics
were used to optimize the welding fume
exhaustion. However, in these simulations,
the arc was either neglected or signifi-
cantly simplified by being modeled as a
source of thermal energy with a preset mo-
mentum. In Refs. 1 and 8, the commercial
software ANSYS CFX was used with a
contained arc module to calculate the
shielding gas flow and the diffusion. How-
ever, the models used were based on as-
sumptions and many simplifications.
Moreover, the torch geometry was often
simplified in order to reduce the numeri-
cal mesh size. Thus, verified experimental
findings are needed for proofing and cali-
brating of these models.
To analyze gas flow fields, particle-
based methods such as the laser doppler
anemometry (LDA) and the particle
KEYWORDS
Shielding Gas
Gas Contamination
Gas Flow Dynamics
Gas Tungsten Arc
Gas Metal Arc
Plasma Arc
WELDING RESEARCH
method was adapted to measure different
welding processes. The method enabled a
nonintrusive and temporally resolved de-
tection of a two-dimensional gas flow field
in GTAW and gas metal arc welding
(GMAW). However, LDA and PIV meas-
urements are extremely cost-intensive and
require a high measuring technique effort.
An easier way to visualize gas flows is the
Schlieren technique, which has been
known since the 17th century (Refs. 3, 7,
14–16). Typical applications where the
Schlieren measuring method was previ-
ously used are airplane aerodynamics, bal-
listics, and ventilation technology (Ref. 6).
Schlieren studies of electrical dis-
charges (arcs) were first carried out by
Toepler (Ref. 3). In the field of cutting
technology, oxygen cutting analyses were
carried out by the Schlieren technique in
the 1930s (Ref. 9). Gas flow studies of arcs
by the Schlieren technique are especially
used in plasma cutting processes and ther-
mal spraying (Ref. 6). Gas flow visualiza-
tion of plasma cutting arcs and the
interaction of the arc with the workpiece
are known from investigations by Settles
(Ref. 10). These investigations can be ex-
tended to image the gas flow and turbu-
lences below the workpiece as well. In
order to detect instabilities in the plasma-
cutting process, Heberlein (Ref. 11) used
the Schlieren technique in combination
with current and potential measurements
as well as acoustic recordings. An expla-
nation of the relationship between nozzle
design and cutting quality was derived
based on Schlieren images.
In contrast, Schlieren measurements of
welding processes are not so common. For
plasma arc welding with alternating cur-
rent, McClure and Garcia (Ref. 4) de-

WELDING JOURNAL 1-s


Fig. 1 — The law of refraction as foundation of the
Schlieren optic.
Fig. 3 — Schlieren images, used filter pairs: blue/yellow (left) and red/green (right) with a shielding gas
flow of 30 L/min of argon.
scribed the necessity for a gas flow analy-
sis. However, their work contained no cor-
responding results or Schlieren images.
Allemand and Schroeder (Ref. 12) used
the Shadowgraph method (Ref. 6) in order
to visualize the drop transfer during gas
metal arc welding. For illumination, a He-
Ne laser was used. The photographs are,
however, overexposed due to the presence
WELDING RESEARCH
of the arc and the drop transfer was diffi-
cult to observe.
This paper describes an attempt to use
the Schlieren technique to visualize the
shielding gas flow in different arc welding
processes. The principle of operation and
the experimental setup of the Schlieren
technique are described. The most impor-
tant settings and their influence on the
quality of the Schlieren images of GTA are
described so that the range of application
and the limit of the Schlieren technique
can be specified. The results of the gas
flow analysis for GTA, GMA, and plasma
arc welding (PAW) are presented, where
the influences of typical welding parame-
ters on the gas flow are displayed.
Experimental Procedure
Physical Principle and Measuring System
By the Schlieren technique, differences
in density that cause changes in the re-
fraction index n, in the propagation veloc-
2-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
Fig. 2 — Toeplersche Z-Schlieren assembly.
ity c and in the direction of light propaga-
tion direction, can be visualized in trans-
parent media. The angle of refrac-tion
relates itself to the incident angle α
sinα c2 n2
= =
sinβ c1 n1
Thus each change in density of the
medium causes a change in the direction
of light propagation — Fig. 1.
The differences in density that are ob-
served during the welding process are
caused, according to the ideal gas equa-
tion, by differences in pressure, tempera-
ture, and concentration.
In order to make differences in density
in transparent media visible, the interfer-
ence and the shadowgraph methods can
also be used alongside the Schlieren
technique.
In the interference method, two light
waves are superimposed so that an inter-
ference pattern is generated. The interfer-
ence image allows the reconstruction of
the location and the intensity of the light
refraction as well as the speed of the gas
flow, the density, and the temperature.
However, this measurement method re-
quires high precision in the adjustment of
the measuring equipment.
By the shadowgraph method, deflec-
tion of the light can be made visible by
means of the generated intensity of illu-
mination dispersion E, which is propor-
tional to the second derivation of the
density along path y (Equation 2).
∂2 ρ
ΔE ∼
∂2 y (2)
This method enables conclusions to be
drawn about the density gradient, but not
about the direction. Compared to the in-
terference method, a lower resolution and
sensitivity can be reached (Ref. 6).
Due to a marginal overhead (the inte-
gration of a knife edge), it is possible to
separate the deflected from the uninflu-
enced light, in order to increase the reso-
lution and sensitivity. Furthermore, with
the so-called Schlieren technique, it is pos-
sible to determine the direction of the
measured density gradient. The change in
intensity of illumination caused by the
light deflection is proportional to the first
derivation of density according to the po-
sition (Equation 3).
∂ρ
ΔE ∼
∂y (3)
In contrast to the interference method, the
Schlieren technique is a simple and robust
measuring system. However, an exact
identification of gas flow characteristics is
not possible.
The experimental setup is carried out
as a Toepler’s Z-Schlieren assembly with
two concave mirrors — Fig. 2. This as-
sembly is compact and avoids errors due
to chromatic aberration caused by the op-
tical lenses.
(1)
The concave mirrors are axially para-
bolic mirrors with a diameter of 150 mm
and a focal length of 1200 mm. The diam-
eter lies in the recommended area from D
= f/6 to f/12 (Ref. 6). In the region be-
tween both mirrors, parallel light is gener-
ated. In this optical path, different welding
arcs (Schliere) are inserted, influencing
the propagation of the parallel light. In the
focus of the first mirror, an aperture is
placed to produce a point light source en-
abling the production of parallel light by
mirror 1.
The knife edge is placed in the focus of
mirror 2. The knife edge is used to im-
prove the contrast by blocking the deflect-
ed light. Images of the Schlieren are
generated by a high-speed camera with a
200-mm objective with a macrolens.
The exact position in which the
Schliere is arranged between the two mir-
rors has no influence on the measurement
outcome. The deflection level of the light
a in the Schlieren aperture depends only
upon the angle of deflection and the focal
length f of the mirror.
Δa = ε﹒f (4)
 Fig. 5 — Images of Schlieren setups with a 3 × 6 mm focus slit and a Schlieren aper-
ture slit of 2 × 6 mm (left), 3 × 6 mm (middle), and 5 × 6 mm (right).

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 — Schlieren image of a 100-A gas tungsten arc with vertical (top) Fig. 6 — Schlieren images made by using 50-W automobile headlight (top, left), 150-
and horizontal (middle) apertures, and an iris (bottom). W tungsten coiled filament lamp (top, right), 250-W tungsten coiled filament lamp
(bottom, left), and 150-W halogen lamp (bottom, right).

Requirements of the Schlieren Method to
Analyze Welding Arcs
Alongside the already described basic
requirements such as the positioning of
the mirrors, the quality of the Schlieren
images of arc processes is above all deter-
mined by the light source and the slit
(knife-edge) or alternatively colored filter
pairs, which induce colored shadows and
interferences — Fig. 3.
The knife-edge or the filter affects the
sensitivity of the Schlieren apparatus,
whereas the magnitude of the deflected
light can be assigned to different dye by
using color filters. The applicability of aper-
tures with horizontal or vertical slits, or an
iris as well as two- and four-color filters was
investigated. In all experiments, the open
area of the slits was equal and the orienta-
tion of the illumination and the Schlieren
slit was always identical.
The two-color filters (blue/yellow and
red/green) as well as a four-color filter,
utilizing all four colors, were used. The
best results were obtained using the two-
color filters, by which the turbulences
could be visualized with very strong con-
trast — Fig. 3. In comparison, using the
four-color filter, only marginal color nu-
ances could be recognized. However, the
light intensity was reduced when colored
filters were used. Thus, the exposure time
had to be extended whereby a strong
cross-fading due to arc radiation resulted.
Analyses of the influence of the geom-
etry and the orientation of slits clarify
that good results can be achieved with
slits oriented perpendicular to the work-
piece — Fig. 4.
The hot gas above the workpiece was vi-
sualized using apertures with a slit, which
were oriented parallel to the workpiece.
The iris can be used to visualize gas flow in
all directions, but the images are character-
ized by a lower brightness of the image.
By reducing the slit width of the knife
edge, less diffracted light, and conse-
quently smaller differences in density,
can be visualized (Ref. 6). At the same
time the influence of the radiation of the
arc decreases. However, less light from
the light source passes the knife edge es-
pecially if the width of the knife edge is
less than the focal diameter. The goal of
the slit variation was to be able to visual-
ize the turbulence and the density gradi-
ent of the shielding gas flow in the free jet
of the process gas in close proximity to
the arc individually. It was ascertained
that in spite of a small slit width, the den-
sity variation produced by the arc domi-
nated — Fig. 5.
When using identical concave mirrors
in the geometry described above, it is rec-
ommended that the shape of the light
sources used be equivalent to that of the
slit opening. Therefore, elongated rectan-
gular light sources were used.
Initially, the applicability of simple
light bulbs was tested. Only by the use of
high-luminosity light sources could the slit
opening as well as the exposure time of the
camera be reduced, so that:
1) The complete area of the gas flow
was illuminated,
2) overexposure of the images due to
the arc radiation could be avoided, and
3) minor differences in density could be
visualized in the gas-free jet.
Beside the power, the light source must
generate a high light intensity on the knife
edge. The gas flow in the boundary region
of the process gas-free jet can be visual-
ized well using halogen lamps.
However, with the light sources used as
described in Fig. 6, the area of the arc can-
not be investigated in detail due to its
strong brightness. Thus, further analyses
employed alternative light sources such as
a plasma arc and laser beam.
The radiation energy of a plasma arc is
approximately 10 to 20% of the total power.
Thus, the radiation emission of a 250-A
plasma arc with a voltage of 30 V is about
1000 W. Using this kind of arc is further-
more advantageous since the projection of
the light source is rectangular, as the knife
edge is. Considering the solid angle of emis-
sion, only 1% of the radiation reaches the
mirror. Nevertheless, even this amount of
light is sufficient to obtain a detailed flow

WELDING JOURNAL 3-s

 a GTAW arc is used as a light source. The
orientation of the light source, as well as
that of the Schlieren slit, is vertically
aligned to the surface of the workpiece.
The Schlieren technique was used to
make high-speed images of the GTAW,
PAW, and GMAW processes.

GTAW

Fig. 7 — Schlieren images made by using 250-A plasma arc (left) and 20-mW continuous wave laser (λ= GTAW with differing shielding gases,
532 nm) (right). flow rates, and currents was analyzed —
Fig. 8.
The transition of the process gas-free
jet to the atmosphere is especially good to
visualize using argon with an appreciable
helium percentage (50%) as shielding gas.
However, it has to be assumed that helium
has an essential influence on the arc geom-
etry and, above all, on the gas flow.
The arc current influences the temper-
ature of the arc and the temperature of the
effluent gas. From the Schlieren images, it
can be clearly seen that the arc moves up
farther on the tungsten cathode, that the
core of the arc is brighter, and that there is
WELDING RESEARCH

a stronger flux of hot gas above the work-

piece. Despite the brightness, the edges of
the arc can be clearly detected.
The Schlieren measurement method can
be used to detect the turnover from a lami-
nar to a turbulent gas flow of the process
gas-free jet in GTAW. Turbulences sur-
rounding the arc and turbulences in the ef-
fluent hot gas can be clearly distinguished at
shielding gas flow rates of 30 L/min and
more.

Fig. 8 — Schlieren images of GTAW as a function of current, shielding gas, and flow rate. PAW

Investigating plasma arc keyhole weld-

ing was carried out by bead-on-plate welds
(6-mm-thick, mild-steel plates). To ignite
the main arc between the tungsten cath-
ode and the workpiece, a pilot arc between
the cathode and the copper nozzle
(anode) must be initialized. The pilot arc
serves as preionization of the arc gap be-
tween the electrode and the workpiece —
Fig. 9. The Schlieren method is excellently
suited to image the gas flow of the pilot
arc. An advantage is the low radiation
emission of this plasma jet.
The Schlieren images of real keyhole
welding trials were correlated with the re-
Fig. 9 — Schlieren image of a pilot arc (3 L/min plasma gas flow) where the hot plasma jet is clearly observ- spective welding results — Fig. 10.
able. The impinging hot gas on the workpiece and the effluent hot gas on the surface of the workpiece are vis- Clearly visible at low shielding gas flow
ible by a dark plateau. Stalls in the periphery are detected by means of eddies. rates is that the fluid flow above the hot
weld joint (left of the torch) is dominated
by thermal buoyancy. In contrast, above
image in an area that was not recognizable ital” Schlieren image without intensity gra- the cold steel sheet (right of the torch) an
before — Fig. 7. dations results. equal and laminar outflow can be seen.
Using a 20-mW continuous wave laser With higher shielding gas flow rates, the
of wavelength 532 nm in combination with Results and Discussion differences between the gas flows over the
a neutral gray filter with a transmittance hot and the cold steel sheet are less pro-
of 1%, the radiation of the arc could be In order to analyze the gas flow even at nounced. It is assumed that the high
completely faded out — Fig. 7. However, the boundary region of the process gas- shielding gas flow counteracts the thermal
by using a laser (point light source), a “dig- free jet, despite the intensive arc radiation, buoyancy as well as causing the outflowing

4-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93


Fig. 10 — Schlieren images of plasma arc welding (S235, 6 mm; welding speed, 20 analysis.
cm/min; PG-flow, 3 L/min; plasma gas three-hole-nozzle, 3 mm; torch distance, 5
mm; shielding gas flow 5 L/min (top); 15 L/min (bottom).
gas to deviate from laminar flow. Using
low shielding gas flows, a considerable for-
mation of oxides can be determined, which
is due to contamination of the protective
cover. It must be concluded that the for-
mation of a turbulent gas flow (15 L/min
shielding gas) does not always lead to bad
gas protection cover of the weld pool. A
sufficient gas flow is necessary in order to
counteract the thermal buoyancy above
the hot workpiece.
GMAW
Gas metal arc welding is characterized
by a high radiation emission of the metal
vapor plasma. Schlieren images of gas
metal arc welding processes are therefore
especially difficult to create at high cur-
rents. As part of the investigations,
Schlieren images were taken of a short arc
— Fig. 11. In the images, gas flow separa-
tions at the shielding gas nozzle and the
contact tip are, in contrast to GTAW,
clearly visible. A reason for that is the
high, very hot contact tip located inside
the shielding gas nozzle caused heating of
the shielding gas.
For the analysis of a pulsed arc or a
spray arc, it is necessary to use powerful
light sources or to mitigate wavelengths
with special intensive radiation emission
of the arc by filters.
Conclusions
The Schlieren method was used to vi-
sualize gas flows in welding processes. The
main conclusions are as follows:
1) The Topler Z-Schlieren configura-
Fig. 11 — Schlieren adaptor of a short arc (3 m/min wire feed).
tion enables
cost-efficient
and time-re-
solved gas flow
2) It was as-
certained that a
powerful tung-
sten filament
lamp and arcs were especially appropriate
as light sources. In contrast, inferior im-
ages were obtained with widened laser
beams.
3) It is possible to detect the transition
from a laminar to a turbulent gas flow in a
process gas-free jet in GTAW by increas-
ing the shielding gas flow from 10 to 30 L/
min.
4) Through the Schlieren method, the
gas flow of a nontransfer pilot arc can be
excellently visualized. During studies on a
plasma arc keyhole welding process, it was
shown that high shielding flow rates, de-
spite intensive turbulences, provide a bet-
ter protection of the process and
counteract diffusions effects.
5) First investigation on GMAW
processes showed that high torch temper-
ature principally abets the Schlieren analy-
sis of the process gas-free jets. Due to the
high radiation emission of the arc, power-
ful illuminants in combination with optical
filters are necessary, especially in the
analysis of spray and pulsed arcs.
References
1. Schnick, M., Füssel, U., and Zschetzsche,
J. 2006. Simulation and measurement of plasma
and gas flows in plasma arc welding and cutting.
8th International Seminar — Numerical Analysis
of Weldability, Graz, Austria.
2. Zschetzsche, J. 2007. Diagnostics of gas
shielded arc welding processes. Dresdner
Fugetechnische Berichte. Band 14.
3. Toepler, A. 1906. Observations according
to a new optical method. Ostwalds Klassiker der
Exakten Wissenschaften Nr. 158. Leipzig, Ger-
many.
4. Garcia, G., McClure, J. C., Hou, H. and
Nunes, A. C. Gas flow observation during
VPPA welding using a shadowgraph technique.
NASA-CR-204347.
5. Cooper, P., Godbole, A., and Norrish, J.
2007. Modelling and simulation of gas flows in
arc welding. Implications for shielding effi-
ciency and fume extraction. Proc. on the 60th
WELDING RESEARCH
Annual Assembly of the International Institute of
Welding, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
6. Settles, G. S. 2001. Schlieren and Shadow-
graph Techniques. Springer; Berlin, Germany,
ISBN 3-540-66155-7.
7. Schardin, H. 1934. Toepler’s Schlieren
method: Basic principles for its use and quanti-
tative evaluation. Forschungsheft 367 –— Beilage
zu Forschung auf dem Gebiet des Ingenieurwe-
sens Ausgabe B Band. July/August.
8. Speiseder, M., and Lang, A. 2006. Opti-
mization of the MIG-welding process by the use
of numerical simulation and PIV measurement.
The electric arc — A technology with a non-ex-
hausted potential. Dresdner Fugetechnisches
Kolloquium, TU Dresden, Germany.
9. Zobel, T. W. 1936. Increase of the cutting
speed while flame cutting by the use of a new
nozzle geometry. VDI-Verlag GmbH, Berlin,
Germany
10. Settles, G. S. 1998. Visualization of liq-
uid metal, arc, and jet interactions in plasma
cutting of steel sheet. 8th International Sympo-
sium on Flow Visualization.
11. Kim, S. J. 2009. Fluid dynamic instabili-
ties in plasma arc cutting. PhD dissertation.
Minnesota, Faculty of the graduate school, Uni-
versity of Minnesota.
12. Allemand, C. D., Schoeder, R., Ries, D.
E., and Eagar, T. W. 1985. A method of filming
metal transfer in welding arcs. Welding Journal
64(1): 45–47
13. Ebert, L. 2007. Optimization of fume ex-
traction of torch integrated fume extraction de-
vices. TU Chemnitz. Abschlussbericht
AiF-Vorhaben 14:436 BR.
14. Foucault, J. B. 1859. Annales de l‘Obser-
vatoire Impérial de Paris.
15. Mach, E. 1889. Further ballistic-photo-
graphic experiments. Sitzungsband Akad. Wiss.
Wien. 98: 1303–1309.
16. Rheinberg, J. H. 1896. On an addition to
the methods of microscopical research, by a
new way of optically producing coulour-contrast
between an object and its background, or be-
tween definite parts of the object itself. J. Roy.
Microsc. Soc., Ser. 2, 16(8):373–388.
WELDING JOURNAL 5-s
 Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization,
and Brazing of Barium Titanate Ceramics

A study investigates the contact interaction and wetting of

BaTiO3 perovskite ceramics by liquid metals

BY T. V. SYDORENKO AND YU. V. NAIDICH

mal switches. The great importance for all

ABSTRACT
such ceramics is creation of strong con-
tacts (including electric ones) in combina-
Detailed investigations, including wetting studies by liquid metals and metal coat-
tions BaTiO3/metals and BaTiO3/
ings deposition onto ceramic surfaces and brazing processes, were carried out for
BaTiO3.
semiconducting and ferroelectric perovskite ceramic states of barium titanate
Strength of metal-oxide contact and
(BaTiO3). Pure metals (Cu, Ag, Au, Ge, Sn, Pb, Ga, In, Al, Si, Ni, Co, Fe, Pd) and
WELDING RESEARCH

uniformity of metal coating are deter-

Ti-containing alloys based on In and binary Cu-Sn, Cu-Ga, and Cu-Ag systems were
mined essentially by a wettability degree
investigated under high vacuum for the semiconducting BaTiO3-x surface. The de-
of ceramic materials (BTO) surface by liq-
gree of wettability correlates approximately with the chemical affinity of the liquid
uid metals. High adhesion of liquid metals
metal phase to oxygen (wetting increases when the liquid metal affinity to oxygen in-
to ceramics surface is a crucial factor for
creases). Addition of Ti to the liquid metal phase increases capillary properties and
creating mechanically strong contact.
adhesion in the system under investigation. Investigations of the wettability of ferro-
According to Ref. 8, the degree of per-
electric BaTiO3 ceramics were performed in air gaseous media by alloys Ag-Cu-O.
ovskite-type ceramics wettability by liquid
Oxygen in the gaseous media preserves stoichiometric composition of barium ti-
metal, and intensity of interaction be-
tanate and being dissolved in Ag-Cu alloys promotes BaTiO3 wetting. For the first
tween liquid metal and solid phase, can
time, wettability experiments in liquid metal/ceramic material systems (BaTiO3 in
also determine some electric properties of
this case) were carried out when the gaseous phase was pure oxygen. At greater oxy-
the contact, e.g., ohmic or nonohmic one,
gen partial pressure (1 atm for O2 comparing to 1/5 atm for air), wettability further
p-n-transition (in the case of semicon-
increases significantly. Vacuum brazing technology for semiconducting materials and
ducting ceramics), and Schottky barrier
joining processes in air or pure oxygen atmosphere for ferroelectric ceramic materi-
height.
als based on BaTiO3 have been developed. Various detailed brazing models of
Thus, creating a strong adherent metal
BaTiO3 and BaTiO3-x were created.
coating on the BaTiO3 surface for its join-
ing to metals and metalization of per-
at sufficiently high temperatures leads to
ovskite-type ceramics is a perspective di-
Introduction the transformation of dielectric ferroelec-
rection of investigation. Recently,
tric BaTiO3 into semiconducting ceramics
scientific and technical interest in this
The perovskite-type structure ceramic (Ref. 7). As a semiconductor, BaTiO3 par-
problem was increased considerably.
materials, such as barium titanate, play a ticularly exhibits a positive temperature
Up to now, there are only a few pub-
major role in modern electronics and elec- coefficient of resistivity (PTCR). It means
lished works concerning research of con-
trical engineering. Barium titanate (BTO) that at a certain temperature (Curie tem-
tact properties of some metals in relation
is widely used for creating multilayer ce- perature), this material exhibits strong re-
to perovskite-type ceramics, in particular
ramic capacitors (MLCCs), embedded de- sistivity increase (typically by several or-
to barium titanate (Refs. 9–11). The ex-
coupling capacitors (EDC), electrical ce- ders of magnitude) (Ref. 6); due to its
perimental data on wetting of perovskite
ramic filters, and other piezoelectric and PTCR properties, barium titanate is often
ceramics by some pure metals in these
ferroelectric components (Refs. 1–3). Fer- used as thermistors material in the ther-
works contradict each other sometimes. In
roelectric ceramics are ideal for use in su-
addition, in Ref. 10 the conditions of ex-
personic equipment.
periments are described only qualitatively,
On the base of these materials, a ferro-
KEYWORDS e.g., as atmosphere with “high” and “low”
electric memory device was created (Refs.
oxygen pressure, so these data need verifi-
4, 5). Barium titanate is also an excellent
Wetting cation. Regularities of strong adherent
photorefractive material (Ref. 6).
Metalization contact formations are studied little; sci-
Oxygen release that occurs during the
Brazing entific bases of these processes are practi-
annealing of BaTiO3 in high vacuum and
Barium Titanate Ceramics cally absent.
The present work aims to systemati-
T. V. SYDORENKO and YU. V. NAIDICH cally investigate the details of phenomena
(tvsid@ukr.net) are with the I.M. Frantsevich In- for wettability, adhesion, and interaction
stitute of Problems of Materials Science NAS of
intensity of BaTiO3 perovskite-type ce-
Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.
ramics in different forms — ferroelectric

6-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

 Fig. 2 — Dependence of contact angle of BaTiO3 for the pure metals
melts on free energy of their oxides formation.

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 — Scheme of the apparatus for determining surface tension
and wetting angles of metallic liquids. The labeled numbers repre-
sent the following: vacuum chamber (1); stream-oil pump (2); vac-
uum valve (3); furnace (4); metal sample on the ceramic substrate
studied (5); next samples (6); horizontal rod (7); quartz prism (8);
vertical rod (9); and digital camera (10).

and semiconducting — with molten met- tested for preliminary an-

als that will allow doing further steps in nealed semiconducting
understanding metal-perovskite ceramics barium titanate ceramics. Fig. 3 — Contact angle/titanium concentration dependence for melted
interaction and elaboration of some braz- Ti-containing systems on BaTiO3 at 1270 K.
ing alloys and technological processes for Experimental and
joining (brazing) of BaTiO3 materials. Discussion

Semiconducting BaTiO3-x
Nonstoichiometric semiconducting
BaTiO3-x can be obtained by means of an-
nealing in high vacuum, as is mentioned
above. It is believed that BaTiO3-x nonsto-
ichiometry is insignificant and will not ex-
ceed such parameters for pure titanium
oxide TiO2-x. For this oxide, the x value is
between 0.04 and 0.07 (Ref. 12). Such de-
viation only has a minor effect on me-
chanical and thermodynamic properties of
the compound, except for the electrophys-
ical characteristics.
Such nonstoichiometry variation can
be attributed to oxygen vacancies com-
pensated mostly by background and/or in-
trinsic acceptors within higher oxygen par-
tial pressure (p(O2)) regions and by
electrons within lower p(O2) regions (Ref.
13). Semiconducting BTO has specific re-
sistivity value near 300 Ω⋅cm (compared to
about 106–10 Ω⋅cm for ferroelectric
BaTiO3).
The technology of vacuum metaliza-
tion and brazing by melts containing tita-
nium as a chemically active element was
The main experiments consist of the
wettability measurements of BTO by liq-
uid metals. Wettability studies were car-
ried out by a sessile drop method in vac-
uum (~ 10–4 Pa) at temperature 870–1870
K. This method allows determining the
values of the wetting contact angle and in-
terphasic surface energy at the liquid-gas
interface. The sessile drop method
essence was discussed in detail earlier
(Refs. 14–16). The main requirement for
measuring wetting contact angle by the
sessile drop method is in the placement of
a symmetrical drop of the melt on the solid
surface. The sample should be in con-
trolled gaseous atmosphere or in at the
temperature specified. Standard equip-
ment for the wettability of solid ceramic
specimens by a liquid metals study using
the sessile drop method is shown in Fig. 1.
A wide variety of metals and alloys hav-
ing a broad application range in electroce-
ramic devices was used. Fourteen pure
metals (Cu, Ag, Au, Ge, Sn, Pb, Ga, In, Al,
Si, Ni, Co, Fe, Pd) and several titanium-
containing alloys (Cu-Sn-Ti, Ag-Cu-Ti,
Cu-Ga-Ti, In-Ti) were tested.
Metal samples for wetting experiments
typically have approximately 0.5–0.9 g.
Metal alloys were formed in-situ by alloy-
ing. Polycrystalline barium titanate has
been specially fabricated by the method of
solid-phase synthesis. In this study, we
used BaTiO3 ceramic discs 20 mm in di-
ameter and ~ 3 mm thick. The sample’s
porosity was 3.5±0.03%. BTO substrates
were ground and polished with sandpaper
and abrasive powder. The average surface
roughness value (Ra) was equal to 0.02
μm. Before experiments, BTO samples
were annealed in vacuum at ~ 1740 K dur-
ing 60 min.
The wetting of BTO by molten alloys
Cu 8.6% (at.) Sn, Ag 39.9% (at.) Cu, and
Cu 17.6% (at.) Ga (which was used to cre-
ate the many braze alloys) with active tita-
nium additive (from 3 up to 25% (at.)) was
studied as well. Results of the wetting
studies of BTO by pure metals melts and
some alloys are presented in Table 1.
Most of the investigated pure metals
did not wet the barium titanate ceramics
surface (contact angles exceeded 90 deg).
Silicon and aluminum wet BTO (alu-

WELDING JOURNAL 7-s

 A B
Cu-Sn-Ti

transition zone

BaTiO3

C-1 C-2
WELDING RESEARCH

C-3 C-4

Fig. 4 — Microstructure of (Cu-8.6 Sn) – 25 Ti-BaTiO3 interface. A — ×1000; B — distribution of elements at interface, % (at.); and C — characteristic emis-
sion of elements at BaTiO3 molten metal interface (top part – ceramics, bottom part – alloy) with barium (1), titanium (2), tin (3), and copper (4).

minum has a minimum value contact
angle of 78 deg). As a whole, the results
agree with Ref. 9. For example, wetting
contact angle values for Ag and Au in Ref.
9 confirm our data, though we consider
value of contact angle for Cu as obviously
underestimated.
Overall, a high degree of solids wetting
by liquid metals is caused by an intensive
interfacial chemical interaction (Figs. 2,
3). For oxides like Al2O3, SiO2, and MgO,
liquid metal interaction with oxygen is the
main factor (Refs. 17, 18). Comparatively,
due to the more anion O2– dimension to
metal cation one and the more latter dis-
placement in the bulk of crystal (effect of
relaxation of surface ions and according to
Weyl’s scheme for structure of surface of
oxides), the oxide surface is formed mainly
by oxygen anions.
The BTO surface structure containing
two cations of different sizes and valence
numbers required special consideration.
Titanium ions (with a 0.068-nm radius) are

8-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

located in octahedral cavities formed by
oxygen ions and have enough “room” for Table 1 — The Results of Wetting of Semiconducting Barium Titanate by Some Pure Metals
displacement within the BTO elementary Metal Temperature, К Contact Angle θ, deg Work of Adhesion,
cell (a = 4.011 for cubic lattice). It is an ex- Our Data Literature MJ/M2
planation of essential mobility for tita-
nium ions oscillating freely within the oc- Cu 1373 122±3 102 [9] 610
tahedral environment of oxygen ions. It Ag 1253 136±3 90 [10] 260
determines high polarizability of barium 1273 132±1 139 [9] 310
titanate under electric field action (Ref. 1373 129±2 134 [9] 345
19). Such increased mobility of titanium
ions (according to Weyl’s scheme (Ref. Au 1353 127±1 114 [10]; 445
20)) leads to some more of their displace- 124 [9]
ment into crystal bulk after surface forma- 1423 124±2 119 [9] 490
tion. So, for BTO, we can neglect the in-
Ge 1273 113±3 — 375
teraction of liquid metal phase with
titanium cations. However, beside oxygen,
Sn 873 120±1 138 [9] 285
BTO surface also contains large-sized bar- 973 115±2 — 330
ium ions (Ba2+). It makes this situation
more complex. In 673 152±1 — 70
On the base of ions size data (r(Ba2+) 773 132±2 — 195
= 0.135 nm, r(O2–) = 0.140 nm) and struc- 873 117±2 — 325
ture of BTO crystal lattice, we can see that
only a quarter of the ceramic’s surface is Pb 673 145±2 143 [9] 80
occupied by Ba2+ ions, and the rest by oxy- 773 134±4 — 140
gen ions. Overall, we can guess that main 873 118±3 — 250
regularities of interactions in BaTiO3 liq- 973 109±4 138 [9] 320

uid metal systems have to be similar to reg-
ularity for “classical” oxide (Al2O3) metal
systems. Nevertheless, the interaction of
certain liquid metal phases with barium
ions at a BaTiO3 surface should be
considered.
Free formation energies of chemical
compounds for the metals under investi-
gation with barium are within 167–250
kJ/mol (for comparison, heat of formation
for the oxides is ΔH(Al2O3) = –1675
kJ/mol, ΔH(SiO2) = –911 kJ/mol) (Ref.
21). Only a silicon compound with barium
(BaSi3) is formed with significant heat re-
lease (ΔH(BaSi3) = –544 kJ/mol). But
pure silicon can only moderately wet the
BaTiO3 surface, and its adhesion is lower
than the same value for aluminum, though
Al-Ba compounds are considerably less
stable thermodynamically according to
phase diagrams data (Ref. 22). Thus, wet-
ting and adhesion in BTO metal systems is
evidently not determined by Ba-Me inter-
action to a significant degree.
An inactive matrix of Cu-Ga, Ag-Cu,
and Cu-Sn alloys (Fig. 3) does not wet the
BTO surface (θ ∼ 120 ÷ 130 deg). A tita-
nium addition reduces contact angles
down to 20–70 deg for titanium concen-
tration up to 10–25% (at.). It has been as-
sumed that wetting the BTO surface is,
first of all, a result of interaction between
liquid metal (titanium) and oxygen of solid
phase, as in the case of “classical” oxide
materials (Al2O3 and MgO). Formation of
titanium oxide (TiO) having metal-like
properties in a BaTiO3/Ti-containing alloy
system is the reason of high adhesion in
this case. Titanium, as a transition metal,
is characterized by its ability to participate
simultaneously in several chemical bond-
ing interactions of different types — ionic
WELDING RESEARCH
Pd 1860 116±3 — 845
Ni 1743 113±1 — 1030
Fe 1823 96±2 — 1350
Si 1733 84±1 — 830
Al 1073 140±1 — 210
1173 136±2 — 250
1273 129±3 — 340
1373 93±1 — 880
1423 85±2 — 1015
1473 78±2 — 1140
Co 1793 108±2 — 1245
one with BaTiO3 surface and metallic with tration increases from 20% (at.) in the
liquid metal phase. In other words, tita- transition zone up to ~50–60% (at.) in the
nium from a liquid phase can become a contact zone. Oxygen concentration in
bridge connecting the solid BaTiO3 phase this zone is about 18% (at.).
with molten metal. In Fig. 4C, the layer (new phase) with
Our SEM research of contact bound- high titanium concentration is clearly visi-
ary BaTiO3/titanium-containing alloy has ble. Titanium segregation from the melt at
shown the presence of a transitive zone interface is the main reason for high wet-
5–7 μm wide, which obviously is a product tability of BaTiO3 by Ti-containing alloys.
of interphase reaction. Figure 4 shows the The metal chemistry studies by M. V.
structure of cooled drop (Cu-8.6 Sn)-20Ti Nevitt (Ref. 23) show that oxygen stabi-
on the BaTiO3 substrate. lizes intermetallic compounds like Ti2Cu;
Analysis of the BaTiO3/liquid metal in- the Cu2-3Ti3-4O phase has been identified.
terface shows the character of elements A special investigation of the processes
distribution in the direction perpendicular occurred at different temperatures in the
to the interface — Fig. 4B. Chemical com- contact zone by a high-temperature, X-ray
position for the BaTiO3 phase in volume diffraction method of pressed mixture
is reproduced precisely as ~20% (at.) of with barium titanate, copper, and titanium
barium and titanium, and ~60% (at.) of powders carried out as well (Fig. 5).
oxygen. This ratio remains unchanged to Two new phases with TiO and Cu3Ti3O
the BaTiO3/metal interface. Barium con- structures were identified in this system.
centration is insignificant at the interface. Both substances can be responsible for
That is why metal interaction with barium wetting. However, the Cu3Ti3O pattern
is possible only as a monolayer adsorption disappears at 1370 K (Fig. 5B); probably,
at the BaTiO3 surface. Titanium concen- this compound is not stable. Just TiO can

WELDING JOURNAL 9-s

 A B

Fig. 5 — X-ray diffraction patterns of the BaTiO3 (Cu-28 Ti) system. A — 1280 K; B — 1370 K.

A B
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 6 — The samples of the semiconducting BaTiO3 ceramics metalized and brazed in vacuum using the following: A — In-Ti alloys; B — Ag-Cu-Ti paste.

be accounted for the explanation of a wet-
ting-in system studied at high tempera-
tures. The same data were published, for
example, in Ref. 24 for Al2O3 systems.
Varying wetting effects of titanium in dif-
ferent systems studied — Cu-Ag, Cu-Ga,
Cu-Sn (Fig. 3) — can be explained by sev-
eral reasons, in particular by various ther-
modynamic activity of titanium in alloys.
Ag-Cu-Ti alloys demonstrate some pe-
culiarity. A eutectic system with about
60% (at.) of silver can dissolve in about
2% (at.) of titanium at 1270 K. A titanium
content increase leads to arising the sec-
ond equilibrium liquid phase that contains
64% (at.) of Cu, 28% (at.) of Ti, and 8%
(at.) of Ag (Ref. 14). The mechanism de-
tails of such interface processes in a com-
plex BaTiO3 – (Ag–Cu–Ti)phase I – (Ag–
Cu–Ti)phase II system requires special
consideration. It is possible now to note
only that this process can be useful for im-
proving adhesive bonding of BaTiO3 to
Table 2 — The Result of Measurements of the Shear Strength of Brazing Barium Titanate
Ceramic Samples
Shear Strength of Brazing Ceramic Samples, MPa
Ag–Cu–O Ag–Cu–Pt–O In–Ti Cu–Sn–Ti
46±4 28±3 20±2 42±3
metal (arising of second liquid phase with
a high Ti concentration).
The temperature dependence of con-
tact angle for indium-titanium alloys on
the BaTiO3 surface has been investigated
as well.
The contact angle of a In-Ti melt drops
significantly at a low temperature (in in-
terval, ∼770–870 K). Almost full spreading
of the In-Ti melt on a BTO surface occurs
at 830–870 K. It can be used for brazing
not only semiconducting barium titanate
(BaTiO3–x) but the ferroelectric one
(BaTiO3) as well.
Brazing Alloys and Technological
Conditions for Semiconducting
BTO Joining
Metalization of materials using liquid
metal film is a perspective method. How-
ever, a high degree of wetting for solid sur-
Ag–Cu–Pb–Ti
41±2
faces by such metal is required. Theoreti-
cally (Ref. 14), for producing continuous
film of liquid metal, spreading factor (K)
has to be positive (Equation 1).
K = WA – WC (1)
where WA is work of adhesion and WC is
work of cohesion.
For brazing and metalization of per-
ovskite, compounds were chosen for
brazed compositions that are well wetted
for the surface of such materials.
Braze alloys based on titanium-
containing systems (Cu-Sn-Ti, Ag-Cu-Ti,
In-Ti) for joining and metalization of per-
ovskite BaTiO3 ceramic were used for
creating uniform coatings and strong
brazed samples — Fig. 6A. The shear
strength of brazed ceramic/ceramic butt
joints was measured (Table 2, Figs. 7, 8).
It is shown that the strength of brazed
perovskite samples obtained using Cu-
Sn-Ti alloys equaled 42 MPa. It is about
80% of the average strength of mono-
lithic samples.
Beside basic requirements (particu-
larly sufficiently high wetting) for materi-
als to be joined, compliance of their coef-
ficients for thermal expansion is
important, because stresses caused by

10-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

Fig. 7 — Scheme of the shear strength test for the brazed ceramic samples.
Fig. 9 — Scheme of the apparatus for determining the contact angle of metal
melts in the air (oxygen) atmosphere. The labeled numbers represent the fol-
lowing: silica tube (1); furnace (2); heat transparent screen (3); digital cam-
era (4); metal refractory wire (5); and metal sample on the BaTiO3 ceramic
substrate (6).
thermal expansion mismatch can consid-
erably lower the strength of the joint. Ap-
plying indium-based alloys having high
plasticity is especially expedient for metal-
ization and joining BaTiO3 ceramics.
Additionally, the technology of braz-
ing and metalization BTO was realized
using capillary impregnation of low-melt-
ing braze alloys through titanium pow-
der. For such alloy cleanliness, titanium
powder was obtained from TiH dissociat-
ing into titanium and hydrogen during
heating. The indium was deposition on
the titanic powder layer onto a BaTiO3
ceramics surface. During heating up to
970 K, indium spread well over the whole
BaTiO3 surface and filling brazing gap.
The thin film of In-Ti is easily formed on
the surface of perovskite ceramic in such
conditions — Fig. 6B.
Ferroelectric BaTiO3
Barium titanate with a stoichiometric
structure having high ferro- and piezo-
electric characteristics can be heated up
without any changes only within a oxygen-
containing environment (in air). For such
materials joining, special braze alloys and
technological processes are required.
Oxygen being dissolved in some metals
leads to a substantial increase of wetting
degree and adhesion of these metals to ce-
ramics. The oxygen effect on wetting and
also on interface and surface tension of
metal melts was investigated earlier in our
works (Refs. 14, 25–28). It has been shown
that oxygen effectively increases the adhe-
sion of Cu, Ag, Ni, and some other metals
Fig. 8 — The Weibull’s graph of brazed strength in vacuum semiconducting
BaTiO3 ceramic samples.
WELDING RESEARCH
to ionic compounds,
for example, to ox-
ides. Several systems
(Cu-O-Al2O3, Cu-O-
MgO, Ni-O-Al2O3,
Ag-O-Al2O3, Ag-Cu-
O-Al2O3) were stud-
ied in detail. The Ag-
Cu-O system is
especially interest-
ing. We have made
the assumption that
the “oxygen” tech-
nology will work for
Fig. 10 — Dependence of contact angle for the ferroelectric BaTiO ceramic
ferroelectric barium by Ag-Cu-O melt in air environment and oxygen on concentration 3of copper
titanate as well. Ac- at 1250 K.
cording to Refs. 14,
15, oxygen that has
sufficient affinity to an electron, being dis- Experimental Data and
solved in liquid metal, will increase the Discussion
wettability of a surface for ionic or ion-
covalent substances. For ferroelectric BTO ceramic, experi-
Up to now, there are only solitary works ments and technological processes were
concerning the possibility of a perovskite carried out per method in air media and, for
compound (Pb (Mg0.33Nb0.67) O3) for wet- the first time, under pure oxygen atmos-
ting and joining by Ag-CuO alloys (Ref. 29). phere using the sessile drop method as well.
Scientific background of this process is not For this purpose, a special device was cre-
developed; the reasons for oxygen influence ated — Fig. 9. Experiments were carried out
on wetting are not explained in this work. in oxygen flow with the partial pressure of
Thus, the investigation of wetting ce- oxygen about 1 atm at 1250, 1320, and 1370
ramic ferroelectric materials based on K. Technical pure oxygen was used. But the
BTO, elaboration of braze compositions oxygen is reactive. Pure oxygen at high pres-
and technological conditions for brazed sure, such as from a cylinder, can react vio-
BTO ceramic joints, and creation of lently with common materials such as oil
strongly adherent metal coatings on the fer- and grease. Take all reasonably practicable
roelectric perovskite ceramic surfaces were precautions to ensure safety to prevent oxy-
the main purpose of the present work. The gen enrichment by keeping oxygen equip-
Ag-Cu-O system alloys were used as a braze ment in good condition and taking care
alloys base. when using it. Good ventilation will also re-
WELDING JOURNAL 11-s
 A B
C D
WELDING RESEARCH
E emission of elements (top part – ceramic, low part – alloy). A — ×600;
duce the risk of oxygen enrichment (Refs.
15, 30).
In Fig. 10, data on BaTiO3 wetting by
silver and silver-copper alloy are
presented.
Oxygen dissolved in Ag-Cu alloy works
as a strong adhesive element. Contact
angle for pure silver in vacuum at 1250 K
was equal to 129 deg, the same value in air
was 96 deg, and in pure oxygen –75 deg.
Copper addition to silver melt (~10%
(at.)) leads to considerable contact angle
decrease to 45–47 deg (in air) and to al-
12-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
Fig. 11 — Microstructure of Ag-Cu-O, BaTiO3 interface at characteristic
B — barium; C — titanium; D — silver; E — copper. B–E — ×1000).
most complete spread-
ing of alloy (θ ≈ 5–10
deg) in the pure oxy-
gen atmosphere.
According to Ref. 14,
oxygen is an adhesion
active and surface ac-
tive element. In the liq-
uid metal, oxygen exists
in the form of O–2 ions
and can form complex
metal-oxygen particles
with metal ions in melt
(Me2+ – O-2). Such
complex particles have
a positive pole at metal ion and negative
pole at oxygen ion. Positive metallic ion of
the complex is adsorbed on negatively
charged oxygen ions, forming the surface
of BaTiO3. Localization of external elec-
trons for metal ion at oxygen ion must
weaken the metallic bond intensity with
other metal ions. The bond between the
metallic ion of metal-oxygen complex and
another metal atom must be weaker than
metallic bond atoms with each other.
When the bond energy complex-Me is less
than bond energy Me-Me, it is the condi-
tion for metal-oxygen complex surface ac-
tivity. Adsorption of metal ions on the
negative charged oxide surface results in
high adhesion.
The temperature increase intensifies
the wetting process; contact angle de-
creases to 25–30 deg in air (with 10 % (at.)
of Cu in liquid Ag). For pure oxygen, full
spreading can be reached with Cu content
at about 6–7% (at.).
The high capillary activity of alloys in a
pure oxygen atmosphere is caused by a
high equilibrium concentration of oxygen
in melt under high oxygen partial pressure
(1 atm). Oxygen partial pressure for the
air is 0.21 atm. Concentration of oxygen
that saturates metal melt is described by
Siverts’s law (in many cases) (Refs. 31, 32),
⎡O ⎤liquid metal
=k p (O ) (2)
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ 2
where p(O2) is oxygen partial pressure and
k is constant.
The concentration of oxygen dissolved
in the silver melt in air is equal:
⎡O ⎤ Ag = k 0, 21
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥air (3)
 A B

Transitive zone

Fig. 12 — Cross section of Ag-Cu-O drop (top part) on surface of the ferroelectric BaTiO3. A — In air; B — in oxygen.

Under pure oxygen atmosphere, Conclusion

Ag
⎡O ⎤
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ pure oxygen = k 1 (4)
Oxygen solubility in liquid silver in air at
1250 K equals 10.5 sm3/g Ag under pure oxy-
gen atmosphere. It will be 2.2 times higher.
Analysis of the BaTiO3/Ag-Cu-O alloy
interface shows the presence of a transi-
tive black zone ~7–10 μm thick, which is
A combined investigation in-
cluding contact interaction and
wetting of BaTiO3 perovskite ce-
ramics by liquid metals was car-
ried out. Two states of barium ti-
tanate were studied.
For semiconducting BaTiO3-x
with an oxygen defect, experi-

an obvious result of copper diffusion into
the ceramic substrate in air media (Fig.
11). But in oxygen atmosphere such zone
is thin (~ 1 μm) or absent (Fig. 12). It is
important for saving whole degree ferro-
electric properties of such ceramics.
Brazing of Ferroelectric Barium
Titanate
Under the air, and especially under
pure oxygen atmosphere, the process of
joining (brazing) of ferroelectric BaTiO3
ceramics can be performed.
Braze alloy Ag-10 Cu was used for join-
ing BTO ceramics in air and Ag-3 Cu
under pure oxygen atmosphere.
The samples of the perovskite ceramics
brazed with Ag-Cu-O alloy were obtained.
The shear strength of ceramic/ceramic
butt joints was measured (Fig. 13, Table 2).
It was shown that the strength of brazed
samples was 46 MPa. It is 88% of the av-
erage strength of monolithic ceramics,
which is more than two times the strength
given in the literature for perovskite ma-
terials brazing.
The metal that can be joined to ferro-
electric BTO is a noble one — platinum
(wire electrodes, plates). The pure Ag can
be used as well with minimal difficulty, ac-
counting that the melt temperature for Ag-
Cu-O alloys were some lower than for pure
Ag. As it was shown practically, platinum
provides a strong homogeneous brazed
joint that can also be used for brazing fer-
roelectric ceramics to construction metal.
The brazed and metalized ferroelectric
barium titanate samples were obtained
using plastic In-Ti filler alloy in vacuum at
720 K. It was possibly because such ceramic
begins to lose oxygen and ferroelectric prop-
erties in vacuum at heating above 900 K.
ments in vacuum for 13 pure met-
als and Ti-containing alloys (Cu-
Sn-Ti, Cu-Ga-Ti, and Ag-Cu-Ti)
were carried out. Most of the
metals under investigation do not
wet BaTiO3. Titanium addition
sharply increases capillary prop-
erties and adhesion. Composi-
tions of capillary active braze al-
loys, plus methods in brazing and
metalization BaTiO3 for high Fig. 13 — The Weibull’s graph of shear strength for brazed in
air ferroelectric BaTiO3 ceramics samples.
contact strength achieving, were
found.
The brazing process for ferro-
electric barium titanate must be carried
out in the oxygen-containing environment
— in air or preferably pure oxygen. For
brazing and metalization of ferroelectric,
ceramic BaTiO3 used Ag-Cu-O alloys.
Based on obtained data, metal-oxygen
technologies of metalization and brazing
BaTiO3 ceramics in air and pure oxygen
atmosphere were developed, and also a
method of metalization with high adhe-
sion using metal melts containing oxygen.
The plastic In-Ti alloy was tested for
metalization and brazing in a vacuum of
perovskite ceramics. It can be used for
the semiconductor BaTiO3 ceramics at
970 K and ferroelectric BaTiO3 ceramics
at 720 K, allowing use of the full range of
unique electrical properties for per-
ovskite materials.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Prof. M. D.
Glinchuk and PhD E. P. Garmash for syn-
thesis of ceramic samples; PhD O. V.
Durov for assistance in the brazing
processes; and Prof. S. A. Firstov and Dr.
M. V. Karpets for microstructure interface
investigations.
WELDING RESEARCH
References
1. Xu, Y. 1991. Ferroelectric Materials and
Their Applications. North-Holland, Amster-
dam.
2. Uchino, K. 1997. Piezoelectric Actuators
and Ultrasonic Motors. Norwell, Mass., Kluwer.
3. Bhattacharya, K., and Ravichandran, G.
2003. Ferroelectric perovskites for electro-
mechanical actuation. Acta. Mater. 51:
5941–5960.
4. Scott, J. F. 2000. Ferroelectric Memories.
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
5. Ramesh, R. 1997. Thin Film Ferroelectric
Materials and Devices. Kluwer. Academic, Nor-
well, Mass.
6. Fernie, J. A., and Ironside, K. I. 1999. Ce-
ramic brazing. Materials World 7(11): 686–688.
7. Bursian, E. V. 1974. Nonlinear Crystal
(barium titanate). Nauka, Moskow.
8. Brillson, L. J. 1994. Metal-semiconductor
interface. Surf. Sci. 229/230: 909–927.
9. Wang, S.-F., Yang, T. C. K., and Lee, S.-C.
2001. Wettability of electrode metals on barium
titanate substrate. J. Mater. Sci. 36: 825–829.
10. Cann, D. P., Maria, J.-P., and Randall, C.
A. 2001. Relationship between wetting and
electrical contact properties of pure metals and
alloys on semiconducting barium titanate ce-
ramics. J. Mater. Sci. 36: 4969–4976.
11. Lee, C. Y., Dupcux, M., and Tuan, W. H.
2006. Adhesion strength of Ag/BaTiO3 inter-
face. Scripta Mater. 54(3): 453–457.

WELDING JOURNAL 13-s

 12. Tretyakov, YuD. 1974. Chemistry of Non-
stoichiometric Oxides. Moscow University Pub-
lishing Co., Moscow, Russia.
13. Lee, D.-K., and Yoo, H.-I. 2001. Oxygen
nonstoichiometry of undoped BaTiO3–δ. Solid
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14. Naidich, Yu. V. 1981. Eds. Cadenhead,
D. A., and Danielli, J. F. Progress in Surface
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15. Naidich, Yu. V. 1972. The Contact Phe-
nomena in Metal Melts. Naukova Dumka, Kiev.
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18. Fujii, H., and Nakae, H. 1996. Equilib-
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19. West, A. R. 1988. Solid State Chemistry
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Physical Chemistry of Metals, 1st ed. McGraw-
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stathopoulos, N. 2006. The relation between
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2205–2214.
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Panchenko, N. M. 1969. The separation area in
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1961. Oxygen surface activity in silver-oxygen
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737704/25 MKI 49 25. The technology of ce-
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Sci. 37: 1705–1709.
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Costa, P. 1994. Oxygen mass transfer at liquid-
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32. From, E., and Gebhardt, E. 1980. Gases
and carbon in metals. Metallurgy, M.

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14-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

 Characterization of High-Strength Weld
Metal Containing Mg-Bearing Inclusions

Microstructural analysis of flux cored welds using a 4% Ni steel consumable

exhibits both high strength and toughness

BY A. P. GERLICH, H. IZADI, J. BUNDY, and P. F. MENDEZ

ABSTRACT sumables to achieve the desired acicular

Weld metal deposited by flux cored arc welding that exhibited a combination of high ferrite microstructure depending on these
strength and toughness was studied. Microstructural characterization revealed it con- chemistry additions in the electrode. How-
tained primarily bainitic ferrite with a fine packet size in the as-deposited metal and ever, recent developments have shown
mainly nonaligned ferrite in the reheated zones, which were concentrated near the root that excellent toughness and strength may

WELDING RESEARCH
of the weld. A new type of spherical inclusion is reported with an average size of 311 also be achieved with a complex combina-
nm in diameter that exhibits a shelled structure mainly rich in Al, Mg, and O in the tion of ferrite with martensite/austenite is-
core, and Mg, O in the outer shell. It is suggested the good properties stem from a lands, martensite, degenerated pearlite,
combination of fine inclusion size, low content of interstitials, and small ferrite packet and upper bainite (Ref. 18). High-tough-
size. Instrumented impact testing indicates that grain refinement in reheated zones ness weld metals based on large fractions
near the root of the weld improve the Charpy impact energy; however, fracture initia- of ferrite with nonaligned second phase
tion energy is similar to the top of the weld. and little acicular ferrite microconstituents
were produced; however, this was limited
with a diameter between 0.2 and 2 µm, to a tensile strength of 480 to 651 MPa
Introduction (Ref.19). Alternative microstructures are
where the ideal size is close to 0.4 µm
(Refs. 10–13). It has been shown that of interest since they may offer reduced
This research focuses on the use of a levels of interstitial oxygen and nitrogen,
achieving this structure typically occurs
novel flux-cored arc welding wire formu- which will help to improve low-tempera-
when the weld metal oxygen content is
lation, which appears to depart from the ture toughness; however, these elements
close to 200 ppm, where lower oxygen con-
typical mechanisms of microstructural de- are normally required in forming inclu-
centrations fail to produce the acicular fer-
velopment, resulting in outstanding weld sions that nucleate acicular ferrite.
rite, while higher values form excessive
metal strength and toughness. The tradi- The general consensus is that tough-
amounts of large oxide inclusions that are
tional strategy for achieving a combination ness during impact testing is limited in the
＞ 1 µm in diameter and nucleate cracks
of high strength along with good low- upper shelf region by the volume fraction
(Refs. 14, 15) and deteriorate toughness
temperature toughness in high-strength of nonmetallic inclusions, and by the type
(Ref. 16).
weld metals is to promote an acicular fer- and morphology of microconstituents dur-
Considering the influence of chemistry
rite microstructure (Refs. 1–4). This mi- ing brittle fracture in the lower shelf (Refs.
and cooling rate on the thermodynamics
crostructure consists of fine interlocking 2, 20, 21). Since a ferrite structure with
and kinetics of inclusion formation (Ref.
ferrite needles, with high grain boundary aligned second phase dominates at low-
17), successful application of welding con-
misorientations to promote grain bound- oxygen contents, the toughness is limited
sumables using Ti additions requires care-
ary strengthening together with crack de- by the larger unit crack length path during
ful control of welding parameters that
viation during cleavage fracture at low brittle fracture (Refs. 22–24). Weld metal
influence the chemistry in the weld pool,
temperatures (Refs. 5, 6). The nucleation deposits that achieve Charpy impact en-
particularly Ti, O, and N content. This can
of acicular ferrite occurs intragranularly in ergy values of 300 J at –50°C (Ref. 25) are
limit the operating window for some con-
austenite on inclusions, and commercial possible through optimizing oxygen and Ti
weld consumables rely on Ti and Al addi- content to control the formation of TiO2,
tions to form inclusions such as TiOx, TiN, which nucleates acicular ferrite. However,
and MnO. Al2O3 (Refs. 7–9). The nucle- KEYWORDS there are a few techniques discussed that
ation of acicular ferrite depends on achiev- do not rely on acicular ferrite structures
ing a large volume fraction of inclusions Flux Cored and do not use Ti additions.
Microstructure This investigation examines the use of a
Phase Formation flux cored arc welding consumable with a
A. P. GERLICH is with University of Waterloo, nominal tensile strength of more than 825
Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Wa- Oxide Inclusions
terloo, Ontario, Canada, H. IZADI and P. F. Instrumented Charpy MPa, which does not utilize Ti additions
MENDEZ are with University of Alberta, Chem- Magnesium or promote acicular ferrite formation. The
ical and Materials Engineering, Edmonton, Al- weld metal can be deposited with 100%
berta, Canada, J. BUNDY is with Hobart Broth- CO2 shielding gas, while containing low in-
ers, Troy, Ohio. terstitial content with good low-tempera-

WELDING JOURNAL 15-s

 A
B

Fig. 1 — A — Macroscopic section of the joint; B — optical micrograph

of the as-deposited weld metal; C — optical micrograph of the reheated
WELDING RESEARCH

weld metal.

a current of 200 A, tracted from the middle of the weld re-

ture toughness, as well as high strength.
The microconstituents and inclusions are
examined using a combination of optical
and SEM microscopy, and the fracture
properties are studied using instrumented
impact testing followed by fractography.
Experimental
The weld metal chemistry is summarized
in Table 1, and has a calculated CEIIW car-
bon equivalent of 0.62, and Pcm value of
0.21 (Ref. 26). The welds were completed
using a flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
consumable that conforms to AWS specifi-
cation A5.29, with CO2 shielding gas, using
voltage of 24 V in di-
rect current elec-
trode negative
(DCEN) polarity,
and 0.0625-in. (1.6
mm) wire with a
feeding rate of 200
in./min (84 mm/s).
The details of the
consumable design
and flux chemistry
have been reported
elsewhere; however,
it should be noted that the flux contains
MgO, which provides an opportunity to in-
troduce Mg content into the weld metal
(Ref. 27). Welding was conducted in the flat
(1G) position on a 0.75-in.-thick ASTM
A514 steel plate with a 45-deg bevel angle,
a 0.5-in. root opening and a backing plate,
similar to other studies (Ref. 28). The travel
speed was approximately 8 in./min during
each welding pass, and the heat input was
an average of 1.8 kJ/mm. During welding,
the preheat or interpass temperature was
350°F (177°C), and no postweld heat treat-
ment was applied.
Charpy impact testing was conducted
between –73° to 20°C on material ex-
gion. Additional welds were produced on a
75-mm-thick plate using the same condi-
tions as above in order to facilitate extrac-
tion of 10 × 10 mm Charpy coupons along
the transverse direction of the weld. These
were obtained from approximately 2 mm
below the surface of the root, as well as 2
mm below the surface of the crown of the
weld, in order to obtain mainly reheated
or as-deposited weld metal, respectively,
from these two regions. These top and
bottom portions of the weld were also
tested by instrumented impact testing in
which the force and displacement were
recorded during impact. Instrumented im-
pact testing was used in order to provide a
comparison of the relative fracture initia-
tion energy values in these top and bottom
regions of the weld.
The microstructures were analyzed using
a combination of optical and SEM mi-
croscopy after etching with 2% nital. Mi-
crohardness indentation was used to
determine the hardness of the reheated and
as-deposited material. In order to deter-
mine the chemistry of fine inclusions, Auger
electron spectroscopy (AES) was used to
map elemental distributions. Further analy-
sis of the inclusions was also conducted by

Table 1 — Weld Metal Chemistry (wt-%, balance Fe)

C Mn P S Si Cu Cr V Ni Mo Al Ti
0.059 1.219 0.006 0.003 0.123 0.044 0.264 0.005 3.511 0.212 0.557 0.002

Nb Co B W Sn Pb Zr Ce As O N Mg
0.003 0.005 0.0005 0.005 0.005 0.001 0.028 0.001 0.0034 0.012 0.0064 0.03

16-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

 A B
Fig. 2— SEM micrographs. A — As-deposited; B — reheated weld metal.
Fig. 3 — XRD spectrum of weld metal indicating presence of ferrite (α) and and fill passes of the
retained austenite (γ).
dissolving the weld metal in a 25% HCl and
25% HNO3 mixture, followed by collection
of the dissolved metal residue on filter
paper. The residue as well as the bulk weld
metal was examined by XRD analysis. The
weld metal solidification was also simulated
by calculating the Scheil diagram using
ThermoCalc version S with the TCFE6
database. The ThermoCalc investigations
examined the chemistry shown in Table 1 for
only elements >0.1 wt-% as well as oxygen
and carbon, and the stability of all phases
within the TCFE6 database. The algorithm
for this is included within ThermoCalc,
where the equilibrium composition of solid
phases are calculated, assuming negligible
diffusion in the solid and perfect mixing in
the liquid.
Table 2 — Quantification of Ferrite Microstructures
Region, % Area Fraction FS(A)
As deposited 82.4
Reheated 4.6
Results
Optical Microscopy
The macroscopic
section of the joint in
the 0.75-in. plate is
shown in Fig. 1A, and
the typical microstruc-
tures observed in the
as-deposited and re-
heated regions of the
weld are shown in Fig.
1B and C. The root
weld metal contain a
significant fraction of
reheated weld metal,
while the upper region capping passes
comprise mainly as-deposited material.
The weld metal mainly consisted of
upper bainite, referred to as FS(A) mi-
crostructures in the as-deposited material,
and bainitic ferrite or an FS(NA) mi-
crostructure in the reheated zones con-
taining fine-grained material. These
microstructures were identified using the
modified IIW classification scheme (Ref.
29) as either ferrite with aligned second
phase (FS(A)), ferrite with nonaligned
second phases (FS(NA)), and polygonal
ferrite (PF). Both the as-deposited and re-
heated weld metals were examined, and
the area fractions of each of the ferrite
morphologies or microconstituents were
quantified by image analysis, summarized
FS(NA) PF
17.2 0.4
92.5 2.9
in Table 2. Within the fill passes, the as-
deposited regions had an average hard-
ness of about 285 (±6.7) HV1kgf, which
was comparable to the reheated material
WELDING RESEARCH
with a hardness of 281 (±6.0) HV1kgf. It
should be noted that the capping pass weld
metal had a higher hardness of 332 (±2.0)
HV1kgf as a result of the higher cooling
rates. Weld metal testing indicated that
the yield point was 763 MPa with an ulti-
mate tensile strength of 866 MPa, and
elongation to failure of 17.8%, which is
consistent with the expected minimum ul-
timate tensile strength (UTS) of 825 MPa.
Electron Microscopy and XRD Results
The as-deposited and reheated regions
of the weld metal are shown in Fig. 2.
There is clearly no basket-weave structure
or acicular ferrite present. Instead,
bainitic ferrite dominates with a fine
packet size in the as-deposited mi-
crostructure. The as-deposited regions
containing predominantly aligned ferrite
were organized into packets that com-
prised ferrite laths, with an average length
of 7.4 ± 2.3 µm (n = 35) and width of 0.49
± 0.18 µm (n = 54).
The XRD pattern of the bulk weld
metal is shown in Fig. 3, and the only
peaks that could be indexed consisted of
ferrite and retained austenite. Based on
the relative intensities of the (220) ferrite
peak, I1, and the (111) austenite peak, I2,
the volume fraction of retained austenite
RA% can be estimated (Ref. 29) using the
following equation:
1
RA % =
⎛I ⎞
1 + 0.65 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ I2 ⎠ (1)
which indicated that the weld metal con-
tained approximately 2.9% retained
austenite.
WELDING JOURNAL 17-s
 A B

Fig. 4 — Weight fraction of Mg (A) and Al (B) in the halite phase vs. temperature during solidification of the weld metal, calculated using ThermoCalc.

an ionic phase, labeled as Inclusion Analysis

‘Halite’, along with ferrite
(BCC_A1) and retained Spherical oxide inclusions could be ob-
austenite (FCC_A1#1). served in the steel, and measurements in-
WELDING RESEARCH

The halite phase consists dicated they have an average size of 311 ±
mainly of MgO, and is in- 120 nm (n = 69). These fine inclusions
cluded in the ThermoCalc were found to contain aluminum and mag-
TCFE6 database within nesium — Fig. 5. Auger electron spec-
the Fe-Al-Ca-Cr-Mg-Mn- troscopy (AES) was used to map the
Ni-Si-Ti-C-O system, with elemental distribution in these oxides, and
possible substitution of a core/shell structure can be observed con-
Mg for other elements taining mainly Al oxide in the core, and a
permitted. In the present shell with Mg oxide — Fig. 6. These ob-
work, halite begins to pre- servations support the thermodynamic cal-
cipitate in the melt at just culations in Fig. 4, which suggest that the
over 2300°C and is initially inclusions are initially nucleated with a
aluminum rich, and then core that is rich in magnesium, aluminum,
devoid of aluminum at and oxygen, and then following growth,
Fig. 5 — SEM micrograph of an Mg- and Al-rich inclusion in weld metal. lower temperatures the outer shell only contains magnesium
<1600°C, and this is fol- and oxygen. Some prior research has also
lowed by solidification of shown that halite particles with a MgO
ferrite. The calculated stoichiometry are predicted by Thermo-
Thermodyamic Analysis content of magnesium and aluminum in Calc in steels containing low oxygen con-
the halite during solidification is shown in tent and trace amounts of Mg (Ref. 31)
The formation of inclusions in the weld Fig. 4, with a balance of oxygen, suggesting However, to the authors’ knowledge, such
pool was examined by considering the it would have (Mg,Al)O chemistry. It Mg-Al-O-rich inclusions have never been
thermodynamic stability of various oxides should be noted that when magnesium is reported in weld metal and no correlation
using ThermoCalc, considering the actual not included in the chemistry, the calcula- could be observed between nucleation of
weld metal chemistry and the assumptions tions suggest that Si2O4-Al6O9 phase ferrite phases and these inclusions.
for a Scheil solidification plot. The results would solidify first in the melt, followed by The carbides in the steel were also ex-
indicated that the equilibrium phases dur- MnO-Al2O3, and the halite phase is not tracted by dissolving the weld metal in a
ing solidification of the steel first involves formed. mixture of HCl and HNO3 acid. The dis-
solved solution was screened through fil-
ter paper in order to capture the solid
Table 3 — Instrumented Charpy Impact Testing Measurements particles. XRD analysis was used to deter-
mine the solid phases recovered following
Weld Test Temperature, Dynamic Fracture Total dissolution and filtering. The XRD peaks
Region °C Toughness J1d, kJ/m2 Energy, J observed in the residue recovered were
identified as ZrC carbide (Ref. 32), and
Top 20 246 94 the particles were extracted from the filter
Top –18 245 87 paper onto double-sided copper tape for
Top –62 280 67 SEM microscopy. This residue is shown in
Bottom 20 303 137
Fig. 7, and consisted mainly of cuboidal
Bottom –18 279 139
particles; however, a small fraction of
Bottom –62 294 118
spherical particles could also be observed,
which may correspond with the oxide in-

18-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

clusions observed in Figs. 5 and 6, along
with iron-chloride residue, which may
have reprecipitated during particle extrac-
tion. EDX analysis revealed mainly the
presence of oxygen, carbon, iron, and
chlorine, with a small fraction of zirco-
nium, magnesium, and aluminum in the
extracted residue. Based on the SEM and
XRD observations, it would be expected
that the cuboidal particles correspond with
ZrC, with an average size of 221 ± 45 nm
(n = 10).
Charpy Toughness Measurements and
Fractography
The impact testing results are shown in
Fig. 8. The upper shelf extends to –40°C,
and the ductile to brittle transition tem-
perature, if defined as the temperature at
which toughness is intermediate between
the upper and lower shelves, is at –60°C or
below. The upper shelf value is approxi-
mately 130 J, and the lower shelf was never
reached, despite tests being conducted
down to –73°C. The fracture surface of
Charpy specimens tested at –18°C exhib-
ited mainly a fibrous fracture surface,
while those tested at –62°C exhibited a
combination of fibrous failure and quasi-
cleavage fracture, as shown in Fig. 9.
Spherical particles could be observed in
bottoms of many of the dimples observed
in the fibrous fracture surfaces, in addition
to a few randomly distributed cuboidal
particles, as shown in Fig. 10. The quasi-
cleavage fracture surface shown in Fig. 11
had facets with dimensions comparable to
the ferrite packed diameters observed by
SEM in Fig. 2.
Instrumented Charpy Testing of Top and
Bottom Region of Weld
The top (near the cap) and bottom
(near the root) of the welds tested showed
significantly different microstructures. The
bottom of the weld shows a much higher
amount of reheated material, as shown in
Fig. 1A, which results in much different
balances between FS(A) and FS(NA) mi-
croconstituents (higher FS(NA) in re-
heated material).
The differences in the fracture strength
of these two microstructures were investi-
gated using instrumented impact tests. In
these tests, the evolution of force during
the breaking of the sample is recorded.
The resulting curves are illustrated in Fig.
12. These curves provide much richer de-
tail than a report of only total impact en-
ergy values. In particular, the dynamic
fracture toughness or J-integral value (J1d)
may also be calculated from the data
based on the methodology proposed by
Moitra et al. (Ref. 33). In this approach,
the standard Charpy sample has a notch
and no precrack is present, which requires
A B
C D
Fig. 6 — AES analysis of element distributions of the Mg- and Al-rich oxide in weld metal, with A — Fe;
B — O; C — Mg; D — Al maps shown.
one to estimate when the actual fracture
has initiated based on the force-displace-
ment data collected during impact. For
this type of specimen, the dynamic frac-
ture toughness is given by:
J1d = η (ES)i Bbo
where η is a constant, (ES)i is the energy
absorbed up to the crack initiation point,
the sample thickness B is 10 mm, and bo is
the remaining ligament length of 8 mm. It
has been shown that in the case of Charpy
impact specimens, η =1.45 (Refs. 33, 34),
and that the crack initiation point for fer-
ritic steel specimens can be taken as the
point corresponding with (PMAX + PGY)/2,
where PMAX is the maximum load during
impact, and PGY is the general yield load
(Ref. 35). In some cases, resonance in the
impact tester produced large oscillations
in the force output, so the force output
data was averaged to remove these oscil-
lations and allow PMAX and PGY to be
readily determined. The area directly
under the force-displacement curve up to
the point (PMAX + PGY)/2 was then quan-
tified to directly measure (ES)i.
The measured values for the impact
performance of the top and bottom re-
gions of the weld are summarized in Table
WELDING RESEARCH
3. The J1d and the total impact energy are
similar for both regions of the weld
(slightly higher for the bottom region, with
the difference more marked at lower tem-
peratures). The fracture surfaces are also
comparable, with slightly finer features
(average size of dimples) in the bottom.
(2)
The similarity in fracture toughness and
fracture surface between the top and the
bottom of the weld, despite having such
different balances of FS(A) and FS(NA)
is consistent with a fracture mechanism
dominated by inclusions and carbides,
which are stable during reheating and are
expected to have a similar distribution in
the top and bottom of the weld. In a mech-
anism dominated by carbides and inclu-
sions, smaller inclusions result in higher
toughness values, and the small size of the
inclusions and carbides observed here (all
below 0.5 µm) are an important factor in
the high-impact values observed.
Discussion
In prior investigations, Koseki and
Thewlis have shown that toughness and
strength degrades when the weld metal
Al/O ratio exceeds 1.0 (Ref. 4), since these
will promote a spinel structure that does
not favor acicular ferrite nucleation (Ref.
WELDING JOURNAL 19-s
 Fig. 7 — SEM micrograph of particles extracted from the weld metal fol- Fig. 8 — Charpy impact energy values for material extracted from the mid-
lowing dissolution in acid. dle region of the fusion zone.

A B
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 9 — Fracture surfaces from central region of the Charpy sample for tests. A — –18°C; B — –62°C.

36). However, this ideal Al/O ratio is
based on the fraction of acicular ferrite
being maximized, as long as titanium is
present (Ref. 37). Since the Al/O ratio was
extremely high and there was negligible ti-
tanium content, no acicular ferrite formed
in the weld metal.
Precipitate particles with dimensions
>1 µm could not be observed in the inclu-
sions extracted from the weld metal by dis-
solution, or on the fracture surfaces,
suggesting that the presence of submicron
sized (Mg, Al)O particles may have sup-
pressed the coarsening of oxide inclusions.
The oxygen content measured in the weld
metal (120 ppm) is within the range ob-
served for gas metal arc welds; however,
the particularly low nitrogen content (64
ppm) is attributed to the use of CO2
shielding gas along with the high alu-
minum content (0.557 wt-%). For any
given level of oxygen content, a transition
from a small number of large inclusions to
a large number of fine inclusions will re-
sult in lower room temperature fracture
energy values since the number of initia-
tion points for fibrous fracture will in-
crease (Ref. 38), particularly if decohesion
has already occurred at the particle inter-
face upon cooling of the weld metal. In the
case of cleavage fracture, fracture stress
increases dramatically with decreasing in-
clusion size, particularly those <0.5 µm in
diameter (Ref. 39), as in the case of the
weld metal examined here. Further analy-
sis could not directly correlate the size and
spacing of the inclusions to any other mi-
crostructural features.
It is interesting to note a shelled inclu-
sion structure similar to the one observed
in this work (but without Mg) was ob-
served in a prior study of flux cored con-
sumables containing Ti and Zr by Narayan
et al. (Ref. 40). They showed that the for-
mation of a core/shell structure prevents
coarsening and agglomeration of inclu-
sions by “capping” the aluminum oxide
particles and suppressing their growth. In
that study, a much higher fraction of ni-
trogen (0.018 to 0.020 wt-%) was present
in the weld metal, promoting a shell of
(Zr,Ti)N to cap the inclusions. In the pres-
ent work, it appears that magnesium may
have a similar effect in suppressing the
coarsening or agglomeration of the oxides
in the liquid weld metal, as suggested by
the thermodynamic calculations in Fig. 4.
The amount of retained austenite
measured (2.9%) is comparable to 9.4%
measured using the same technique previ-
ously in steel welds containing 9 wt-% Ni
(Ref. 41), where no peaks corresponding
with martensite could be detected (Ref.
42). However, this does not necessarily in-
dicate that martensite was absent since the
low carbon content of the weld metal

20-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

Fig. 10 — Particles observed on fracture surface of Charpy sample tested
at –18°C.
A B
Fig. 12 — Instrumented Charpy impact data showing force and displacement during impact from the A —Top region of weld; B — bottom region.
would minimize lattice strains, making it
difficult to detect martensite via XRD. Re-
gardless, the presence of a significant frac-
tion of austenite may be beneficial during
fracture, and the nickel content (3.51%) of
the weld metal likely provides an austenite
stabilization effect (Refs. 41, 43). The ad-
dition of Ni to weld metal has long been
known to improve low-temperature tough-
ness of weld metals, particularly
below –30°C (Refs. 44–46). For example,
more than a 100°C decrease in the ductile
to brittle transition temperature can be
achieved when only 3.5% nickel is added
to steel (Ref. 47).
The Charpy toughness values and im-
pact transition temperature achieved in Fig.
8 are comparable to those observed in a
9%Ni steel, despite using a much lower
nickel content (Ref. 41). Reducing the frac-
tion of interstitials, in addition to the pres-
ence of nickel in solution is also known to
increase the cleavage fracture strength and
lower the brittle transition temperature dra-
Fig. 11 — Facets observed on the quasi-cleavage fracture surface of Charpy
sample tested at –62°C.
matically. The premise is that nickel im-
proves the cohesive strength of the ferrite
lattice itself, which contributes to the en-
hanced fracture properties (Ref. 48). The
present work suggests that an additional en-
hancement may occur due to a change in
the distribution of microconstituents as well,
since nickel is an austenite stabilizer. For ex-
ample, when MA phase does not contain
martensite but rather is dominated by
austenite, this may also enhance toughness
properties (Ref. 49).
The high fracture toughness values ob-
tained at low temperatures are also pro-
moted by the fine-grained ferrite
microstructures produced in the welds in
combination with small-diameter oxide in-
clusions. The fine ferrite sizes with fewer
aligned microstructures in reheated zones
contributed to the higher fracture energy
values. Aligned ferrite grains are typically
separated by boundaries with low-angle
misorientation (Ref. 50), and do not pro-
mote crack deviation during cleavage frac-
WELDING RESEARCH
ture. When the width of the ferrite laths or
size of the packets are reduced (as shown
in Figs. 1 and 2), and few aligned carbides
are present, the cleavage fracture stress in-
creases dramatically (Ref. 51). Since the
FS(A) microconstituents that dominate
the upper portion of the weld exhibit a fine
packet size, this contributed to the fracture
toughness in the top regions of the weld
(containing mostly the as-deposited mate-
rial), reducing the unit crack path during
fracture (Refs. 23, 52). Both J1d and the
total impact energy are slightly higher for
the bottom region of the weld, and this
trend is explained by increased fraction of
reheated material with a microstructure
that contains a lower fraction of aligned
ferrite/carbide phases. The difference in
toughness between top and bottom is
more pronounced at lower temperatures,
where cleavage fracture dominates and
the finer microstructures with fewer
aligned ferrite microconstituents result in
higher fracture energies.
WELDING JOURNAL 21-s
 It is particularly interesting to note that
the fine spherical Mg-Al-O-based inclu-
sions were formed in the presence of 300
ppm of Mg in the weld metal. There has
been limited discussion in the literature on
the application of Mg as an alloying ele-
ment in steels; however, it has been noted
to produce nitride and oxide precipitates,
which may be useful in refining the grain
structure in the heat-affected zone (Ref.
53). The use of MgO in welding flux is
common, due to the strong deoxidizing
role of Mg in the weld metal (Ref. 54), al-
though the concentration of Mg in weld
metal is seldom ever reported due to its
low solubility in steel. To the authors’
knowledge, this work represents the first
time that Mg has been observed to play a
significant role in the structure of fine ox-
ides in a weld metal, as indicated by the
AES observations in Fig. 6 and the ther-
modynamic modeling in Fig. 4. Since the
chemistry and microstructural features
contributing to the properties of the weld
metal were heavily influenced by the flux
used here (Ref. 27), it is worth examining
WELDING RESEARCH
how this can be optimized further in con-
sumables for other processes.
Conclusions
Fine Mg-bearing inclusions with a
core/shell structure have been observed in a
carbon steel weld metal. Flux cored arc
welding was used to produce a weld metal
that contained primarily bainitic ferrite with
a fine packet size in the as-deposited metal
and mainly nonaligned ferrite in the re-
heated zones. Spherical inclusions with an
average diameter of 311 nm were observed
with a shelled structure that was mainly rich
in aluminum, magnesium, and oxygen in the
core, vs. magnesium and oxygen in the outer
shell, which was suggested to be halite based
on thermodynamic calculations for the weld
metal chemistry. The combination of a fine
inclusion size, nickel in solution, a low con-
tent of interstitials (such as [O] and [N]),
along with a fine ferrite packet size, were
suggested to provide an excellent combina-
tion of toughness and strength. Instru-
mented impact testing showed the slight
increase in grain refinement in reheated
zones around the root of the weld improved
impact properties, although fracture initia-
tion energies were comparable to the top of
the weld.
Acknowledgments
Financial support was provided from
Hobart Brothers and Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC). Discussions with Mario Amata
of Hobart Brothers, and Graham Thewlis
are also greatly appreciated.
22-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
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 Weldability of Niobium-Containing
High-Strength Steel for Pipelines
The investigated steels showed no tendency to cold cracking in the heat-affected
zone, even with low heat input

BY I. I. FRANTOV, A. A. VELICHKO, A. N. BORTSOV, AND I. Y. UTKIN

vanadium (V), and molybdenum (Mo), it

ABSTRACT has been shown that the microalloying Nb
steels with V and Mo leads to embrittle-
The presented study contains an assessment of weldability based on careful inves- ment of the HAZ (Ref. 2). Negative effect
tigation of two niobium-containing industrial steel grades X70 and X80, with 0.056 of joint microalloying pipeline steels by V
and 0.094% Nb, respectively. Characteristics of their resistance to brittle fracture in and Nb was also noted in other studies
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) were evaluated on simulated samples after rapid heat- (Refs. 3, 4).
ing to high temperature followed by cooling at various rates corresponding to differ- In a study performed at heat inputs
ent heat inputs. As shown, the HAZ of both investigated steels ensure performance ranging from 1.5 to 6 kJ/mm using steel
down to –30°C in submerged arc welded thick-walled pipes welded with high heat with various C contents, it was shown that

input. Investigations of phase transformations at cooling from 1300°C and micro-
hardness measurements have shown that investigated steels with Nb content up to
~0.1% do not have a tendency for cold cracking in the HAZ during welding, even
with very low heat input.
Introduction
The high working pressure of modern
gas pipelines up to 100–120 MPa require
high-impact toughness [Charpy V-notch
(CVN)] of the material (at least 180–250
J/cm2) at relatively low temperatures
down to –20° to –40°C, depending on the
specifications for the pipelines. Designed
steel grades actually have higher CVN val-
ues; however, the most critical area of
pipelines is the weld heat-affected zone
(HAZ). The HAZ undergoes recrystal-
lization, grain growth, followed by (at
cooling) a large scope of austenite trans-
formation, thus destroying the attractive
thermomechanical-controlled processing
(TMCP) microstructure, and often is the
site of the lowest fracture resistance.
The microstructure of high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steels depends on the
steel composition and thermomechanical
processing route. With the recent trend to-
ward lower carbon (C) contents, nio-
bium’s (Nb) effect on transformation be-
havior has been noted with the emergence
of acicular or bainitic steels. Under certain
conditions, such as utilizing low interstitial
contents and high austenitizing tempera-
I. I. FRANTOV (ifrantov@mail.ru), A. N.
BORTSOV (alnicbortsov@gmail.com), and I.
Y. UTKIN are with I. P. Bardin Central Research
Center for Ferrous Metallurgy, Moscow, Russia.
A. A. VELICHKO is with Izorsky Pipe Plant,
Kolpino, Russia.
tures, small Nb additions increase harden-
ability by depressing the Ar3 transforma-
tion temperature.
Microalloying with Nb is an integral part
of the composition of modern high-strength
steels for pipelines because of its significant
and simultaneous effects on retardation of
recrystallizaton, precipitation hardening,
and hardenability of austenite facilitating
the formation of a grain-refined structure of
favorable acicular ferrite/bainitic ferrite and
contributing substantially to the strength of
low-C steels (Ref. 1).
At the same time, there is considerable
disagreement on the effect of Nb on HAZ
toughness. Some controversy exists in the
literature concerning the influence of Nb
on HAZ properties under certain condi-
tions that is discussed by pipeline construc-
tion companies and steel producers.
In the study of the effect of Nb in the
presence of nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
KEYWORDS
Weld Process Simulation
Weldability Testing
High-Strength Steels
Piping/Tubing
C-Mn Steels
Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
WELDING RESEARCH
Nb additions can have a detrimental or
beneficial effect at low heat inputs, de-
pending on the C level (Ref. 5). Investi-
gating HAZ embrittlement in Nb-contain-
ing C-Mn steels, it was shown that 1) C
content dominates in the control of the
toughness properties and is particularly
detrimental to HAZ toughness at higher C
levels (0.19% C) in combination with Nb;
2) Nb does not have a significant effect on
HAZ toughness at low C levels (0.06% C)
at high welding heat inputs up to 6 kJ/mm;
3) good toughness properties can be ob-
tained at intermediate C levels of 0.12%
with intermediate to high Nb additions at
lower heat inputs in the range 1.5 to 3
kJ/mm; 4) high C levels (0.19% C) com-
bined with a low heat input result in the
formation of untempered brittle marten-
site and lower bainite with poor toughness
properties regardless of Nb content.
Numerous publications have discussed
the effect of Nb addition on the properties
and microstructure of the HAZ in low-C
microalloyed steels. Niobium is reported
to be beneficial as it expands the nonre-
crystallization temperature range, which is
useful not only for plate rolling, but be-
cause it increases hardenability, which, in
turn, leads to retardation of the grain
boundary ferrite network, thus enhancing
intragranular ferrite formation in low-
heat-input HAZ (e.g., Ref. 6). The posi-
tive effect of Nb was found in another
study, where it was noted that at higher C
contents Nb facilitates the formation of
carbides, decreasing the martensite-
austenite (MA) fraction (Ref. 7).
Other works reported that the increase
in the hardenability by Nb enhances not
only the Widmanstätten ferrite and upper
bainite but also MA formation in the re-

WELDING JOURNAL 23-s

 Fig. 1 — Microstructure of the X80 base metal (250×). Fig. 2 — The proposed criteria for brittle fracture resistance.

A B
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 3 — The temperature dependence of the impact toughness in the HAZ of the following: A — X70; B — X80 grade steels depending on the cooling rate
(shown on the curves), corresponding to a different heat input at welding.

heated region. Some researchers pointed dissolution of Nb (Ref. 5). bainitic packet in the HAZ leading to an im-
out a linear increase in MA with an in- An investigation of the HAZ mi- provement in impact toughness (Ref. 9).
crease in Nb content, but this effect has crostructures of two steels with 0.04% C and Some researchers found that a small
been found at rather high C content (Ref. 0.07–0.10% Nb showed no difference in the addition of Nb decreases toughness (Ref.
8). The corresponding hardness increase prior austenitic grain size and, conse- 10), while others found either no signifi-
was attributed to precipitation of fine quently, in the local hardenability. On the cant effect of Nb addition in the case of
Nb(C, N) formed at cooling after the re- other hand, Nb reduced the size of the low-C steels (Ref. 11) or increased tough-
ness in very low C (~0.03%) steel (Ref.
12). The importance of very low C to en-
sure high HAZ toughness in two-pass sub-
Table 1 — Chemical Composition of the Investigated Steels
merged arc welds is emphasized in a few
studies together with confirmation of the
Grade Chemical Composition (%)
fact that without microalloying by Nb the
C Si Mn S P Al Ti N2 Ca strength of X80 cannot be achieved (Ref.
X-70 0.05 0.33 1.73 0.0005 0.006 0.033 0.013 0.0051 0.0002 13). An investigation of coarse-grained
HAZ of X80 grade steel with ~0.1% Nb
Nb V Mo Cr Ni Cu B using simulation of a single welding ther-
0.056 0.001 0.002 0.17 0.012 0.014 0.0002 mal cycle came to the conclusion that the
heat input should be less than 30 kJ/cm to
ensure good Charpy impact toughness
C Si Mn S P Al Ti N2 Ca (Ref. 14).
X-80 0.06 0.30 1.56 0.002 0.014 0.037 0.014 0.004 0.0026
As is well known, all properties includ-
Nb V Mo Cr Ni Cu B ing impact toughness are defined by the
0.094 0.002 0.01 0.23 0.13 0.24 — microstructure. Therefore, all discussions
and differences of opinion about the role
Notes: H70 (HSLA) is the steel for offshore application in accordance with Standards Det Norske Veritas of Nb, which was often overshadowed or
(DNV) Offshore Standard OS-F101, Submarine Pipeline Systems. mixed with the dominating roles of C and
X80 (HSLA) is the steel for the Cheyenne Plains Pipeline, U.S.A.
Mn or Mo content, should be related to

24-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93

 A B
Fig. 4 — The impact of toughness of steel in the HAZ of A — X70; B — X80 at different temperatures of testing vs. the applied cooling rate (W800/500): 2 —
the line of the average brittleness threshold (T50 CVN); 3 — the line of specified minimum toughness (here 70 J/cm2).
the role of Nb in specific steel composi-
tions on parameters of phase transforma-
tion of overheated austenite at specified
cooling conditions, defined by specific
heat input. In fact, there is a lack of data
correlating the thermal conditions of the
HAZ, in particular for multipass welding,
with Nb effect on phase transformation at
corresponding cooling rate.
Thus, the presented study of two high-
Nb-containing pipeline steels aims to char-
acterize not only the impact toughness of
the simulated HAZ as a function of tem-
perature and a wide range of heat inputs, in-
cluding two-pass and multipass welding, but
also to investigate phase transformations of
coarse-grained austenite at various cooling
rates as well as the type/microhardness of
the obtained structure.
Materials and Methods of
Investigation
Material. Investigation of weldability in
the current study was carried out on sam-
ples of steels with strength of the X70 to X80
classes corresponding to the requirements
of Russian and international standards,
whose compositions and tensile properties
are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Sample thick-
nesses for steel grades X70 and X80 were,
respectively, 25.4 and 16.4 mm.
The low-C steel investigated contained
1.62–1.75% Mn, no V or Mo, and Nb mi-
croalloyed in the range of 0.06 to 0.10%.
Sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P), aluminum
(Al), and titanium (Ti), as well as calcium
(Ca) and trace elements, are not signifi-
cantly different in those two grades:
0.0007–0.001% S; 0.006–0.0013% P;
0.02–0.04% Al; 0.012–0.026% Ti;
0.004–0.006% N2; 0.0012–0.0015% Ca;
0.0002% boron (B); 0.004–0.005% tin
(Sn); 0.000% arsenic (As); 0.05–0.10%
copper (Cu); 0.001% cobalt (Co); and
0.003% lead (Pb).
Figure 1 shows an example of the grade
X80 steel base metal microstructure.
Simulation of welding. With all existing
varieties of evaluation of weldability, the
final assessment of the suitability of pipe
steels for use in specific conditions is ac-
complished by testing the impact tough-
ness of the welds. As is well known, the
coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) under-
goes heating to 1300°–1320°C and there-
fore has the most reduced, in comparison
with the base metal, impact toughness, but
a direct investigation of its properties with
the necessary localization of fracture in
the site of the HAZ is difficult. Simulation
of various heat inputs in the current study
was implemented by varying the applied
cooling rates to samples heated at high
heating rates up to 1300°–1320°C, as is
widely used in modern studies (Refs. 3,
14). In comparison with those studies,
where a Gleeble was used, the authors of
this work applied contactless induction
heating to samples with the same capabil-
ity to simulate a real welding process and
obtain dilatometric data at cooling. This
method allowing the assessment of weld-
ability criteria and investigations of phase
transformation in the HAZ based on sim-
ulation of thermal welding processes
within tubular steels has been developed
by the I. P. Bardin Central Research Insti-
tute of Ferrous Metals and actively used
for more than two decades.The samples
for subsequent mechanical testing were
subjected to heating and cooling, using
thermal cycles that corresponded to typi-
cal welding conditions adopted during the
manufacture of pipes, as well as in the con-
struction of pipelines. For simulation of
the submerged arc welding (SAW)
Table 2 — Tensile Properties of Investigated Steels
Grade
η YS0.5
E (MPa)
x-70* 551
x-80* 614
process, when the cooling rate is less than
10°C/s, 10 × 10-mm samples were used.
For multipass welding with low heat input
and therefore high cooling rates, 5 × 10-
mm samples were applied to reduce the
temperature gradient over the cross sec-
tion of the blanks. For normalizing Charpy
WELDING RESEARCH
toughness values, the converting factor of
0.65 was used for smaller samples, which
has been established by comparing the ex-
perimental results of the impact tests of
subsized and traditional full-size Charpy
samples of compared steels.
Thermal simulation facilitates not only
the investigation of impact toughness and
hardness of the HAZ, but also the mor-
phology of microstructures corresponding
to specific welding conditions.
In the process of manufacturing
pipelines, various types of welding are
used including two-pass SAW during pipe
production and multipass shielded metal
arc (SMA) or other welding processes
during the construction of gas pipelines.
These welding processes are fundamen-
tally different in terms of the welding heat
input and the character of the thermal
fields. Calculations of thermal fields are
made using two-dimensional field equa-
tions, applied to the factory mode of weld-
ing pipes with large heat inputs, and three-
dimensional ones for multipass welding of
butt joints in pipes at low heat-input
values.
Calculation of thermal fields and de-
termination of cooling rates for multipass
welding and two-pass SAW. Based on the
theory of thermal processes (Ref. 16), the
Tensile Properties
UTS TE YS0.5/UTS
(MPa) (%)
631 32.2 0.87
715 33 0.86
WELDING JOURNAL 25-s
 Fig. 5 — Microstructure of HAZ of multipass butt-joint welding, hot pass,
preliminary temperature 100°C (250×).
equations of two- and three-dimensional
heat-conducting paths are used to esti-
mate the interrelation of modes of weld-
WELDING RESEARCH
ing (heat input) and time of cooling (cool-
ing rate) of welded connections.
In particular, calculations of a three-
dimensional thermal field was applied to
welding weld roots at low heat input. At a
given mode of welding, there is no influ-
ence from the pipe wall thickness, d, and
the equation reflects only the effect of
heat input, E:
(t8/5) = (0.67 – 5*10–4*To)*η*E*
[1:(500 – To) – 1:(800 – To)] *Κ3 (1)
During welding of pipes using SAW
with a large heat input, a two-dimensional
thermal zone was considered. The equa-
tion demonstrates the influence of both
pipe wall thickness and the level of heat
input:
(t8/5) = (0.043 – 4.3*10–5*To)
*η *E2/d2*[1:(500 – To)]2 – [(1 : (800 –
2
To)]2*Κ2 (2)
Table 3 shows the symbols and designa-
tions for Equations 1 and 2. The charts as
presented in Fig. 9, which are based on
corresponding calculations and experi-
Table 3 — Symbols and Designations for Equations 1 and 2
Designation Units of Measure
t8/5 seconds
η Dimensionless factor
E J/sm
U Volt
I Amperage
V sm/s
To °C
d sm
26-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
Fig. 6 — Comparison of impact toughness vs. cooling rate dependences for
testing the investigated steels at –30°C.
ments, allow estimations of the cooling
rates from the peak temperature for every
specific heat input. One of the correspon-
ding charts for multipass welding will be
presented later.
During longitudinal welding with high
heat input, the cooling rate of the HAZ is
affected by the amount of heat input, a
wall thickness, and a temperature prior to
welding, meaning the temperature of the
previous pass during two-pass SAW.
The calculated cooling rate values, de-
pending on the initial temperature of the
weld during two-pass SAW are presented
in Table 4 for pipes with wall thicknesses
of 16.4 and 25.4 mm. During welding of
the external joint, each thickness requires
a specific optimal level of heat input,
which ensures the necessary geometric pa-
rameters of the joints. Appropriate cool-
ing rates of the external weld were defined
both for the condition of full cooling of the
internal joint (20°C), and for its incom-
plete cooling to 60° and 100°C.
Phase transformations and mi-
crostructure. The study of phase transfor-
mations was performed using a fast oper-
ating, high-temperature dilatometer
(DB-Chermet) capable of induction heat-
ing up to 1350°C at a heating rate from 10°
to 300°C/s and cooling capacity with rates
Parameter
Time of cooling from 800° to 500°C
Parameter of the process effciency
Heat-input (E = U*I/V)
Electric voltage of a welding arc
Electric current of a welding arc
Speed of welding
Temperature of preheating
Thickness of pipe wall
from 0.3° to 250°C/s. Microstuctures of
dilatometric and weld-simulated samples
were investigated using etching in 2%
Nital and optical microscope Axiovert 40
MAT. Twelve to 15 samples were used to
build each CCT diagram. The diagrams
contain microhardness values against
each cooling rate and corresponding prod-
uct of phase transformation so those num-
bers can be used, in particular, for evalua-
tion of hardness of martensite.
Evaluation of resistance to brittle frac-
ture. The investigated steel samples were
subjected to induction heating in accor-
dance with a specific thermal cycle of
welding and subsequent cooling at a wide
range of cooling rates. Specimens with
simulated microstructure of the HAZ
were machined to cut a sharp (Charpy)
notch and subjected to impact testing in
the temperature range 20° to –60°C. The
usual determination of the temperature of
ductile to brittle fracture transition, based
on area fraction of shear fracture, is prac-
tically impossible on subsized samples due
to the large plastic deformation of thin
samples. Therefore, the estimations of re-
sistance to brittle fracture were based on
the following set of parameters, schemati-
cally shown in Fig. 2.
• The “upper limit,” corresponding to
the beginning (lowest temperature) of
the “shelf toughness” (ShCVN) and sig-
nifying the beginning of the transition
from ductile to brittle fracture (projec-
tion “T1” in Fig. 2).
• The “average threshold” T50 ShCVN
(here at ~110 J/cm2) corresponding to the
decrease in impact toughness by 50% rel-
ative to the maximum (Shelf CVN) values,
which corresponds to a mixed brittle-
ductile fracture and, as shown by compar-
ison with full-size samples, corresponds to
50–60% of the tear fracture pattern (pro-
jection “T2” in Fig. 2).
 A B
C D
Fig. 7 — Microstructure of HAZ depending on simulated thermal conditions (250×).
• The temperature of minimum tough-
ness required (here 70 J/cm2), which is
usually defined by specifications for gas
pipes (projection T3 in Fig. 2).
Results and Discussion
Investigation of HAZ Resistance to Brittle
Fracture
Evaluation of weldability of the steel
containing 0.056% Nb based on T50 CVN
(Fig. 3A) shows that during cooling of the
external weld with a rate of 6°–8°C/s cor-
responding to the condition of complete
precooling of the internal weld, the tem-
perature of the average threshold ductile-
brittle transition of the HAZ (here corre-
sponding to CVN ~120 J/cm2) is –30°C
(determined for 7°C/s). For welding over
the “hot” joint (with its temperature of
100°C) and accordingly for the condition
of a reduced cooling rate T50 ShCVN in-
creases only up to –20°C (determined for
3.3°C /s).
Evaluation of weldability of the steel
containing 0.096% Nb by T50 CVN pre-
sented in Fig. 3B, under the same welding
conditions, demonstrates that the ductile-
brittle transition temperature (here, too,
at CVN ~ 120 J/cm2) is also –30°C (deter-
mined for cooling rate 7°C/s, and for weld-
ing over the “hot” joint (again at 100°C)
rises also to –20°C. Thus, the increase of
Nb content does not negatively impact the
brittle fracture resistance of the HAZ dur-
ing welding with high heat input.
The obtained experimental data were
transformed to some diagrams depicted in
Fig. 4. These diagrams present the CVN
values vs. applied cooling rate at various
temperatures of impact toughness meas-
urements and thus allow us to define per-
missible ranges of cooling rates in the tem-
Table 4 — Calculated Values of Cooling Rates, Depending on the Preliminary Temperature of
the Joint during Two-Pass, SAW
Temperature of
Internal Joint
before Welding,
T, °C
20°C
60°C
100°C
WELDING RESEARCH
perature region of phase transformations
W8/5 (cooling rate from 800° to 500°C),
which may ensure a prescribed level of
brittle fracture resistance of the steel in
the HAZ. As shown, these curves exhibit
some extremes, pointing out a maximum
possible impact toughness of the HAZ. At
present, this possibility cannot be imple-
mented due to lack of technical means to
control postweld cooling.
In particular, Fig. 5 presents the HAZ
microstructure after simulation of multi-
pass joint welding, the “hot pass” version.
When very favorable microstructure with
100% lath bainite was obtained, bainite
Pipe wall thickness, (mm)
16.4 25.4
Heat input (E ), kJ/mm
3.4–4.0 4.8–5.4
Cooling rate (W800/500) (°C/s)
5–7 6–8
4–6 5–7
3–5 4–6
WELDING JOURNAL 27-s
 A B
Fig. 8 — CCT diagrams of A — X70; B — X80 steel grades, built at cooling from 1300°C.
lath size is 15 microns, prior austenite
grain size is 40 microns.
As shown for X70 grade (Fig. 4A), the
studied composition shows a wide range of
acceptable cooling rates for welding with
large heat inputs, typical for factory-made
WELDING RESEARCH
longitudinal SAW, as well as with low heat
inputs applied for field construction joints.
Depending on the test temperature for a
specific pipeline operation, the allowable
range of postweld cooling rates may vary.
For example, to guarantee a CVN value
more than 120 J/cm2 at –20°C, the permis-
sible range of cooling rates is from 2.7° to
70°C/s.
It is worth noting that for field SAW
at –7°C, all existing working instructions
require preheating to 150°C, which means
heat input should be 1.2 kJ/mm or higher
to ensure a cooling rate no higher than
40°C/s.
As can be seen for X80 grade (Fig. 4B),
its high Nb content shows a wide range of
acceptable cooling rates for welding with
both high and low heat input. Depending
on the testing temperature for a specific
pipeline operation, the allowable range of
postweld cooling rates may vary. For ex-
ample, for a guaranteed level of toughness
of more than 120 J/cm2 at –20°C, the per-
missible cooling rate range is from 2.7° to
40°C/s.
Figure 6 presents the comparison of
those permissible ranges of cooling rates
for both investigated steels for impact
toughness tested at –30°C. As shown, the
X70 steel with 0.056% Nb can guarantee
retaining 50% ShCVN (here 115 J/cm2 ) at
cooling rates from 8° to 60°C/s, and the
specified minimum value (here 70 J/cm2)
at cooling rates from 3.8° to more than
100°C/s. Increase in Nb content results in
slight changes of those values. The tough-
ness of 115 J/cm2 at –30°C can be guaran-
teed at cooling rates from 7° to 20°C/s,
whereas the level of 70 J/cm2 can be as-
sured at cooling rates from 3° to 70°C/s.
Microstructures obtained at various
28-s JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
cooling rates are presented in Fig. 7. Fig-
ure 7A corresponds to the HAZ at very
slow cooling and contains 50% bainite and
50% polygonal ferrite with the sizes of the
bainite packet and ferrite grain of 30 and
35 microns, respectively. Figure 7B pres-
ents the microstructure of the SAW HAZ
with a “hot pass” (preliminary tempera-
ture 100°C): 5% polygonal ferrite and
95% bainite, average bainite packet size is
15 microns, and prior austenite grain size
(PAGS) is 70 microns. Microstructure of
HAZ at SAW with a “cold pass” (20°C) is
presented in Fig. 7C and contains 100%
bainite of lath and globular morphology,
and the bainite packet size is 10 microns
and the PAGS is 60 microns. The mi-
crostructure that can ensure the highest
low-temperature toughness is presented
in Fig. 7D. It is 100% lath bainite with a
packet size of 10 microns and PAGS of 45
microns.
Effect of Nb on the Kinetics of Austenite
Transformations
The changes in impact toughness
shown above reflect changes in mi-
crostructure resulting from the transfor-
mation of coarse-grained austenite in the
HAZ for a specific thermal cycle. Investi-
gations of phase transformations resulting
in the building of continuous cooling
transformation diagrams (CCT) were per-
formed after the high-speed heating of
dilatometer samples to a temperature of
1300°–1320°C.
As shown in Fig. 8A, B, the kinetics of
austenite transformation in both steels
that were investigated is featured by bai-
nite transformations in a wide range of
cooling rates. The fact that Nb promotes
the formation of lower temperature trans-
formation banite-like products at a rela-
tively high cooling rate is noted also at
comparative investigation of effects of Nb
and V (Ref. 15). Martensitic transforma-
tion is observed at high enough cooling
rates, but they do occur in pipeline butt
joints. Niobium slightly increases the sta-
bility of austenite, so that the formation of
martensite in steel containing 0.094% Nb
is observed at a cooling rate of 50°C/s,
compared with 70°C/s at 0.056% Nb con-
tent. This effect is small and it is necessary
to note that the actual cooling, which ac-
companies the root welding without pre-
heating the weld, even with a cooling rate
of 90°C/s, results in the volume fraction of
martensite being not more than 25% and
10%, respectively, for the 0.094% and
0.056% Nb. As can be seen from the CCT,
the formation of a significant amount of
(low-carbon and therefore not very hard)
martensite in these steels is impossible.
Diffusion-controlled ferrite transfor-
mation is shifted, under the influence of
niobium, to the slow cooling rates — up to
2.5°C/s at 0.094% Nb, and up to 4.2°/s at
0.056% Nb, i.e., toward significantly lower
than the usual cooling rates during weld-
ing of thick-walled tubes under a layer of
flux.
Evaluation of Tendency to Cold Cracking
During multipass welding, the HAZ
cooling rate depends on the heat input and
the temperature of the weld before the
welding, beside the effect of the wall thick-
ness. Processing of multipass butt-joint
welding of pipelines varies depending on
type of weld and heat input values as the
following:
• Root weld with heat input up to 0.55
kJ/mm;
• Hot pass with heat input up to 1.2 kJ/mm;
• Facing joint with GMA (CO2) welding
with heat input up to 2.0 kJ/mm.
The diagram of cooling rates vs. heat
inputs for these types of butt-joint welding
is shown in Fig. 9.
Measurements of microhardness of
dilatometric samples used at constructing
CCT diagrams to characterize products of
austenite transformations allow the evalu-
Fig. 9 — The cooling rate, depending on the heat input at multipass welding
of butt joints (figures show the temperature before the next weld pass, °C), in-
dependent of pipe wall thickness.
ation of the tendency to cold cracking in
the HAZ during welding.
The permissible level of hardness is 315
HV, which reflects a certain amount of
bainitic-martensitic mixture in the HAZ
structure, is established by norms of Det
Norske Veritas (DNV-OS-F101) and is ap-
plicable for welding pipes with a wall
thickness of 20 mm or more. (This crite-
rion applies to the evaluation of field
joints of pipelines welded with high cool-
ing rates, when partial quenching of HAZ
site is possible in the case of increased sta-
bility of the austenite).
As shown in Fig. 10, neither steel ex-
ceeds the 315-HV limit up to cooling rate
of 70°C/s. It should be noted that the in-
crease in Nb content up to ~0.10% at
medium level of Mn and small amounts of
Cr did not affect the propensity to quench-
ing of HAZ metal and thus the composi-
tions studied are not at risk of cold crack-
ing during welding, even with very low
heat input.
Conclusions
1. Weldability assessment was per-
formed based on careful investigations of
two Nb-containing industrial steel grades
of X70 and X80, respectively, with 0.056
and 0.094% Nb.
2. The resistance of the two steels to
brittle fracture in the HAZ was evaluated
on samples of the steels after high-tem-
perature heating and cooling to simulate
the weld thermal cycle of welded joints at
different heat inputs.
3. Use of different criteria of resistance
to brittle fracture including the tempera-
Fig. 10 — Determination of the critical cooling rate, preventing cold cracking
in the HAZ, based on the maximum permissible hardness of 315 HV.
ture of 50% shelf impact toughness and
temperature of minimum specified impact
toughness (here 70 J/cm2), have shown
that the HAZ of both investigated steels
ensure performance of pipelines down to
30°C in SAW of thick-walled pipes using
high heat input.
4. CCT diagrams developed and meas-
urements of microhardness of microstruc-
tures, formed by the transformation of
austenite at different cooling rates from
1300°C, have shown that the investigated
steels with Nb content up to ~0.1% do not
have a tendency to cold cracking in the
HAZ, even at very low heat input.
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WELDING JOURNAL 29-s
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T. Anderson W. Hou W. Lu M. Piltch R. J. Steele
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