Ch·apter 1

Introduction

• Prologue
The purpose of this chapter is to:

• Define hydrology.
• Give a brief history of the evolution of this important earth science.
• State the fundamental equation of hydrology.
• Demonstrate how hydrologic principles can be applied to supplement decision
. support systems for water and environmental management.

1.1 HYDROLOGY DEFINED

Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution, move­

ment, and properties of the waters of the earth. A knowledge of hydrology is funda­
mental to decisionmaking processes where water is a component of the system of
concern ..Water and environmental issues are inextricably linked, and it is important
to clearly understand how water is affected by and how water affects ecosystem
manipulations.

1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY

Ancient philosophers focused their attention on the nature of processes involved in the
production of surface water flows and other phenomena related to the origin and
occurrence of water in various stages of the perpetual cycle of water being conveyed
from the sea to the atmosphere to the land and back again to the sea. Unfortunately.
early speculation was often faulty.I-7* For example, Homer believed in the existence
of large subterranean reservoirs that supplied rivers, seas, springs, and deep wells. It
is interesting to note, however, that Homer understood the dependence of flow in the
*Superior numbers indicate references at the end of the chapter.

3
4 CHAPTER 1 . INTRODUCTION

Greek aqueducts on both conveyance cross section and velocity. This knowledge was
lost to the Romans, and the proper relation between area, velocity, and rate of flow
remained unknown until Leonardo da Vinci rediscovered it during the Italian Renais­
sance.
During the first century B.C. Marcus Vitruvius, in Volume 8 of his treatise De
Architectura Libri Decem (the engineer's chief handbook during the Middle Ages),
set forth a theory generally considered to be the predecessor of modern notions of the
hydrologic cycle. He hypothesized that rain and snow falliilg in mountainous areas
infiltrated the earth's surface and later appeared in the lowlands as streams and
springs.
In spite of the inaccurate theories proposed in ancient times, it is only fair to state
that practical application of various hydrologic principles was often carried out with
considerable success. For example, about4000 B.C. a dam was constructed across the
Nile to permit reclamation of previously barren lands for agricultural production.
Several thousand years later a canal to convey fresh water from Cairo to Suez was
built. Mesopotamian towns were protected against floods by high earthen walls. The
Greek and Roman aqueducts and early Chinese irrigation and flood control works
were also significant projects.
Near the end of the fifteenth century the trend toward a more scientific approach
to hydrology based on the observation of hydrologic phenomena became evident
Leonardo da Vinci and Bernard Palissy independently reached an accurate under­
standing of the water cycle. They apparently based their theories more on observation
than on purely philosophical reasoning. Nevertheless, until the seventeenth century it
seems evident that little if any effort was directed toward obtaining quantitative
measurements of hydrologic variables.
The advent of what might be called the "niodern" science of hydrology is usually
considered to begin with the studies of such pioneers as Perrault, Mariotte, and Halley
in the seventeenth century. I. 4 Perrault obtained measurements of rainfall in the Seine
River drainage basin over a period of 3 years. Using these and measurements of
runoff, and knowing the drainage area size, he showed that rainfall was adequate in
quantity to account for river flows. He also made measurements of evaporation and
capillarity. Mariotte gauged the velocity of flow of the River Seine. Recorded veloc­
ities were translated into terms of discharge by introducing measurements of the river
cross section. The English astronomer Halley measured the rate of evaporation of the
Mediterranean Sea and concluded that the amount of water evaporated was sufficient
to account for the outflow of rivers tributary to the sea. Measurements such as these,
although crude, permitted reliable conclusions to be drawn regarding the hydrologic
phenomena being studied.
The eighteenth century brought forth numerous advances in hydraulic theory
and instrumentation. The Bernoulli piezometer~ the Pitot tube, Bernoulli's theorem,
and the Chezy formula are some exaniples. 8
During the mneteenth century, experimental hydrology flourished. Significant
advances were made in groundwater hydrology and in the measurement of surface
water. Such significant contributioris as Hagen-Poisewlle's capillary flow equation,
Darcy's law of flow in porous media, and the Dupuit-Thiem well formula were
evolved. 9- 11 The beginning of systematic stream gauging can also be traced to this
period. Although the basis for modern hydrology was well established in the nine­
 1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET 5
teenth century, much of the effort was empirical in nature. The fundamentals of
physical hydrology had not yet been well established or widely recognized. In the early
years of the twentieth century the inadequacies of many earlier empirical formula­
tions became well known. As a result, interested governmental agencies began to
develop their own programs of hydrologic research. From about 1930 to 1950, rational
analyses began to replace empiricism. 3 Sherman's unit hydrograph, Horton's
infiltration theory, and Theis's nonequilibrium approach to well hydraulics are out­
standing examples of the great progress made. 12- 14
Since 1950 a theoretical approach to hydrologic problems has largely replaced
less sophisticated methods of the past. Advances in scientific knowledge permit a
better understanding of the physical basis of hydrologic relations, and the advent and
continued development of high-speed digital computers have made possible, in both
a practical and an economic sense, extensive mathematical manipulations that would
have been overwhelming in the past.
For a more comprehensive historical treatment, the reader is referred to the
works of Meinzer, Jones, Biswas, and their co-workers. 1. 2.4. 5. 15

1.3 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the
oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Many sub cycles exist. The
evaporation of inland water and its subsequent precipitation over land before return­
ing to the ocean is one example. The driving force for the global water transport system
is provided by the sun, which furnishes the energy required for evaporation. Note that
the water quality also changes during passage through the cycle; for example, sea
water is converted to fresh water through evaporation.
The complete water cycle is global in nature. World water problems require
studies on regional, national, international, continental, and global scales. 16 Practical
significance of the fact that the total supply of fresh water available to the earth is
limited and very small compared with the salt water content of the oceans has
received little attention. Thus waters flowing in one country cannot be available at the
same time for use in other regions of the woild. Raymond L. Nace of the U.S.
Geological Survey has aptly stated that "water resources are a global problem with
local roots."16 Modern hydrologists are obligated to cope with problems requiring
definition in varying scales of order of magnitude difference. In addition, developing
techniques to control weather must receive careful attention, since climatological
changes in one area can profoundly affect the hydrology and therefore the water
resources of other regions.

1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET

Because the total quantity of water available to the earth is finite and indestructible,
the global hydrologic system may be looked upon as closed. Open hydrologic subsys­
tems are abundant, however, and these are usually the type analyzed. For any system,
a water budget can be developed to account for the hydrologic components.
6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 show a hydrologic budget for the coterminous United
States" a conceptualized hydrologic cycle, and the distribution of a precipitation input,
respectively. These figures illustrate the components of the water cycle with which a
hydrologist is concerned. In a practical sense, some hydrologic region is dealt with and
a budget for that region is established. Such regions may be topographically defined
(watersheds and river basins are examples), politically specified (e.g., county or city
limits), or chosen on some other grounds. Watersheds or drainage basins are the
easiest to deal with since they sharply define surface water boundaries. These topo­
graphically determined areas are drained by a river/stream or system of connecting
rivers/streams such that all outflow is discharged through a single outlet. Unfortu­
nately, it is often necessary to deal with regions that are not well suited to tracking
hydrologic components. For these areas, the hydrologist will find hydrologic budgeting
somewhat of a challenge.
The primary input in a hydrologic budget is precipitation. Figures 1.l-1.3
illustrate this. Some of the precipitation (e.g., rain, snow, hail) may be intercepted by
trees, grass, other vegetation, and structural objects and will eventually return to the
atmosphere by evaporation. Once precipitation reaches the ground, some of it may fill
depressions (become depression storage), part may penetrate the ground (infiltrate) to
replenish soil moisture and groundwater reservoirs, and some may become surface
runoff-that is, flow over the earth's surface to a defined channel such as a stream.
Figure 1.3 shows the disposition of infiltration, depression storage, and surface runoff.

- BUrT
-----
W<'A T E R

~h

---""- Atmospheric moisture

~~
Evaporation and 1l1lnspiration from 1,'Preciprratiori'~
surface water bodies, land surface ' :,', I
and vegetation
2.800bgd

bgd =billion gallons per day

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic budget of coterminous United States. (U.S. Geological Survey.)
 1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET 7
Clouds and water vapor Clouds and water vapor
~
~E ~---~
t Jt~~t P ~ ttttt
P;'\~P p p p p p p

Figure 1.2 .The hydrologic cycle: T, transpiration; E, evaporation; P,

precipitation; R, surface runoff; G, groundwater flow; and I,
infiltration.

Precipitation input
(hyetograph)

Streamflow
(hydrograph)

Figure 1.3 Distribution of precipitation input.

8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Water entering the ground may take several paths. Some may be directly evap­
orated if adequate transfer from the soil to the surface is maintained. This can easily
occur where a high groundwater table (free water surface) is within the limits of
capillary transport to the ground surface. Vegetation using soil moisture or gtoundwa­
ter directly can also transmit infiltrated water to the atmosphere by a process known
as transpiration. Infiltrated water may likewise replenish soil moisture deficiencies
and enter storage provided in groundwater reservoirs, which in turn maintain dry
weather streamflow. Important bodies of groundwater are usually flowing so that
infiltrated water reaching the saturated zone may be transported for considerable
distances before it is discharged. Groundwater movement is subject, of course, to
physical and geological constraints.
Water stored in depressions will eventually evaporate or infiltrate the ground
surface. Surface runoff ultimately reaches minor channels (gullies, rivulets, and the
like), flows to major streams and rivers, and finally reaches an ocean. Along the course
of a stream, evaporation and infiltration can also occur.
The foregoing discussion suggests that the hydrologic cycle, while simple in
concept, is actually exceedingly complex. Paths taken by particles of water precipi­
tated in any area are numerous and varied before the sea is reached. The time scale
may be on the order of seconds, minutes, days, or years.
A general hydrologic equation can be developed based on the processes illus­
trated in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. Consider Fig. 1.4. In it, the hydrologic variables P, E, T,
R, G, and I are as defined in Fig. 1.2. Subscripts sand g are introduced to denote
vectors originating above and below the earth's surface, respectively. For example, Rg

' " Level

of plastic rock
(no water below this level)
Figure 1.4 Regional hydrologic cycle.
 1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET 9
signifies groundwater flow that is effluent to a surface stream, and Es represents
evaporation from surface water bodies or other surface storage areas. Letter S stands
for storage. The region under consideration specified as A has a lower boundary below
which water will not be found. The tipper boundary is the earth's surface. Vertical
bounds are arbitrarily set as projections of the periphery of the region. Remembering
a
that the water budget is balance between inflows, outflows, and changes in storage,
Fig. 1.4 can be translated into the following mathematical statements, where all values
are given in units of volume per unit time:

1. Hydrologic budget above the surface

P + Rl - R2 + Rg- Es - T. I aSs (1.1)
2. Hydrologic budget below the surface
I + G} - G2 - Rg Tg = aSg (1.2)
3. Hydrologic budget for the region (sum of Eqs. 1.2 and 1.3)
P - (R z - R1) (Es + Eg) - (T. + Tg) (G2 - GJ = a(Ss + Sg)
(1.3)

If the subscripts are dropped from Eq. 1.3 so that letters without subscripts refer
to total precipitation and net values of surface flow, underground flow, evaporation,
transpiration, and storage, the hydrologic budget for a region can be written simply as
P R - G - E - T = as (1.4)
This is the basic equation of hydrology. For a simplified hydrologic system where terms
G, E, and T do not apply, Eq. 1.4 reduces to
P-R=aS (1.5)
Equation 1.4 is applicable to exercises of any degree of complexity and is therefore
basic to the solution of all hydrologic problems.
The difficulty in solving practical problems lies mainly in the inability to mea­
sure or estimate properly the various hydrologic equation terms. For local studies,
reliable estimates often are made, but on a global scale quantification is usually crude.
Precipitation is measured by rain or snow gauges located throughout an area. Surface
flows can be measured using various devices such as weirs, flumes, velocity meters,
and depth gauges located in the rivers and streams of the area. Under good conditions
these measurements are 95 percent or more accurate, but large floods cannot be
measured directly by current methods and data on such events are sorely needed. Soil
moisture can be measured using neutron probes and gravimetric methods; infiltration
can be determined locally by infiltrometers or estimated through the use of
precipitation-runoff data. Areal estimates of soil moisture and infiltration are gener­
ally very crude, however. The extent and rate of movement of groundwater are usually
exceedingly difficult to determine, and adequate data on quantities of groundwater are
not always available. Knowledge of the geology of a region is essential for groundwater
estimates if they are to be more than just rough guides. The determination of the
10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

quantities of water evaporated and transpired is also extremely difficult under the
present state of development\of the science. Most estimates of evapotranspiration are
obtained by using evaporation pans, energy budgets, mass transfer methods, or empir­
ical relations. A predicament inherent in the analysis of large drainage basins is the
fact that rates of evaporation, transpiration, ,and groundwater movement are often
assumed to be highly heterogeneous.
The hydrologic equation is a useful tool; the reader should understand that it can
be employed in various ways to estimate the magnitude and time distribution of
hydrologic variables. An introductory example is given here, and others will be found
throughout the book.

EXAMPLEl.l ____________________________________________________

In a given year, a 1O,000-mF watershed received 20 in. of precipitation. The average

rate of flow measured in the river draining the area was found to be 700 cfs (cubic feet
per second). Make a rough estimate of the combined amounts of water evaporated and
transpired from the region during the year of record.
Solution. Beginning with the basic hydrologic equation

P-R-G-E-T=jj.S (1.4)

and since evaporation and transpiration can be combined,

ET=P-R-G-jj.S (1.6)

The term ET is the unknown to be evaluated and P and R are specified. The.
equation thus has five variables and three unknowns and cannot be solved
without additional information.
In order to get a solution, two assumptions are made. First, since the
drainage area is quite large (measured in hundreds of square miles), a presump­
tion that the groundwater divide (boundary) follows the surface divide is proba­
bly reasonable. In this case the G component may be considered zero. The
vector Rg exists but is included in R. The foregoing assumption is usually not
valid for small areas and must therefore be used carefully. It is also presupposed
that jj.S = 0, thus implying that the groundwater reservoir volume has not
changed during the year. For such short periods this assumption can be very
inaccurate, even for well-watered regions with balanced withdrawals and good
recharge potentials. In arid areas where groundwater is being mined (as consis­
tently negative), it would be an unreasonable supposition in many cases. Never­
theless, the assumption is made here for illustrative purposes and qualified by
saying that past records of water levels in the area have revealed an approximate
constancy in groundwater storage. Hydrology is not an exact science, and rea­
sonable well-founded assumptions are required if practical problems are to be
solved. .
Using the simplifications just outlined, the working relation reduces to

ET==P-R
 1.6 HYDROLOGIC DATA 11
which can be solved directly. First, change R into inches per year so that the units·
are compatible:
ft3 1 sec in. - R .
R, X (. 2) X X - , m.
sec area m ft yr ft
= 700 X 86,400 X 365 X 12 = 095 .
R 10 4 X (5280)2 . m.
Therefore, ET = 20 - 0.95 = 19.05 in.lyr.
The amount of evapotranspiration for the year in question is estimated to
be 19.05 in. This is admittedly a crude approximation but could serve as a useful
guide for water resources planning. - ­

1.5 HYDROLOGIC MODELS

Hydrologic systems are generally analyzed by using mathematical models. These

models may be empirical, statistical, or founded on known physical laws. They may
be used for such simple purposes as determining the rate of flow that a roadway grate
must be designed to handle, or they may guide decisions about the best way to develop
a river basin for a multiplicity ofobjectives. The choice of the model should be tailored
to the purpose for which it is to be used. In general, the simplest model capable of
producing information adequate to deal with the issue should be chosen.
Unfortunately, most water resources systems of practical concern have physical,
social, political, environmental, and legal dimensions, and their interactions cannot be
exactly described in mathematical terms. Furthermore, the historical data necessary
for meaningful hydrologic analyses are often lacking or unreliable. And when one
considers that hydrologic systems are generally probabilistic in nature, it is easy to
understand that the modeler's task is not a simple one. In fact, it is often the case that
the best that can be hoped for from a model is an enhanced understanding of the
system being analyzed. But this in itself can be of great value, leading, for example,
to the implementation of data collection programs that can ultimately support reliable
modeling efforts.
For the most part, mathematical models are designed to describe the way a
system's elements respond to some type of stimulus (input). For example, a model of
a groundwater system might be developed to demonstrate the effects on groundwater
storage of various schemes for pumping. Equations 1.1 and 1.2 are mathematical
models of ~he hydrologic budget, and Figure 1.3 can be considered a pictorial model
of the rainfall-runoff process. In later chapters, a variety of hydrologic models will be
presented and discussed. These models provide the basis for informed water manage­
ment decisions.

1.6 HYDROLOGIC DATA

Hydrologic data are needed to describe precipitation; streamflows; evaporation; soil

moisture; snow fields; sedimentation; transpiration; infiltration; water quality; air,
soil, and water temperatures; and other variables or components of hydrologic sys­
12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

terns. Sources of data are numerous, with the U.S. Geological Survey being the
primary one for streamflow and groundwater facts. The National Weather Service
(NOAA or National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) is the major collector
of meterologic data. Many other federal, state, and local agencies and other organiza­
tions also compile hydrologic data. For a complete listing of these organizations see
Refs. 3 and 17.

1.7 COMMON UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Stream and river flows are usually recorded as cubic meters per second (m3/sec), cubic
feet per second (cfs), or second-feet (sec-ft); groundwater flows and water supply flows
are commonly measured in gallons per minute, hour, or day, (gpm, gph, gpd), or
millions of gallons per day (mgd); flows used in agriculture or related to water storage
are often expressed as acre-feet (acre-ft), acre-feet per unit time, inches (in.) or
centimeters (cm) depth per unit time, or acre-inches per hour (acre-in.lhr),.
Volumes are often given as gallons, cubic feet, cubic meters, acre-feet, second­
foot-days, and inches or centimeters. An acre-foot is equivalent to a volume of water
1 ft deep over 1 acre of land (43,560 ftl). A second-foot-day (cfs-day, sfd) is the
accumulated volume produced by a flow of 1 cfs in a 24-hr period. A second-foot-hour
(cfs-hr) is the accumulated volume produced by a flow of 1 cfs in I hr. Inches or
centimeters of depth relate to a volume equivalent to that many inches or centimeters
of water over the area of concern. In hydrologic mass balances, it is sometimes useful
to note that 1 cfs-day = 2 acre-feet with sufficient accuracy for most calculations.
Rainfall depths are usually recorded in inches or centimeters whereas rainfall
rates are given in inches or centimeters per hour. Evaporation, transpiration, and
infiltration rates are usually given as inches or centimeters depth per unit time. Some
useful constants and tabulated values of several of the physical properties of water are
given in Appendix A at the end of the book.

1.8 APPLICATION OF HYDROLOGY TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

It is true that humans cannot exist without water; it is also true that water, misman­
aged, or during times of deficiency (droughts), or times of surplus (flopds), can be life
threatening. Furthermore, there is no aspect of environmental concern that does not
relate in some way to water. Land, air, and water are all interrelated as are water and
all life forms. Accordingly, the spectrum of issues requiring an understanding of
hydrologic processes is almost unlimited. .
As water becomes more scarce and as competition for its use expands, the need
for improved water management will grow. And to provide water for the world's
expanding population, new industrial qevelopments, food production, recreational
demands, and for the preservation and protection of natural systems and other pur­
poses, it will become increasingly important for us to achieve a thorough understand­
ing of the underlying hydrologic processes with which we must contend. This is the
challenge to hydrologists, water resources engineers, planners, policy makers, lawyers,
economists, and others who must strive to see that fuJure allocations of water are
sufficient to meet the needs of human and natural systems.
 PROBLEMS 13
• Summary
Hydrology is the science of water. It embraces the occurrence, distribution, move­
ment, and properties of the waters of the earth. In a mathematical sense, an account­
ing may be made of the inputs, outputs, and water storages of a region so that a history
of water movement for the region can be estimated.
After reading this chapter you should be able to understand the hydrologic
hudget and make a simple accounting of water transport in a region. You should also
have gained an understanding of how hydrologic analyses can be used to facilitate
design and management processes for water resources systems.

PROBLEMS

1.1. One-half inch of runoff results from a storm on a drainage area of 50 mi 2• Convert this
amount to acre-feet and cubic meters.
1.2. Assume you are dealing with a vertical walled reservoir having a surface area of
500,000m2 and that an inflow of 1.0 m3/sec occurs. How many hours will it take to
raise the reservoir level by 30 cm?
1.3. Consider that the storage existing in a river reach at a reference time is 15 acre-ft and
at the same time the inflow to the reach is 500 cfs and the outflow from the reach is
650 efs. One hour later, the inflow is 550 cfs and the outflow is 680 cfs. Find the
change in storage during the hour in acre-feet and in cubic meters.
1.4. During a 24-hr time period, the inflow to a 500-acre vertical walled reservoir was
100 cfs. During the same interval, evaporation was 1 in. Was there a rise or fall in
surface water elevation? How much was it? Give the answer in inches and centimeters.
1.5. The annual evaporation from a lake is 50 in. lfthe lake's surface area is 3000 acres,
what would be the daily evaporation rate in acre-feet and in centimeters?
1.6. A flow of 10 cfs enters a l-mi2 vertical walled reservoir. Find the time required to raise
the reservoir level by 6 in.
1.7. A drainage basin has an area of 4571 mi2. If the average annual runoff is 5102 cfs and
the average rainfall is 42.5 in., estimate the evaportranspiration losses for the area in
I year. How reliable do you think this estimate is?
1.8. The storage in a reach of a river is 16.0 acre-ft at a given time. Determine the storage
(acre-feet) I hr later if the average rates of inflow and outflow during the hour are
700 and 650 cfs, respectively.
1.9. Rain falls at an average intensity of 0.4 in.lhr over a 600-acre area for 3 days. (a)
Determine the average rate of rainfall in cubic feet per second; (b) determine the 3-day
volume of rainfall in acre-feet; and (c) determine the 3 -day volume of rainfall in inches
of equivalent depth over the 600-acre area.
1.10. The evaporation rate frem the surface of a 3650-acre lake is 100 acre-ft/day. Deter­
mine the depth change (feet) in the lake during a 365.day year if the inflow to the lake
is 25.2 cfs. Is the change in lake depth an increase or a decrease?
1.11. One and one-half inches of runoff are equivalent to how many acre-feet if the drainage
area is 25-mi2? (Note: I acre = 43,560 ft2.)
1.12. One-half inch of rain per day is equivalent to an average rate of how many cubic feet
per second if the area is 500 acres? How many meters per second?
14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

REFERENCES
1. P. B. Jones, G. D. Walker, R. W. Harden, and L. L. McDaniels, "The Development of the
Science of Hydrology," Circ. No. 60-03, Texas Water Commission, Apr. 1963.
2. W. D. Mead, Notes on Hydrology. Chicago: D. W. Mead, 1904.
3. Ven Te Chow (ed)., Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
4. O. E. Meinzer, Hydrology, Vol. 9 of Physics ofthe Earth. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1942.
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5. P. D. Krynine, "On the Antiquity of Sedimentation and Hydrology," Bull. Ceol. Soc.
.4rn. 70, 1721-l726( 1960).
6. Raphael G. Kazmann, Modern Hydrology. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
7. H. Pazwosh and G. Mavrigian, "A Historical Jewelpiece-Discovery of the Millennium
Hydrologic Works of Karaji," Water Resources Bull. 16(6), 1094-1096(Dec. 1980).
8. Hunter Rouse and Simon Ince, History of Hydraulics, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Re­
search, State University oflowa, 1957.
9. G. H. L. Hagen, "Ueber die Bewegung des Wassers in engen cylindrischen Rohren,"
Poggendorfs Ann. Phys. Chern. 16,423-442(1839).
10. Henri Darcy, Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon. Paris: V. Dalmont, 1856.
11. J. Dupuit, Etudes tMoriques et practiques sur Ie rnouvement des eaux dans les canauxs
decouverts et a travers les terrains permeables, 2nd ed. Paris: Dunod, 1863.
12. L. K. Sherman, "Stream Flow from Rainfall by the Unit-Graph Method," Eng. News­
Rec. 108(1932).
13. R. E. Horton, "The Role of Infiltration in the Hydrologic Cycle," Trans. Am. Ceophys.
Union 14,446-460(1933).
14. C. V. Theis, "The Relation Between the Lowering of the Piezometric Surface and the Rate
and Duration of a Well Using Ground Water Recharge," Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 16,
519-524(1935).
15. Asit K. Biswas, "Hydrologic Engineering Prior to 600 B.C.," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.,
Proc. Paper 5431, Vol. 93, No. HY5 (Sept. 1967).
16. Raymond L. Nace, "Water Resources: A Global Problem with Local Roots," Environ. Sci.
Techno!. 1(7) (July 1967).
17. D. K. Todd (ed.), The Water Encylopedia. New York: Water Information Center, 1970.