CE 1601 Handout 2018-2019 - Term 1 - KAC PDF

CE 1601
Fundamentals of Structures
K. A. Cashell
CE 1601 Term 1
Content of the course:

1. Introduction, basics of mechanics
2. Statics – Vectors and Scalers
3. Forces
4. System of Forces and Moments
5. Objects in Equilibrium
6. Structures in Equilibrium
7. Centroids & Centres of Mass
8. Moments of Inertia
9. Friction
10. Internal Forces & Moments
Assessment:
Final exam = 70% of overall mark (35% Term 1 and 35% Term 2)
Coursework 1 (Term 1) = 15% of overall mark
Coursework 2 (Term 2) = 15% of overall mark
Contact:
Katherine Cashell
Room H247, Howell building
katherine.cashell@brunel.ac.uk
About Term 1
 Worth 50% of overall module
 Exam = worth 70% of overall module mark
CE1601  35% comes from Term 1, 35% Term 2
Fundamentals of Structures  Assignment = worth 30% of overall mark
 15% = Term 1 assignment
Dr Katherine Cashell  15% = Term 2 assignment
 Term 1 assignment = Lab Report
 More info later on that
1 2
Where to find me Course content – Term 1
1. Introduction, basics of mechanics

 Howell Building, Room 256
2. Statics – Vectors and Scalers
 Phone: 01895266400
3. Forces
 Email: katherine.cashell@brunel.ac.uk
4. System of Forces and Moments
 NOTE: I work 2 days per week at home 5. Objects in Equilibrium
(Tuesday and Friday), so email contact then! 6. Structures in Equilibrium
7. Centroids & Centres of Mass
8. Moments of Inertia
9. Friction
10. Internal Forces & Moments 4
A few questions….
 What is a structure?
 What is a structural engineer?
 Where does this fit in to civil engineering?
CE1601  Key parts of a structure?
Chapter One: Introduction
5 6
1
Chapter Outline 1.1 Engineering & Mechanics
 Knowledge of previous designs,

1.1 Engineering & Mechanics experiments, ingenuity & creativity to
1.2 Learning mechanics develop new designs.
1.3 Fundamental Concepts
 Develop mathematical equations based on
1.4 Units
the physical characteristics:
1.5 Newtonian Gravitation
 Predict the behavior
 Modify the design
 Test the design prior to actual construction
7 8
1.1 Engineering & Mechanics 1.1 Engineering & Mechanics
 Elementary Mechanics – the study of  Applications in many fields of engineering:

forces & their effects  Statics: equilibrium equations
 Statics – the study of objects in equilibrium  Designing structures (mechanical & civil)
 Dynamics – the study of objects in motion  Dynamics: motion equations
 Analyze responses of buildings to
earthquakes (civil)
 Determine trajectories of satellites
(aerospace), etc.
9 10
1.2 Learning Mechanics 1.2 Learning Mechanics

 Problem solving procedures:
 Engineering problem solving procedures:
 Try to predict the answer to develop intuition
 Identify
information given & information to be
 help to recognize an incorrect answer.
determined.
 Solve the equations, interpret the results &
 Restate the problem in your own words.
compare with your prediction  reality check
 Develop a strategy, i.e. identify the principles
Is your answer reasonable?
& equations that apply & decide how to use
them.
 Draw diagrams to help visualization.
11 12
2
1.2 Learning Mechanics 1.2 Learning Mechanics
 Calculators & Computers:  Engineering Applications:

 To solve algebraic expression in terms of  Describes how mechanics is applied in
given quantities. various fields of engineering.
 A calculator with trigonometric & logarithmic  Emphasis on 2 essential aspects of
functions is sufficient. engineering:
 Programmable calculator/computer with  Design – to choose parameters values to
problem-solving software such as Mathcad or satisfy stated design criteria

MATHLAB is convenient.  Safety – to evaluate the safety of devices
and choose parameter values to satisfy
stated safety requirements
(C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd (C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
13 14
1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.3 Fundamental Concepts
 Numbers:  Numbers:
 Engineering measurements, calculations &  Rounding off:
results  E.g.
 Significant Digits – the number of meaningful
(i.e. accurate) digits in a number, counting to
the right starting with the first nonzero digit:
 E.g. 7.630 & 0.007630 (4 significant digits)
 7630, 000 = 7.630 x 106
15 16
 Space & Time:  Space & Time:

 Space:  Time:
 3-dimensional space & locations/positions  Measured by the intervals between
of points in space. repeatable events.
 Distance between 2 points in space =  SI unit of time: second (s)
length of the straight line joining them
 SI unit of length: meter (m)
17 18
3
 Position of a point in space relative to  Newton’s Laws of Motion

some reference point changes with time:  ???
 Rate of change of position = velocity
 SIunit: meters per second (m/s)
 Rate of change of velocity = acceleration
 SI unit: meters per second squared (m/s2)
19 20
 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion  Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

 When the sum of the forces acting on a  When the sum of the forces acting on a
particle = 0, its velocity is constant. particle is ≠ 0, the sum of forces is equal to
 In particular, if the particle is initially the rate of change of the linear momentum of
stationary, it will remain stationary. the particle.
 If the mass is constant, the sum of forces is
equal to the product of the mass of the
particle & its acceleration.
21 22
 Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion  Force & mass are defined by the 2nd law
 The forces exerted by 2 particles on each  Choose an arbitrary object to have a unit mass
other are equal in magnitude & opposite in & define a unit force to be the force that gives
direction. the unit mass an acceleration of unit magnitude
 Apply a unit force to the mass, measure the
resulting acceleration  mass
 SI unit: kilogram (kg)
23 24
4
 Force & mass are defined by the 2nd law:  Limitations to the validity of Newton’s Laws:
 Apply a force to the unit mass, measure the  Problems involving velocities that are not small
resulting acceleration  force compared to the velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s)
 SI unit: newton (N)  Einstein’s special theory of relativity
 U.S. Customary unit: pound (lb)  Phenomena on the atomic scale  Quantum
mechanics
25 26
1.4 Units 1.4 Units
 International System of Units:  Prefixes:

 Base units:
 Length: meters (m)
 Mass: kilograms (kg)
 Time: second (s)
 Derived Unit:
 Expressed in terms of base units
 E.g. Force is measured in newtons (N)  E.g. 1 kg = 1000 m, 1 Mg = 106 g = 1000 kg
27 28
1.4 Units 1.4 Units
 Angular Units:  Conversion of Units:

 Angles are normally  Values must be expressed in terms of one
expressed in radians (rad) system of units before they are substituted
 Defined to be the ratio of the into the equation
part of the circumference
subtended by θ to the radius
of the circle
 Angles are also expressed in
degrees:
29 30
5
Example 1.2 Determining Units from an Equation Example 1.2 Determining Units from an Equation
Suppose that in Einstein’s equation Solution

(a) From the equation for E,
E = mc2
the mass m is in kilograms & the velocity of light c the SI units of E are kg∙m2/s2.
is in meters per second….
What are the SI units of E?
31 32
Example 1.2 Determining Units from an Equation 1.5 Newtonian Gravitation
Critical Thinking  Gravitational force between

2 particles of mass m1 & m2
 How did we know that we could determine the
that are separated by a
units of E by determining the units of mc2?
distance r (Fig. 1.4) is:
 The dimensions, or units of each term in an
equation must be the same.
 E.g. in the equation a + b = c, the dimensions
of each of the terms a,b & c must be the same
dimensionally homogeneous equation.
where G = universal gravitational constant
33 34
1.5 Newtonian Gravitation 1.5 Newtonian Gravitation

 Gravitational force between a particle of mass  Weight of an object of mass m due to the
m1 & a homogenous sphere of mass m2 is also gravitational attraction of the earth is approximated
given by Eq. (1.1) by:
where mE = mass of earth,

r = distance from the center of earth to
the object
35 36
6
 Note:  Newton’s 2nd law:
 The weight of an object depends on its location
relative to the center of the earth.  Acceleration due to gravity:
 The mass of the object is a measure of the From Eq. (1.2),
amount of matter it contains.
 Acceleration due to gravity at sea level: g
From Eq. (1.3),
where RE = radius of the earth
37 38

 Acceleration due to gravity at a distance r from  Weight of an object at a distance r from the
the center of the earth (a) in terms of center of the earth:
acceleration due to gravity at sea level (g):
39 40
1.5 Newtonian Gravitation Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight
 Weight of object at sea level (r = RE): When the Mars

Exploration Rover was
fully assembled, its mass
was 180 kg. The
 The value of g varies from location to location on acceleration due to gravity
the surface of the earth. at the surface of Mars is
 g = 9.81 m/s2 (SI units) 3.68 m/s2 & the radius of
Mars is 3390 km.
41 42
7
Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight
(a) What was the Rover’s weight when it was at Strategy

sea level on Earth? (a) The rover’s weight at sea level on Earth is given
(b) What is the Rover’s weight on the surface of by Eq. (1.6) with g = 9.81 m/s2.
Mars? (b) We can determine the weight on the surface of
(c) The entry phrase began when the spacecraft Mars by using Eq. (1.6) with the acceleration
reached the Mars atmospheric entry interface due to gravity equal to 3.68 m/s2.
point at 3522 km from the center of Mars. (c) To determine the Rover’s weight as it began the
What was the rover’s weight at that point? entry phase, we can write an equation for Mars,
equivalent to Eq. (1.5).
43 44
Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight
Solution Solution
(a) The weight at sea level on Earth is: (b) Let gM = 3.68 m/s2 be the acceleration due to
gravity at the surface of Mars. Then the weight
of the rover on the surface of Mars is:
45 46
Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight
Solution
(c) Let RM = 3390 km be the radius of Mars. From
Eq. (1.5), the rover’s weight when it is 3522 km
above the center of Mars is:
47
8
Outline
 Scalars & Vectors
 Rules for Manipulating Vectors
 Components in 2 Dimensions
CE1601  Components in 3 Dimensions
Fundamentals of Structures  Dot Products
 Cross Products
Chapter Two: Vectors
 Mixed Triple Products
1 2
2.1 Scalars & Vectors 2.1 Scalars & Vectors

 Graphical representation of vectors: arrows
 Scalar – a physical quantity that is
 Directionof arrow = direction of vector
completely described by a real number
 Length of arrow
 E.g. Time, mass
 Vector – both magnitude (nonnegative real  Example:
number) & direction  rAB = position of point B relative
 E.g.Position of a point in space relative to to point A
another point, forces (a)
 Direction of rAB = direction from
 Represented by boldfaced letters: point A to point B
 Magnitude of vector  |rAB| = distance between 2 points
(b)
3 4
2.2 Rules for Manipulating Vectors 2.2 Rules for Manipulating Vectors
 2nd displacement V
 Vector Addition:
 Final position of book is the same whether we
 When an object undergoes a displacement give it displacement U then V, or vice versa
(moves from 1 location in space to another)
U and V equivalent to a single displacement
W: U + V = W
 Displacement vector: U
 Direction of U = direction of displacement
 |U| = distance the book moves
5 6
1
 Vector addition is commutative:  Product of a Scalar & a Vector:

U+V=V+U (2.1)  Product of scalar (real number) a & vector
U = vector aU
 Vector addition is associative:  Magnitude = |a||U| , where |a| is the absolute
(U + V) + W = U + (V + W) (2.2) value of the scalar a
 Direction of aU is the same as direction of U
 Ifthe sum of 2 or more vectors = 0, when a is positive
they form a closed polygon  Direction of aU is opposite to direction of U
 Example:
when a is negative
 Vector rAC from A to C is the  Division of a vector U by
a scalar a:
sum of rAB & rBC
7 8
 Vector Subtraction:
 The product is associative with respect to U – V = U + (1)V (2.6)
scalar multiplication:
a(bU) = (ab)U (2.3)  Unit Vectors:
 Magnitude =1
 The product is distributive with respect to
scalar addition:  Specifies a direction
 If a unit vector e & a vector
U have
(a + b)U = aU + bU (2.4)
the same direction: U = |U|e
 The product is distributive with respect to
vector addition:
a(U + V) = aU + aV (2.5)
Unit Vector
Vector Subtraction
9 10
Example 2.1 Adding Vectors Example 2.1 Adding Vectors

• Roof supported by the cables AB & AC
Strategy
• Forces the cables exert on the pylon are
represented by the vectors FAB & FAC (a) By drawing the parallelogram rule for adding the
• Magnitude of forces: |FAB| = 100 kN & |FAC| = 60 kN 2 forces with the vectors drawn to scale, we can
• Determine the magnitude & direction of the sum of measure the magnitude & direction of their sum.
the forces exerted on the pylon by the cables (a) (b) We will calculate the magnitude & direction of
graphically & (b) using trigonometry. the sum of the forces by applying the laws of
sines & cosines to the triangles formed by the
parallelogram rule.
Figure 2.11
11 12
2
Solution Solution
(a) Graphically construct the parallelogram rule with (b) Consider the parallelogram rule:
FAB & FAC proportional to their magnitudes: Since  + 30° = 180°,  = 150°
Applying law of cosines to shaded triangle:
By measuring the figure, we estimate the

magnitude of the vector FAB + FAC to be 155 kN Magnitude |FAB + FAC| =
& its direction to be 19° above the horizontal.
13 14
Solution Critical Thinking

(b) To determine the angle  between FAB + FAC  In engineering applications, vector operations
& the horizontal, apply law of sines to shaded are nearly always done analytically
triangle:  However, graphical methods enhances your
intuition about vectors & helps you understand
vector operations
The solution is  Also, sketching out a graphical solution can often
help you to formulate an analytical solution
15 16
2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions 2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions

 Vectors are much easier to work with when  Introduce a unit vector i defined to point in the
expressed in terms of mutually perpendicular direction of the positive x axis & a unit vector j
defined to point in the direction of the positive y
vector components: axis:
 Consider vector U: U = U xi + U yj (2.7)
 Place a cartesian coordinate system so that the where Ux & Uy are scalar components of U
vector U is parallel to the x-y plane
 Magnitude
of U is given in terms of its
 U = sum of perpendicular vector components Ux & components by the Pythagorean theorem:
Uy that are parallel to the x & y axes: U = Ux + Uy
(2.8)
17 18
3
 Manipulating Vectors in Terms of  Manipulating Vectors in Terms of
Components: Components:
 Sum of 2 vectors U & V:  Productof number a & vector U:
U + V = (Uxi + Uyj) + (Vxi + Vyj) aU = a(Uxi + Uyj) = aUxi + aUyj
= (Ux + Vx)i + (Uy + Vy)j (2.9)
 Graphically:
19 20
 Position Vectors in Terms of Components:  Position Vectors in Terms of Components:

 Consider point A with coordinates (xA, yA) &  Let rAB be the vector that specifies the position
point B with coordinates (xB, yB) of B relative to A:
rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yA)j (2.10)
21 22
Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of
Components Components
The forces acting on the Fig. 2.15 Strategy
sailplane in Fig. 2.15 are its
weight W = 3500j (N), the drag (a) By letting the sum of the forces = 0, we can
D = 1000i + 500j (N) & the lift L. determine the components of L.
(a) If the sum of the forces on the (b) Using the value of L from (a), we can determine
sailplane is zero, what are the the components of the sum of the forces & use
components of L? Eq. (2.8) to determine its magnitude.
(b) If the lift L has the components determined in (a)
& the drag D increased by a factor of 2, what is
the magnitude of the sum of the forces on the
sailplane?
23 24
4
Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of
Components Components
Solution Solution
(a) Set the sum of forces = 0 with the forces (b) If the drag increases by a factor of 2, the sum of
expressed in N: the forces on the sailplane: W
W+D+L=0
(-3000j) + (1000i + 500j) + L = 0
Solving for the lift, we obtain:
L = 1000i + 2500j (N) From Eq. (2.8), the magnitude of the sum is:
25 26
Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of Example 2.3 Determining Components in

Components Terms of an Angle
Critical Thinking Hydraulic cylinders are used to exert forces in many
mechanical devices. The force is exerted by the
 In part (a), notice that we were able to determine pressurized liquid (hydraulic fluid) pushing against a
both components of the vector L from 1 vector piston within the cylinder. The hydraulic cylinder AB
equation: in Fig. 2.16 exerts 20,000-N force F on the bed of the
 1 vector equation in 2 dimensions is equivalent dump truck at B. Express F in terms of components
to 2 scalar equations using the coordinate system shown.
Fig. 2.16
27 28
Example 2.3 Determining Components in Example 2.3 Determining Components in

Terms of an Angle Terms of an Angle
Strategy Solution
When the direction of a vector is specified by an Magnitude of Fx:
angle, we can determine the values of the
components from the right triangle formed by the
vector & its components. Fx points in the negative x direction:
Solution
Draw the vector F & its Magnitude of Fy:
components:
29 30
5
Example 2.3 Determining Components in Example 2.3 Determining Components
Terms of an Angle in Terms of an Angle
Fy points in the positive y direction:  When you have determined the components of a
given vector, make sure they appear reasonable:
 In this example, the x component should be
The vector F, in terms of its components: negative & the y component positive
 Make sure that the components yields the correct
F = Fx + Fy = 17300i + 10000j (N) magnitude:

The x component of F is
& the y component is
31 32
Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

The cable from point A to point B exerts 800-N force Strategy
F on the top of the television transmission tower in  1st Method:
Fig. 2.17. Express F in terms of components using  Determine the angle  between F & the y axis
the coordinate system shown.  Determine the components from the right
triangles formed by the vector F & its
components
 2nd Method:
 The right triangles formed by F & its components
are similar to triangle OAB
 Determine the components of F by using the
ratios of the sides of these similar triangles
Fig. 2.17 33 34
Strategy Solution
 3rd Method:  1st Method:
 Determine the components of the position vector Consider the force F & its vector
rAB from point A to point B components:
 Divide this vector by its magnitude, we obtain a
unit vector eAB with the same direction as F
 Obtain F in terms of its components by
expressing it as the product of its magnitude &
eAB
(C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 35 36
6
Solution Solution
1stMethod: 1st Method:
From the right triangles formed by F & its vector Since Fx points in the positive x direction & Fy points
components, the magnitude of Fx is: in the negative y direction:
F = 358i  716j (N)
Magnitude of Fy is:
37 38

Solution Solution
 2nd Method:  2nd Method:
Length of cable AB:
Since triangle OAB is similar

to the triangle formed by F &
its vector components:
39 40
Solution Solution
2nd Method:  3rd Method:
Also from similar triangles: Vector rAB:
Thus, we again obtain the result:

F = 358i  716j (N)
41 42
7
Solution Solution
3rd Method: 3rd Method:
Divide this vector by its The force F is equal to the product
magnitude to obtain a unit of its magnitude |F| & eAB:
vector eAB that has the same
direction as the force F:
43 44

Critical Thinking Critical Thinking
 To specify a vector, the magnitude & direction  2nd Method:
must be prescribed:  Take advantage of the similar triangles
 In this example, the |F| is given  Knowing |F| & the 40-m & 80-m dimensions 
 The 40-m & 80-m dimensions in Fig. 2.17 F components
define the direction of the cable from A to B,  3rd Method:
which also defines the direction of F  Knowing the 40-m & 80-m dimensions 
 1st Method: express position vector from A to B in terms of
 Knowing the 40-m & 80-m dimensions  its components
determine the angle  between the vertical &  Dividing that position vector by its magnitude
line AB  unit vector with the same direction as F
 |F| &  was then used to calculate the  Multiply the unit vector by |F|  F components
components of F
45 46
Example 2.5 Determining an unknown Example 2.5 Determining an unknown

Vector Magnitude Vector Magnitude
The cables A & B in Fig. 2.18 exert Strategy
forces FA & FB on the hook. The The vector sum of the 2 forces is perpendicular to
magnitude of FA is 100 N. The tension in the wall, so the sum of the components parallel to
cable B has been adjusted so that the the wall equals zero. From this condition we can
total force FA + FB is perpendicular to the obtain an equation for the magnitude of FB.
wall to which the hook is attached.
Solution
Fig. 2.18
(a) Components of FA & FB are:
(a) What is the magnitude of FB?
(b) What is the total force exerted on
the hook by the 2 cables?
47 48
8
Example 2.5 Determining an unknown Example 2.5 Determining an unknown
Vector Magnitude Vector Magnitude
Solution Solution
(a) Total force: (b) With |FB|, the total force acting on the hook:
Set the component of the total force parallel to

the wall (the y component) = 0:
The magnitude of the total force is 92.2 N.
Thus:
49 50
Example 2.5 Determining an unknown

Vector Magnitude
Critical Thinking
 We can obtain the solution to (a) in a less formal
way:
 If the component of the total force parallel to
the wall is zero, the magnitude of the vertical
component of FA must equal the magnitude of
the vertical component of FB
51
9
 Review of drawing objects in 3 dimensions:  Right-handed coordinate system:

(a) A cube viewed with the line of sight
perpendicular to a face
(b) An oblique view of the cube
(c) A cartesian coordinate system aligned with
the edges of the cube
(d) 3-D representation of the coordinate system
 Expressvector U in terms of vector
components Ux, Uy & Uz parallel to the x, y & z
axes respectively:
U = Ux + Uy + Uz (2.11)
1 2

 Introducing unit vectors i, j & k that point in the  Magnitude of a Vector in Terms of
positive x, y & z directions, U can be expressed Components:
in terms of scalar components:
 Consider a vector U & its vector components:
U = U xi + U yj + U z k (2.12)
3 4
 Magnitude of a Vector in Terms of  Magnitude of a Vector in Terms of

Components: Components:
 From the right triangles formed by vectors Uy,  Substituting Eq. (2.13):
Uz & their sum Uy + Uz: |U|2 = |Ux|2 + |Uy| + |Uz|2 =
|Uy + Uz|2 = |Uy|2 + |Uz|2 (2.13)
 Thus, magnitude of vector U:
 The vector U is the sum of the vectors Ux &
Uy + Uz. The 3 vectors form a right triangle: (2.14)
|U|2 = |Ux|2 + |Uy + Uz|2
5 6
1
 Direction Cosines:  Direction Cosines:

 One way to describe the direction of a vector is
by specifying the angles x, y & z between the
vector & the positive coordinate axes:
Ux = |U| cos x, Uy = |U| cos y, Uz = |U| cos z (2.15)
7 8
 Direction Cosines:  Direction Cosines:

 Thus:
 Direction cosines: cos x, cos y & cos z
Ux = |U| ex, Uy = |U| ey, Uz = |U| ez
 Direction cosines satisfy the relation:
 By comparing these equations to Eqs. (2.15):
cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1 (2.16)
cos x = ex, cos y = ey, cos z = ez
 Suppose that e is a unit vector with the same
 The direction cosines of a vector U are the
direction as U: components of a unit vector with the same
U = |U| e direction as U
 In terms of components:
Uxi + Uyj + Uzk = |U| (exi + eyj + ezk)
9 10
 Position Vectors in Terms of Components:  Position Vectors in Terms of Components:

 Consider point A with  The position vector rAB from A
coordinates (xA, yA, zA) & to B:
point B with coordinates
(xB, yB, zB) rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yA)j + (zB  zA)k (2.17)
11 12
2
 Components of Vector Parallel to a Given  Components of Vector Parallel to a Given

Line: Line:
 In 3-D applications, the  Divide rAB by its magnitude  unit vector eAB
direction of a vector U is that points from A to B
often defined by specifying  eAB has the same direction as U
the coordinates of 2 points  Determine U as the product of its magnitude
A & B on a line that is & eAB: U = |U| eAB
parallel to U
 Determine position vector
rAB using Eq. (2.17)
13 14
Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction Cosines Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction
of a Vector Cosines of a Vector
The coordinates of point C of the truss in Fig. 2.26 Strategy
are xC = 4 m, yC = 0, zC = 0 & the coordinates of (a) We can obtain the components of rCD by
point D are xD = 2 m, yD = 3 m, zD = 1 m. Let rCD be subtracting the coodinates of C from the
the position vector from C to D. coordinates of D
(a) What is the magnitude of rCD? (b) Once the components of rCD are knowm, we
(b) What are the direction
can determine the direction cosines from Eqs.
cosines of rCD?
(2.15)
(c) Determine the components of
a unit vector eCD that points (c) Dividing the vector rCD by its magnitude yields
form point C towards the unit vector eCD
point D. Fig. 2.26
15 16
Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction
Cosines of a Vector Cosines of a Vector
Solution Solution
(a) The components of rCD are given by: (a) The magnitude of rCD is:
rCD = (xD  xC)i + (yD  yC)j + (zD  zC)k
= (2  4) i + (3  0)j + (1  0)k
= 2i + 3j + k
17 18
3
Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction
Cosines of a Vector Cosines of a Vector
Solution Solution
(b) The direction cosines of rCD are: (c) The unit vector that points from C to D is:
(Notice that we already knew these components

because the direction cosines of rCD are the
components of a unit vector with the same
direction as rCD.)
19 20
Example 2.6 Magnitude & Direction Example 2.7 Determining Components in 3

Cosines of a Vector Dimensions
Critical Thinking The crane in Fig. 2.27 exerts a 3000-N force F on
the caisson. The angle between F & the x axis is
 Useful to know the components of a unit vector
that points from C toward D: 54° & the angle between F & the y axis is 40°. The
z component of F is positive. Express F in terms of
 To analyze the internal forces in the members
of 3-D trusses (Chapter 6) components.
 Need to know components of unit vectors
parallel to the members to express those
forces in terms of their components
Fig. 2.27
21 22
Example 2.7 Determining Components in 3 Example 2.7 Determining Components in 3

Dimensions Dimensions
Strategy Solution
 Only 2 of the angles between the vector & the The angles between F & the positive coordinate
positive coordinate axes are given but we can axes are related by:
use Eq. (2.16) to determine the third angle cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1
 Then we can determine the components of F (cos 54°)2 + (cos 40°)2 + cos2 z = 1
using Eqs. (2.15)
Solving this equation for cos z , we obtain two
solutions:
cos z = 0.260 & cos z = 0.260
z = 74.9° or z = 105.1°
23 24
4
The z component of F is positive, so the angle  x & y are sufficient to define a line parallel to F
between F & the z axis < 90°. Therefore, z = 74.9°. but not the direction along that line:
 Knowledge of x & y  solve Eq. (2.16) for
The components of F are: value of cos2 z
Fx = |F| cos x = 3000 cos 54° = 1760 N,  Two possible values of cos z
Fy = |F| cos y = 3000 cos 40° = 2300 N,  Correspond to the 2 possible directions of F
Fz = |F| cos z = 3000 cos 74.9° = 17820 N along the line
 Additional information needed to indicate the
direction: z component of F is positive
25 26

The tether of the balloon in Fig. 2.28 exerts an 800-N Strategy
force F on the hook at O. the vertical line AB  We can determine the components of F from the
intersects the x-z plane at point A. The angle given geometric information in 2 steps
between the z axis & the line OA is 60° & the angle
 First, express F as the sum of 2 vector
between the line OA
components parallel to the lines OA & AB
& F is 45°. Express F in
terms of components.  Then use the component parallel to OA to
determine the vector components Fx & Fy
Fig. 2.28
27 28

Solution Solution
Magnitude of Fy is: Express Fh in terms of vector components Fx & Fz.
|Fy| = |F| cos 45° = (800 N) cos 45° Magnitude of Fx:
= |Fx| = |Fh| sin 60° = (566 N) sin 60°
Magnitude of Fh is: =
|Fh| = |F| cos 45° = (800 N) cos 45° Magnitude of Fz:
= |Fz| = |Fh| cos 60° = (566 N) cos 60°
Fy : y component of F =
Fh : component parallel to OA F=
29 30
5
Example 2.8 Determining Components in 3 Example 2.9 Vector whose Direction is
Dimensions Specified by 2 Points
Critical Thinking The bar AB in Fig. 2.29 exerts a 140-N force F on its
support at A. The forces is parallel to the bar &
 2 angles are required to specify a vector’s points toward B. Express F in terms of components.
direction relative to a 3-D coordinate system:
 May not be defined in the same way as in the
example (see problem 2.84)
 But you can determine the components of the
vector in terms of the magnitude & the two
specified angles by a procedure similar to the
one used here
Fig. 2.29
31 32
Example 2.9 Vector whose Direction is Example 2.9 Vector whose Direction is
Specified by 2 Points Specified by 2 Points
Strategy Solution
 Since we are given the coordinates of points A Position vector from A to B:
& B  components of the position vector from rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yB)j + (zB  zA)k
A to B. = (800  200) i + (500  200)j
 By dividing the position vector by its magnitude + [(300 )  (100)]k
 unit vector with the same direction as F
= 600i + 300j  200k (mm)
 Multiply the unit vector by |F|  F in terms of its
components
Magnitude:
33 34
Example 2.9 Vector whose Direction is Example 2.9 Vector whose Direction is
Specified by 2 Points Specified by 2 Points
By dividing rAB by its magnitude  Prescribing the positions of 2 points on the line of
 unit vector with the same action of a vector is a common method of
direction as F: specifying the direction of a vector in 3 dimensions
 This example involves 3 distinct types of vectors:
 Force vector: |F| (N)
In terms of its components:
 Position vector: |rAB| (mm)
 Unit vector: |eAB| (dimensionless)
6
in 3 Dimensions in 3 Dimensions
The rope in Fig. 2.30 extends from point B through Strategy
a metal loop attached to the wall at A to point C. the
 FAB is parallel to the line from A to B
rope exerts forces FAB & FAC on the loop at A with
magnitudes |FAB| = |FAC| = 200 N. What is the  FAC is parallel to the line from A to C
magnitude of the total force F = FAB + FAC exerted  Determine the coordinates of points A, B & C
on the loop by the rope? from the given dimensions  components of
unit vectors that have the same direction as the
2 forces
 Use the unit vectors to express the forces in
terms of scalar components
Fig. 2.30
37 38

Solution Solution
Let rAB be the position Components of rAB & rAC:
vector from A to B & rAC rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yB)j + (zB  zA)k
be the position vector = (2  6) i + (0  7)j + (4  0)k
from A to C: =
rAC = (xC  xA)i + (yC  yB)j + (zC  zA)k
= (12  6) i + (0  7)j + (6  0)k
=
From the given dimensions, coordinates of points:
Magnitudes: |rAB| =
A: (6, 7, 0) m, B: (2, 0, 4) m, C: (12, 0, 6) m
|rAC| =
39 40

Solution Solution
Dividing rAB & rAC by their magnitudes The forces FAB & FAC:
 unit vectors eAB & eAC that point in the directions of
FAB & FAC
Total force exerted on the loop by the rope:
Magnitude:
41 42
7
in 3 Dimensions of a Force
Critical Thinking The cable AB in Fig. 2.31 exerts a 50-N force T on
 Assume that force is a vector: the collar at A. Express T in terms of components.
 Magnitude & direction of total force exerted
on the metal loop at A: F = FAB + FAC
Fig. 2.31
43 44

of a Force of a Force
Strategy Solution
 Let rAB be the position vector from A to B
 Determining the Coordinates of Point A:
 Divide rAB by its magnitudes  unit vector eAB
having the same direction as T: rCD = (0.2  0.4) i + (0  0.3)j + (0.25  0)k
 Obtain T in terms of scalar components by = 0.2i  0.3j + 0.25k (m)
expressing it as the product of its magnitude
& eAB
 To begin, determine coordinates of collar A:
 obtain a unit vector eCD pointing from C
toward D
 Multiply eCD by 0.2  position of collar A
relative to C
45 46

Solution Solution
Determining the Coordinates of Point A: Using eCD  position vector from C to A:
Dividing this vector by its magnitude rCA = (0.2 m) eCD = 0.091i  0.137j + 0.1145k (m)
 unit vector eCD:
Position vector from origin to C:
rOC = 0.4i + 0.3j (m)
47 48
8
Solution Solution
Position vector from origin to A:  Determining the Components of T:
rOA = rOC + rCA Position vector from A to B:

= (0.4i + 0.3j) + (0.091i  0.137j + 0.1145k ) rAB = (0  0.309) i + (0.5  0.163)j + (0.15  0.114)k
= 0.309i + 0.163j + 0.114k (m) = 0.309i + 0.337j + 0.036k (m)
Divide this vector by its magnitude  unit vector eAB:
Coordinates of A: (0.309, 0.163, 0.114) m.
49 50
Example 2.11 Determining Components

of a Force
Solution
The force T:
Critical Thinking
 Look at the 2 ways unit vectors were used:
 eCD  components of rCA  coordinates of A
 Coordinates of A  eAB
 eAB  express T in terms of its components
51
9
2.5 Dot Products 2.5 Dot Products
 Definition:  Definition:
 Consider 2 vectors U & V:  Result is a scalar
 Denoted by U∙V  sometimes called
 Defined to be the product of the scalar product
magnitude of U, the magnitude  Unit = product of the
of V & the cosine of the angle  units of the 2 vectors
between U & V when they are
placed tail to tail
U∙V = |U||V| cos  (2.18)
1 2

 Notice that the dot product of two nonzero  The dot product is associative with respect to
vectors = 0 if & only if the vectors are scalar multiplication:
perpendicular a(U∙V) = (aU)∙V = U∙ (aV) (2.20)
 The dot product is commutative:
U∙V = V∙U (2.19)  The dot product is associative with respect to

vector addition:
U∙ (V + W) = U∙V + U∙W (2.21)
 Dot Products in Terms of Components:  Dot product of U & V expressed in terms of

 Determine the dot products formed from the their components:
unit vectors i, j & k: U∙V = (Uxi + Uyj + Uzk) ∙ (Vxi + Vyj + Vzk)
i∙i = |i||i| cos (0) = (1)(1)(1) = 1 = UxVx(i∙i) + UxVy(i∙j) + UxVz(i∙k)
i∙j = |i||j| cos (90°) = (1)(1)(0) = 0 + UyVx(j∙i) + UyVy(j∙j) + UyVz(j∙k)
 Continuing this way: + UzVx(k∙i) + UzVy(k∙j) + UzVz(k∙k)
i∙i = 1, i∙j = 0, i∙k = 0,  Substituting Eqs. (2.22):
j∙i = 0, j∙j = 1, j∙k = 0, U∙V = UxVx + UyVy + UzVz (2.23)
k∙i = 0, k∙j = 0, k∙k = 1. (2.22)
5 6
1
 Equate the expression for dor product given by  Vector Components Parallel & Normal to a
Eq. (2.23) to the definition of dot product, Eq. Line:
(2.18) to solve for cos  :
 Projection of vector : component of vector
parallel to a line
(2.24)
 Consider a vector U & a straight line L :
 Express U as the sum of vector components Up
& Un that are parallel & normal to L
7 8
 Parallel Component:  Parallel Component:

 Magnitude of Up is:  Comparing with Eq. (2.25):
|Up| = |U| cos  (2.25) |Up| = e∙U
 Let e be a unit vector parallel to L:  Therefore, the parallel vector or

e∙U = |e||U| cos  = |U| cos  projection of U onto L is:
Up = (e∙U) e (2.26)
(This equation holds even if e doesn’t point in the
direction of Up. In that case,  >90° & e∙U is
negative.)
9 10
Example 2.12 Using the Dot Product to

2.5 Dot Products Determine an Angle
 Normal Component: What is the angle  between the lines AB & AC
in Fig. 2.35?
 Once the parallel component has been
determined, we can obtain the normal vector
component:
U = Up + Un
Fig. 2.35
Un = U  Up (2.27)
Strategy
 Coordinates of A, B & C  components of
vector rAB & rAC
 Use Eq. (2.24) to determine 
11 12
2
Example 2.12 Using the Dot Product to Example 2.12 Using the Dot Product to
Determine an Angle Determine an Angle
Solution Solution
Vectors rAB & rAC : Dot product of rAB & rAC :
rAB = (6  4) i + (1  3)j + (2  2)k rAB∙rAC = (2 m) (4 m) + (2 m) (5 m) + (4 m) (2 m)
= =
rAC = (8  4) i + (8  3)j + (4  2)k Therefore,
=
Magnitudes:
13 14
Example 2.12 Using the Dot Product to

Determine an Angle
2.6 Cross Products
Critical Thinking  Definition:

 What does it mean if the dot product of 2  Consider 2 vectors U & V:
vectors is negative?  Denoted by U V
 From Eq. (2.18) & graph:  Defined by:
 Dot product is negative U  V = |U||V| sin  e (2.28)
only if the enclosed
angle between where  = angle between U & V
the 2 vectors > 90°
e = unit vector defined to be
perpendicular to both U & V
2.6 Cross Products 2.6 Cross Products

 Definition:  Unit = product of the units of the 2 vectors
 U,V & e are defined to be a right-  Notice that the cross product
handed system of 2 nonzero vectors = 0 if &
 Right-hand rule
only if the vectors are parallel
 The dot product is not
 Result is a vector  sometimes called
vector product commutative:
U  V = V  U (2.29)
17 18
3
 The dot product is associative  Cross Products in Terms of Components:
with respect to scalar multiplication:
 Determine the cross products formed from the
unit vectors i, j & k:
a(U  V) = (aU)  V = U  (aV) (2.30)
i  i = |i||i| sin (0) e = 0
i  j = |i||j| sin (90°) e = e
 The dot product is distributive
with respect to vector addition:  e = unit vector perpendicular to i & j
 e = k or e = k
U  (V + W) = (U  V) + (U  W) (2.31)  Applying right-hand rule, e = k
ij=k
19 20
 Continuing this way:  Cross product of U & V expressed in terms of

i  i = 0, i  j = k, i  k = j, their components:
j  i = k, j  j = 0, j  k = i, U  V = (Uxi + Uyj + Uzk)  (Vxi + Vyj + Vzk)
k  i = j, k  j = i, k  k = 0. (2.32) = UxVx(i  i) + UxVy(i  j) + UxVz(i  k)
 These results can be easily remembered + UyVx(j  i) + UyVy(j  j) + UyVz(j  k)
by arranging the unit vectors in a circle:
+ UzVx(k  i) + UzVy(k  j) + UzVz(k  k)
21 22

 Substituting Eqs. (2.32):  Evaluating a 3  3 Determinant:
U  V = (UyVz  UzVy)i (UxVz UzVx)j  Repeatits first 2 columns & evaluate the
+ (UxVy UyVx)k products of the terms along the 6 diagonal
(2.33) lines
 This result can be compactly written as the
determinant:
() () () (+) (+) (+)

(2.34)
23 24
4
 Value of the determinant:  Alternatively:
25 26
2.7 Mixed Triple Products 2.7 Mixed Triple Products
 Definition: U∙ (V  W) (2.35)  This result can be expressed as the

determinant:
 In terms of scalar components:
(2.36)
 Interchanging any 2 vectors in the mixed

triple product changes the sign but not the
absolute value of the result
 E.g. U∙ (V  W) = W∙ (V  U)
27 28
Example 2.13 Calculating the Cross

2.7 Mixed Triple Products Product
 Ifthe vectors U, V & W form a right-handed The magnitude of the force F in Fig. 2.42 is 100
system N. The magnitude of the vector r from point O to
 Volume of the parallelepiped = U∙ (V  W) point A is 8 m.
(a) Use the definition of the cross product to
determine r  F.
(b) Use Eq. (2.34) to determine r  F.
Fig. 2.42
29 30
5
Example 2.13 Calculating the Cross Example 2.13 Calculating the Cross
Product Product
Strategy Solution
(a) The magnitudes of r & F & the angle between (a) Using the definition of cross product:
them when placed tail to tail are known. Since r  F = | r || F | sin  e
both vectors r & F lie in the x-y plane, the unit = (8 m) (100 N) sin 60°e
vector is perpendicular to both r & F.
= 693e (N-m)
(b) Determine the components of r & F & use
Eq. (2.34) to determine r  F. Since e is defined to be perpendicular to r & F,
e = k or e = k.
Right-hand rule indicates that e = k.
 r  F = 693k (N-m)
31 32
Example 2.13 Calculating the Cross Example 2.13 Calculating the Cross
Product Product
(b) The vector r = 8i (m).  This example was designed so that the cross
F in terms of scalar components: product of r & F could be evaluated by applying
F = 100 cos 60°i + 100 sin 60°j (N) the definition & using Eq. (2.34) to demonstrate
that they yield the same result
From Eq. (2.34):
 In most applications of the cross product, it is not
practical to use the definition:
 Eq. (2.34) must be used
33 34
Example 2.14 Component of a Vector Example 2.14 Component of a Vector

Perpendicular to a Plane Perpendicular to a Plane
The rope CE in Fig. 2.44 exerts a 500-N force T Strategy
on the door ABCD. What is the magnitude of the  Coordinates of the corners A, B, C & D of the door
component of T perpendicular to the door? are given
 Cross product of rCB from C to B & rCA from C to A
 vector perpendicular to the door
 Divide the resulting vector by its magnitude 
unit vector perpendicular to the door
 Apply Eq. (2.26)  component of T perpendicular
Fig. 2.44 to the door
35 36
6
Solution Solution
Components of rCB & rCA: Divide the vector by its magnitude  unit vector e
rCB = 0.35i  0.2j + 0.2k (m), perpendicular to the door:
rCA = 0.5i  0.2j (m)
Their cross product:
Position vector from C to E:

rCE = 0.2i + 0.2j  0.1k (m)
37 38

Solution Solution
Force T: Magnitude of component of T perpendicular to the
door: 373 N
The component of T perpendicular to the door:

(e∙T)e = [(0.358) (333 N) + (0.894) (333 N)
+ (0.268) (167 N)]e
= 373e (N)
39 40
Example 2.14 Component of a Vector

Perpendicular to a Plane
Chapter Summary
Critical Thinking  Rules for Manipulating Vectors:

 Useful to determine the component of T  Sum of 2 vectors is defined by the triangle rule
perpendicular to the door:  Product of scalar a & vector U = vector aU
 If the y axis is vertical & the rope CE is the  Magnitude = |a||U|
only thing preventing the hinged door from  Direction of aU is the same as direction of U
falling when a is positive
 Direction of aU is opposite to direction of U
 Intuitively that is the component of the force when a is negative
perpendicular to the door that holds it in place  Division of U by a is the product of (1/a)U
41 42
7
Chapter Summary Chapter Summary
 Rules for Manipulating Vectors:  Cartesian Components:

 Unit vector: e U expressed in terms of scalar components:
 Magnitude = 1 U = U xi + U yj + U z k (2.12)
 Specifies a direction
 Any vector U can be expressed as U = |U|e  Right-handed coordinate system

 Dividing any vector by its magnitude  unit
vector with the same direction as the vector  Magnitude of U:
(2.14)
43 44

 Cartesian Components:  Dot Products:
 Let x, y & z be the angles between U & the  Dot product of 2 vectors U & V:
positive coordinate axes:
U∙V = |U||V| cos  (2.18)
Ux = |U| cos x, Uy = |U| cos y, Uz = |U| cos z (2.15)
 Direction cosines: cos x, cos y & cos z  The dot product of 2 non-zero vectors = 0 if &
cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1 (2.16) only if the vectors are perpendicular
 Position vector rAB from point A with coordinates

(xA, yA, zA) to point B with coordinates (xB, yB, zB):
rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yA)j + (zB  zA)k (2.17)
45 46
 Dot Products:  Cross Products:

 In terms of scalar components:  Cross product of 2 vectors U & V:
U∙V = UxVx + UyVy + UzVz (2.23) U  V = |U||V| sin  e (2.28)
 Right-hand rule
 The cross product of 2 nonzero vectors = 0 if &
U can be expressed as the sum of vector only if the vectors are parallel
components Up & Un parallel & normal to a  In terms of scalar components:
straight line L in terms of a unit vector e:
Up = (e∙U) e (2.26)
Un = U  Up (2.27) (2.34)
47 48
8
Chapter Summary
 Mixed Triple Products:
 The mixed triple product is the operation:
U∙ (V  W) (2.35)
 In terms of scalar components:
(2.36)
49
9
Chapter Outline
 Types of Forces
 Analysis of Forces
 2-Dimensional Force Systems
CE1601  3-Dimensional Force Systems
Fundamentals of Structures  Computational Mechanics
Chapter Three: Forces
1 2
3.1 Types of Forces 3.1 Types of Forces
 Terminology:  System of Forces:

 Coplanar or 2 dimensional –
 Line of Action:
line of action of the forces lie in
 The straight line collinear with the force
a plane
vector
 3 dimensional
 Concurrent – lines of action of Concurrent
the forces intersect at a point

 Parallel – lines of action are
parallel
Parallel
3 4

 External & Internal Forces:  Body & Surface Forces:
 External force – given object is subjected to  Body Force – force acting on the volume of
a force exerted by a different object an object
 Internal force – one part of a given object is  E.g. gravitational force on an object
subjected to a force by another part of the  Surface Force – force acting on the surface
same object of an object
 Requires clear definition of object in  Can be exerted on an object by contact
consideration with another object
 Both body & contact forces can result from
electromagnetic effects
5 6
1
 Gravitational Forces:  Gravitational Forces:
 The force exerted on an object by the earth’s  Magnitude of an object’s weight is related to
gravity its mass by:
 Gravitational force, or weight, of |W| = mg
an object can be represented by a vector where g = 9.81 m/s2 in SI units
(acceleration due to gravity at sea level)
7 8

 Gravitational forces & electromagnetic forces  Contact Forces:
act at a distance:  Forces that result from contacts between
 The objects they act on are not necessarily objects
in contact with the objects exerting the  E.g. push on a wall  exert a contact force
forces  Surface of hand exerts a force F on surface
of wall
 Wall exerts an equal & opposite force F on
your hand (Newton’s 3rd Law)
9 10

 Surfaces:  Surfaces:
 Consider 2 plane surfaces in contact:  Force exerted on right surface by left
surface F
 Resolve F into:
 Normal force N (normal to surface)
 Friction force f (parallel to surface)
 Smooth surfaces – friction force

assumed to be negligible
 Force exerted on right surface by left
surface F  Rough surfaces – friction force cannot
be neglected
11 12
2
 If the contacting surfaces are curved:  Ropes & Cables:
 Contact force can be exerted on an object
by attaching a rope or cable to the object &
pulling on it
 Normal force & friction force are

perpendicular & parallel to the plane tangent
to the surface at their point of contact
13 14

 Ropes & Cables:  Assumption:
 Example:  Cable is straight
 Cable exerts a force T on container  Tension where cable is connected to
 Magnitude of T – tension in cable container = tension near crane
 Line of action of T collinear with cable  Approximately true if weight of cable <<
 Cable exerts an equal & opposite force tension

T on crane
15 16

 Pulley– wheel with grooved rim that can be  Assumption:
used to change the direction of a rope or  Tension is the same on both sides of a
cable pulley
 True when pulley can turn freely & the
rope or cable is either stationary or turns
at a constant rate
17 18
3
 Springs:  Consider a coil spring of
 To exert contact forces in mechanical unstretched length: Lo
 When stretched: L  Lo
devices
 Pulls on the object to
 E.g. suspension of cars
which it is attached with
force F
 Object exerts an equal &
opposite force F on spring
 When compressed: L  Lo
 Compressed too much 
buckle
19 20

 Spring designed to exert a force by being  Coil
springs commonly used in mechanical
compressed is often provided with lateral devices exert a force approximately
support to prevent buckling: proportional to the change in length:
 E.g. enclosing it in a cylindrical sleeve |F| = k|L  Lo| (3.1)
 Shock absorbers within coils in car
suspensions  Forceis a linear function of change in
length: linear spring
21 22

 Spring constant k
depends on
material & design
of spring
(units: force/length)
 From Eq. (3.1) k = magnitude of the force

required to stretch or compress the spring a  Example: Lo = 1 m & k = 3000 N/m, L = 1.2 m
unit of length Magnitude of the pull spring exerts:
k|L  Lo| = 3000(1.2  1) = 600 N
23 24
4
3.1 Types of Forces
 Springs can be used to
model situations in which
forces depend on displacements
 E.g. force necessary to bend
steel beam is a linear function
of displacement  if  is not
too large
|F| = k
 model force-deflection behaviour of
beam with a linear spring
25
5
3.2 Analysis of Forces 3.2 Analysis of Forces
 Equilibrium:  Definition: an object is in equilibrium only if
 Unchanging state – state of balance each point of the object has the same constant
 Examples: velocity (steady translation)
 Objects are at rest (stationary) relative to the  The velocity must be measured relative to a
building are in equilibrium frame of reference in which Newton’s laws are
 Objects within a train traveling at a constant valid
speed on a straight track, that are at rest  A frame of reference fixed with respect to the
relative to the train, are in equilibrium earth: inertial
 If the train begin increasing or decreasing its
speed, the person standing in the aisle would
no longer be in equilibrium & might lose his
balance
1 2

 Assumption: objects in steady translation  Free-Body Diagrams:
relative to the earth can be assumed to be in  Serves to focus attention on the object of
equilibrium interest & helps identify the external forces
 Vector sum of external forces acting on an acting on it
object in equilibrium = 0:  Also used in dynamics to study the motions of
objects
F=0 (3.2)  Drawing of an isolated or freed object & the
external forces acting on it
3 4

 Drawing a free-body diagram involves 3 steps:  A coordinate system is necessary to express
1. Identify the object to isolate – the choice is the forces on the isolated object in terms of
often dictated by particular forces you want components
to determine  E.g. to determine the tensions in the 2 cables:
2. Draw a sketch of the object isolated from its  Isolate lower block & part of cable AB
surroundings & show relevant dimensions &  Indicate the external forces: W & TAB
angles  Introduce a coordinate system
3. Draw & label vectors representing all the
external forces acting on the isolated object
– don’t forget to include the gravitational force
5 6
1
Equilibrium equation:  Isolate upper block
F = TABj – Wj = (TAB  W)j =  External forces: W, TCD & TAB
 Equilibrium equation:
Tension in cable AB is TAB =
F = TCDj – TABj – Wj
= (TCD – TAB  W)j = 0
Since TAB = W, TCD = 2W
7 8
3.2 Analysis of Forces 3.3 2-Dimensional Force Systems

 Alternatively, treat the 2  By orienting a coordinate system so that
blocks & cable AB as a external forces acting on an object lie in
single object: the x-y plane:
 Equilibrium equation:
F = (Fx)i – (Fy)j = 0
F = TCDj – Wj – Wj
where Fx & Fy are the sums of the x & y
= (TCD – 2W)j = 0 components of the forces
Again, TCD = 2W  A vector is zero only if each of its components is
zero  Scalar equilibrium equations:
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 (3.3)
9 10
Example 3.1 Using Equilibrium to Determine Example 3.1 Using Equilibrium to Determine
Forces on an Object Forces on an Object
For display at an automobile show, the 1440-kg car Strategy
in Fig. 3.19 is held in place on the inclined surface Since the car is in equilibrium, we can draw its
by the horizontal cable from A to B. Determine the free-body diagram & use Eqs. (3.3) to determine
tension that the cable (& the fixture to which it is the forces exerted on the car by the cable & use
connected at B) must support. The car’s brakes are the inclined surface.
not engaged, so the tires exert only normal forces
on the inclined surface.
Fig. 3.19
11 12
2
Solution Solution
Draw the Free-Body Diagram: Apply the Equilibrium Equations:
First, draw a free-body diagram of Introduce a coordinate system & resolve the normal
the car isolated from its force into x & y components:
surroundings.
Fx = T  N sin 20° = 0
Complete the free-body diagram Fy = N cos 20°  mg = 0
by showing the force exerted by
the car’s weight, the force T
exerted by the cable & the total
normal force N exerted on the
car’s tires by the inclined surface.
13 14
Resolve the 2nd equilibrium equation for N:  How to identify the external forces that act on an
object?
 Free-body diagram to isolate the car:
 Remove cable AB, which exerts the
horizontal force T on the car at A that keeps
the car in place on the inclined surface
Then we solve the 1st equilibrium equation for
 Remove the inclined surface, which exerts
tension T: forces on the car’s tires
T=  The example stipulated that the surface
could exert only normal forces on the tires
15 16
Example 3.1 Using Equilibrium to Determine Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body

Forces on an Object Diagram
Critical Thinking The automobile engine block in
 Free-body diagram to isolate the car: Fig. 3.20 is suspended by a
 Finally remove the earth itself, which exerts system of cables. The mass of
the car’s weight mg
the block is 200 kg. the system
 Thinking about what must be eliminated in
order to isolate an object focuses your is stationary. What are the
attention on those things that may exert tensions in cables AB & AC?
external forces on it
Fig. 3.20
17 18
3
Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body
Diagram Diagram
Strategy Solution
We need a free-body diagram that is subjected to Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
the forces we want to determine. By isolating part Isolate part of the cable system near point A:
of the cable system near point A where the cables
are joined, we can obtain a free-body diagram that
is subjected to the weight of the block & the
unknown tensions in cables AB & AC.
W = mg = (200 kg)(9.81 m/s2) = 1962 N

19 20
Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body

Diagram Diagram
Solution Solution
Apply the Equilibrium Equation: Apply the Equilibrium Equation:
Select the coordinate system shown. Resolve cable tensions into x & y
components:
Fx = TAC cos 45°  TAB cos 60° =
Fy = TAC sin 45° + TAB sin 60°  1962 N =
Solving these equations,

The tensions in the cables are
TAB
21 22
Example 3.2 Choosing a Free-Body Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System

Diagram of Pulleys
Critical Thinking The mass of each pulley of the
 How to choose a free-body diagram that permits system in Fig. 3.21 is m & the mass
you to determine particular unknown forces? of the suspended object A is mA.
 May be necessary to try several free-body
Determine the force T necessary
diagrams before finding one that provides the for the system to be in equilibrium.
information you need
 Forces to be determined should appear as
external forces on the free-body diagram
 Objective is to obtain a number of equilibrium
equations = number of unknown forces
Fig. 3.21
23 24
4
Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System
of Pulleys of Pulleys
Strategy Solution
By drawing free-body diagrams of the individual From equilibrium equation:
pulleys & applying equilibrium, we can relate the
force T to the weights of the pulleys & the object A. TD  T  T  mg = 0
Solution The tension in the cable
Draw a free-body diagram of pulley C to which the
supported by pulley D:
force T is applied.
Notice that we assume the tension in the cable
TD = 2T + mg
supported by the pulley to equal on both sides.
25 26
Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System
of Pulleys of Pulleys
Critical Thinking
Solution  Notice the objects we isolate in Figs. (a) & (b)
Draw the free-body diagram of include parts of the cable:
pulley B.  Weight of those parts of cable are external
forces acting on the free-body diagrams 
Equilibrium equation: neglected in comparison to the weights of
pulleys & suspended object A
T + T +2T + mg  mg  mAg =
Solving, T =
27 28
Example 3.3 Applying Equilibrium to a System

of Pulleys Design Example 3.4 Steady Flight
Critical Thinking Fig. 3.22 shows an airplane flying in the vertical
 Weights of objects are often neglected in plane & its free-body diagram. The forces acting
analyzing the forces acting on them:
on airplane are its weight W, the thrust T exerted
 Valid approximation for a given object if its
weight is small compared to the other forces by its engines & aerodynamic forces resulting from
acting on it the pressure distribution on the airplane’s surface.
 But in real engineering application, this
assumption must be carefully evaluated
Fig. 3.22
29 30
5
Design Example 3.4 Steady Flight Design Example 3.4 Steady Flight
The dashed line indicates the path along which the Strategy
airplane is moving. The aerodynamic forces are The airplane is assumed to be in equilibrium. By
resolved into a component perpendicular to the applying Eqs. (3.3) to the given free-body diagram,
path, the lift L & a component parallel to the path, we will obtain 2 equations with which to determine
the drag D. The angle  between the horizontal & T & .
the path is called the flight path angle &  is the
angle of attack. If the airplane remains in
equilibrium for an interval of time, it is said to be in
steady flight. If  = 6°, D = 125 kN, L = 680 kN & the
mass of the airplane is 72000 kg, what values of T
&  are necessary to maintain steady flight? Fig. 3.22
31 32
Solution Solution
In terms of the coordinate system in Fig. 3.22, the Solve Eq. (2) for sin , solve Eq. (1) for cos  &
equilibrium equations are: divide to obtain an equation for tan :
Fx = T cos   D  W sin  = 0 (1)

Fy = T sin  + L  W cos  = 0 (2)
where the airplane’s W =
The angle of attack  =
33 34
Solution Design Issues
Now we use Eq. (1) to determine thrust:  In the examples we have considered so far:
 Given: values of certain forces acting on an
object in equilibrium
 Goal: determine the unknown forces by
setting the sum of the forces = 0.
 In many engineering situations:
 An object in equilibrium is subjected to forces
Notice that the thrust necessary for steady flight is that have different values under different
28% of the airplane’s weight. conditions  profound effect on its design
35 36
6
Design Issues Design Issues
 When an airplane cruises at constant altitude  Much of the research
( = 0), Eqs. (1) & (2) reduce to: on airplane design,
T cos  = D including both
T sin  + L = W theoretical analyses &
 For a fixed value of , the lift & drag increase model tests in wind
as the speed of the airplane increases tunnels, is devoted to
 Principal design concern: minimize D at developing airplane
cruising speed in order to minimize the thrust shapes that minimize
(& consequently the fuel consumption) needed drag.
to satisfy the 1st equilibrium equation
37 38
 When an airplane cruises at low speed,  E.g. the F-15 must fly with a relatively large
satisfying the 2nd euilibrium equation has the angle of attack (which increases both the lift &
most serious implications for design: the vertical component of the thrust) in
 The airplane’s wings must generate sufficient comparison to the refueling plane.
lift to balance its weight
 Especially difficult for fast planes because
wings designed for low drag at high velocities
do not generate as much lift at low speeds as
wings that are designed for flight at lower
velocities F-15 refueling plane
39 40
Design Example 3.4 Steady Flight

Design Issues
 E.g. In the case of F-14, engineers obtained both
low drag at high velocities & good lift
characteristics at low velocities by using variable
sweep wings
F-14
41
7
Example 3.5 Applying Equilibrium in 3
3.4 3-Dimensional Force Systems Dimensions
 When the system of external forces acting The 100-kg cylinder
on an object in equilibrium is 3 dimensional: in Fig. 3.26 is
 F = (Fx)i + (Fy)j + (Fz)k = 0 suspended from
the ceiling by
 Each component of this equation must = 0, cables attached
resulting in 3 equilibrium equations: at points B, C & D.
What are the
tensions in cables
Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0 (3.4) AB, AC & AD?
Fig. 3.26
1 2
Example 3.5 Applying Equilibrium in 3 Example 3.5 Applying Equilibrium in 3

Strategy Solution
We can determine the tension by the same Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
approach we used for similar 2-D problems. By Isolate part of the cable system near point A &
isolating part of the cable system near point A, we complete the free-body diagram by showing the
can obtain a free-body diagram subjected to forces exerted by the tensions in the cables.
forces due to the tenisons in the cables.
Since the sums of the x, y & z components of the

external forces must each = 0, we obtain 3
equations for the 3 unknown tensions.
3 4

Solution Solution
Apply the Equilibrium Equations: First, determine the components of a unit vector
The sum of the external forces acting on the free- that points in the direction of vector TAB.
body diagram: Let rAB be the position vector from point A to B:
rAB = (xB  xA)i + (yB  yA)j + (zB  zA)k
F = TAB + TAC + TAD  (981 N)j = 0 =
To solve this equation for the tensions in the

cables, we need to express the vectors TAB, TAC &
TAD in terms of their components.
5 6
1
Solution Solution
Dividing rAB by its magnitude  unit vector with Now, we can write vector TAB as the product of the
same sirection as TAB: tension TAB in cable AB & eAB:
TAB = TABeAB = TAB (0.667i + 0. 667j + 0.333k)
Express the force vectors in terms of the tensions

TAC & TAD in cables AC & AD in the same way:
TAC = TAC (0.408i + 0.816j  0.408k)

TAD = TAD (0.514i + 0.686j  0.514k)
7 8

Solution Solution
We use these expressions to write the sum of The sum of forces in the x, y & z directions must
external forces in terms of the tensions TAB, TAC each = 0:
& TAD:
Fx = 0.667TAB  0.408TAC  0.514TAD = 0
 F = TAB + TAC + TAD  (981 N)j Fy = 0.667TAB + 0.816TAC + 0.686TAD = 0
= (0.667TAB  0.408TAC  0.514TAD)i Fz = 0.333TAB  0.408TAC  0.514TAD = 0
+ (0.667TAB + 0.816TAC + 0.686TAD  981 N)j
+ (0.333TAB  0.408TAC + 0.514TAD)k
Solving these equations, we find that the tensions
=
are TAB = TAC = TAD =
9 10

 By using the equilibrium equation  F = 0  able  But suppose the 100-kg cylinder had been
to determine the tenisons in the 3 cables AB, AC suspended from the ceiling using 4 cables instead
& AD: of 3:
 1 vector equation in 3 dimensions is equivalent  4 unknowns tensions to be determined but only
to 3 scalar equations 3 scalar equations  statically indeterminate &
cannot be solved by using statics alone
(Chapter 5)
11 12
2
Example 3.6 Application of the Dot Example 3.6 Application of the Dot
Product Product
The 100-N “slider” C in Strategy
Fig. 3.27 is held in To determine forces that act on the slider, we need
place on the smooth to draw its free-body diagram. The external forces
bar by the cable AC. acting on the slider are its weight & the forces
Determine the tension exerted on it by the cable & the bar.
in the cable & the force
exerted on the slider However, we do not know the direction of the
by the bar. force exerted on the slider by the bar to express
the forces in terms of their components.
Fig. 3.27
13 14
Product Product
Strategy Solution
Since the smooth bar exerts negligible friction Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
force, we do know that the force is normal to the Isolate the slider & complete the
bar’s axis. Therefore, we can eliminate this force free-body diagram by showing the
from the equation  F = 0 by taking the dot product weight of the slider, the force T
of the equation with a unit vector that is parallel to exerted by the tension in the cable
the bar. & the normal force N exerted by the
bar.
15 (C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 16
Product Product
Solution Solution
Apply the Equilibrium Equations: Determining eBD:
The sum of the external forces acting on the free- We determine the vector from point B to point D:
body diagram: rBD = (4  0)i + (0  7)j + (4  0)k
 F = T + N  (100 N)j = 0 (1) =
Divide it by its magnitude to obtain the unit vector

Let eBD be the unit vector pointing from point B
eBD:
toward point D. Since N is perpendicular to the
bar, eBD∙N = 0:
eBD∙( F) = eBD∙[T  (100 N)j] = 0 (2)
17 18
3
Product Product
Solution Solution
Expressing T in terms of components: Expressing T in terms of components:
We need to determine the coordinates of the Add it to the vector from the origin O to B to obtain
slider C. the vector from O to C:
Vector from B to C in terms of the unit vector eBD: rOC = rOB + rBC = 7j + (2.67i  4.67j + 2.67k)
rBD = 6eBD = 2.67i  4.67j + 2.67k = 2.67i + 2.33j + 2.67k (m)
The components of this vector are the coordinates

of point C.
19 20
Product Product
Solution Solution
Now determine a unit vector with the same Let T be the tension in the cable AC.
direction as T.
Vector from B to C: Write vector T in terms of their components into
rCA = (0  2.67)i + (7  2.33)j + (4  2.67)k Eq. (2) yields:
=
T = TeCA = T(0.482i + 0.843j + 0.241k)
The unit vector that points from point C toward
point A:
21 22
Product Product
Solution Solution
Determining T & N: Now determine the force exerted on the slider by
Substituting expressions for eBD & T in terms of the bar using Eq. (1):
their components into Eq. (2) yields:
N = T + (100 N)j
= (102 N)(0.482i + 0.843j + 0.241k) + (100 N)j
= 49.1i + 14.0j  24.6k (N)
23 24
4
Product Product
 By taking the dot product of the equilibrium  Physical interpretation of Eq. (2) provides a
equation for the slider with a unit vector eBD that more compelling explanation:
is parallel to the smooth bar BD:  It states that the component of the slider’s
 We obtained Eq. (2) which does not contain weight parallel to the bar is balanced by the
the normal force N component of T parallel to the bar
 Formal explanation:  The normal force exerted on the slider by
 eBD is perpendicular to N  eBDN = 0

the smooth bar has no component parallel
to the bar  solve for the tension in the
cable without knowing the normal force N
Example 3.7 Determining Tensions for a Range

Computational Mechanics of Dimensions
The system of cables in
 The following examples are designed for Fig. 3.28 is designed to
the use of a programmable calculator or suspend a load with a
computer mass of 1000 kg from the
ceiling. The dimension
 Example 3.7 is similar to previous
b = 2 m & the length of
examples except that the solution must be cable AB is 1 m. The height
calculated for a range of input quantities of the load can be
adjusted by changing the
 Example 3.8 leads to an algebraic
length of cable AC. Fig. 3.28
equation that must be solved numerically
27 28
Example 3.7 Determining Tensions for a Range Example 3.7 Determining Tensions for a Range
of Dimensions of Dimensions
(a) Plot the tensions in
cables AB & AC for values
Strategy
of the length of cable AC By drawing the free-body diagram of the part of
from 1.2 m to 2.2 m. the cable system where the cables join, we can
determine the tensions in the cables in terms of
(b) Cables AB & AC can each the length of cable AC.
safely support a tension
equal to the weight of the
load. Use results of (a) to
estimate the allowable Fig. 3.28
range of length of cable
AC.
5
Solution Solution
(a) Let the lengths of the Then use the law of sines to determine :
cables LAB = 1 m & LAC.
Apply the law of cosines to

the triangle to determine 
in terms of LAC:
31 32
Solution Solution
(a) Draw the Free-Body Diagram: (a) Apply the Equilibrium Equations:
Select the coordinate system shown, the
equilibrium equations are:
Fx = TAB cos  + TAC cos  = 0

Fy = TAB sin  + TAC sin   W = 0
33 34
Solution Solution
(a) Solving these equations: (a) To compute the results, input a value of the
length LAC & calculate the angle , then angle 
& then the tensions TAB & TAC. The resulting
values of TAC/W are plotted as functions of LAC:
35 36
6
(b) The allowable range of the length of cable AC  As this example demonstrates, even simple
is the range over which the tensions in both problems in mechanics can require the solution
cables are  W. of nonlinear equations
From the plot, we can see that the tension TAB  We could not obtain an analytical solution for the
exceeds W for values of LAC  ~1.35 m, so the length of LAC corresponding to a given maximum
safe ange is LAC 1.35 m. tension in 2 cables
 But by computing the values of the tensions as a
function of LAC, we were able to identify the
range of values for which the tensions in the
cables did not exceed the load
37 38
Example 3.8 Equilibrium Position of an Object Example 3.8 Equilibrium Position of an Object
Supported by a Spring Supported by a Spring
The 12-N collar A in Fig. Strategy
3.30 is held in Both the direction & the magnitude of the force
equilibrium on the exerted on the collar by the spring depend on h.
smooth vertical bar by By drawing the free-body diagram of the collar &
the spring. The spring applying the equilibrium equations, we can obtain
constant k = 300 N/m, the an equation for h.
unstretched length of the
spring is Lo = b & the
distance b = 1 m. What is Fig. 3.30
the distance h?
39 40
Solution Solution
Isolate the collar & complete the Selecting the coordinate system shown, the
free-body diagram by showing its equilibrium equations:
weight W = 12 N, the force F
exerted by the spring & the
normal force N exerted by the bar.
41 42
7
Solution Solution
Apply the Equilibrium Equations: Substituting this expression into the 2nd equilibrium
In terms of the length of the spring, equation:
the force exerted by the spring is:
Therefore, the distance h (in m) is a root of the

equation:
where b = 1 m, k = 300 N/m & W = 12 N.

43 44
Solution
Solution
How can we solve this nonlinear algebraic h (m) f(h)
equation for h? 0.449 0.1818
Some calculators & software are designed to
obtain roots of such equations. 0.450 0.1094
0.451 0.0368
Another approach is to calculate the value of f(h) 0.452 0.0361
for a range of values of h & plot the results. 0.453 0.1092
0.454 0.1826
45 46

From graph, the  Just as in Example 3.7, this relatively simple
solution is approximately mechanics problem gave rise to a nonlinear
h = 0.45 m. algebraic equation that we had to solve
numerically
By examining the  Obtaining numerical solutions to problems that
computed results near cannot be solved analytically is 1 of the most
h = 0.45 m, see table. common & important applications of computers
in engineering
 The solution (to 3 significant figures) is h = 0.452 m.
47 48
8
 By drawing free-body diagrams & applying  System of Forces:

the vector techniques in Chapter 2,  Coplanar or 2 dimensional – line of action of
unknown forces acting on objects in the forces lie in a plane
equilibrium can be determined from the  3 dimensional
condition that the sum of external forces  Concurrent – lines of action of the forces
must = 0 intersect at a point
 Line of action – the straight line coincident  Parallel – lines of action are parallel
with a force vector
49 50

 External & Internal Forces:  Body & Surface Forces:
 External force – an object is subjected to a  Body Force – force acting on the volume of an
force exerted by a different object object
 Internal force – one part of an object is  Surface force – force acting on the surface of
subjected to a force by another part of the an object
same object
51 52
 Gravitational Forces:  Surfaces:

 The weight of an object is related to its mass 2 plane surfaces in contact exert forces on
by: each other that are equal in magnitude &
W = mg opposite in direction
 Each force can be resolved into the normal
where g = 9.81 m/s2 in SI units force & the friction force
 Smooth surfaces – friction force is negligible
in comparison to the normal force
 Rough surfaces – friction force cannot be
neglected
53 54
9
 Ropes & Cables:
 A rope or cable attached to an object exerts a
 Springs:
force on the object whose magnitude is equal  The force exerted by a linear spring:
to the tension & whose line of action is
parallel to the rope or cable at the point of
attachment |F| = k|L  Lo| (3.1)
 Pulley – wheel with grooved rim that can be
used to change the direction of a rope or where k is the spring constant, L is the length of
cable the spring & L0 is its unstretched length
 When a pulley can turn freely & the rope or
cable is either stationary or turns at a
constant rate, the tension is the same on
both sides of a pulley
55 56

 Free-Body Diagrams:  Free-Body Diagrams:
 Drawing of an object in which the object is  A coordinate system must be chosen to
isolated from its surroundings & the external express the forces on the isolated object in
forces acting on the object terms of components
 Steps:
57 58
Chapter Summary
 Equilibrium:
 The sum of external forces acting on the
object in equilibrium = 0:
F=0 (3.2)
 Implies that the sums of the external forces in

the x, y & z directions each = 0:
Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0 (3.4)
59
10
Chapter Outline
 2-Dimensional Description of the Moment
 The Moment Vector
 Moment of a Force About a Line
CE1601  Couples
Fundamentals of Structures  Equivalent Systems
Chapter Four: System of Forces &  Representing Systems by Equivalent Systems
Moments  Computational Mechanics
1 2
4.1 2-D Description of the Moment 4.1 2-D Description of the Moment
 Consider a force of magnitude F & a point P &  Imagine that the force acts on an object that
view them in a direction perpendicular to the can rotate about point P, the force would
plane containing the force vector & the point: cause counterclockwise rotation
 Direction of the moment is counterclockwise
 Convection:
 Counterclockwise moments: positive
 The magnitude of the moment of the force
 Clockwise moments: negative
about P is the product DF, where D is the
perpendicular distance from P to the line of  Moment of force about P:
action of the force Mp = DF (4.1)
 The force will tend to cause counterclockwise
rotation about point P
3 4
 If the line of action of F passes through P, the
perpendicular distance D = 0 & the moment of F  Intuitively, we know that the attachment of the
about P is zero shelf to the wall is more likely to fail if you place
the television set away from the wall:
 The dimensions of the moment are:
(distance)  (force)
 E.g. moments can be expressed in newton-
meters in SI units
5 6
1
 The magnitude & direction of the force  This method can be used to determine the sum
exerted on the shelf by the weight of the of the moments of a system of forces about a
television are the same in each case but the point if the forces are 2-D (coplanar) & the point
moments exerted on the attachment are lies in the same plane:
different
 Moment exerted about P by its weight when it
is near the wall, MP = D1W, is smaller in
magnitude than the moment about P when it
is placed away from the wall, MP = D2W  Sum of the moments exerted about point P by
the load W1 & the counterweight W2:
 Mp = D1W  D2W
7 8
Example 4.1 Determining the Moment of

4.1 2-D Description of the Moment a Force
 This moment tends to cause the top of the What is the moment of the 40-kN force in Fig. 4.4
vertical tower to rotate & could cause it to about point A?
collapse
 If D2 is adjusted so that D1W = D2W, the
moment about point P due to the load & the
counterweight is zero
 If a force is expressed in terms of components, Strategy Fig. 4.4
the moment of the force about a point P is equal We can calculate the moment in 2 ways: by
to the sum of the moments of its components determining the perpendicular distance from point A
about P to the line of action of the force or by expressing the
force in terms of components & determining the
sum of the moments of the components about A.
9 10
Example 4.1 Determining the Moment of Example 4.1 Determining the Moment of
a Force a Force
Solution Solution
1st Method: 2nd Method:
The perpendicular distance Express the force in terms of horizontal & vertical
from A to the line of action of components:
the force is:
D = (6 m) sin 30° = 3 m
The magnitude of the moment of the force about A
is (3 m)(40 kN) = 120 kNm & the direction of the
The perpendicular distance from A to the line of
moment about A is counterclockwise.
action of the horizontal component is zero, so the
Therefore, the moment is:
horizontal component exerts no moment about A.
MA = 120 kNm
11 12
2
a Force a Force
Critical Thinking
Solution
 In the 1st method, we calculated the moment of
The magnitude of the moment of the vertical
the 40 kN force about A by determining the
component about A is:
perpendicular distance to the line of action of the
(6 m)(40 sin30° kN) =
force & multiplying it by the magnitude of the
& the direction of the moment about A is
force
counterclockwise.
 In the 2nd method, we 1st expressed the 40 kN
The moment is: MA = force in terms of components & then calculated
the sum of the moments of the components
about A
13 14
Example 4.1 Determining the Moment of Example 4.2 Moment of a System of

a Force Forces
Critical Thinking 4 forces act on the machine part in Fig 4.5. What is
 The 2 methods yield the same answer: the sum of the moments of the forces about the
origin O?
 Demonstration of Varignon’s Theorem
 It is not always easy to determine the
perpendicular distance to the line of action of
Fig 4.5
the force Strategy
 In some cases, it will be much simpler to We can determine the moments of the forces about
determine the moment of a force by O directly from the given information except for the
calculating the sum of the moments of its 4 kN force. We will determine its moment by
components expressing it in terms of components & summing
the moments of the components.
15 16
Example 4.2 Moment of a System of Example 4.2 Moment of a System of

Forces Forces
Solution Solution
Moment of the 3 kN Force: Moment of the 2 kN Force:
The line of action of the 3 kN force passes through The perpendicular distance from O to the line of
O. It exerts no moment about O. action of the 2 kN force is 0.3 m & the direction of
Moment of the 5 kN Force: the moment about O is clockwise. The moment of
The line of action of the 5 kN force also passes the 2 kN force about O is:
through O. It too exerts no moment about O.
(Notice that we converted the perpendicular
distance from millimeters into meters, obtaining the
result in terms of kilonewton-meters)
17 18
3
Example 4.2 Moment of a System of Example 4.2 Moment of a System of
Forces Forces
Solution Solution
Moment of the 4 kN Force: The perpendicular distance from O to the line of
Introduce a coordinate action of the y component is 0.7 m & the direction of
system & express the 4 kN the moment about O is counterclockwise. The
force in terms of x & y moment of the y component about O is:
components: (0.7 m)(4 sin 30° kN) = 1.400 kNm
The perpendicular distance from O to the line of The sum of the moments of the 4 forces about
action of the x component is 0.3 m & the direction of point O is:
the moment about O is clockwise. The moment of  MO = 0.600  1.309 + 1.400 = 0.239 kNm
the x component about O is: The 4 forces exert a 0.239 kNm clockwise moment
about point O.
19 20
Example 4.2 Moment of a System of Example 4.3 Summing Moments to

Forces Determine an Unknown Force
Critical Thinking The weight W = 300 N (Fig. 4.6). The sum of the
 If an object is subjected to a system of known moments about C due to the weight W & the force
forces, it is useful to determine the sum of the exerted on the bar CA by the cable AB is zero.
moments of the forces about a given point: What is the tension in the cable?
 Provides a test for equilibrium  an object is in
equilibrium only if the sum of the moments about
any point is zero
(Notice that the object in this example is not in equilibrium)
 Furthermore, in dynamics the sum of the
moments of the forces acting on objects must be
determined in order to analyze their angular
motions Fig. 4.6
21 22
Example 4.3 Summing Moments to Example 4.3 Summing Moments to

Determine an Unknown Force Determine an Unknown Force
Strategy Strategy
Let T be the tension in the cable AB. Using the Using similar triangles, express
given dimensions, express the horizontal & vertical the force exerted on the bar by the
components of the force exerted on the bar by the cable in terms of horizontal &
cable in terms of T. Then by setting the sum of the vertical components.
moments about C due to the weight of the bar & the The sum of the moments about C
force exerted by the cable equal to zero, we can due to the weight of the bar & the
obtain an equation for T. force exerted by the cable AB is:
Solving for T: T=
23 24
4
Example 4.3 Summing Moments to
Determine an Unknown Force
4.2 The Moment Vector
Critical Thinking  The moment of a force about a point is a
vector
 This example is a preview of the applications we
consider in Chapter 5 & demonstrates why you  Using the description in Section 4.1, we
must know how to calculate moments of forces are specifying the magnitude & direction
of the moment vector
 If the bar is in equilibrium, the sum of moments
about C is zero  this condition allowed us to  Consider a force vector F & a point P:
determine the tension in the cable  Moment of F about P is the vector:
 We do not need to consider the force exerted on MP = r  F (4.2)
the bar by its support at C since the moment of where r is a position vector from P to any point
that force about C is zero
on the line of action of F
25 26
4.2 The Moment Vector 4.2 The Moment Vector

 Magnitude of the Moment:  Magnitude of the moment MP equals the
 From the definition of the cross product, the product of the perpendicular distance from P
magnitude of MP is: to the line of action of F & the magnitude of F:
|MP| = |r||F| sin  |MP| = D|F| (4.3)
where  is the angle between the vectors r & F when  Notice that if we know the vectors MP & F, this
they are placed tail to tail equation can be solved for the perpendicular
distance D
 The perpendicular distance from P to the line
of action of F is D = |r| sin 
27 28

 Direction of the Moment:
 The direction of MP also indicates the direction
 From the definition of the cross product, MP is of the moment:
perpendicular to both r & F :
 Pointing the thumb of the right hand in the
 MP is perpendicular to the plane containing
direction of MP, the “arc” of the fingers
P&F indicates the direction of the rotation that F
 Denoted by a circular arrow around the tends to cause about P
vector:
29 30
5
 The result obtained from Eq. (4.2) doesn’t  In summary, the moment of a force F about a
depend on where the vector r intersects the point P has 3 properties:
line of action of F: 1. The magnitude of MP = the product of the
magnitude of F & the perpendicular distance
from P to the line of action of F. If the line of
action passes through P, MP = 0.
2. MP is perpendicular to the plane containing P & F.
r = r’ + u 3. The direction of MP indicates the direction of
the moment through a right-hand rule. Since
r  F = (r’ + u)  F = r’  F
the cross product is not commutative, it is
Because the cross product of the parallel
essential to maintain the correct sequence of
vectors u & F is zero
the vectors in the equation MP = r  F
31 32

 Relation to the 2-D Description:  E.g. the view is perpendicular to the x-y plane &
the 10-N force is contained in the x-y plane:
 Ifour view is perpendicular to the plane
 The perpendicular distance from O to the line of
containing the point P & the force F, the 2-D
action of the force is 4 m
description of the moment in Section 4.1
 The 2-D description of the moment of the force
specifies both the magnitude & direction of
about O: its magnitude is (4 m)(10 N) = 40 N-m &
the vector MP its direction is counterclockwise or MO = 40 N-m
 In this situation, MP is perpendicular to the
page & the right-hand rule indicates whether it
points out or into the page
33 34

 Therefore, the magnitude of the vector MO is  Varignon’s Theorem:
40 N-m & the right-hand rule indicates that it
 Let F1, F2, …, FN be a
points out of the page:
concurrent system of forces
MO = 40k (N-m)
whose lines of action
 We can confirm this result by using Eq. (4.2).
intersect at a point Q:
Let r be the vector from O to the point of
application of the force:  The moment of the system
MO = r  F = (4i +2j)  10j = 40k (N-m) about a point P is:
(rPQ  F1) + (rPQ  F2) +  + (rPQ  FN)
 As this example illustrates, the 2-D description
of the moment determines the moment vector = rPQ  (F1 + F2 +  + FN)
 The converse is also true
where rPQ is the vector from P to Q
35 36
6
Example 4.4 2-D Description & the
4.2 The Moment Vector Moment Vector
 This result, known as the Varignon’s Theorem, Determine the moment of the 400-N force in
follows from the distributive property of the cross Fig. 4.13 about O.
product, Eq. (2.31)
 It confirms that the moment of the force about a
point P equal to the sum of the moments of it
components about P
Fig. 4.13
37 38
Example 4.4 2-D Description & the Example 4.4 2-D Description & the
Moment Vector Moment Vector
Strategy Solution
We will determine the moment in 2 ways: (a) Expressing the force in terms of horizontal &
(a) Use the 2-D description of the moment. Express vertical components, the 2-D description of the
the force in terms of its components & determine moment is:
the moment of each component about O by MO = (2 m)(400 cos 30° N)  (5 m)(400 sin 30° N)
multiplying the magnitude of the component & =
the perpendicular distance from O to its line of
action.
(b) Obtain the vector description of the moment by
using Eq. (4.2).
39 40
Example 4.4 2-D Description & the Example 4.4 2-D Description & the
Moment Vector Moment Vector
Solution
(b) To apply Eq. (4.2), introduce the coordinate Solution
system shown: (b) Evaluate r  F:
The moment is:
MO = r  F
= (5i + 2j)  (400 cos 30°i  400 sin 30°j)
=
Choose the Vector r:
Let r be the vector from O to the point of
application of the force:
r = 5i + 2j (m)
41 42
7
Example 4.4 2-D Description & the
Moment Vector
Critical Thinking
 In most 2-D situations, it is easier to use the 2-D
description of the moment than the vector
description
 However, studying the relationship between the
2-D & vector descriptions of the moment
provides insight into the vector description
 Demonstrates, for this special case, that the
magnitude & direction of the vector specify the
magnitude & direction of the moment
 In 3-D situations, the vector description of the
moment is nearly always used
43
8
4.4 Couples 4.4 Couples
 Couple: 2 forces that have equal magnitudes,
 It is possible to exert a moment on an object opposite directions & different lines of action
without subjecting it to a net force:
 Tends to cause rotation of an object even
 E.g. when a compact disk begins rotating or a though the vector sum of the forces is zero &
screw is turned by a screwdriver has the same remarkable property that the
 Forces are exerted on these objects in such a moment it exerts is the same about any point
way that the net force is zero while the net
moment is not zero

 The moment of a couple is simply the sum of the  Notice that M = r × F is the moment of F about a
moments of the forces about a point P: point on the line of action of F:
M = [r1× F] + [r2 × (F)] = (r1  r2) × F  The magnitude of the moment of a force about
 The vector r1  r2 is equal to the vector r: a point equals the product of the magnitude of
M=r×F the force & the perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force:
 Since r doesn’t depend on the position of P,
the moment M is the same for any point P
 A couple is often represented in diagrams by |M| = D|F|
showing the moment:
where D is the perpendicular distance between the
lines of action of the 2 forces
3 4

 The cross product r × F is perpendicular to r &  A plane containing 2 forces is perpendicular to
F, which means that M is perpendicular to the our view:
plane containing F & F
 Pointing the thumb of the right hand in the
direction of M, the arc of the fingers indicates
the direction of the moment
 The distance between the lines of action of

the forces is 4 m, so the magnitude of the
moment of the couple is:
|M| =
5 6
1
 The moment M is perpendicular to the plane  The sum of the moments of the forces
containing the 2 forces: about the origin O is:
 Pointing the arc of the fingers of the right M = [r1× (2j)] + [r2 × (2j)]
hand counterclockwise, the right-hand rule = [(7i + 2j) × (2j)] + [(3i + 7j) × (2j)]
indicates that M points out of the page
=
 Therefore, the moment of the couple is:
M = 8k (kN-m)
 We can also determine the moment of the
couple by calculating the sum of the moments
of the 2 forces about any point
7 8

 In a 2-D situation like this example, we  By grasping a bar & twisting it, a moment can
represent the couple by showing its magnitude be exerted about its axis:
& a circular arrow that indicates its direction:
 It is not convenient to represent the couple
by showing the moment vector because the
vector is
perpendicular to
the page  Although the system of forces exerted is
distributed over the surface of the bar in a
complicated way, the effect is the same as if
2 equal & opposite forces are exerted
Example 4.10 Determining the Moment of

4.4 Couples a Couple
 When we represent a couple as in the figure
or by showing the moment vector M, we The force F in Fig. 4.30 is 10i  4j (N). Determine
imply that some system the moment of the couple & represent it as shown
of forces exerts in Fig. 4.29b.
that moment:
 The system of forces is nearly always more

complicated than 2 equal & opposite forces
but the effect is the same:
 Model the actual system as a simple Fig. 4.30 Fig. 4.29b
system of 2 forces
11 12
2
a Couple a Couple
Strategy Solution
We can determine the moment in 2 ways: 1st Method:
1st Method: If we calculate the sum of the moments about a
Calculate the sum of the moments of the forces point on the line of action of 1 of the forces, the
about a point moment of that force is zero & we only need to
calculate the moment of the other force.
2nd Method: Choosing the point of application of F, the moment
Sum the moments of the 2 couples formed by the is: M = r × (F)
x & y components of the forces
= (2i + 3j) × (10i + 4j)
=
13 14
a Couple a Couple
Solution Solution
2nd Method: Consider the 10-N couple. The magnitude of its
The x & y components of the forces from 2 couples. moment is (3 m)(10 N) = 30 N-m & its direction is
Determine the moment of the original couple by counterclockwise, indicating that the moment
summing the moments of the couples formed by the vector points out of the page. Therefore, the
components: moment is 30k N-m.
The 4-N couple causes a moment of magnitude
(2 m)(4 N) = 8 N-m & its direction is clockwise, so
the moment is 8k N-m.
15 16
a Couple a Couple
The moment of the original couple is:  In the 1st method, the point about which you sum
M = 30k  8k = 22k (N-m) the sum of the 2 forces can be any point
Its magnitude is 22 N-m & its direction is  We chose the point of application of the force F
counterclockwise: so that the moment due to F would be zero & we
would only need to calculate the moment of the
force F
 If we had chosen any other point we would have
obtained the same result
3
Example 4.10 Determining the Moment of Example 4.11 Determining Unknown
a Couple Forces
Critical Thinking
2 forces A & B & a 200 kN-m couple act on the
 For example, the sum of beam in Fig. 4.31. The sum of the forces is zero &
the moments about the the sum of the moments about the left end of the
point P is: beam is zero. What are the forces A & B ?
Fig. 4.31
19 20
Example 4.11 Determining Unknown Example 4.11 Determining Unknown

Forces Forces
Strategy Solution
By summing the 2 forces (the couple exerts no net The sum of the forces is:
force on the beam) & summing the moments due Σ Fy = A + B = 0
to the forces & the couple about the left end of the The moment of the couple (200 kN-m clockwise) is
beam, we will obtain 2 equations in terms of the 2 the same about any point, so the sum of the
unknown forces moments about the left end of the beam is:
Σ Mleft end =
The forces are
B=
A=
21 22
Example 4.11 Determining Unknown

Forces
Critical Thinking
 Notice that the total moment about the left end of
the beam is the sum of the moment due to the
force B & the moment due to the 200 kN-m couple
 It is observed that if an object subjected to forces
& couples is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces
is zero & the sum of the moments about any
point, including moments due to couples, is zero
(Chapter 5)
 In this example, both these conditions are
needed to determine the unknown forces A & B
23
4
4.5 Equivalent Systems 4.5 Equivalent Systems
 A system of forces & moments is simply a  Conditions for Equivalence:
particular set of forces & moments of couples  We define 2 systems of forces & moments,
 The systems of forces & moments can be designated as system 1 & system 2, to be
complicated, especially in the case distributed equivalent if the sums of the forces are equal:
forces, such as pressure forces exerted by water (Σ F)1 = (Σ F)2 (4.7)
on a dam
 and the sums of the moments about a point P
 If we are concerned only with the total force & are equal:
moment exerted, complicated systems of forces
(Σ MP)1 = (Σ MP)2 (4.8)
& moments can be represented by much simpler
systems
1 2

 Demonstration of Equivalence:  The 1st condition for equivalence is:
 Consider the systems of forces & moments: (Σ F)1 = (Σ F)2:
FA + FB = FD (4.9)
 If we determine the sums of the moments
about the point P:
(Σ MP)1 = (Σ MP)2:
(rA × FA) + (rB × FB) + MC = (rD × FD) + ME + MF (4.10)
 In system 1, an object is subjected to 2
forces FA & FB & a couple MC
 In system 2, the object is subjected to a
force FD & 2 couples ME & MF
3 4

 Ifthese conditions are satisfied, systems 1  Suppose that Eq. (4.9) is satisfied & Eq. (4.10)
& 2 are equivalent is satisfied for the point P, for a different point
P’:
 Using this example, we will demonstrate that if
the sums of the forces are equal for 2 systems
of forces & moments & the sums of the
moments about 1 point P are equal, then the
sums of the moments about any point are
equal
(Σ MP’)1 = (Σ MP’)2:
(r’A × FA) + (r’B × FB) + MC = (r’D × FD) + ME + MF (4.11)
5 6
1
Example 4.13 Determining Whether
4.5 Equivalent Systems Systems Are Equivalent
 In terms of the vector r from P’ to P, the 3 systems of forces & moments act on the beam
relations between the vectors r’A, r’B & r’D & in Fig. 4.35. Are they equivalent?
the vectors rA, rB & rD are:
r’A = r + rA , r’B = r + rB , r’D = r + rD
 Substituting into Eq. (4.11):
[(r + rA) × FA] + [(r + rB) × FB] + MC Fig. 4.35

= [(r + rD) × FD] + ME + MF Strategy
 Rearranging terms: We must check the 2 conditions for equivalence.
[r × (Σ F)1] + (Σ MP)1 = [r × (Σ F)2] + (Σ MP)2 2 systems are defined to be equivalent only if the
which holds in view Eqs. (4.9) & (4.10) sums of the forces are equal & the sums of the
moments about a point are equal.
7 8
Example 4.13 Determining Whether Example 4.13 Determining Whether

Systems Are Equivalent Systems Are Equivalent
Solution Solution
Are the Sums of the Forces Equal? Are the Sums of the Moments About an
The sums of the forces are: Arbitrary Point Equal?
(Σ F)1 = 50j (N) The sums of the moments about the origin O are:
(Σ F)2 = 50j (N) (Σ MO)1 = 0
(Σ F)3 = 50j (N) (Σ MO)2 = (50 N)(0.5 m)  (50 N-m) =
(Σ MO)3 =
Systems 1 & 3 are equivalent.
9 10

Critical Thinking 2 systems of forces & moments act on the
rectangular plate in Fig 4.36. Are they equivalent?
 In determining whether systems of forces &
moments are equivalent, you can calculate the
sums of the moments about any point.
 In this example, the sums of the moments about
the right end of the beam are:
(Σ Mright end)1 = (50 N)(1 m) = Strategy Fig 4.36
(Σ Mright end)2 = (50 N)(0.5 m)  (50 N-m) = We must check the 2 conditions for equivalence by
(Σ Mright end)3 = summing the forces acting on the plate & summing
the moments due to the forces & couple acting on
the plate for each system.
11 12
2
Are the Sums of the Forces Equal?  Why is it worth knowing that 2 systems of forces
The sums of the forces are: & moments are equivalent?
(Σ F)1 = 20i + 10j  10j = 20i (N)
 From the standpoint of statics, it tells you that
(Σ F)2 = 20i + 15i  15i = 20i (N)
both systems exert the same total force & the
Are the Sums of the Moments About an same total moment about any point
Arbitrary Point Equal?
 In dynamics, it is shown that equivalent
The sums of the moments about the origin O are: systems of forces & moments acting on an
(Σ MO)1 = (3 m)(10 N)  (20 N-m) = 50 N-m object that can be modeled as a rigid body
(Σ MO)2 = (1 m)(15 N)  (35 N-m) = 50 N-m result in the same motion of the object
The systems are equivalent.
13 14
4.6 Representing Systems by Equivalent 4.6 Representing Systems by Equivalent

Systems Systems
 Representing a System by a Force & a  The conditions for equivalence are:
Couple: (Σ F)2 = (Σ F)1:
 Consider an arbitrary system F = (Σ F)1
of forces & moments & a point and
P (system 1) (Σ MP)2 = (Σ MP)1:
 Represent this system by 1 M = (Σ MP)1
consisting of a single force
 Thus no matter how complicated a system of
acting at P & a single couple
forces & moments may be, it can be
(system 2)
represented by a single force acting on a
given point & a single couple
15 16

Systems Systems
 3 common cases in practice:  The conditions for equivalence are:
 Representing a Force by a Force & a (Σ F)2 = (Σ F)1:
Couple:
F = FP
 A force FP acting at a point P
and
(system 1) can be
represented by a force F (Σ MQ)2 = (Σ MQ)1:
acting at a different point Q & M = r × FP
a couple M (system 2)
 The moment of system 1
about point Q is r × FP, where
r is the vector from Q to P
17 18
3
Systems Systems
 Concurrent Forces Represented by a  The sums of the forces in the 2 systems are
Force: equal:
 A system of concurrent forces whose lines F = F1 + F2 +  = FN
of action intersect at a point P (system 1)  The sum of the moments about P equals
can be represented by a single force whose zero for each system
line of action intersects P (system 2)  Parallel Forces Represented by a Force:
 A system of parallel forces whose sum is not
zero can be represented by a single force F
(Example 4.19)
19 20
Example 4.17 Representing a System by Example 4.17 Representing a System by

a Simpler Equivalent System a Simpler Equivalent System
System 1 in Fig. 4.43 consists of 2 forces & a Strategy
couple acting on a pipe. (a) Represent system 1 by a force F acting at the
Represent system 1 by: origin & a couple M (System 2) & use the
(a) a single force acting at the origin O of the conditions for equivalence to determine F & M.
coordinate system & a single couple;
(b) a single force.
Fig. 4.43 21 22

Strategy Solution
(a) Suppose that we place the force F with its point (a) The conditions for equivalence are:
of application a distance D along the x axis (Σ F)2 = (Σ F)1:
(system 3). The sums of the forces in systems 2
& 3 are equal. If we can choose the distance D F = 30j + (20i + 20j) (kN) = 20i + 50j (kN)
so that the moment about O in system 3 equals and
M, system 3 will be (Σ MO)2 = (Σ MO)1:
equivalent to system 2 M=
& therefore equivalent
to system 1.
23 24
4
Solution Critical thinking
(a) The sums of the forces in systems 2 & 3 are  In part (b), we assumed that the point of
equal. application of the force is on the x axis:
Equating the sums of moments about O yields:  In order to represent system 2 by a single
(Σ MO)3 = (Σ MO)2: force, we needed to place the line of action of
the force so that the force would exert a 400
kN-m counterclockwise moment about O
and we find that system 3 is equivalent to
 Placing the point of application of the force a
system 2 if D = 8 m
distance D along the x axis was simply a
convenient way to accomplish that
25 26
5
Chapter Outline
 The Equilibrium Equations
 2-Dimensional Applications
 Statically Indeterminate Objects
CE1601  3-Dimensional Applications
Fundamentals of Structures  2-Force & 3-Force Members
 Computational Mechanics
Chapter Five: Objects in Equilibrium
1 2
5.1 The Equilibrium Equations 5.1 The Equilibrium Equations

 When an object acted upon by a system of
forces & moments is in equilibrium, the following  Eqs. (5.1) & (5.2) imply that the system of
conditions are satisfied: forces & moments acting on an object in
equilibrium is equivalent to a system
1. The sum of the forces is zero:
consisting no forces & no couples
ΣF=0 (5.1)
 If the sum of the forces on an object is zero &
2. The sum of the moments about any point is the sum of the moments about 1 point is zero,
zero: then the sum of the moments about every
Σ Many point = 0 (5.2) point is zero
3 4
5.1 The Equilibrium Equations 5.1 The Equilibrium Equations

 For an object subjected to concurrent forces F1,  To determine the sum of the moments about a
F2, …, FN & no couples: line L due to a system of forces & moments
 Moment about point P is zero acting on an object:
 The only condition imposed by  Choose any point P on the
equilibrium on a set of line & determine the sum
concurrent forces is that their of moments Σ MP about P
sum is zero:  The sum of the moments
F1 + F2 +  + FN = 0 (5.3) about the line is the
component of Σ MP parallel
to the line
5 6
1
5.1 The Equilibrium Equations 5.2 2-Dimensional Applications
 Supports:
 Ifthe object is in equilibrium, Σ MP = 0  Forces & couples exerted on an object by its
 The sum of the moments about any line due supports are called reactions, expressing the
to the forces & couples acting on an object in fact that the supports “react” to the other
equilibrium is zero forces & couples or loads acting on the object
 E.g. a bridge is held up by the reactions
exerted by its supports & the loads are the
forces exerted by the weight of the bridge
itself, the traffic crossing it & the wind
 Some very common kinds of supports are
represented by stylized models called support
conventions if the actual supports exert the
same reactions as the models
7 8
5.2 2-Dimensional Applications 5.2 2-Dimensional Applications

 The Pin Support:  To understand the reactions that a pin support
can exert:
 Figure a: a pin support
 Imagine holding the bar
a bracket to which an
object (such as a beam) attached to the pin support
is attached by a smooth  If you try to move the bar without rotating it
pin that passes through (i.e. translate the bar), the support exerts a
the bracket & the object reactive force that prevents this movement
 Figure b: side view  However, you can rotate the bar about the
axis of the pin
 The support cannot exert a couple about
the pin axis to prevent rotation
9 10

 Thus, a pin support can’t exert a couple  The pin support is used to represent any real
about the pin axis but it can exert a force on support capable of exerting a force in any
the object in any direction, which is usually direction but not exerting a couple
expressed by representing the force in terms
 Used in many common
of components
devices, particularly
 The arrows indicate the
those designed to allow
directions of the reactions if Ax connected parts to
& Ay are positive rotate relative to each
 If you determine Ax or Ay to be other
negative, the reaction is in the
direction opposite to that of the
arrow 11 12
2
 The Roller Support:
 Other commonly used conventions equivalent
A pin support mounted on wheels
to the roller support:
 Like a pin support, it cannot exert a couple
about the axis of the pin
 Since it can move freely in the direction
parallel to the surface on which it rolls, it can’t
 The wheels of vehicles & wheels supporting
exert a force parallel to the surface but can
parts of machines are roller supports if the
exert a force normal (perpendicular) to this
friction forces exerted on them are negligible
surface
in comparison to the normal forces
13 14
A plane smooth surface can also be modeled  These supports are similar to the roller support
by a roller support: in that they cannot exert a couple & can only
exert a force normal to a particular direction
(friction is neglected)
 Beams & bridges are sometimes supported

in this way so that they will be free to
undergo thermal expansion & contraction
(a) Pin in a slot (b) Slider in a slot (c) Slider on a shaft
15 16

 The Fixed Support:
 In these supports, the supported object is
 The fixed support shows the supported object
attached to a pin or slider that can move
literally built into a wall (built-in)
freely in 1 direction but is constrained in the
perpendicular direction
 Unlike the roller support, these supports can
exert a normal force in either direction
 To understand the reactions:
 Imagine holding a bar attached to the fixed
support
17 18
3
 If you try to translate the bar, the support  The term MA is the couple exerted by the
exerts a reactive force that prevents support & the curved arrow indicates its
translation direction
 If you try to rotate the bar, the support  Fence posts & lampposts have fixed supports
exerts a reactive couple that prevents  The attachments of parts connected so that
rotation they cannot move or rotate relative to each
 A fixed support can exert 2 components of other, such as the head of a hammer & its
force & a couple handle, can be modeled as fixed supports
19 20

 Table 5.1 summarizes the support conventions  Free-Body Diagrams:
commonly used in 2-D applications:  By using the support conventions, we can
model more elaborate objects & construct
their free-body diagrams in a systematic way
 Example:
 a beam with a pin support at the left end &
a roller support on at the right end & is
loaded with a force F
 The roller support rests on a surface
inclined at 30°
21 22

 To obtain a free-body  Example:
diagram of the beam,  The object in this figure has a fixed support
isolate it from its supports at the left end
 Complete the free-body
 A cable passing over a pulley is attached to
diagram by showing the the object at 2 points
reactions that may be
exerted on the beam by the
supports
 Notice that the reaction at B
exerted by the roller support  Isolate it from its supports & complete the
is normal to the surface on free-body by showing the reactions at the
which the support rests fixed support & the forces exerted by the
cable
23 24
4
 The Scalar Equilibrium Equations:
 When the loads & reactions on an object in
equilibrium form a 2-D system of forces &
moments, they are related by 3 scalar
 Don’t forget the couple at the fixed support equilibrium equations:
 Since we assume the tension in the cable
is the same on both sides of the pulley, the Σ Fx = 0 (5.4)
2 forces exerted by the cable have the Σ Fy = 0 (5.5)
magnitude T
Σ Many point = 0 (5.6)
 Once you have obtained the free-body
diagram of an object in equilibrium to identify
the loads & reactions acting on it, you can
apply the equilibrium equations
25 26

 The seesaw found on playgrounds, consisting
 More than 1 equation can be obtained from of a board with a pin support at the center that
Eq. (5.6) by evaluating the sum of the allows it to rotate, is a simple & familiar
moments about more than 1 point example that illustrates the role of Eq. (5.6)
 But the additional equations will not be
 If 2 people of unequal weight sit at the
independent of Eqs. (5.4)(5.6) seesaw’s ends, the heavier person sinks to
 In other words, more than 3 independent the ground
equations cannot be obtained from a 2-D
free-body diagram, which means we can
solve for at most 3 unknown forces or
couples
27 28

 To
obtain equilibrium, that person must  Evaluating the sum of the moments about A,
move closer to the center we find that the equilibrium equations are:
Σ Fx = Ax = 0 (5.7)
Σ Fy = Ay  W1  W2 = 0 (5.8)
Σ Mpoint A = D1W1  D2W2 = 0 (5.9)
 Draw the free-body diagram of the seesaw
 Thus, Ax = 0, Ay = W1 + W2 & D1W1 = D2W2
showing the weights of the people W1 & W2
 The last condition indicates that the relation
& the reactions at the pin support
between the positions of the 2 persons
necessary for equilibrium
29 30
5
 To demonstrate that an additional  This equation is a linear combination of

independent equation is not obtained by Eqs. (5.8) & (5.9):
evaluating the sum of the moments about a (D1 + D2)W1  D2Ay= D2(Ay  W1  W2)
different point:
Eq. (5.8)
 Sum the moments about the right end of
the seesaw + (D1W1  D2W2) = 0
Σ Mright end = (D1 + D2)W1  D2Ay = 0 Eq. (5.9)
31 32

 Until now we have assumed in examples &
problems that the tension in a rope or cable is  The tensions must be equal if the pulley is
the same on both sides of a pulley in equilibrium
 Consider this pulley:  However, notice that we have assumed
 In its free-body diagram,

that the pulley’s support behaves like a pin
we do not assume that support & cannot exert a couple on the
the tensions are equal pulley
 When that is not true – for example, due to
 Summing the moments
about the center of the friction between the pulley & the support –
pulley: the tensions are not necessarily equal
Σ Mpoint A = RT1  RT2 = 0
33 34
Example 5.1 Reactions at Pin & Roller Example 5.1 Reactions at Pin & Roller
Supports Supports
Strategy
The beam in Fig. 5.13 has a pin at A & roller To determine the reactions exerted on the beam by
supports at B & is subjected to a 2-kN force. its supports, draw a free-body diagram of the beam
What are the reactions at the supports? isolated from the supports. The free-body diagram
must show all external forces & couples acting on
the beam, including the reactions exerted by the
supports. Then determine the unknown reactions
by applying equilibrium equations
Fig. 5.13
35 36
6
Supports Supports
Solution Solution
Isolate the beam from its supports & show the Summing the moments about point A:
loads & the reactions that may be exerted by the Σ Fx = Ax  Bsin 30° = 0
pin & roller supports. Σ Fy = Ay + Bcos 30°  2 kN = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (5 m)(Bcos 30°)  (3 m)(2 kN) = 0
There are 3 unknown
Solving these equations, the reactions are:
reactions: 2 components
Ax = 0.69 kN, Ay = 0.80 kN & B = 1.39 kN
of force Ax & Ay at the pin
support & a force B at the
roller support
37 38
Supports Supports
Confirm that the equilibrium equations are satisfied:  However, if you choose an incorrect direction for
a reaction in drawing the free-body diagram of a
Σ Fx = 0.69 kN  (1.39 kN)sin 30° =
single object, the value you obtain from the
Σ Fy = 0.80 kN + (1.39 kN)cos 30°  2 kN = equilibrium equations for that reaction will be
Σ Mpoint A = negative, which indicates that its actual direction
is opposite to the direction you chose
Critical Thinking  E.g. if we draw the free-body diagram of the
beam with the component Ay pointed
 In drawing free-body diagrams, you should try to downward:
choose the correct directions of the reactions
because it helps to develop your physical intuition
39 40
Example 5.1 Reactions at Pin & Roller Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed
Supports Support
Critical Thinking
The object in Fig. 5.14 has a fixed support at
 Equilibrium equations:
A & is subjected to 2 forces & a couple. What
Σ Fx = Ax  Bsin 30° = 0
are the reactions at the support?
Σ Fy = Ay + Bcos 30°  2 kN = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (5 m)(Bcos 30°)  (3 m)(2 kN) = 0
 Solving, we obtain:
Ax = 0.69 kN, Ay = 0.80 kN & B = 1.39 kN
 The negative value of Ay indicates that the
vertical force exerted on the beam by the pin
support at A is in the direction opposite to the Fig. 5.14
arrow, i.e. the force is 0.80 kN upward
7
Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed
Support Support
Strategy Solution
Obtain a free-body diagram by isolating the object Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
from the fixed support at A & showing the reactions Isolate the object from its support & show the
exerted at A, including the couple that may be reactions at the fixed support.
exerted by a fixed support. Then determine the
unknown reactions by applying the equilibrium There are 3 unknown reactions: 2 force
equations. components Ax & Ay & a couple MA. (Remember
that we can choose the directions of these arrows
arbitrarily)
Also resolve the 100-N force into its components.
43 44
Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed

Support Support
Solution Solution
Draw the Free-Body Diagram: Apply the Equilibrium Equation:
Summing the moments about point A:
Σ Fx = Ax + 100cos 30° N = 0
Σ Fy = Ay  200 N + 100sin 30° N = 0
Σ Mpoint A = MA + 300 N-m  (2 m)(200 N)
 (2 m)(100cos 30° N)
+ (4 m)(100sin 30° N)= 0
Solving these equations,
45 46
Example 5.2 Reactions at a Fixed

Example 5.3 Reactions on a Car’s Tires
Support
Critical Thinking The 14 000-N car in Fig. 5.15 is stationary.
 Why don’t the 300 N-m couple & the couple MA Determine the normal forces exerted on the
exerted by the fixed support appear in the first 2 front & rear tires by the road.
equilibrium equations?
 A couple exerts no net force
 Also, because the moment due to a couple is
the same about any point, the moment about
A due to the 300 N-m counterclockwise couple
is 300 N-m counterclockwise
Fig. 5.15
47 48
8
Example 5.3 Reactions on a Car’s Tires Example 5.3 Reactions on a Car’s Tires
Solution
Strategy Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
Draw the free-body diagram of the car, showing Isolate the car & show its weight & the reactions
exerted by the road.
the forces exerted on its tires by the road at A & B
& apply the equilibrium equations to determine the There are 2 unknown reactions: the forces A & B
forces on the front & rear tires. exerted on the front & rear tires.
49 50

Apply the Equilibrium Equations:  This example doesn’t fall within our definition of
The forces have no x components. a 2-D system of forces & moments because the
Summing the moments about point B: forces acting on the car are not coplanar:
Σ Fy = A + B  14000 N = 0  From the oblique view of
the free-body diagram of
Σ Mpoint B =  (2 m)(14000 N) + (3 m)A = 0
the car, you can see the
Solving these equations, the reactions are: total forces acting on the
individual tires
51 52

 Total normal force on the front tires:  Since the sum of the moments about any line
due to the forces & couples acting on an
AL + AR = A object in equilibrium is zero, the sum of the
 Total normal force on the rear tires: moments about the z axis due to the forces
BL + BR = B acting on the car is zero:
 The sum of the forces in the y direction: Σ Mz axis = (3 m)(AL + AR)  (2 m)(14000 N)
Σ Fy = AL + AR + BL + BR  14000 N = 0 = (3 m)A  (2 m)(14000 N) = 0
 Thus we obtain the same equilibrium
= equations we did when we solved the problem
using a 2-D analysis
53 54
9
Example 5.4 Choosing the Point About Example 5.4 Choosing the Point About
Which to Evaluate Moments Which to Evaluate Moments
The structure AB in Fig. 5.16 supports a suspended
2-Mg (megagram) mass. The structure is attached Strategy
to a slider in a vertical slot at A & has a pin support Draw the free-body diagram of the structure & the
at B. What are the reactions at A & B? suspended mass by removing the supports at A &
B. Notice that the support at A can exert only a
horizontal reaction. Then use the equilibrium
equations to determine the reactions at A & B.
Fig. 5.16
55 56
Example 5.4 Choosing the Point About Example 5.4 Choosing the Point About
Which to Evaluate Moments Which to Evaluate Moments
Solution Solution
Summing the moments about point B:
Isolate the structure & mass
from the supports & show the Σ Fx = Ax + Bx = 0
reactions at the supports & Σ Fy = By  (2000)(9.81) N = 0
the force exerted by the Σ Mpoint B = (3 m)A + (2 m)[(200 N )(9.81) N] = 0
weight of the 2000-kg mass.
The reactions are:
The slot at A can exert only a
horizontal force on the slider.
57 58
Example 5.4 Choosing the Point About

Which to Evaluate Moments
Critical Thinking
 Although the point about which moments are
evaluated in writing equilibrium equations can be
chosen arbitrarily, a careful choice can often
simplify your solution
 In this example, point B lies on the lines of action
of the 2 unknown reactions Bx & By
 By evaluating moments about B, we obtained an
equation containing only 1 unknown, the
reaction at A
59
10
5.3 Statically Indeterminate Objects 5.3 Statically Indeterminate Objects
 2 common situations in which the equilibrium  This
occurs, for example, when an object
equations do not lead to a solution  statically has more supports than the minimum
indeterminate number necessary to maintain it in
 The free-body diagram of an object has more
equilibrium  redundant supports
unknown forces or couples than the number of  The supports of an object are improperly
independent equilibrium equations that can be designed such that they cannot maintain
obtained equilibrium under the loads acting on it 
improper supports
 No more than 3 independent equilibrium
 Engineers use redundant supports whenever
equations can be obtained from a given possible for strength & safety
free-body diagram in a 2-D problem, if there
are more than 3 unknowns, they can’t all be  Some designs, however, require that the object
determined from the equilibrium equations be incompletely supported so that it is free to
undergo certain motions
alone
1 2

 Redundant Supports:
 Assuming we know the load F, we have 3
 Consider a beam with a fixed
equations & 3 unknown reactions, for
support
which we obtain the solutions Ax = 0, Ay = F
 From its free-body diagram,
& MA = FL/2
we obtain the equilibrium
 Suppose we add a roller support at the
equations: right end of the beam:
3 4

 Now
we have 3 equations & 4 unknown
reactions
 Although the 1st equation tells us Ax = 0, we
can’t solve the 2 equations (5.11) & (5.12)
 From the new free-body diagram, we obtain for the 3 reactions Ay, B & MA
the equilibrium equations:  When faced with this situation, students often
(5.10) attempt to sum the moments about another
(5.11) point, such as B, to obtain an additional
equation:
(5.12)
1
 As this example demonstrates:
 Unfortunately, this doesn’t help  Each support added to an object results in
 It is not an independent equation but a additional reactions
linear combination of Eqs. (5.11) & (5.12):  The difference between the number of
reactions & the number of independent
equilibrium equations is called the degree
of redundancy
 Even if an object is statically indeterminate
due to redundant supports, it may be
Eq. (5.12) Eq. (5.11) possible to determine some of the reactions
from the equilibrium equations
Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically

5.3 Statically Indeterminate Objects Indeterminate Object
 The reactions on an object with redundant The beam in Fig. 5.21 has 2 pin supports & is
supports can be determined by loaded by a 2-kN force.
supplementing the equilibrium equations with
additional equations that relate the forces & (a) Show that the beam is statically indeterminate.
couples acting on the object to its deformation (b) Determine as many reactions as possible.
or change in shape
 Thus obtaining the equilibrium equations is
the 1st step of the solution
Fig. 5.21
9 10
Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically

Indeterminate Object Indeterminate Object
Strategy Solution
The beam is statically indeterminate if its free-body Draw the Free-Body Diagram:
diagram has more unknown reactions than the Draw the free-body diagram of the beam.
number of independent equilibrium equations we
can obtain. But even if this is the case, we may be
able to solve the equilibrium equations for some of
the reactions.
There are 4 unknown reactions – Ax, Ay, Bx & By –
& we can write only 3 independent equilibrium
equations.
Therefore the beam is statically indeterminate.
11 12
2
Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically
Indeterminate Object Indeterminate Object
Apply the Equilibrium Equations:  This example illustrates why the reactions on
Summing the moments about point A: objects with redundant supports cannot be
determined from the equilibrium equation alone:
Σ Fx = Ax + Bx = 0
 The 2 pin supports exert horizontal forces on
Σ Fy = Ay + By  2 kN = 0 the beam
Σ Mpoint A = (5 m)By  (3 m)(2 kN) = 0
We can solve the 3rd equation for By & then solve
the 2nd equation for Ay. The results are:  The equilibrium equations tell us that these
forces must be equal & opposite but do not
The 1st equation tells us that Bx =  Ax but we can’t determine their magnitude or direction
solve for their values.
13 14
Example 5.6 Recognizing a Statically

Indeterminate Object
5.3 Statically Indeterminate Objects
Critical Thinking  Improper Supports:
 Notice that the free-body diagram is in  An object has improper supports if it will not
equilibrium for any value of T & the forces remain in equilibrium under the action of the
may point outward from the beam as shown loads exerted on it
or inward toward the beam
 Thus an object with improper supports will
 We must know more than the fact that the
beam is in equilibrium to determine the move when the loads are applied
horizontal forces  In 2-D problems, this can occur in 2 ways
 Methods for solving statically indeterminate
problems are developed in mechanics of
materials
15 16

1. The supports can exert only parallel forces. 2. The supports can exert only concurrent forces.
This leaves the object free to move in the direction If the loads exert a moment about the point where the
perpendicular to the support forces. If the loads exert lines of action of the support forces intersect, the
a component of force in that direction, the object is object is not in equilibrium.
not in equilibrium.
Consider the beam in the figure. From its free-body
The 2 roller supports can exert only diagram, we see that the reactions A & B exert no
vertical forces, while the force F moment about point P, where their lines of action
has a horizontal component. The intersect but the load F does. The sum of the
beam will move horizontally if F is moments about point P is not zero & the beam will
applied. The sum of the forces in rotate when the load is applied.
the horizontal direction cannot be
zero because the roller supports
can exert only vertical reactions.
17 18
3
Example 5.7 Proper & Improper Supports Example 5.7 Proper & Improper Supports
Strategy
State whether each L-shaped bar in Fig. 5.24 is By drawing the free-body diagram of each bar, we
properly or improperly supported. If a bar is can determine whether the reactions of the
properly supported, determine the reactions at supports can exert only parallel or concurrent
its supports. forces on it. If so, we can then recognize whether
the applied loads results in the bar not being in
equilibrium.
Fig. 5.24
19 20
Solution Solution
Draw the free-body diagrams of the bars in Fig. 5.25. Bar (c) The 3 support forces are neither parallel
Bar (a) The lines of action of the reactions due to the nor concurrent. This bar is properly
2 roller supports intersect at P & the load F supported. The equilibrium equations are:
exerts a moment about P. This bar is Σ Fx = Ax  B = 0
improperly supported. Σ Fy = Ay  F = 0
Bar (b) The lines of action of the reactions intersect
Σ Mpoint A = BL  FL = 0
at A & the load F exerts a moment about A.
This bar is also improperly supported. Solving these equations, the reactions are:
21 22

 An essential part of learning mechanics is
developing your intuition about the behaviours of
the physical systems we study
 In this example, think about the effects of the
loads on 3 systems in Fig. 5.24 & see if you can
predict whether they are properly supported:
 Will the loads cause the bars to move or not?
Fig. 5.25
 Then see if your judgment is confirmed by the
analyses given in the example
23 24
4
5.5 2-Force & 3-Force Members 5.5 2-Force & 3-Force Members
 2-Force Members:
 Ifthe system of forces & moments acting on
an object is equivalent to 2 forces acting at
different points, we refer to the object as a 2-
force member
 E.g. the object in Fig. 5.35a is subjected to 2
sets of concurrent forces whose lines of
action intersect at A & B
 Since we can represent them by single
forces acting at A & B (Fig. 5.35b), where F
= F1 + F2 +  + FN & F’ = F’1 + F’2 +  + F’N,
Fig. 5.35
this object is a 2-force member
1 2
 Ifthe object is in equilibrium  the sum of  E.g.a cable attached at 2 points is a familiar
the forces equal zero only if F’ = F (Fig. example of a 2-force member:
5.35c)
 Furthermore the forces F & F form a
couple, so the sum of moments is not zero
unless the lines of action lie along the line
through the points A & B (Fig. 5.35d)
 Thus equilibrium tells us that the 2 forces
are equal in magnitude, are opposite in
direction & have the same line of action  Thecable exerts forces on the attachment
 However, without additional information, we
points that are directed along the line
cannot determine their magnitude between them
3 4
 E.g. a bar that ahs 2 supports that exert only  Notice that unlike the cable, the bar can
forces on it (no couples) & is not subjected to exert forces at A & B either in the directions
any loads is a 2-force member: shown or in the opposite directions. (In
other words, the cable can only pull on its
supports, while the bar can either pull or
push)
 In these examples we assumed that the
 Such bars are often used as supports for weights of the cable & the bar could be
other objects neglected in comparison with the forces
 Because the bar is a 2-force member, the
exerted on them by their supports
lines of action of the forces exerted on the  When that is not the case, they are clearly
bar must lie along the line between the not 2-force members
supports
5 6
1
 Since the moments due to F1 & F2
 3-Force Members:
about L are zero, the moment due
 If the system of forces & moments acting on to F3 about L must equal zero:
an object is equivalent to 3 forces acting at
different points, we refer to the object as a 3- [e  (r × F3)]e = [F3  (e × r)]e = 0
force member  This equation requires that F3 be
 If the 3-force member is in equilibrium, the 3 perpendicular to e × r, which means
forces are coplanar & either parallel or that F3 is contained in P
concurrent:  The same procedure can be used to
 Let the 3 forces be F1, F2 & F3 & let P be the show that F1 & F2 are contained in
plane containing the 3 points of application P, so the forces are coplanar
 Let L be the line through the points of  A different proof is required if the
application of F1 & F2. points of application lie on a straight
line but the result is the same
7 8
 Ifthe 3 coplanar forces are not parallel, there  The analysis of an object in equilibrium can
will be points where their lines of action often be simplified by recognizing that it is a
intersect: 2-force or 3-force member:
 Suppose that the lines of action of 2 of the  Once the free-body diagram of a 2-force
forces intersect at a point Q member is drawn, no further information
 Then the moments of those 2 forces about can be obtained from the equilibrium
Q are zero & the sum of moments about Q equations
is zero only if the line of action of the 3rd  And when we require that the lines of
force also passes through Q action of nonparallel forces acting on a 3-
 Therefore, either the forces are parallel or force member be coincident, we have used
they are concurrent the fact the sum of the moments about a
point must be zero & cannot obtain further
information from that condition
9 10
Example 5.11 A 2-Force Member Example 5.11 A 2-Force Member

Strategy
The L-shaped bar in Fig. 5.39 has a pin support The bar is a 2-force member because it is
at A & is loaded by a 6-kN force at B. neglect subjected only to the 6-kN force at B & the force
the weight of the bar. Determine the angle  & exerted by the pin support. (if we could not neglect
the reaction at A. the weight of the bar, it would not be a 2-force
member.)
We will determine the angle  & the reactions at A
in 2 ways, 1st by applying the equilibrium
equations in the usual way & then using the fact
that the bar is a 2-force member.
Fig. 5.39
11 12
2
Solution Solution
Applying the Equilibrium Equations: Summing the moments about A, the equilibrium
Draw the free-body diagram of the bar showing equations are:
the reactions at the pin support. Σ Fx = Ax + 6 cos  kN = 0
Σ Fy = Ay + 6 sin  kN = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (0.7 m)(6 sin  kN)  (0.4 m)(6 cos  kN) = 0
From the 3rd equation we see that  = arctan (0.4/0.7).
In the range 0    360°, this equation has the 2
solutions  = 29.7° &  = 209.7°.
Knowing , we can determine Ax & Ay from the first 2
equilibrium equations.
13 14

Solution Solution
The solutions for the 2 values of  are: The 2 possibilities are:
 = 29.7°,
and
Thus by recognizing that the
 = 209.7°, bar is a 2-force member, we
Treating the Bar as a 2-Force Member: immediately know the possible
We know that the 6-kN force at B & the force directions of the forces & the
exerted by the pin support must be equal in magnitude of the reaction at A.
magnitude, opposite in direction & directed along
the lines between points A & B.
15 16

In Fig. b we can see that tan  = 0.4/0.7, so  = 29.7°  Recognizing that an object is a 2-force member
& the components of the reaction at A are: tells you the directions of the forces acting on
Ax = 6 cos 29.7° = 5.21 kN the object & also that the forces are equal &
Ay = 6 sin 29.7° = 2.98 kN opposite
In Fig. c,  = 180° + 29.7° = 209.7° & the components  As this example demonstrates, such information
of the reaction at A are: frequently simplifies the solution of a problem
Ax =
Ay =
17 18
3
Example 5.12 2- & 3-Force Members Example 5.12 2- & 3-Force Members
Strategy
The 500-N weight of the rectangular plate in The plate is subjected to its weight & the reactions
Fig. 5.40 acts at its midpoint. Determine the exerted by the pin supports at B & C, so it is a 3-
reactions exerted on the plate at B & C. force member. Furthermore, the bar AB is a 2-
force member, so we know that the line of action
of the reaction it exerts on the plate at B is directed
along the line between A & B. We can use this
information to simplify the free-body diagram of
the plate.
Fig. 5.40
19 20
Example 5.12 2- & 3-Force Members Example 5.12 2- & 3-Force Members
Solution
The reaction exerted on the plate by the 2-force Solution
member AB must be directed along the line From the equilibrium equations:
between A & B & the line of action of the weight
Σ Fx = B sin 45°  C sin 45° = 0
is vertical.
Σ Fy = B cos 45° + C cos 45°  500 N = 0
Since the 3 forces on the plate must be either
parallel or concurrent, their lines of action must We obtain the reactions
intersect at the point P shown.
21 22
Example 5.12 2- & 3-Force Members

Critical Thinking
 Notice how recognizing the bar as a 2-force
member allowed us to simplify the free-body
diagram
 Knowing the direction of the force on the plate at
B allowed us to draw a single reaction instead of
2 component reactions
 Recognizing 2-force members will become even
more important when we analyze structures with
multiple members in Chapter 6
23
4
Chapter Outline
 Trusses
 The Method of Joints
CE1601  The Method of Sections
Fundamentals of Structures  Space Trusses
Chapter Six:  Frames & Machines
Structures in Equilibrium
1 2
6.1 Trusses 6.1 Trusses

 Constructmore elaborate structures by
 Truss structures such as the adding more triangles:
beams supporting a house
Warren Truss
 Starting with very simple examples:
 3 bars pinned together at their ends to form a
 The bars are the members of these structures
triangle with supports as shown  structure
& the places where the bars are pinned
that will support a load F
together are called joints
 Even though these examples are quite
simple, they begin to resemble the structures
used to support bridges & roofs of houses
3 4

 Drawing the free-body diagram of a truss:
 Because it is a 2-force member, the
forces at the ends, which are the sums
of the forces exerted on the member at
its joints, must be equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction & directed along
 If these structures are supported & loaded at the line between the joints
their joints & we neglect the weight of the bars,  Force T : axial force in the member
each bar is a 2-force member
 When the forces are directed away from
 We call such a structure a truss each other, the member is in tension
 When the forces are directed toward each
other, the member is in compression
5 6
1
 Ifwe “cut” the member by a plane & draw the  The sum of the moments about P must
free-body diagram of the part of the member equal zero, so M = 0
on 1 side of the plane:  Therefore, we have a 2-force member,
which means that F must equal in
magnitude & opposite in direction to the
force T acting at the joint
 The internal force is a tension or
compression equal to the tension or
 We represent the system of internal forces compression exerted at the joint
& moments exerted by the part not included  Notice the similarity to a rope or cable, in
in the free-body diagram by a force F acting which the internal force is a tension equal
at the point P where the plane intersects to the tension applied at the ends
the axis of the member & a couple M
7 8

 Although many actual structures, including “roof  However, these structures are designed to
trusses” & “bridge trusses”, consist of bars function as trusses:
connected at the ends, very few have pinned  They support loads primarily by subjecting
joints: their members to axial forces
 E.g. a joint of a bridge truss:  They can usually be modeled as trusses,
 The ends of the treating the joints as pinned connections
members are welded at under the assumption that couples they exert
the joint & are not free to on the members are small in comparison to
rotate axial forces
 Such a joint can exert
couples on the members
9 10
6.2 The Method of Joints 6.2 The Method of Joints

 Before beginning, it is usually necessary to draw a
 The method of joints involves: free-body diagram of the entire truss (i.e. treat the
 Drawing free-body diagrams of the joints of a truss as a single object) & determine the reactions
truss 1 by 1 at its supports:
 Using equilibrium equations to determine the  E.g. consider the Warren truss which has
axial forces in the members members 2 m in length & support loads at B & D
11 12
2
 From the equilibrium equations:
Σ Fx = Ax = 0
Σ Fy = Ay + E  400 N  800 N = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (1 m)(400 N)  (3 m)(800 N) + (4 m)E = 0
We obtain the reactions:
 The next step is to choose a joint & draw its free-

body diagram:
 Isolate joint A by cutting members AB & AC
13 14

 The terms TAB & TAC are the axial forces in  The equilibrium equations for joint A are:
members AB & AC, respectively Σ Fx = TAC + TAB cos 60°= 0
 Although the directions of the arrows Σ Fy = TAB sin 60° + 500 N = 0
representing the unknown axial forces can be
chosen arbitrarily, notice that we have chosen Solving these equations, we obtain the axial
them so that a member is in tension if we force TAB = 577 N & TAC = 289 N
obtain a positive value for the axial force
 Member AB is in compression & member AC
 Consistently choosing the directions in this is in tension
way helps avoid errors
15 16

 Next, obtain a free-body diagram of joint  By continuing to draw free-body diagrams of the
B by cutting members AB, BC & BD: joints, we can determine the axial forces of all
 From the equilibrium equations for the members
joint B:  In 2 dimensions, you can obtain only 2
Σ Fx = TBD + TBC cos 60° + 577 cos 60° = 0 independent equilibrium equations from the free-
Σ Fy = 400 N + 577 sin 60°  TBC sin 60° = 0 body diagram of a joint
We obtain:  Summing the moments about a point does not
result in an additional independent equation
 Member BC is in tension & member because the forces are concurrent
BD is in compression
17 18
3
 Therefore when applying the method of joints,  When determining the axial forces in the
you should choose joints to analyze that are members of a truss, it will be simpler if you are
subjected to no more than 2 unknown forces: familiar with 3 particular types of joints:
 In our example, we analyzed joint A first
1.Truss joints with 2 collinear members & no
because it was subjected to the known
reaction exerted by the pin support & 2 load: the sum of the forces must equal zero,
unknown forces, the axial forces TAB & TAC T1 = T2. The axial forces are equal.
 We could then analyze joint B because it was
subjected to 2 known forces & 2 unknown
forces, TBC & TBD
 If we had attempted to analyze joint B first,
there would have been 3 unknown forces
19 20

2.Truss joints with 2 noncollinear members 3.Truss joints with 3 members, 2 of which are
& no load: because the sum of the forces in collinear & no load: because the sum of the
the x direction must equal zero, T2 = 0. forces in the x direction must equal zero, T3 =
therefore T1 must also equal zero. The axial 0. The sum of the forces in the y direction must
forces are zero. equal zero, so T1 = T2. The axial forces in the
collinear members are equal & the axial force
in the 3rd member is zero.
21 22
Example 6.1 Applying the Method of Example 6.1 Applying the Method of
Joints Joints
Determine the axial forces in the members of the Solution
truss in Fig. 6.12. Determine the Reactions at the Supports:
Draw the free-body diagram of the entire truss:
Strategy Fig. 6.12

1st, draw a free-body diagram of the entire truss,
treating it as a single object & determine the
reactions at the supports. Then apply the method
of joints, simplifying the task by identifying any
special joints
23 24
4
Joints Joints
Solution Solution
From the equilibrium equations: Identify Special Joints:
Σ Fx = Ax + B = 0 Because joint C has 3 members, 2 of which are
Σ Fy = Ay  2 kN = 0 collinear & no load, the axial force in member BC is
zero, TBC = 0 & the axial forces in the collinear
Σ Mpoint B = (6 m) Ax  (10 m)(2 kN) = 0
members AC & CD are equal, TAC = TCD.
We obtain the reactions:
Draw Free-Body Diagrams of the Joints:
We know the reaction exerted on joint A by the
support & joint A is subjected to only 2 unknown
forces, the axial forces in members AB & AC.
25 26
Joints Joints
Solution Solution
The angle  = arctan (5/3) = 59.0°
The equilibrium equations for joint A are:
Σ Fx = TAC sin   3.33 kN = 0
Σ Fy = 2 kN  TAB  TAC cos  = 0
Solving these equations, we obtain:
27 28
Joints Joints
Solution Solution
From the equilibrium equation:
Now draw the free-body diagram of joint B:
Σ Fx = TBD + 3.33 kN = 0
We obtain TBD = 3.33 kN. The negative sign
indicates that member BD is in compression.
The axial forces in the members are:
AB:
AC:
BC:
BD:
CD:
29 30
5
Example 6.1 Applying the Method of Example 6.2 Determining the Largest
Joints Force a Truss Will Support
Critical Thinking Each member of the truss in Fig. 6.13 will safely
 Observe how our solution was simplified by support a tensile force of 10 kN & a compressive
recognizing that joint C is the type of special joint force of 2 kN. What is the largest downward load F
with 3 members, 2 of which are collinear & no that the truss will safely support?
load:
 This allowed us to determine the axial forces
in all members of the truss by analyzing only
2 joints
Fig. 6.13
31 32
Example 6.2 Determining the Largest Example 6.2 Determining the Largest
Force a Truss Will Support Force a Truss Will Support
Strategy Solution
This truss is identical to the one we analyzed in By using the method of joints in the same way as
Example 6.1. By applying the method of joints in in Example 6.1, we obtain the axial forces:
the same way, the axial forces in the members can
be determined in terms of the load F. The smallest
value of F that will cause a tensile force of 10 kN or
a compressive force of 2 kN in any of the members
is the largest value of F that the truss will support.
33 34
Example 6.2 Determining the Largest Example 6.2 Determining the Largest
Force a Truss Will Support Force a Truss Will Support
For a given load F, the largest tensile force is 1.94F  This example demonstrates why engineers
(in members AC & CD) & the largest compressive analyze structures:
force is 1.67F (in member BD).  By doing so, they can determine the loads
The largest safe tensile force would occur when that an existing structure will support or
1.94F = 10 kN or when F = 5.14 kN. design a structure to support given loads
The largest safe compressive force would occur  In this example, the tensile & compressive
when 1.67F = 2 kN or when F = 1.20 kN. loads the members of the truss will support
Therefore, the largest load F that the truss will safely are given
support is
35 36
6
Example 6.2 Determining the Largest
Force a Truss Will Support
Critical Thinking
 Information of that kind must be obtained by
applying the methods of mechanics of
materials to the individual members
 Then statics can be used, as we have done in
this examples, to determine the axial loads in
the members in terms of the external loads on
the structure
37
7
Design Example 6.3 Bridge Design Design Example 6.3 Bridge Design
The loads a bridge structure must support & pin Strategy
supports where the structure is to attached are The vertical members AG, BH, CI, DJ & EK are
shown in Fig. 6.14(1). Assigned to design the subjected to compressive forces of magnitude F.
structure, a civil engineering student proposes the Because of the symmetry of the structure, we can
structure shown in Fig. 6.14(2). What are the axial determine the axial loads in the remaining
forces in the members? members by analyzing joints C & B.
Fig. 6.14
1 2
Solution Solution
We will it as an exercise to show by drawing the From the equilibrium equations:
free-body diagrams of joint C that members BC & Σ Fx = TAB cos  + TBC cos 15° = 0
CD are subjected to equal compressive loads of Σ Fy = TAB sin  + TBC sin 15°  F = 0
magnitude 1.93F. We obtain TAB = 2.39F &  = 38.8°. By symmetry,
We draw the free-body diagram TDE = TAB. The axial forces in the members are
of joint B where shown in Table 6.1:
TBC =  1.93F:
Members Axial Force
AG, BH, CI, DJ, EK
AB, DE
BC, CB
3 Table 6.1 4
 The bridge was an early application of  The bridge structure proposed by the student in
engineering this example, called an arch, is an ancient
 The basic difficulty in bridge design is that a design
single beam extended between the banks will fail  Notice in Table 6.1 that all the members of
if the distance between banks, or span, is too the structure are in compression
large:  Because masonry (stone, brick or concrete)
 To meet the need for bridges of increasing is weak in tension but very strong in
strength & span, civil engineers created compression, many bridges made of these
ingenious & aesthetic designs in antiquity & materials were designed with arched span in
continue to do so today the past
5 6
1
 For the same reason, modern concrete  Unlike the masonry, wood & steel can support
bridges are often built with arched spans: substantial forces in both compression &
tension:
 E.g. the forces in Fig. 6.14(1) can be
supported by the Pratt truss:
7 8
 Its
members are subjected to both tension &  The Forth Bridge has a truss structure:
compression (Table 6.2):
Members Axial Force
AB, BC, CD, DE
AG, EI
CG, CI
GH, HI
BG, DI
 However, truss bridges are too heavy for the
CH
largest bridges. (The Forth Bridge contains
Table 6.2 58 000 tons of steel)
9 10
 By taking advantage of the ability of relatively  Ineffect, the compression arch is inverted
light cables to support large tensile forces, civil
 The loads are “suspended” from members AB,
engineers use suspension structures to bridge
very large spans: BC, CD & DE
 The system of 5 forces we are using as an  Every member of this structure except the
example can be supported by the simple towers AG & EK is in tension (Table 6.3):
suspension structure:
Members Axial Force
BH, CI, DJ
AB, DE
BC, CD
Table 6.3
11 12
2
Design Example 6.3 Bridge Design 6.3 The Method of Sections
Design Issues  When we need to know the axial forces only in
certain members of a truss, we often can
 The largest existing determine them more quickly using the method
bridges, such as the of sections than the method of joints
Golden Gate Bridge,  E.g. consider the Warren truss we used for the
consist of cable- method of joints:
suspended spans  It supports loads at B & D & each member is
supported by towers: 2 m in length
 Suppose we need to
determine only the
axial force in
member BC
13 14
6.3 The Method of Sections 6.3 The Method of Sections

 Just as in the method of joints, we begin by  Summing moments about point B,
drawing a free-body diagram of the entire the equilibrium equations for the
truss & determining the reactions at the section are:
supports: Σ Fx = TAC + TBD + TBC cos 60° = 0
Σ Fy = 500 N  400 N  TBC sin 60° = 0
Σ Mpoint B = (2 sin 60° m)TAC
 (2 cos 60° m)(500 N) = 0
 The next step is to cut the members AC, BC & Solving them, we obtain TAC = 289 N,
BD to obtain a free-body diagram of a part, or TBC = 115 N & TBD = 346 N.
a section, of the truss:
15 16
6.3 The Method of Sections 6.3 The Method of Sections

 Notice how similar this method is to the method  In our example, we obtained a free-body
of joints: diagram by cutting 3 members, including the 1
(member BC) whose axial force we wanted to
 Both methods involve cutting members to determine
obtain free-body diagrams of parts of a truss  In contrast to the method of joints, the forces on
 In the method of joints, we move from joint to the free-body diagrams used in the method of
joint, drawing free-body diagrams of the joints sections are not usually concurrent:
& determining the axial forces in the members  As in our example, we can obtain 3 independent
as we go equilibrium equations
 In the method of sections, we try to obtain a  Although there are exceptions, it is usually
single free-body diagram that allows us to necessary to choose a section that requires
determine the axial forces in specific cutting no more than 3 members, or there will
members be more unknown axial forces than equilibrium
equations
17 18
3
Sections Sections
The truss in Fig. 6.22 supports a 100-kN load. Strategy
The horizontal members are each 1 m in length. We need to obtain a section by cutting members
Determine the axial force in member CJ & state that include member CJ. By cutting members CD,
whether it is in tension or compression. CJ & IJ, we will obtain a free-body diagram with 3
unknown axial forces.
Solution
To obtain a section, we cut members CD, CJ & IJ
& draw the free-body diagram of the part of the
Fig. 6.22 truss on the right side of the truss
19 20
Sections Sections
From the equilibrium  We designed this example to demonstrate that
equation: the method of sections can be very
Σ Fy = TCJ sin 45°  100 kN advantageous when you only need to determine
=0 the axial forces in particular members of a truss
 Imagine calculating the axial force in member
We obtain TCJ =
CJ using the method of joints
 But in engineering applications it is usually
The axial force in member necessary to know the axial forces in all the
CJ is members of a truss & in that case the 2 methods
are comparable
21 22
Example 6.5 Choosing an Appropriate Example 6.5 Choosing an Appropriate

Section Section
Determine the axial forces in members DG & BE of Strategy
the truss in Fig. 6.23. We can’t obtain a section that involves cutting
members DG & BE without cutting more than 3
members. However, cutting members DG, BE, CD
& BC results in a section with which we can
determine the axial forces in members DG & BE.
Fig. 6.23
23 24
4
Section Section
Solution Solution
Determine the Reactions at the Supports: From the equilibrium equations:
Draw the free-body diagram of the entire truss: Σ Fx = Ax = 0
Σ Fy = Ay + K  F  2F  F = 0
Σ Mpoint A = LF  (2L)(2F)  (3L)F + (4L)K = 0
We obtain the reactions Ax = 0, Ay = 2F & K = 2F.
25 26

Section Section
Solution Solution
Choose a Section: The axial force TDG = F.
We obtain a section by cutting
Then from the equilibrium equation:
members DG, CD, BC & BE.
Σ Fx = TDG + TBE = 0
Because the lines of action of
We see that TBE = TDG = F.
TBE, TBC & TCD pass through point
Member DG is in compression & member BE is in
B, we can determine TDG by
tension.
summing moments about B:
Σ Mpoint B = L(2F)  (2L)TDG = 0
27 28
Example 6.5 Choosing an Appropriate

Section
Critical Thinking
 This is a clever example but not 1 that is typical
of problems faced in practice:
 The section used to solve it might not be
obvious even to a person with experience
analyzing structures
 Notice that the free-body diagram of the
section of the truss is statically indeterminate,
although it can be sued to determine the axial
forces in members DG & BE
29
5
6.5 Frames & Machines 6.5 Frames & Machines
 Many structures, such as the frame of a  When trusses are analyzed by cutting members
car & the human structure of bones, to obtain free-body diagrams of joints or
tendons & muscles are not composed sections, the internal forces acting at the “cuts”
entirely of 2-force members & thus are simple axial forces
cannot be modeled as trusses  This is generally not true for frames or machines
 Such structures are called: & a different method of analysis is necessary
 Frames if they are  Instead of cutting members, you isolate the
designed to remain entire member, or in some cases combinations
stationary & support loads of members, from the structure
 Machines if they are
designed to move & apply
loads
1 2

 To begin analyzing a frame or machine, draw a  E.g. consider the stationary structure:
free-body diagram of the entire structure (i.e.
treat the structure as a single object) & determine
the reactions at its supports:
 In some cases the entire structure will be
statically indeterminate but it is helpful to
determine as many of the reactions as possible
 We then draw the free-body diagrams of  Member BE is a 2-force member but the other
individual members or selected combinations of 3 members – ABC, CD & DEG – are not
members & apply the equilibrium equations to  This structure is a frame
determine the forces & couples acting on them  Our objective is to determine the forces on its
members
3 4

 Analyzing the Entire Structure:  Summing the moments about A yields:
 Draw the free-body diagram of Σ Mpoint A = (2 m)Gx + (1 m)(8 kN)  (3 m)(6 kN) = 0
the entire frame and we obtain the reaction Gx = 5 kN
 It is statically indeterminate:
 Then from the equilibrium equation:
there are 4 unknown reactions,
Ax, Ay, Gx & Gy, whereas we can Σ Fx = Ax + Gx + 8 kN = 0
only write 3 independent we obtain the reaction Ax = 13 kN
equilibrium equations
 Although we cannot determine Ay or Gy from
 However, notice that the lines
the free-body diagram of the entire structure,
of action of 3 of the unknown we can do so by analyzing the individual
reactions intersect at A
members
5 6
1
 Analyzing the Members: A simple demonstration is instructive:
 The next step is to draw the free-body  Ifyou clasp your hands and exert a force
diagrams of the members on your left hand with your right hand,
 To do so, we treat the attachment of a your left hand exerts an equal &
member to another member just as if it were a opposite force on your right hand
support:  Similarly, if you exert a couple on your
 Looked at in this way, we can think of each left hand, your left hand exerts an equal
member as a supported object of the kind & opposite couple on your right hand
analyzed in Chapter 5
 Furthermore, the forces & couples the
members exert on 1 another are equal in
magnitude & opposite in direction
7 8

 We “disassemble” the frame & draw the free-  Observe that the forces exerted on one
body diagrams of its members: another by members are equal & opposite
 E.g. at point C on the free-body diagram
of member ABC, the force exerted by
member CD is denoted by the
components Cx & Cy
 The forces exerted by member ABC on
member CD at point C must be equal &
opposite as shown
9 10

 2-Force Members:  Inour example, if we did not treat member BE
 Member BE is a 2-force member & we have as a 2-force member, its free-body diagram
taken this into account in drawing its free-body would have 4 unknown force (Fig. a)
diagram:  By treating it as a 2-force member (Fig. b), we
 The force T is the axial force in member BE &

reduce the number of unknown forces by 3
an equal & opposite force is subjected on the
member ABC at B & on member GED at E
 Recognizing the 2-force members in frames &
machines & drawing free-body diagrams as we
have done will reduce the number of unknowns
& will greatly simplify the analysis
2
 Loads Applied at Joints:  The 6-kN load acts at the joint where
 When a load is applied at a joint, where members ABC & CD are connected
does the load appear on the free-body  In drawing the free-body diagrams of the
diagrams of the individual members? individual members, we assumed that the
 You can place the load on any 1 of the 6-kN load acted on the member ABC
members attached at the joint  The force components Cx & Cy on the free-
 In the same example: body diagram of member ABC are the
forces exerted by the member CD
13 14

 To explain why we can draw the free-body  Ifwe superimpose the free-body diagrams
diagrams in this way: of the pin & member ABC, we obtain the 2
 Assume that the 6-kN force acts on the pin free-body diagrams, which is the way we
connecting members ABC & CD & draw drew them:
separate free-body diagrams of the pin &
the 2 members
 The force components C’x
 Alternatively,
by superimposing the free-
& C’y are the forces
exerted by the pin on body diagrams of the pin & member CD,
member ABC & Cx & Cy we obtain the 2 free-body diagrams:
are the forces exerted by
the pin on member CD
15 16

 Thus if a load acts at a joint, it can be placed
on any 1 of the members attached at the joint
when drawing the free-body diagrams of the
individual members:
 Make sure not to place it on more than 1
member
 To detect errors in the free-body diagrams of
the members, it is helpful to “reassemble”
them:
 The forces at the connections between the
members cancel (they are internal forces
once the members are reassembled) & the
free-body diagram of the entire structure is
recovered
17 18
3
 The final step is to apply the equilibrium  By assuming that the forces on a 2-force
equations to the free-body diagrams of the member are equal & opposite axial forces,
members: we have already used the 3 equilibrium
 In 2 dimensions,
equations for that member
we can obtain 3
individual  In this example, there are 3 members in
independent addition to the 2-force member, so we can
equilibrium write (3)(3) = 9 independent equilibrium
equations from the
free-body diagram equations & there are 9 unknown forces:
of each member of Ax, Ay, Cx, Cy, Dx, Dy, Gx, Gy & T
a structure that we
do not treat as a 2-
force member
19 20

 The equilibrium equations we obtained from  Consider the free-body diagram of member ABC:
the free-body diagram of the entire structure  Because we know Ax, we can determine Cx
are not independent of the equilibrium from the equation:
equations obtained from the free-body Σ Fx = Ax + Cx = 0
diagrams of the members but by using them
to determine Ax & Gx, we get a had start on Obtaining Cx =
solving the equations for the members  Considerthe free-body diagram of GED:
 Wecan determine Dx from the equation:
Σ Fx = Gx + Dx = 0
Obtaining Dx =
21 22

 Consider the free-body diagram of CD:  Now we can return to the free-body diagrams
 Because we know Cx, we can of members ABC & GED to determine Ay & Gy:
determine Cy by summing moments  Summing moments about point B of
about D: member ABC yields:
Σ Mpoint D = (2 m)Cx  (1 m)Cy Σ Mpoint B = (1 m)Ay + (2 m)Cy  (2 m)(6 kN) =
 (1 m)(8 kN) = 0
and we obtain Ay = 2Cy  12 kN =
We obtain Cy = 18 kN.
 Then, summing moments about point E of
 Then,from the equation: member GED, we have:
Σ Fy = Cy  Dy = 0 Σ Mpoint E = (1 m)Dy  (1 m)Gy=
We find that Dy = Cy = 18 kN. from which we obtain Gy = Dy =
23 24
4
 Finally,
from the free-body diagram of member
GED:  As this example demonstrates, determination of
 We use the equilibrium equation: the forces on the members can often be
Σ Fy = Dy + Gy + T = 0 simplified by carefully choosing the order in
which the equations are solved
which gives us the result T = Dy  Gy = 36 kN.
 Determination of the forces & couples on the
 The forces on the members are: members of the frames & machines involves 2
steps:
25 26
1.Determine the reactions at the supports – 2.Analyze the members – draw free-body
draw the free-body diagram of the entire diagrams of the members & apply the
structure & determine the reactions at its equilibrium equations to determine the forces
supports. Although this step is not essential, it acting on them. You can simplify this step by
can greatly simplify your analysis of the identifying 2-force members. If a load acts at
members. If the free-body diagram is statically a joint of the structure, you can place the load
indeterminant, determine as many of the on the free-body diagram of any 1 of the
reactions as possible. members attached at that point.
27 28
Example 6.6 Analyzing a Frame Example 6.6 Analyzing a Frame
The frame in Fig. 6.36 is subjected to a 200 N-m

Strategy
couple. Determine the forces & couples on its 1st, draw a free-body diagram of the entire frame,
members. treating it as a single object & attempt to
determine the reactions at the supports. Then
draw the free-body diagrams of the individual
members & use the equilibrium equations to
determine the forces & couples acting on them.
Fig. 6.36
29 30
5
Solution Solution
Draw the free-body diagram of the entire frame: Σ Fx = Ax = 0
Σ Fy = Ay + C = 0
Σ Mpoint A = MA  200 N-m + (1 m)C = 0
we obtain the reaction Ax = 0. We can’t determine
Ay, MA or C from this free-body diagram.
The term MA is the couple exerted by the fixed
support.
31 32

Solution Solution
Analyze the Members: The equilibrium equations for member BC are:
“Disassemble” the frame to obtain the free-body Σ Fx = Bx = 0
diagrams of the members: Σ Fy = By + C = 0
Σ Mpoint A =  200 N-m + (0.4 m)C = 0
Solving these equations, we obtain
33 34

Solution Solution
The equilibrium equations for member AB are: This completes the solution:
Σ Fx = Ax + Bx = 0
Σ Fy = Ay + By = 0
Σ Mpoint B = MA + (0.6 m)By = 0
Because we already know Ax, Bx & By, we can solve
these equations for Ay & MA.
The results are
35 36
6
 We were able to solve the equilibrium equations  Even though we were unable to determine the 4
for member BC without having to consider the reactions Ax, Ay, MA & C with the 3 equilibrium
free-body diagram of member AB:
equations obtained from the free-body diagram
 We were then able to solve the equilibrium of the entire frame, we were able to determine
equations for member AB
them from the free-body diagrams of the
 By choosing the members with the fewest individual members:
unknowns to analyze 1st, you will often be able
to solve the sequentially:  By drawing the free-body diagrams of the
 But in some cases you will have to solve the

members, we gained 3 equations because we
equilibrium equations for the members obtained 3 equilibrium equations from each
simultaneously member but only 2 new unknowns Bx & By
37 38
Example 6.7 Determining Forces on Example 6.7 Determining Forces on

Members of a Frame Members of a Frame
The frame in Fig. 6.37 supports a suspended Strategy
weight W = 200 N. Determine the forces on Draw a free-body diagram of the entire frame &
members ABCD & CEG. attempt to determine the reactions at the supports.
Then draw free-body diagrams of the individual
members & use the equilibrium equations to
determine the forces & couples acting on them. In
doing so, we can take advantage of the fact that
the bar BE is a 2-force member.
Fig. 6.37
39 40

Solution Solution
Draw the free-body diagram of the entire frame: Σ Fx = Ax  D = 0
Σ Fy = Ay  200 N = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (0.36 m)D  (0.38 m)(200 N) = 0
we obtain the reactions
41 42
7
Solution Solution
Analyze the Members: Notice that BE is a 2-force member. The angle
We obtain the free-body diagram of the members:  = arctan (6/8) = 36.9°
The free-body diagram of the pulley has only 2
unknown forces. From the equilibrium equations:
Σ Fx = Gx  200 N = 0
Σ Fy = Gy  200 N = 0
we obtain
43 44

Solution Solution
There are now only 3 unknown forces on the The complete solution:
free-body diagram of member CEG.
From the equilibrium equations:
Σ Fx = Cx  R cos   200 N= 0
Σ Fy = Cy  R sin   200 N = 0
Σ Mpoint C = (0.16 m) R sin   (0.32 m)(200 N) = 0
we obtain
45 46

 In problems of this kind, the reactions on the  In this example when we drew the free-body
individual members of the frame can be diagrams of the members we already knew
determined from the free-body diagrams of the the reactions at A & D, which simplified the
members remaining analysis
 Why did we draw the free-body diagram of the  Analyzing the entire frame can also provide a
entire frame & solve the associated equilibrium check on your work
equations?  Notice that we did not use the equilibrium
 It gave us a head start on solving the equations for member ABCD
equilibrium equations for the members
47 48
8
Example 6.7 Determining Forces on
Members of a Frame
Critical Thinking
 We can check our analysis by confirming that
this member is in equilibrium:
Σ Fx = 211 N  666.7 cos 36.9° N + 333.3 N
+ 200 N  211 N= 0
Σ Fy = 200 N  666.7 sin 36.9° + 200 N = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (0.12 m)(666.7 cos 36.9° N)
 (0.24 m)(333.3 N)  (0.3 m)(200 N)
+ (0.36 m)(211 N) = 0
49
9
Chapter Outline
Centroids:
 Centroids of Areas
CE1601  Centroids of Composite Areas

 Distributed Loads
Fundamentals of Structures  Centroids of Volumes & Lines
Chapter Seven:  The Pappus-Guldinus Theorems
Centroids & Centers of Mass Centers of Mass:
 Definition of Center of Mass
 Center of Mass of Objects
 Center of Mass of Composite Objects
1 2
Centroids Centroids
 Suppose that we want to determine the average  Number the students from 1 to N & denote the
position of a group of students sitting in a room: position of student 1 by (x1, y1), the position of
 Introduce a coordinate system to specify the student 2 by (x2, y2) & so on
position of each student  The average x coordinate, which is denoted
 E.g. align the axes with the walls of the room by , is the sum of their x coordinates divided
by N:
(7.1)
where means “sum over the range of i”
3 4
Centroids Centroids
 The average y coordinate is:  Suppose that we pass out some pennies to the
students:
 Let the number of coins given to student 1 be
(7.2) c1, the number given to student 2 be c2 & so
 We indicate the average position by the on
symbol shown:  The average position of the coins may not be
the same as the average position of the
students
 E.g. if the students in the front of the
classroom have more coins, the average
position of the coins will be closer to the front
of the front than the average position of the
students
5 6
1
Centroids Centroids
 To determine the x coordinate of the average  Determine the average y coordinate of the
position of the coins, we need to sum the x coins in the same way:
coordinates of the coins by multiplying the
number of coins each student has by his or (7.4)
her x coordinate & summing
 We can obtain the number of the coins by  By assigning other meanings to c1, c2,…, we
summing the numbers c1, c2,… determine the average positions of other
 Thus, the average x coordinate of the coins measures associated with the students
is:  E.g. we could determine the average position
(7.3) of their age or the average position of their
height
7 8
Centroids 7.1 Centroids of Areas

 More generally, we can use Eqs. (7.3) & (7.4) to  Consider an arbitrary area A in the x-y plane:
determine the average position of any set of  Divide the area into parts A1, A2,…, AN &
quantities with which we can associate positions denote the positions of the parts by (x1, y1),
 An average position obtained from these (x2, y2),…, (xN, yN)
equations is called a weighted average position
or centroid
 The “weight” associated with position (x1, y1) is
c1, the “weight” associated with position (x2, y2) is
c2 & so on
9 10
7.1 Centroids of Areas 7.1 Centroids of Areas

 The centroid or average position of the area,  To determine the exact location of the
by using Eqs. (7.3) & (7.4) with the areas of centroid, we must take the limit as the sizes
the parts as the weights: of the parts approach zero:
 We obtain this limit by replacing Eqs. (7.5)
(7.5) by the integrals:
 To reduce the uncertainty in the positions of (7.6)

areas A1, A2,…, AN, divide A into smaller parts:
 But we would still obtain only approximate
values of (7.7)
11 12
2
7.1 Centroids of Areas 7.1 Centroids of Areas
 Where x & y are the coordinates of  Keeping in mind that the centroid of an area is
the differential element of area dA its average position will often help you locate it:
 The subscript A on the integral  E.g. the centroid of a circular area or a
sign means the integration is rectangular area obviously lies at the center
of the area
carried out over the entire area
 If an area has “mirror image” symmetry about
 The centroid of the area is: an axis, the centroid lies on the axis
 If an area is symmetric about 2 axes, the
centroid lies at their intersection
13 14
Example 7.1 Centroid of an Area by Example 7.1 Centroid of an Area by

Integration Integration
Solution
Determine the centroid of the Let dA be the vertical strip. The height
triangular area in Fig. 7.4. of the strip is (h/b)x, so dA = (h/b)x dx.
To integrate over the entire area, we
must integrate with respect to x from
Strategy Fig. 7.4 x = 0 to x = b. The x coordinate of the
Determine the coordinates of the centroid by centroid is:
using an element of area dA in the form of a
“strip” of width dx.
15 16
Example 7.1 Centroid of an Area by Example 7.1 Centroid of an Area by

Integration Integration
Solution Solution
To determine , we let y in Eq. (7.7) The centroid is shown:
be the y coordinate of the midpoint
of the strip:
17 18
3
Example 7.1 Centroid of an Area by
Example 7.2 Area Defined by 2 Equations
Integration
Critical Thinking
 Always be alert for opportunities to check your Determine the centroid of the area in
results: Fig. 7.5.
 In this example, we should make sure that
our integration procedure gives the correct
result for the area of the triangle: Strategy Fig. 7.5
Determine the coordinates of the centroid using
an element of area in the form of a vertical strip,
just as in Example 7.1. In this case the strip must
be defined so that it extends from the lower curve
(y = x2) to the upper curve (y = x).
19 20
Example 7.2 Area Defined by 2 Equations Example 7.2 Area Defined by 2 Equations
Solution Solution
Let dA be the vertical strip. The height of the strip The y coordinate of the midpoint of the strip is:
is x – x2, so dA = (x – x2) dx.
The x coordinate of the centroid is:
Substituting this expression for y in Eq. (7.7), we
obtain the y coordinate of the centroid:
21 22
Example 7.2 Area Defined by 2 Equations 7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas

Critical Thinking  Composite area: an area consisting of a
 Notice the generality of the approach we use in combination of simple areas
this example:  The centroid of a composite area can be
 It can be used to determine the x & y
determined without integration if the centroids of
coordinates of the centroid of any area whose its parts are known
upper & lower boundaries are defined by 2  The area in the figure consists
functions of a triangle, a rectangle & a
semicircle, which we call parts
1, 2 & 3
23 24
4
7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas 7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas
 Thex coordinate of the centroid of the  Using this equation & equivalent equations
composite area is: for parts 2 & 3, we can write Eq. (7.8) as:
(7.8)
 The coordinates of the centroid of a

 From the equation for the x coordinate of the
centroid of part 1: composite area with an arbitrary number of
parts are:
(7.9)
 We obtain:
25 26
7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas 7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas

 The
x coordinate of the centroid of the
 The area in the figure consists of composite area is:
triangular area with a circular hole
or cutout:
 Designate the triangular area
(without the cutout) as part 1 of
the composite area & the area  Therefore,we can use Eqs. (7.9) to
of the cutout as part 2 determine the centroids of composite areas
containing cutouts by treating the cutouts as
negative areas
27 28
Example 7.3 Centroid of a Composite

7.2 Centroids of Composite Areas Area
 Determining the centroid of a composite area
requires 3 steps: Determine the centroid of the area in Fig. 7.8.
1.Choose the parts — try to divide the composite
area into parts whose centroids you know or
can easily determine.
2.Determine the values for the parts — determine
the centroid & the area of each part. Watch for Fig. 7.8
Strategy
instances of symmetry that can simplify your
Divide the area into parts (the parts are obvious in
task.
this example), determine the centroids of the parts
3.Calculate the centroid — use Eqs. (7.9) to
& apply Eqs. (7.9).
determine the centroid of the composite area.
29 30
5
Example 7.3 Centroid of a Composite Example 7.3 Centroid of a Composite
Area Area
Solution Solution
Choose the Parts: The x coordinates, the areas of the parts & their
Divide the area into a triangle, a rectangle & a products are summarized in Table 7.1.
semicircle, which we call parts 1, 2 & 3 Table 7.1 Information for determining the x coordinate of the centroid
respectively.
Ai
Determine the Values for Part 1 (triangle)
the Parts:
The x coordinates of the Part 2 (rectangle)
centroids of the parts:

Part 3 (semicircle)
31 32

Area Area
Solution Solution
Calculate the Centroid: Repeat the last 2 steps to
The x coordinate of the centroid of the composite determine the y coordinates
area is: of the centroid:
Table 7.2 Information for determining the y coordinate of the centroid

Ai
Part 1 (triangle)
Part 2 (rectangle)
Part 3 (semicircle)
33 34

Area Area
Using the information summarized in Table 7.2:  Although the area in this example may appear
very artificial, many of the areas dealt with in
engineering applications consist of combinations
of simple areas such as these
 Even when that is not the case, an area can be
approximated by combining these kinds of
simple areas
35 36
6
Example 7.4 Centroid of an Area with a Example 7.4 Centroid of an Area with a
Cutout Cutout
Fig. 7.9 Solution
Determine the centroid of the area in Choose the Parts
Fig. 7.9. We call the rectangle without the semicircular
cutout & the area of the cutout parts 1 & 2,
respectively:
Strategy
Instead of attempting to divide the area into parts,
a simpler approach is to treat it as a composite of
a rectangular area with a semicircular cutout. Then
we can apply Eq. (7.9) by treating the cutout as a
negative area.
37 38
Example 7.4 Centroid of an Area with a Example 7.4 Centroid of an Area with a
Cutout Cutout
Solution Solution
Table 7.3 Information for determining
Determine the Values for the Parts:
Ai (mm2)
The x coordinate of the centroid of the cutout is:
Part 1 (rectangle)
Part 2 (cutout)
Calculate the Centroid:

The information for determining the x coordinate of
the centroid is summarized in Table 7.3.
Notice that we treat the cutout as a negative area.
Because of the symmetry of the area,
39 40
Example 7.4 Centroid of an Area with a

Cutout
Critical Thinking
 If you try to divide the area in Fig. 7.9 into simple
parts, you will gain appreciation for the approach
we used:
 We were able to determine the centroid by
dealing with 2 simple areas, the rectangular
area without the cutout & the semicircular
cutout
 Determining centroids of areas can often be
simplified in this way
41
7
7.3 Distributed Loads 7.3 Distributed Loads
 In many engineering applications,  Describing a Distributed Load:
loads are continuously distributed
along lines:  Suppose that we pile bags of sand on a beam:
 E.g. the load exerted on a beam
(stringer) supporting a floor of a
building is distributed over the
beam’s length
 The load exerted by wind on a
television transmission tower is  It is clear that the load exerted by the bags is
distributed along the tower’s height
distributed over the length of the beam & that
 The concept of the centroid of an its magnitude at a given position x depends on
area is useful in the analysis of
objected subjected to such loads how high the bags are piled at that position
1 2

T describe the load, we define a function w  Loads distributed along lines, from simple
such that the downward force exerted on an examples such as the beam’s own weight to
infinitesimal element dx of the beam is w dx complicated ones such as the lift distributed
 With this function we can model the varying along the length of an airplane’s wing, are
magnitude of the load exerted by the sand modeled by the function w
bags:  Since the product of w & dx is a force, the
dimensions of w are (force)/(length)
 w can be expressed in newtons per meter
(SI units)
 The arrows in the figure indicate that the load
acts in a downward direction
3 4

 Determining Force & Moment:  The total force F exerted by the distributed
 Assuming that the function w describing a load is determined by integrating the loading
particular distributed load is known: curve with respect to x:
(7.10)
 We can also integrate to determine the

moment about a point exerted by the
distributed load
 The graph of w is called the loading curve
 The moment about the origin due to the force
 The force acting on an element dx of the line exerted on the element dx is xw dx
is w dx
5 6
1
 The total moment about the origin due to the  For equivalence, the force must act at a
distributed load: position on the x axis such that the moment
(7.11) of F about the origin is equal to the moment of
the distributed load about the origin:
 When you are concerned

only with the total force &  Therefore the force F is equivalent to the
moment exerted by a distributed load if we place it at the position:
distributed load, you can
represent it by a single
(7.12)
equivalent force F:
7 8

 The Area Analogy:  Interpreted in this way, Eq. (7.10) states that
 Notice that the term w dx is equal to an the total force exerted by the distributed load
element of “area” dA between the loading is equal to the “area” A between the loading
curve & the x axis (w dx is actually a force & curve & the x axis:
not an area) (7.13)
 Substituting w dx = dA into Eq. (7.12):
(7.14)
9 10
Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular

7.3 Distributed Loads Distributed Load
The beam in Fig. 7.14 is subjected to a “triangular”
 The force F is equivalent to the distributed distributed load whose value at B is 100 N/m.
load if it acts at the centroid of the “area”
between the loading & the x axis (a) Represent the distributed load by a single
equivalent force.
(b) Determine the reactions at A & B.
Fig. 7.14
11 12
2
Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular
Distributed Load Distributed Load
Strategy Solution
(a) The magnitude of the force is equal to the (a) The “area” of the triangular distributed load is
“area” under the triangular loading curve & the one-half its base times its height or
equivalent force acts at the centroid of the
triangular “area”.
(b) Once the distributed load is represented by a The centroid of the triangular “area” is located at:
single equivalent force, we can apply the
equilibrium equations to determine the reactions.
13 14
Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular
Distributed Load Distributed Load
Solution Solution
We can therefore represent the distributed load by (b) From the equilibrium equations:
an equivalent downward force of 600-N magnitude Σ Fx = Ax = 0
acting at x = 8 m: Σ Fy = Ay + B  600 N= 0
Σ Mpoint A = (12 m)B  (8 m)(600 N) = 0
we obtain:
15 16
Example 7.5 Beam with a Triangular Example 7.6 Beam Subjected to

Distributed Load Distributed Loads
Critical Thinking
The beam in Fig. 7.15 is subjected to 2 distributed
 This analogy made it very straightforward to
loads. Determine the reactions at A & B.
represent the triangular distributed load in this
example by an equivalent force
 For comparison, you should determine the
reactions at A & B by using Eqs. (7.10) & (7.11)
to calculate the force & moment exerted by the
distributed load
Fig. 7.15
17 18
3
Example 7.6 Beam Subjected to Example 7.6 Beam Subjected to
Distributed Loads Distributed Loads
Strategy Solution
We can easily apply the area analogy to the Draw the free-body diagram of the beam
uniformly distributed load between A & B. We will expressing the left distributed load as the sum
treat the distributed load on the vertical section of uniform & triangular loads:
of the beam as the sum of uniform & triangular
distributed loads & use the area analogy to
represent each distributed load by an equivalent
force.
19 20

Solution Solution
Represent the 3 distributed loads by equivalent The area of the uniform distributed load on the
forces: vertical part of the beam is:
and its centroid is located at y = 3 m.

The area of the triangular distributed load is:
The “area” of the uniform distributed load on the

And its centroid is located at:
right is:
and the centroid is m from B.
21 22

From the equilibrium equations:  The area analogy is useful when a loading curve
Σ Fx = Ax + 1200 N + 2400 N = 0 is sufficiently simple that its area & the location
Σ Fy = Ay + B  2400 N= 0 of its centroid are easy to determine
Σ Mpoint A = (6 m)B  (3 m)(2400 N)  (2 m)(1200 N)  When that is not the case, you can use Eqs.
 (3 m)(2400 N) = 0 (7.10) & (7.11) to determine the force & moment
we obtain: exerted by a distributed load
23 24
4
Example 7.7 Beam with a Distributed Example 7.7 Beam with a Distributed
Load Load
Strategy
The beam in Fig. 7.16 is subjected to a distributed
load, a force & a couple. The distributed load is Since we know the function w, we can use Eqs.
w = 300x – 50x2 + 0.3x4 N/m. Determine the (7.10) & (7.11) to determine the force & moment
reactions at the fixed support A. exerted on the beam by the distributed load. We
can then use the equilibrium equations to
determine the reactions at A.
Fig. 7.16
25 26
Example 7.7 Beam with a Distributed Example 7.7 Beam with a Distributed
Load Load
Solution Solution
Isolate the beam & show the reactions at the fixed The clockwise moment about A exerted by the
support: distributed load is:
From the equilibrium equations:

Σ Fx =
The downward force exerted by the distributed Σ Fy = Ay – 4330 N + 2000 N=
load is: Σ Mpoint A = MA  25000 N-m + (20 m)(2000 N)
+ 10000 N-m =
we obtain:
27 28
Example 7.7 Beam with a Distributed

Load
Critical Thinking
 When you use Eq. (7.11), it is important to be
aware that you are calculating the clockwise
moment due to the distributed load w about the
origin x = 0.
29
5
7.5 The Pappus-Guldinus Theorems 7.5 The Pappus-Guldinus Theorems
 First Theorem:  The 1st Pappus-Guldinus theorem states that
 Consider a line L in the x-y plane the area of the surface of revolution is equal
that does not intersect the x axis to the product of the distance through which
the centroid of the line moves & the length of
 Let the coordinates of the centroid
the line:
of the line be
(7.19)
 We can generate a surface by
 To prove this result, we observe that as the
revolving the line about the x axis
line revolves about the x axis, the area dA
 As the line revolves about the x
generated by an element dL of the line is:
axis, the centroid of the line
moves in a circular path of radius
where y is the y coordinate of the element dL
1 2

 Therefore, the total area of the surface of  Second Theorem:
revolution is:  Consider an area A in
(7.20) the x-y plane that does
 From the definition of the y coordinate of the not intersect the x axis
centroid of the line,  Let the coordinates of
the centroid of the
area be
We obtain:  We can generate a
 Substituting this result into Eq. (7.20), we volume by revolving
obtain Eq. (7.19) the area about the x
axis
3 4

 As the line revolves about the x axis, the  As the area revolves about the x axis, the
centroid of the area moves in a circular path volume dV generated by an element dA of the
of length area is:
 The 2nd Pappus-Guldinus theorem states that (7.22)
the volume V of the volume of revolution is  From the definition of the y coordinate of the
equal to the product of the distance through centroid of the line,
which the centroid of the area moves & the
area:
(7.21) We obtain:
 Substitutingthis result into Eq. (7.22), we
obtain Eq. (7.21)
5 6
1
Example 7.14 Example 7.14
Strategy
Use the Pappus-Guldinus theorems to
The curved surface of the cone can be
determine the surface area A & volume V
generated by revolving a straight line about an
of the cone in Fig. 7.28.
axis & its volume can be generated by revolving
a right triangular area about the axis. Since the
centroids of the straight line & the triangular area
are known, we can use the Pappus-Guldinus
theorems to determine the area & volume of the
cone.
Fig. 7.28
7 8

Solution Solution
Revolving the straight line We obtain the total surface area A of the cone by
about the x axis generates adding the area of the base:
the curved surface of the
cone.
The y coordinate of the centroid of the line is:

Revolving the triangular
area about the x axis
The centroid of the line moves a distance generates the volume V.
as the line revolves about the x axis, so the area of
the curved surface is:
9 10

Critical Thinking
Solution  This example is chosen to demonstrate that the
The y coordinate of its centroid is: Pappus-Guldinus theorems yield the known
surface area & volume of a cone but the same
and its area is: procedure can obviously be used to determine
so the volume of the cone is: the surface areas & volumes of other volumes of
revolution
 Or, as we show in the next example, the
theorems can be used in the reverse way,
determining the centroids of lines & areas when
the areas & volumes of revolution that they
generate are known
11 12
2
Example 7.15 Determining Centroids with Example 7.15 Determining Centroids with
Pappus-Guldinus Theorems Pappus-Guldinus Theorems
Strategy
The circumference of a sphere of radius 2R is 2 R, Revolving a semicircular line about an axis
its surface area is 4 R2 & its volume is generates a spherical area & revolving a
semicircular area generates a spherical volume.
Use this information to determine: Knowing the area & volume, we can use the
(a) the centroid of a semicircular line; Pappus-Guldinus theorems to determine the
(b) the centroid of a semicircular area. centroids of the generating line & area.
Solution Solution
(a) Revolving the semicircular By equating this expression to the surface area
line about the x axis generates 4 R2, we determine :
the surface area of a sphere:
The length of the line is L =  R & is the y

(b) Revolving the semicircular
coordinate of its centroid.
area generates the sphere’s
The centroid of the line moves a distance
volume:
so the surface area of the sphere is:
15 16
The area of the semicircle is  If you can obtain a result by using the Pappus-
and is the y coordinate of its centroid. Guldinus theorems, you will often save time &
The centroid of the line moves a distance effort in comparison with other approached
so the volume of the sphere is:  Compare this example with Example 7.10, in
which we use integration to determine the
centroid of a semicircular line
Equating this expression to the volume

we obtain:
17 18
3
7.6 Definition of the Center of Mass 7.6 Definition of the Center of Mass
 The center of mass of an object is defined by:  Consider an element of mass dm of
an object:
(7.23)  If the y axis of the coordinate
system points upward, the weight
where x, y & z are the coordinates of the differential of dm is –dmg j
element of mass dm  Integrating this expression over the mass m,
 The subscripts m indicate we obtain:
that the integration must be
carried out over the entire  The moment of the weight of the element dm
mass of the object about the origin is:
19 20
7.6 Definition of the Center of Mass 7.6 Definition of the Center of Mass
 Integrating this expression over m, we obtain  This result shows that when we are concerned
the moment about the origin due to the only with the total force & total moment exerted
weight of the object: by the weight of an object, we can assume that
its weight acts at the center of mass
 If we represent the weight of the
object by the force –Wj acting at
the center of mass, the moment
of this force about the origin is
equal to the total moment due
to the weight:
21 22
7.7 Centers of Mass of Objects 7.7 Centers of Mass of Objects

 To apply Eqs. (7.23) to specific objects, we will  The total mass of an object is:
change the variable of integration from mass to (7.24)
volume by introducing density  An object whose density is uniform throughout
 The density  of an object is defined such that its volume is said to be homogenous
the mass of a differential element dV of the  In this case, the total mass equals the product
volume of the object is dm =  dV of the density & the volume:
 The dimensions of  are therefore
Homogenous object (7.25)
(mass/volume)
 The weight density is defined by  = g
 It can be expressed in kg/m3 (SI units)
 It can be expressed in N/m3 (SI units)
23 24
4
 The weight of an element of volume dV of an  Furthermore, we can use these expressions to
object is dW =  dV show the centers of mass of particular classes
 The total weight of an homogenous object of objects coincide with centroids of volumes,
equals  V areas & lines:
 By substituting dm =  dV into Eq. (7.23), we can
express the coordinates of the center of mass in  The center of mass of a homogenous
terms of volume integral: object coincides with the centroid of its
volume. If an object is homogenous,  =
(7.26) constant & Eqs. (7.26) become the equations
for the centroid of the volume:
 If is  known as a function of position in an
object, these expressions determine its center of
mass
25 26

 The center of mass of a homogenous  The center of mass of a homogenous
plate of uniform thickness coincides with slender bar of uniform cross-sectional
the centroid of its cross-sectional area. area coincides approximately with the
The center of mass of the plate coincides with centroid of the axis of the bar. The axis of
the centroid of its volume & we showed in the bar is defined to be the line through the
Section 7.4 that the centroid of the volume of centroid of its cross section. Let dm =  A dL,
a plate of uniform thickness coincides with where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar
the centroid of its cross-sectional area. & dL is a differential element of length of its
axis. If we substitute this expression into Eqs.
(7.26), they become the equations for the
centroid of the axis.
27 28
Example 7.16 Representing the Weight of

7.7 Centers of Mass of Objects an L-shaped Bar
The mass of the homogenous slender bar in Fig.

7.33 is 80 kg. What are the reactions at A & B?
This result is approximate because the

center of mass of the element dm does not
coincide with the centroid of the cross Fig. 7.33
section in regions where the bar is curved.
29 30
5
Example 7.16 Representing the Weight of Example 7.16 Representing the Weight of
an L-shaped Bar an L-shaped Bar
Strategy Solution
The reactions can be determined in 2 ways. 1st Method:
1st Method: In the free-body diagram, we place half of the
Represent the weight of each straight segment of weight of the bar at the center of mass of each
the bar by a force acting at the center of mass of straight segment.
the segment.
2nd method:
Determine the center of mass of the bar by
determining the centroid of its axis & represent the
weight of the bar by a single force acting at the
center of mass.
31 32
Solution Solution
From the equilibrium equations: 2nd Method:
Σ Fx = Ax – B = 0 Treat the centerline of the bar as a composite line
Σ Fy = Ay  (40)(9.81) N  (40)(9.81) N = 0 composed of 2 straight segments:
Σ Mpoint A = (1 m)B  (1 m)[(40)(9.81) N]
– (0.5 m)[(40)(9.81) N] = 0
we obtain:
33 34
Solution Solution
The coordinates of the centroid of the composite From the equilibrium equations:
line are: Σ Fx = Ax – B = 0
Σ Fy = Ay  (80)(9.81) N = 0
Σ Mpoint A = (1 m)B  (0.75 m)[(80)(9.81) N] = 0
we again obtain:
In the free-body diagram, we
place the weight of the bar at
its center of mass:
35 36
6
 This example demonstrates the importance of  In the 2nd method, we assumed that the total
this chapter’s subject matter: weight of the bar acted at its center of mass,
which we determined by calculating the position
 The weight of the bar is distributed over its of the centroid of the bar’s axis
volume  You should confirm that the total weight is
 The 1st method was intuitively compelling: equivalent to the individual weights of the
 The weight of each segment of the bar was segments
assumed to act at the midpoint of that  But the essential point is that both these
segment systems are equivalent to the distributed weight
of the bar
37 38
Example 7.17 Cylinder with Nonuniform Example 7.17 Cylinder with Nonuniform
Density Density
Determine the mass of the cylinder in Fig. 7.34
Strategy
& the position of its center of mass if: In (a), the mass of the cylinder is simply the
product of its density & its volume & the center of
(a) it is homogenous with density 0;
mass is located at the centroid of its volume.
(b) its density is given by the equation
In (b), the cylinder is inhomogenous & we must
 = 0(1 + x/L).
use Eqs. (7.24) & (7.26) to determine its mass &
center of mass
Fig. 7.34
39 40
Density Density
Solution Solution
(a) The volume of the cylinder is LA, so its mass is (b) We can determine the mass of the cylinder by
0LA. Since the center of mass is coincident using an element of volume dV in the form of a
with the centroid of the volume of the cylinder, disk of thickness dx:
the coordinates of the center of mass are:
41 42
7
Density Density
Solution Solution
The volume dV = A dx. Because the density does not depend on y or z,
we know from symmetry that:
The mass of the cylinder is:
Critical Thinking
 Notice that the center of mass of the
The x coordinate of the center of mass is: inhomogenous cylinder is not located at the
centroid of its volume
 Its density increases from left to right, so the
center of mass is located to the right of the
midpoint of the cylinder
43 44
Example 7.17 Cylinder with Nonuniform 7.8 Centers of Mass of Composite

Density Objects
Critical Thinking  The center of mass of an object consisting of a
 Many of the objects we deal with in engineering combination of parts can be determined if the
are not homogenous, but it is not common for an centers of mass of the part are known
object’s density to vary continuously through its  The coordinates of the center of mass of a
volume as in this example composite object composed of parts with
 More often, objects consist of assemblies of masses m1, m2,…, are:
parts (composites) that have different densities
because they consist of different materials (7.27)
 Frequently the individual parts are
approximately homogenous
45 46
7.8 Centers of Mass of Composite 7.8 Centers of Mass of Composite

Objects Objects
 Because the weights of the parts are related to  Determining the center of mass of a composite
their masses by Wi = gmi, Eqs. (7.27) can also be object requires 3 steps:
expressed as: 1.Choose the parts — try to divide the object
into parts whose centers of mass you know or
can easily determine
(7.28) 2.Determine the values for the parts —
determine the center of mass & the mass or
 When the masses or weights & the centers of weight of each part. Watch for instances of
mass of the parts of a composite object are symmetry that can simplify your task
known, these equations determine its center of 3.Calculate the center of mass — use Eqs.
mass (7.27) or (7.28) to determine the center of
mass of the composite object
47 48
8
Example 7.18 Center of Mass of a Example 7.18 Center of Mass of a
Composite Object Composite Object
The L-shaped machine part in Fig. 7.35 is Strategy
composed of 2 homogenous bars. Bar 1 is We can determine the mass & center of mass of
tungsten alloy with density 14000 kg/m3 & each homogenous bar & use Eqs. (7.27).
bar 2 is steel with density
7800 kg/m3. Solution
Determine the center of mass The volume of bar 1 is:
of the machine part. (80 m)(240 mm)(40 mm) = 7.68 × 105 mm3
= 7.68 × 104 m3
so its mass is:
m1 = (7.68 × 104 m3)(1.4 × 104 kg/m3) =
Fig. 7.35
49 50

Solution Solution
The center of mass of bar 1 coincides with the The information is summarized in Table 7.7:
centroid of its volume: Table 7.7 Information for determining the center of mass
m1 (kg)
Bar 2 has the same volume as bar 1, so its mass is: Bar 1 10.75 40 (40)(40.75) 120 (120)(10.75)
Bar 2 5.99 200 (200)(5.99) 40 (40)(5.99)
m2 = (7.68 × 104 m3)(7.8 × 103 kg/m3) =
The coordinates of its center of mass are:
51 52

Using the information summarized in Table 7.7, we  This example illustrates the most common
obtain the x coordinate of the center of mass: procedure for determining centers of mass of
objects in engineering:
 Objects frequently consist of assemblies of
And the y coordinate: parts, each of which is homogenous
 In other cases, individual parts are not
homogenous but their masses & centers of
mass are known (from data supplied by
Because of symmetry of the object, manufacturers of the parts) & so Eqs. (7.27)
can be used
53 54
9
 Centroids:  The coordinates of the centroid of a composite
 A centroid is a weighted average position area is composed of parts A1, A2,…, are:
 The coordinates of the centroid of an area A
in the x-y plane are: (7.9)
(7.6), (7.7)  Similar equations define the centroid of

volumes [Eqs. (7.15) & (7.17)] & lines [Eqs.
(7.16) & (7.18)]
55 56

 Distributed Force:  The Pappus-Guldinus Theorems:
 A force distributed along a line is described by  1stTheorem: Consider a line of length L in
a function w, defined such that the force on a the x-y plane with centroid
differential element dx of the line is w dx  The area of the surface generated by
 The force exerted by a distributed load is: revolving the line about the x axis is:
(7.10) (7.19)
 The moment about the origin is:  2nd Theorem: Let A be an area in the x-y
(7.11) plane with centroid
 The force F is equal to the “area” between the  The volume generated by revolving A about
function w & the x axis & is equivalent to the the x axis is:
distributed load if it is places at the centroid of (7.21)
the “area”
57 58

 Centers of Mass:  The coordinates of the center of mass of
 The center of mass of an object is the an object are:
centroid of its mass
 The weight of the object can be represented (7.26)
by a single equivalent force acting at its
center of mass
 The center of mass of a homogenous object
 The density  is defined such that the mass of coincides with the centroid of its volume
a differential element of the volume is dm = 
dv
 An object whose density is uniform throughout
its volume is said to be homogenous
 The weight density is  = g
59 60
10
Chapter Summary
 The center of mass of a homogenous plate of
uniform thickness coincides with the centroid
of its cross-sectional area
 The center of mass of a homogenous slender
bar of uniform cross-sectional area coincides
approximately with the centroid of the axis of
the bar
61
11
Chapter Outline
Areas:
 Definitions
 Parallel-Axis Theorems
CE1601
 Rotated & Principal Axes
Fundamentals of Structures Masses:
Chapter Eight:  Simple Objects
Moments of Inertia  Parallel-Axis Theorems
1 2
8.1 Definition 8.1 Definition

 4 moments of inertia of A are defined:
 Consider an area A in the x-y plane:
1. Moment of inertia about the x axis:
(8.1)
where y is the y coordinate of the differential element
of area dA
This moment of inertia is sometimes
expressed in terms of the radius of gyration
about the x axis, kx, which is defined by:
(8.2)
3 4

2. Moment of inertia about the y axis: 4. Polar moment of inertia:
(8.3) (8.6)
where x is the x coordinate of the element dA where r is the radial distance from the origin of
the coordinate system to dA
The radius of gyration about the y axis, ky, is
defined by: The radius of gyration about the origin, kO, is
(8.4) defined by:
(8.7)
3. Product of inertia:
(8.5) The polar moment of inertia is equal to the sum
of moments of inertia about the x & y axes:
5 6
1
Substituting the expressions for the moments  If an area A is symmetric about the x axis, for
of inertia in terms of the radii of gyration into each element dA with coordinates (x, y), there is
this equation, we obtain: a corresponding element dA with coordinates
(x, y):
 The dimensions of the moments of inertia of
an area are (length)4 & the radii of gyration
have dimensions of length
 Notice that the definitions of the moments of
inertia Ix, Iy & JO & the radii of gyration imply
that they have positive values for any area
 They cannot be negative or zero
7 8
Example 8.1 Moments of Inertia of a

8.1 Definition Triangular Area
 The contributions of these 2 elements to the
product of inertia Ixy of the area cancel: Determine Ix, Iy & Ixy for the triangular area in
Fig. 8.3.
xy dA + (xy) dA = 0
 This means that the product of inertia of the
area is zero
 The same kind of argument can be used for
an area that is symmetric about the y axis
 If an area is symmetric about either the x or y
axis, its product of inertia is zero
Fig. 8.3
9 10
Example 8.1 Moments of Inertia of a Example 8.1 Moments of Inertia of a

Triangular Area Triangular Area
Strategy Solution
Eq. (8.3) for the moment of inertia about the y Let dA be the vertical strip.
axis is very similar to the equation for the x The equation describing the
coordinate of the centroid of an area & it can be triangular area’s upper
evaluated for this triangular area in exactly in the boundary is f(x) = (h/b)x,
same way: by using a differential element of so dA = f(x) dx = (h/b)x dx.
area dA in the form of a vertical strip of width dx.
Then show that Ix & Ixy can be evaluated by
using the same element of area. To integrate over the entire area, we must
integrate with respect to x from x = 0 to x = b.
11 12
2
Solution Solution
Moment of Inertia About the y Axis: In terms of the element area dAs = dx dy:
Moment of Inertia About the x Axis:

1st, determine the moment of inertia of the strip
dA about the x axis while holding x & dx fixed.
13 14

Solution Solution
Integrating this expression with respect to x from Product of Inertia:
x = 0 to x = b, we obtain the value of Ix for the entire 1st evaluate the product of inertia of the strip dA,
area: holding x & dx fixed:
15 16

Integrate this expression with respect to x from  This example is chosen so that you can confirm
x = 0 to x = b to obtain the value of Ixy for the entire that we obtain the results tabulated for a
area: triangular area in Appendix B
 Notice that the same procedure can be used to
obtain the moments of inertia of other areas
whose boundaries are described by the
functions of the form y = f(x)
17 18
3
Circular Area Circular Area
Determine the moments of inertia & Fig. 8.4 Solution
radii of gyration of the circular area By letting r change by an amount dr, we obtain an
in Fig. 8.4. annular element of area dA = 2r dr.
The polar moment of inertia is:
Strategy
1st, determine the polar moment of inertia JO by
integrating in terms of polar coordinates. We know
from the symmetry of the area that Ix = Iy & since Ix
+ Iy = JO, the moments of inertia of Ix & Iy are each
equal to ½ JO. We also know from the symmetry of
the area that Ixy = 0.
19 20

Circular Area Circular Area
Solution Solution
And the radius of gyration about O is: The product of inertia is zero:
The moments of inertia about the x & y axes are: Critical Thinking
 The symmetry of this example saved us from
having to integrate to determine Ix, Iy & Ixy
 Be alert for symmetry that can shorten your
and the radii of gyration about the x & y axes are: work
 In particular, remember that Ixy = 0 if the area is
symmetric about either the x or the y axis
21 22
8.2 Parallel-Axis Theorems 8.2 Parallel-Axis Theorems

 The values of the moments of inertia of an area  Suppose that we know the moments of inertia of
depend on the position of the coordinate system an area A in terms of a coordinate system x’y’
relative to the area
with its origin at the centroid of the area & we
 In some situations the moments of inertia of an wish to determine the moments of inertia in
area are known in terms of a particular
coordinate system but we need their values in terms of a parallel coordinate system xy:
terms of a different coordinate system
 When the coordinate systems are parallel, the
desired moments of inertia can be obtained
using the parallel-axis theorems:
 Possible to determine the moments of inertia
of a composite area when the moments of
inertia of its parts are known
23 24
4
 Denote the coordinates of the centroid of  But the origin of x’y’ coordinate system is
A in the xy coordinate system by (dx, dy) located at the centroid of A, so
& is the distance from the  Therefore,
origin of the xy coordinate system to the (8.8)
centroid
 In terms of the x’y’ coordinate system,  Moment of Inertia About the x Axis:
the coordinates of the centroid of A are:  Interms of the xy coordinate system, the
moment of inertia of A about the x axis is:
(8.9)
where y is the y coordinate of the element dA relative
to the xy coordinate system
25 26

 From the figure, y = y’ + dy, where y’ is the  Therefore, we obtain:
coordinate of dA relative to the x’y’ coordinate (8.10)
system
 This is a parallel-axis theorem:
 Substituting this expression into Eq. (8.9), we
 It relates the moment of inertia of A about
obtain: the x’ axis through the centroid to the
moment of inertia about the parallel axis x
 The 1st integral on the right is the moment of
inertia of A about the x’ axis
 From Eq. (8.8) the 2nd integral on the right
equals zero
27 28

 Moment of Inertia About the y Axis:  Therefore, the parallel-axis theorem that
 Interms of the xy coordinate system, the relates the moment of inertia of A about the y’
moment of inertia of A about the y axis is: axis through the centroid to the moment of
inertia about the parallel axis y is:
(8.11)
 From Eq. (8.8), the 2nd integral on the right

equals zero
29 30
5
 Product of Inertia:  Polar Moment of Inertia:
 Interms of the xy coordinate system, the  The polar moment of inertia JO = Ix + Iy
product of inertia is:  Summing Eqs. (8.10) & (8.11), the parallel-
axis theorem for the polar moment of inertia
is:
(8.13)
 The 2nd & 3rd integrals equal zero from Eq. where d is the distance form the origin of the
(8.8) x’y’ coordinate system to the origin of the xy
coordinate system
 The parallel-axis theorem for the product of
inertia is: (8.12)
31 32

 To determine the moments of inertia of a  We can divide it into a triangle, a semicircle
composite area: & a circular cutout, denoted as parts 1, 2 & 3
 Suppose that we want to determine the  By using the parallel-axis theorem for Iy, we
moment of inertia about the y axis of the area: can determine the moment of inertia of each
part about the y axis
 E.g. the moment of inertia of part 2 (the
semicircle) about the y axis is:
33 34

 We must determine the values of (Iy’)2 & (dx)2  Determining a moment of inertia of a composite
area in terms of a given coordinate system
 Once this procedure is carried out for each
involves 3 steps:
part, the moment of inertia of the composite 1.Choose the parts — try to divide the composite
area is: area into parts whose moments of inertia you
know or can easily determine.
 Notice that the moment of inertia of the 2.Determine the moments of inertia of the parts
circular cutout is subtracted — determine the moment of inertia of each
part in terms of a parallel coordinate system
with its origin at the centroid of the part & then
use the parallel-axis theorem to determine the
moment of inertia in terms of the given
coordinate system.
35 36
6
Example 8.3 Demonstration of the
8.2 Parallel-Axis Theorems Parallel-Axis Theorems
3.Sum the results — sum the moments of The moments of inertia of the rectangular area in
inertia of the parts (or subtract in the case of a Fig. 8.8 in terms of the x’y’ coordinate system are
cutout) to obtain the moment of inertia of the
composite area.
Determine its moment of inertia in terms of the xy
coordinate system.
Fig. 8.8
37 38
Example 8.3 Demonstration of the Example 8.3 Demonstration of the

Parallel-Axis Theorems Parallel-Axis Theorems
Strategy Solution
The x’y’ coordinate system has its origin at the The coordinates of the centroid in terms of the xy
centroid of the area & is parallel to the xy coordinate system are dx = b/2, dy = h/2.
coordinate system. Use the parallel-axis theorems The moment of inertia about the x axis is:
to determine the moments of inertia of A in terms
of the xy coordinate system.
The moment of inertia about the y axis is:
The product of inertia is:
39 40
Example 8.3 Demonstration of the Example 8.3 Demonstration of the

Parallel-Axis Theorems Parallel-Axis Theorems
The polar moment of inertia is:  The same procedure can be used to obtain the
moments of inertia of the area in terms of any
coordinate system that is parallel to the x’y’
system
Critical Thinking
 Notice that we could also have determined JO
using the relation
41 42
7
Composite Area Composite Area
Determine Ix, kx & Ixy for the Fig. 8.9 Solution
composite area in Fig. 8.9. Choose the Parts:
Determine the moments of inertia by dividing the
Strategy area in 2 rectangular parts 1 & 2:
This area can be divided into 2
rectangles. Use the parallel-axis
theorems to determine Ix & Ixy for each rectangle in
terms of the xy coordinate system & sum the results
for the rectangles to determine Ix & Ixy for the
composite area. Then use Eq. (8.2) to determine the
radius of gyration kx for the composite area.
43 44

The picture can't be display ed.
Solution Solution
Determine the Moments of Inertia of the Parts: Use the parallel-axis theorem to determine the
For each part, introduce a coordinate system x’y’ moment of inertia of each part about the x axis
with its origin at the centroid of the part: (Table 8.1):
Table 8.1 Determining the moments of inertia of the parts
about the x axis
dy (m) A (m2) Ix’ (m4)
Part 1 2 (1)(4) 21.33
Part 2 0.5 (2)(1) 0.67
45 46

Solution Solution
Sum the Results: Repeating this procedure, determine Ixy for each
The moment of inertia of the composite area about part in Table 8.2:
the x axis is: Table 8.2 Determining the products of inertia of the parts
of the xy coordinate system
Ix’y’
dx (m) dy (m) A (m2)
(m4)
The sum of the areas is A = A1 + A2 = 6 m2, Part 1 0.5 2 (1)(4) 0 4
so the radius of gyration about the x axis is: Part 2 2 0.5 (2)(1) 0 2
The product of inertia of the composite area is:
47 48
8
Critical Thinking Determine Iy & ky for the composite area in Fig. 8.10.
 The moments of inertia you obtain do not
depend on how you divide a composite area into
parts & you will often have a choice of
convenient ways to divide a given area.
Fig. 8.10
49 50

Strategy Solution
Divide the area into a rectangle without the Choose the Parts:
semicircular cutout, a semicircle without the
semicircular cutout & a circular cutout. Use a Divide the area into a rectangle,
parallel-axis theorem to determine Iy for each part a semicircle & the circular cutout,
in terms of the xy coordinate system. calling them parts 1, 2 & 3,
Then, determine Iy for the composite area by respectively:
adding the values of the rectangle & semicircle &
subtracting the circular cutout. Then use Eq. (8.4)
to determine the radius of gyration ky for the
composite area.
51 52

Solution Solution
Determine the Moments of Inertia of the Parts: Sum the Results:
The moments of inertia of the parts in terms of the The moment of inertia of the composite area about
x’y’ coordinate systems & location of the centroid
the y axis is:
of the semicircular part are summarized in Table 8.3.
Use the parallel-axis theorem to determine the
moment of inertia of each part about the y axis.
dx (mm) A (mm2) Iy’ (mm4) The total area is:
Part 1 60 (120)(80) 4.608 × 107
Part 2 4.744 × 107
Part 3 120 (20)2 1.822 × 107
53 54
9
So the radius of gyration about the y axis is:  But the radii of gyration of composite areas
cannot be determined by adding or subtracting
the radii of gyration of the parts
 This can be seen from the equations relating
Critical Thinking the moments of inertia, radii of gyration & area
 Integration is an additive process, which is why  For this example, we can demonstrate it
the moments of inertia of composite areas can numerically: the operation
be determined by adding (or in the case of a
cutout, subtracting) the moments of inertia of the
parts does not yield the correct radius of gyration of
the composite area.
55 56
Design Example 8.6 Beam Design Design Example 8.6 Beam Design
Strategy
The equal areas in Fig. 8.11 are
candidates for the cross-section Obtain the moment of inertia of the square cross
of a beam. (A beam with the 2nd section from Appendix B. Divide the I-beam into 3
cross section shown is called an rectangles & use the parallel-axis theorem to
I-beam.) compare their moments determine its moment of inertia by the same
of inertia about the x axis. procedure used in Examples 8.4 & 8.5.
Fig. 8.11
57 58
Solution Solution
Square Cross Section: Introducing the coordinate system x’y’ with their
From Appendix B, the moment of inertia of the origins at the centroids of the parts:
square cross section about the x axis is:
I-Beam Cross Section:

Divide the area into the rectangular
parts shown:
59 60
10
Solution Solution
Use the parallel-axis theorem to determine the Their sum is:
moments of inertia about the x axis (Table 8.4):
dy (mm) A (mm2) Ix’ (mm4)

Part 1 80 (200)(40) 5.23 × 107
Part 2 0 (40)(120) 0.58 × 107 The moment of inertia of the I-beam about the x
Part 3 80 (200)(40) 5.23 × 107 axis is 3.06 times that of the square cross section
of equal area.
61 62
 A beam is a bar of material that supports lateral  The lateral loads on a beam cause it to bend &
loads, meaning loads perpendicular to the axis it must be stiff or resistant to bending to support
of the bar them
 2 common types of beams:  It is shown in mechanics of materials that a
 Simply supported beam: beam’s resistance to bending depends directly
a beam with pinned ends on the moment of inertia of its cross-sectional
area
 Cantilever beam: a beam
with a single, built-in
support
63 64
 Consider the beam:  The “modulus of elasticity” E has different values
 The cross section is for different materials
symmetric about the y axis & (The equation holds only if M is small enough so that the
the origin of the coordinate beam returns to its original shape when the couples are
system is placed at its centroid removed)
 If the beam consists of a homogeneous  Thus, the amount the beam bends for a given
structural material such as steel & it is value of M depends on the material & the
subjected to couples at the ends, it bends moment of its inertia of its cross section:
into a circular arc of radius:  Increasing Ix increases the value of R, which
means the resistance of the beam to bending
where Ix is the moment of inertia of the beam cross is increased
section about the x axis
65 66
11
 This explains in large part the cross sections  Thecross sections in the figure all have the
of many of the beams you see in use: same area:
 E.g. in highway overpasses & in frames of
buildings
 They are configured to increase their
moments of inertia
(the numbers are the ratios of the moment of
inertia Ix to the value of Ix for the solid square
cross section)
67 68
 However, configuring the cross  The stiffness implied by the beam’s large
section of a beam to increase its moment of inertia is not realized because it
moment of inertia can be carried becomes geometrically unstable
too far:  1 solution used by engineers to achieve a
 The “box” beam in the figure large moment of inertia in a relatively light
has a value of Ix that is 4 times beam while avoiding failure due to buckling
as large as a solid square is to stabilize its walls by filling the beam
beam of the same cross- with a light material such as
sectional area but its walls are honeycombed metal or foamed
so thin that they may “buckle” plastic
69 70
8.3 Rotated & Principal Axes 8.3 Rotated & Principal Axes
 Suppose Fig. a is the cross section of a  The minimum vertical deflection results when
cantilever beam: the beam’s cross section is oriented so that
the moment of inertia Ix is a maximum (Fig. d)
 In many engineering applications you must
determine moments of inertia of areas with
various angular orientations relative to a
coordinate system & also determine the
orientation for which the value of the moment of
 Ifyou apply a vertical force to the end of the
inertia is a maximum or minimum
beam, a larger vertical deflection results if the
cross section is oriented as shown in Fig. b
than if it is oriented as shown in Fig. c
71 72
12
 Rotated Axes:  Suppose that we know the moments of inertia
 Consider an area A, a coordinate system xy of A in terms of the xy coordinate system
& a 2nd coordinate system x’y’ that is rotated  The objective is to determine the moments of
through an angle  relative to the xy inertia in terms of the x’y’ coordinate system
coordinate system:  In terms of the radial distance r to a
differential element of area dA & the angle ,
the coordinates of dA in the xy coordinate
system are:
(8.14)
(8.15)
73 74
 The coordinates of dA in the x’y’ coordinate  By substituting Eqs. (8.14) & (8.15) into Eqs.
system are: (8.16) & (8.17), we obtain equations relating
(8.16) the coordinates of dA in the 2 coordinate
(8.17) systems:
(8.18)
 In Eqs. (8.16) & (8.17), we use identities for (8.19)
the cosine & sine of the difference of 2
angles  We can use these expressions to derive
relations between the moments of inertia of A
in terms of the xy & x’y’ coordinate systems
75 76
 Moment of Inertia About the x’ Axis:  Moment of Inertia About the y’ Axis:
 From this equation we obtain:  This equation gives us the result:

(8.20) (8.21)
77 78
13
 Product of Inertia:  Principal Axes:
 Interms of the x’y’ coordinate system, the  Consider the following question: for what
product of the inertia of A is: values of  is the moment of inertia Ix’ a
(8.22) maximum or minimum?
 Polar Moment of Inertia:  Use the identities:
 From Eqs. (8.20) & (8.21), the polar
moment of inertia in terms of the x’y’
coordinate system is:
 Thus the value of the polar moment of

inertia is unchanged by a rotation of the
coordinate system
79 80
 Withthese expressions, we can write Eqs.  To determine P, evaluate the derivative of
(8.20)(8.22) in the forms: Eq. (8.23) with respect to 2 & equate it to
zero, obtaining:
(8.23)
(8.26)
(8.24)
 Ifwe set the derivative of Eq. (8.24) with
(8.25)
respect to 2 & equal to zero to determine a
value of  for which Iy’ is a maximum or
a value of  at which Ix’ is a
 Denoting
minimum, we again obtain Eq. (8.26)
maximum or minimum by P
81 82
 The 2nd derivatives of Ix’ & Iy’ with respect A rotated coordinate system x’y’ that is
to 2 are opposite in sign: oriented so that Ix’ & Iy’ have maximum or
minimum values is called a set of principal
axes of the area A
 The corresponding moments of inertia Ix’ &
Iy are called the principal moments of
which means that at an angle P for which inertia
Ix’ is a maximum, Iy’ is a minimum; and at  Because the tangent is a periodic function,
an angle P for which Ix’ is a minimum, Iy’ is Eq. (8.26) does not yield a unique solution
a maximum for the angle P
 However, it does determine the orientation
of the principal axes within an arbitrary
multiple of 90°
83 84
14
 Observe in the figure that if 20 is a  Theresulting orientations of the x’y’
solution of Eq. (8.26), then 20 + n(180°) is coordinate system are:
also a solution for any integer n
85 86
Example 8.7 Determining Principal Axes

8.3 Rotated & Principal Axes & Moments of Inertia
 Determining the principal axes & principal
moments of inertia of an area involves 3 steps: Determine a set of principal axes
& the corresponding principal
1.Determine Ix, Iy & Ixy — you must determine the
moments of inertia for the
moments of the area in terms of the xy
triangular area in Fig. 8.20.
coordinate system.
2.Determine P — solve Eq. (8.26) to determine Fig. 8.20
the orientation of the principal axes within an Strategy
arbitrary multiple of 90°. Obtain the moments of inertia of the triangular area
3.Calculate Ix’ & Iy’ — once you have chosen the from Appendix B. Then use Eq. (8.26) to determine
orientation of the principal axes, you can use the orientation of the principal axes & evaluate the
Eqs. (8.20) & (8.21) or Eqs. (8.23) & (8.24) to principal moments of inertia with Eqs. (8.23) & (8.24).
determine the principal moments of inertia.
87 88
Example 8.7 Determining Principal Axes Example 8.7 Determining Principal Axes
& Moments of Inertia & Moments of Inertia
Solution Solution
Determine Ix, Iy & Ixy: Determine P:
The moments of inertia of the triangular area are: From Eq. (8.26),
and we obtain P = 21.4°.
The principal axes corresponding

to this value of P are:
89 90
15
Example 8.7 Determining Principal Axes Example 8.7 Determining Principal Axes
& Moments of Inertia & Moments of Inertia
Calculate Ix’ & Iy’:  The product of inertia corresponding to a set of
Substituting P = 21.4° into Eqs. (8.23) & (8.24), principal axes is zero
we obtain (with moments of inertia in m4):  In this example, substituting P = 21.4° into Eq.
(8.25) confirms that Ix’y’ = 0
91 92
Example 8.8 Rotated & Principal Axes Example 8.8 Rotated & Principal Axes
The moments of inertia of the area in Fig. 8.21 in Strategy
terms of the xy coordinate system shown are (a) Determine the moments of inertia in terms of
Ix = 22 m4, Iy = 10 m4 & Ixy = 6 m4. the x’y’ coordinate system by substituting
(a) Determine Ix’, Iy’ & Ix’y’ for  = 30°.  = 30° into Eqs. (8.23)—(8.25).
(b) Determine a set of principal axes & the (b) The orientation of the principal axes is
corresponding principal moments of inertia. determined by solving Eq. (8.26) for . Once has
been determined, the moments of inertia about
the principal axes can be determined from Eqs.
(8.23) & (8.24).
Fig. 8.21
93 94
Solution Solution
(a) Determine Ix, Iy & Ixy:
By setting  = 30° into Eqs. (8.23)—(8.25), we obtain
(with moments of inertia in m4):
(b) Determine P:
Substitute the moments of inertia in terms of the
xy coordinate system into Eq. (8.26), yielding:
Thus:
95 96
16

The principal axes corresponding to  Remember that the orientation of the principal
this value of P are: axes is only determined within an arbitrary
multiple of 90°
 In this example, we chose to designate the axes
Calculate Ix’ & Iy’: as the positive x’ & y’ axes but any of the 4
Substitute P =  22.5° into Eqs. (8.23) & (8.24), choices in this figure is equally valid:
obtaining the principal moments of inertia:
Ix’ = 24.5 m4, Iy’ – 7.5 m4
97 98
17
 Mohr’s Circle:  Determining Ix’, Iy’ & Ix’y’:
 Graphical method to obtain the moments of  Suppose we know that the moments of
inertia in terms of a rotated coordinate inertia Ix’, Iy’ & Ix’y’ of an area in terms of a
system, the orientation of the principal axes & coordinate system xy & we want to
the principal moments of inertia, given the determine the moments of inertia for a
moments of inertia of an area in terms of a rotated coordinate system x’y’:
particular coordinate system
 Very useful for visualizing the solutions of
Eqs. (8.23)—(8.25)
 Constructing Mohr’s Circle involves 3 steps: 3.Draw a straight line through the center of
1.Establish a set of horizontal & vertical the circle at an angle 2 measured
axes & plot 2 points: point 1 with counterclockwise from point 1. This line
coordinates (Ix, Ixy) & point 2 with intersects the circle at point 1’ with
coordinates (Iy, Ixy). coordinates (Ix’, Ix’y’) & point 2’ with
2.Draw a straight line connecting points 1 & coordinates (Iy’, Ix’y’).
2. using the intersection of the straight line  Thus, for a given angle , the coordinates
with the horizontal axis as the center, draw of points 1’ & 2’ determine the moments of
a circle that passes through the 2 points. inertia in terms of the rotated coordinate
system
3 4
 How the graphical method work:
 Notice that the horizontal coordinate of the
center of the circle is (Ix + Iy)/2:
5 6
1
 The horizontal coordinate of point 1’ is:
 The sine & cosine of the angle  are:
 where R, the radius of the circle is given by:

 The horizontal coordinate of point 2’ is:
7 8
 The vertical coordinate of point 1’ is:  Determining Principal Axes & principal
Moments of Inertia:
 Because the moments of inertia Ix’ & Iy’ are
the horizontal coordinates of points 1’ & 2’ of
Mohr’s circle, their maximum & minimum
 The vertical coordinate of point 2’ is: values occur when points 1’ & 2’ coincide
with the intersections of the circle with the
horizontal axis
 We have shown that the coordinates of
point 1’ are (Ix’, Ix’y’) & the coordinates of  The orientation of principal axes can be
point 2’ are (Iy’, Ix’y’) determined by measuring the angle 2P from
point 1 to point 1’ & the coordinates of points
1’ & 2’ are the principal moments of inertia
9 10
 Furthermore, we can use the circle to
obtain an analytical expression for the
horizontal coordinates of the points where
the circle intersects the horizontal axis,
which are the principal moments of inertia:
 Notice that Mohr’s circle demonstrates that

the product of inertia Ix’y’ corresponding to a
set of principal axes (the vertical coordinate
of point 1’) is always zero
11 12
2
Example 8.9 Moments of Inertia by Example 8.9 Moments of Inertia by
Mohr’s Circle Mohr’s Circle
The moments of inertia of the area in Fig. 8.28 in Strategy
terms of the xy coordinate system are Ix = 22 m4,
By constructing Mohr’s circle, we can determine
Iy = 10 m4 & Ixy = 6 m4. the moments of inertia for a coordinate system
oriented at  = 30° & also determine the principal
axes & principal moments of inertia.
Fig. 8.28
Determine:
(a) The moments of inertia Ix’, Iy’ & Ix’y’ for  = 30°;
(b) A set of principal axes & the corresponding
principal moments of inertia.
13 14

Solution Solution
(a)1st, plot point 1 with coordinates To determine the moments of
(Ix, Ixy) = (22, 6) m4 & point 2 with inertia for  = 30°, measure an
coordinates (Iy, Ixy) = (10, 6) m4. angle 2 = 60° counterclockwise
from point 1:
Then draw a straight line
between points 1 & 2 & using the
intersection of the line with the From the coordinate of points 1’ & 2’, we obtain:
horizontal axis as the center,
draw a circle that passes through
the points
15 16

Solution Solution
To determine the principal axes, The principal axes are:
we let the points 1’ & 2’ be the
points where the circle intersects
the horizontal axis:
Measuring the angle from point 1 to point 1’, we

determine that 2P = 135°.
From the coordinates of points 1’ & 2’, we obtain
the principal moments of inertia:
Ix’ = 7.5 m4, Iy’ = 24.5 m4
17 18
3
 In Example 8.8, we solved this problem using  By using Eq. (8.26) to determine the orientation
Eqs. (8.23)—(8.26): of the principal axes, we obtained the principal
 For  = 30°, we obtained Ix’ = 13.8 m4, Ix’y’ = 8.2 axes shown in Example 8.8 & the principal
m4, Iy’ = 18.2 m4 moments of inertia Ix’ = 24.5 m4, Iy’ = 7.5 m4
 The differences between these results & the  The differences between those results & the
ones we obtained using Mohr’s circle are due ones we obtained using Mohr’s circle simply
to the errors inherent in measuring the answer reflects the fact that the orientation of the
graphically principal axes can be determined only within a
multiple of 90°
19 20
4
Chapter Outline
 Theory of Dry Friction

 Applications
CE1601  Computational Mechanics
Chapter Nine: Friction
1 2
9.1 Theory of Dry Friction 9.1 Theory of Dry Friction

 To examine the nature of friction forces:  Free-body diagram:
 Place a book on a table & push it with small
horizontal force:
 The force W is the book’s weight & N is the
total normal force exerted by the table on the
surface of the book that is in contact with the
table
 If
the force you exert is sufficiently small, the
 The force F is the horizontal force you apply
book does not move
& f is the friction force exerted by the table
 Because the book is in equilibrium, f = F
3 4

 As long as the book remains in equilibrium,  Ifthe surfaces of the table &
when you increase the force you apply to the the book are magnified
book, the friction force must increase sufficiently, they will appear
correspondingly rough:
 When the force you apply becomes too large,
 Friction forces arise in part from
the book moves (slips on the table)
the interactions of the
 After reaching some maximum value, the
friction force can no longer maintain the book roughness or asperities of the
in equilibrium contacting surfaces
 Notice that the force you must apply to keep
the book moving on the table is smaller than
the force required to cause it to slip
5 6
1
 Suppose that we idealize the  The normal force Ci exerted on the ith saw-
asperities of the book & table tooth asperity of the book:
as the mating 2-D “saw-tooth”
profiles in Fig. a
 As the horizontal force F
 Notice that in this simple model we assume
increases, the book will remain the contacting surfaces on the asperities to
stationary until the force is be smooth
sufficiently large to cause the
 Denote the sum of the normal forces exerted
book to slide upward as shown
in Fig. b on the asperities of the book by the table by
7 8

 Equilibrium equations:  Also, the angle  is a measure of the
roughness of the saw-tooth surfaces:
 As   0, the surfaces become smooth &
 Eliminating C from these equations, we the force necessary to cause the book to
obtain the force necessary to cause the book slip approaches zero
to slip on the table:  As  increases, the roughness increases &
the force necessary to cause the book to
 The force necessary to cause the book to slip increases
slip is proportional to the force pressing the
saw-tooth surfaces together (the book’s
weight)
9 10

 Coefficients of Friction:  The Static Coefficient:
 The theory of dry friction or Coulomb friction  The magnitude of the maximum friction force
predicts the maximum friction forces that can that can be exerted between 2 plane, dry
be exerted by dry, contacting surfaces that surfaces in contact that are not in motion
are stationary relative to each other relative to 1 another is:
 It also predicts the friction forces exerted by (9.1)
the surfaces when they are in relative motion
where N is the normal component of the
or sliding
contact force between the surfaces & S is a
constant called the coefficient of static friction
11 12
2
 The value of S is assumed to depend only  Table 9.1:
on the materials of the contacting surfaces & Materials
Coefficient of
Station Friction, S
the conditions (smoothness & degree of
Metal on metal 0.150.20
contamination by other materials) of the Masonry on masonry 0.600.70
surfaces Wood on wood 0.250.50
 Typical values of S for various materials are Metal on masonry 0.300.70
shown in Table 9.1 Metal on wood 0.200.60
 The relatively large range of values for each Rubber on concrete 0.500.90
pair of materials reflects the sensitivity of S

to the conditions of the surfaces
13 14

 Returning to the example of the book on the
 Eq. (9.1) determines the magnitude of the
table:
maximum friction force but not its direction
 If we know the coefficient of static friction
 The friction force is a maximum & Eq. (9.1) is
between the book & the table, Eq. (9.1)
applicable when 2 surfaces are on the verge
tells us the largest friction force that the
of slipping relative to each other  slip is
table can exert on the book:
impending & the friction forces resist the
F = f = SN impending motion
 Also, from the free-body diagram: N = W, so
the largest force that will not cause the
book to slip is F = SW
15 16

 E.g. the lower surface is fixed  The Kinetic Coefficient:
& slip of the upper surface  According to the theory of dry friction, the
toward the right is impending: magnitude of the friction force between 2
 The friction force on the upper plane dry contacting surfaces that are in
surface resists its impending motion (sliding) relative to each other is:
motion (9.2)
 The friction force on the lower
surface is in the opposite where N is the normal force between the
direction surfaces & k is the coefficient of kinetic
friction
17 18
3
 The value of k is assumed to depend only on  When 2 surfaces are sliding relative to each
the compositions of the surfaces & their other, the friction forces resist the relative
motion:
conditions
 E.g. the lower surface is fixed & the upper
 For a given pair of surfaces, its value is surface is moving to the right
generally smaller than that of S  The friction force on the upper surface acts
 Once you have caused the book to begin in the direction opposite to its motion
sliding on the table, the friction force:  The friction force on the lower surface is in
f = kN = kW the opposite direction

 Therefore, the force you must exert to keep
the book in uniform motion is: F = f = kW
19 20

 Angles of Friction:
 The forces f & N are related to R &  by:
 Expressing the reaction exerted
(9.3)
on a surface due to its contact
with another surface in terms of (9.4)
its components parallel &
 The value of  when slip is impending is
perpendicular to the surface, the
called the angle of static friction S & its value
friction force f & normal force N
when the surfaces are sliding relative to each
 Expressing the reaction in terms other is called the angle of kinetic friction k
of its magnitude R & the angle of
friction  between the reaction &
the normal to the surface
21 22

 Summary:
 By using Eqs. (9.1)—(9.4), we can express
 If slip is impending, the magnitude of the
the angles of static & kinetic friction in terms
friction is given by Eq. (9.1) & the angle of
of the coefficients of friction:
friction by Eq. (9.5)
(9.5)
 If the surfaces are sliding relative to each
(9.6) other, the magnitude of the friction force is
given by Eq. (9.2) & the angle of friction by
Eq. (9.6)
 Otherwise, the friction force must be
determined from the equilibrium equations
23 24
4
9.1 Theory of Dry Friction Example 9.1 Determining the Friction Force
 The sequence of decisions in evaluating The arrangement in Fig. 9.9
the friction force & angle of friction is exerts a horizontal force on the
summarized in the Fig 9.8: stationary 180-N crate. The
coefficient of static friction
between the crate & the ramp Fig. 9.9
is S = 0.4.
(a) If the rope exerts a 90-N force on the crate,
what is the friction force exerted on the crate by
the ramp?
(b) What is the largest force the rope can exert on
the crate without causing it to slide up the ramp?
25 26
Example 9.1 Determining the Friction Example 9.1 Determining the Friction
Force Force
Strategy Strategy
(a) We can follow the logic in Fig. 9.8 to decide how (b) We want to determine the value of the force
to evaluate the friction force. The crate is not exerted by the rope that causes the crate to be
sliding on the ramp & we don’t know whether slip on the verge of slipping up the ramp. When slip
is impending, so we must determine the friction is impending, the magnitude of the friction force
force by using the equilibrium equations. is f = SN & the friction force opposes the
impending slip. We can use the equilibrium
equations to determine the force exerted by the
rope.
27 28
Force Force
Solution Solution
(a) Draw the free-body diagram of the crate, We can choose the direction of f arbitrarily & our
showing the force T exerted by the rope, the solution will indicate the actual direction of the
weight W of the crate & the normal force N & friction force.
friction force f exerted by the ramp: By aligning the coordinate system with the ramp as
shown, we obtain the equilibrium equation:
Σ Fx = f + T cos 20°  W cos 20° = 0
29 30
5
Force Force
Solution Solution
Solving for the friction force, we obtain: (b) In this case the friction force f = SN & it
f = T cos 20° + W sin 20° opposes the impending slip.
= To simplify our solution for T, we align the
= coordinate system as shown:
The minus sign indicates that the direction of the

friction force on the crate is down the ramp.
31 32
Force Force
Solution Solution
The equilibrium equations: Then, from the 1st equilibrium equation, the force T
Σ Fx = T  N sin 20°  SN cos 20° = 0 is:
Σ Fy = N cos 20°  SN sin 20°  W= 0 T = N (sin 20° + S cos 20°) = 0
= (224 N) (sin 20° + 0.4 cos 20°)
Solving the 2nd equilibrium equation for N, we
= 161 N
obtain:
33 34
Force Force
 When you use the equilibrium equations to  The negative value obtained from the
determine a friction force, often you will not know equilibrium equations, f = 23.0 N, tells us that
its direction beforehand: the force is in the opposite direction, down the
 Depending on the value of the force T exerted ramp
on the crate by the rope, the friction force  In contrast, when you use the equation f = SN,
exerted on the crate by the ramp can point the friction force must point in the correct
either up or down the ramp direction on the free-body diagram
 In drawing the free-body diagram of the crate
in (a), we arbitrarily assumed that the friction
force pointed up the ramp
35 36
6
Example 9.1 Determining the Friction Example 9.2 Determining Whether an
Force Object Will Tip Over
Critical Thinking Suppose that we want to push the tool chest in Fig.
 Indrawing the free-body diagram in (b), we 9.10 across the floor by applying the horizontal force
wanted to determine the largest force T that F. If we apply the force at too great a height h, the
would not cause the crate to slide up the chest will tip over before it slips. If the coefficient of
ramp, so we assumed that the slip of the crate static friction between the floor & the chest is S,
up the ramp was impending what is the largest value of h for which the chest will
slip before it tips over?
 This told us that the friction force, resisting the
impending slip, pointed down the ramp
Fig. 9.10
37 38
Example 9.2 Determining Whether an Example 9.2 Determining Whether an

Object Will Tip Over Object Will Tip Over
Strategy Solution
When the chest is on the verge of tipping over, it is Draw the free-body diagram of the chest when it is
in equilibrium with no reaction at B. Use this on the verge of tipping over:
condition to determine F in terms of h. Then, by
determining the value of F that will cause the chest
to slip, we will obtain the value of h that causes the
chest to be on the verge of tipping over & on the
verge of slipping.
39 40

Solution Solution
Summing the moments about A, we obtain: Solving this equation for h, when the chest is on
the verge of slipping, it is also on the verge of
tipping over if it is pushed at the height:
Equilibrium also requires that f = F & N = W.
When the chest is on the verge of slipping, f = SN,
so F = f = SN = SW.
Substituting this expression into the moment If h is smaller than this value, the chest will begin
equation, we obtain: sliding before it tips over.
41 42
7
 Notice that the largest value of h for which the  Once they are in the use, safety engineers
chest will slip before it tips over is independent can establish guidelines (e.g. by making a
of F horizontal line on a vertical cabinet or
 Whether the chest will tip over depends only machine above which it should not be
on where the force is applied, not how large it pushed) to prevent tipping
is
 The possibility of heavy objects falling over is an
obvious safety hazard & analyses of this kind
can influence their design
43 44
8
9.2 Applications 9.2 Applications
 Wedges:  The large lateral force generated by a wedge
can be used to lift a load
 Bifacial tool with the faces set at a small acute
angle
 When a wedge is
pushed forward,
the faces exert
large normal  Let WL be the weight of the load & WW be the
forces as a result weight of the wedge
of the small angle  To determine the force F necessary to start
between them raising the load, we assume that slip of the
load & wedge are impending
1 2

 From the free-body diagram of the wedge,
we obtain the equations:
Σ Fx = N sin  + SN cos  + SP  F = 0
and
Σ Fy = P  N cos  + SN sin   WW= 0
 From the free-body diagram of the load, we  These 4 equations determine the 3 normal
forces Q, N & P & the force F
obtain the equilibrium equations:
 The solution for F is:
Σ Fx = Q  N sin   SN cos  = 0
and
Σ Fy = N cos   SN sin   SQ  WL= 0
3 4
9.2 Applications Example 9.3 Forces on a Wedge

 Suppose that WW = 0.2WL &  = 10°: Splitting a log must have been among the 1st
 If S = 0, the force necessary to lift the load applications of the wedge. Although it is a dynamic
is only 0.176WL process — the wedge is hammered into the wood —
 If S = 0.2, the force becomes 0.680WL
you can get an idea of the forces involved from a
static analysis. Suppose that  = 10° & the
 If S = 0.4, it becomes 1.44WL
coefficients of friction between the surfaces of the
 From this standpoint, friction is undesirable wedge & the log are S = 0.22 & k = 0.2. Neglect the
 But if there were no friction, the wedge would weight of the wedge.
not remain in place when the force F is
removed
5 6
1
Example 9.3 Forces on a Wedge Example 9.3 Forces on a Wedge
Strategy
(a) If the wedge is driven into the load at a (a) The friction forces resist the motion of the wedge
constant rate by a vertical force F, what are the into the load & are equal to kN, where N is the
magnitudes of the normal forces exerted on normal force the log exerts on the faces. We can
the log by the wedge? use the equilibrium to determine N in terms of F.
(b) Will the wedge remain in place in the log when (b) By assuming that the wedge is on the verge of
the force is removed? slipping out of the log, we can determine the
minimum value of S necessary for the wedge to
stay in place.
7 8

Solution Solution
(a) Draw the free-body diagram of the From the equilibrium equation
wedge as it is pushed into the load
by a force F: The faces of the
wedge are subjected to normal
We obtain the normal force N:
forces & friction forces by the log.
The friction forces resist the
motion of the wedge.
9 10

(b) Draw the free-body diagram when  We can also obtain this result by
F = 0 & the wedge is on the verge representing the reaction exerted
of slipping out: on the wedge by the log as a
single force:
From the equilibrium equation:  When the wedge is the verge of slipping out, the
friction angle is the angle of static friction θS
 The sum of the forces in the vertical direction is
We obtain the minimum coefficient of friction zero only if:
necessary for the wedge to remain in place:
 So S = tan 5° = 0.087, thus we conclude that the
wedge will remain in place
11 12
2
 Threads:  Suppose that the threaded shaft is
 Pitch: the axial distance p from 1 thread enclosed on a fixed sleeve with a mating
to the next groove & is subjected to an axial load F:
 Applying a couple M in the direction
 Slope: angle 
shown will tend to cause the shaft to
 Consider only the case in which the
start rotating & moving in the axial
shaft has a single continuous thread:
direction opposite to F
 Relation between the pitch & slope:
 The objective is to determine the couple
(9.7) M necessary to cause the shaft to start
rotating
where r is the mean radius of the thread
13 14

 Draw the free-body diagram of a differential  For equilibrium, the result must be equal
element of the thread of length dL the axial force F acting on the shaft:
representing the reaction exerted by the
mating groove by the force dR (9.8)
 If the shaft is on the verge of rotating, dR
 The moment about the center of the shaft
resists the impending motion & the friction
angle is the angle of static friction S due to the reaction on the element is:
 The vertical component of the reaction on r dR sin (S + )
the element is dR cos (S + )  The total moment must equal the couple M
 To determine the total vertical force on the exerted on the shaft:
thread, integrate this expression over the
length L of the thread
15 16

 Dividing this equation by Eq. (9.8), we  Ifthe couple M is applied to the shaft in
obtain the couple M necessary for the shaft the opposite direction, the shaft tends to
to be on the verge of rotating & moving in start rotating & moving in the axial
the axial direction opposite to F: direction of the load F:
 The reaction on a differential element
M = rF tan (S + ) (9.9) of the thread of length dL when slip is
 Replacing the angle of static friction S in impending:
this expression with the angle of kinetic  The direction of the reaction opposes
friction k gives the couple required to the reaction of the shaft
cause the shaft to rotate at a constant rate  The vertical component of the reaction
on the element is dR cos (S  )
17 18
3
 Equilibrium requires that:  Replacing S with k gives the couple
(9.10) necessary to rotate the shaft at a constant
rate
 The moment about the center of the shaft  Notice in Eq. (9.11) that the couple requited
due to the reaction is r dR sin (S  ), so:
for impending motion is zero when S = 
 When the angle of static friction is less than
 Dividing this equation by Eq. (9.10), we this value, the shaft will rotate & move in
obtain the couple M necessary for the shaft the direction of the force F with no couple
to be on the verge of rotating & moving in applied
the direction of the force F:
M = rF tan (S  ) (9.11)
19 20
Computational Example 9.4 Computational Example 9.4

 Mass of block A = 20 kg; Coefficient of static Strategy
friction between block & floor is S = 0.3; Spring Draw the free-body diagram of block A assuming
constant k = 1 kN/m & the spring is unstretched. that the slider B is moved a distance x to the right &
 How far can the slider B be moved to the right slip of block A is impending. Then by applying the
without causing the block to slip? equilibrium equations, we can obtain an equation
for the distance x corresponding to impending slip.
21 22

Solution Solution
Suppose that moving the slider B a distance x to The magnitude of the force exerted on the block by
the right causing impending slip of the block. The the spring is:
resulting stretch of the spring is (1)
From the free-body diagram of the block, we
obtain the equilibrium equations:
23 24
4
Solution Solution
Substituting Eq. (1) into these 2 equations & then From the graph of h(x), we estimate that h(x) = 0 at
eliminating N, we can write the resulting equation x = 0.43 m. By examining computed results near this
in the form: value of x (see table), we see that h(x) = 0 & slip is
impending, when x is approximately:
x (m) h(x)
0.4281 0.1128
We must obtain the root of this function to 0.4282 0.0777
determine the value of x corresponding to 0.4283 0.0425
impending slip of the block. 0.4284 0.0074
0.4285 0.0278
0.4286 0.0629
0.4287 0.0981
25 26

 Many software packages are available that allow  Nonlinear equations sometimes have multiple
you to obtain solutions to nonlinear algebraic roots & to insure that you have obtained all
equations such as the 1 we obtained in this the solutions within the range of interest & you
example have identified the 1 you want
 Even when you have access to such software, it  In addition, you can often gain insight by
is a good idea to examine graphical results like examining the behaviour of an equation over
those we have presented: a range of its variables instead of obtaining
just 1 solution
27 28

 Dry Friction:  If slip is impending, the magnitude of the
friction force is:
 The forces resulting from the contact of 2
(9.1)
plane surfaces can be expressed in terms of
the normal force N & friction force f or the and its direction opposes the impending slip.
The angle of friction equals the angle of static
magnitude R & angle of friction  :
friction S = arctan (S)
 If the surfaces are sliding, the magnitude of
the friction force is:
(9.2)
and its direction opposes the relative motion.
The angle of friction equals the angle of
kinetic friction k = arctan (k)
5
 Threads:  The couple required for impending rotation &
 The slope  of the thread is related the axial motion of the shaft in the direction of
to its pitch p by: F is:
(9.7) M = rF tan (S  ) (9.11)
 The couple required for impending  When S < , the shaft will rotate & move in
rotation & the axial motion opposite the direction of the force F with no couple
to the direction of F is: applied
M = rF tan (S + ) (9.9)
31 32
6
Chapter Outline
Beams:
 Axial Force, Shear Force & Bending Moment
 Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams
CE1601
 Relations between Distributed Load, Shear
Fundamentals of Structures Force & Bending Moment
Chapter Ten: Cables:
Internal Forces & Moments  Loads Distributed Uniformly Along Straight Lines
 Loads Distributed Uniformly Along Cables
 Discrete Loads
1 2
10.1 Axial Force, Shear Force & Bending 10.1 Axial Force, Shear Force & Bending
Moments Moments
 Determining the forces &  The isolated part cannot be in equilibrium
moments within a beam unless it is subjected to some system of
subjected to an external load forces & moments at the plane where it joins
& reactions: the other part of the beam  internal forces &
 “Cut” the beam by a plane moments
at an arbitrary cross  Since the system of external loads & reactions
section & isolate the part on the beam is 2-D, we can represent the
of the beam to the left of internal forces & moments by an equivalent
the plane system consisting of 2 components of force &
a couple
3 4
Moments Moments
 The component P parallel to  The directions of the axial force, shear force &
the beam’s axis is called the bending moment in the free-body diagrams
axial force are the established definitions of the positive
 The component V normal to directions of these quantities
the beam’s axis is called the
 A positive axial force P subjects the beam to
shear force
tension
 The couple M is called the
bending moment  A positive shear force V tends to rotate the
 Notice that the axial force, shear force & bending

axis of the beam clockwise
moment on the part of the beam to the right of  A positive bending moment M tends to cause
the cutting plane are equal in magnitude but upward curvature of the beam’s axis
opposite in direction to that on the left
5 6
1
Moments Moments
 Notice that a positive bending moment  Determining the internal forces & moment at a
subjects the upper part of the beam to particular cross section of a beam typically
compression, shortening the beam in the involves 3 steps:
direction parallel to its axis & subjects the 1.Determine the external forces & moments —
lower part of the beam to tension, lengthening draw the free-body diagram of the beam &
the beam in the direction parallel to its axis determine the reactions at its supports. If the
beam is a member of a structure, you must
analyze the structure.
(C) 2005 Pearson Educatio South Asia Pte Ltd 7 8
10.1 Axial Force, Shear Force & Bending Example 10.1 Determining the Internal
Moments Forces & Moment
2.Draw the free-body diagram of part of the
beam — cut the beam at the point at which For the beam in Fig. 10.3, determine the internal
you want to determine the internal forces & forces & moment at C.
moment & draw the free-body diagram of 1 of
the resulting parts. You can choose the part
with the simplest free-body diagram. If your
cut divides a distributed load, don’t represent
the distributed load by an equivalent force
until after you have obtained your free-body
diagram
Fig. 10.3
3.Apply the equilibrium equations — use the
equilibrium equations to determine P, V & M.
9 10
Example 10.1 Determining the Internal Example 10.1 Determining the Internal
Forces & Moment Forces & Moment
Strategy Solution
After determining the reactions at the supports, cut Determine the External Forces & Moments:
the beam by a plane at point C & draw the free- Begin by drawing the free-body diagram of the
body diagram to the left of the plane. Then use the beam & determining the reactions at its supports:
equilibrium equations to determine the internal
forces & moments at C.
11 12
2
Solution Solution
Draw the Free-Body Diagram of Part of the Beam: Apply the Equilibrium Equations:
Cut the beam at C & draw the free-body diagram of From the equilibrium equations:
the left part, including the internal forces & moment in
their defined positive directions:
we obtain
13 14
 We can check our results with the free-body  The equilibrium equations are:
diagram of the part of beam to the right of C:
Confirming that
15 16
Strategy
For the beam in Fig. 10.4, determine the internal
To determine the reactions at the supports,
forces & moment at B.
represent the triangular distributed load by an
equivalent force. Then determine the internal
forces & moment at B by cutting the beam by a
plane at B & drawing the free-body diagram of the
part of the beam to the left of the plane, including
the part of the distributed load to the left of the
plane.
Fig. 10.4
17 18
3
Solution Solution
Determine the External Forces & Moments: The equilibrium equations are:
Draw the free-body diagram of the beam &
represent the distributed load by an equivalent
force:
Solving them, we obtain:
19 20
Solution Solution
Draw the Free-Body Diagram From the equilibrium equations are:
of Part of the Beam:
Cut the beam at B & obtain
the free-body diagram.
Because point B is at the
midpoint of the triangular
distributed load, the value we obtain:
of the distributed load at B
is 30 N/m. By representing
the distributed load by an
equivalent force
21 22
 If you attempt to determine the internal forces &  You must wait until after you have isolated
moment at B by cutting the free-body diagram of part of the beam before representing
the beam at B, you do not obtain the correct
distributed loads acting on that part by
results
equivalent forces
 You can confirm that the resulting free-body
diagram of the part of the beam to the left of B
gives PB = 0, VB = 120 N & MB = 360 N-m
 The effect of the distributed load is not
properly accounted for on your free-body
diagram
23 24
4
10.2 Shear Force & Bending Moment 10.2 Shear Force & Bending Moment
Diagrams Diagrams
 Consider a simply supported beam loaded by a
force:  Applyingthe equilibrium equations to this
 Cut the beam at an arbitrary position x free-body diagram, we obtain:
between the left end of the beam & the load F:
25 26
Diagrams Diagrams
 To determine the internal forces & moment
for values of x greater than ⅔ L, we obtain a  The results are:
free-body diagram by cutting the beam at an
arbitrary position x between the load F & the
right end of the beam:
27 28
Diagrams Diagrams
 The shear force & bending  Thus we can determine the distributions of the
moment diagrams are simply the internal forces & moment in a beam by
graphs of V & M respectively, as considering a plane at an arbitrary distance x
functions of x: from the end of the beam & solving for P, V &
M as functions of x
 They permit you to see the
 Depending on the complexity of the loading, it
changes in the shear force & may be necessary to draw several free-body
bending moment that occur diagrams to determine the distributions over
along the beam’s length as the entire length of the beam
well as their maximum (least  The resulting equations for V & M allow us to
upper bound) & minimum draw the shear force & bending moment
(greatest lower bound) values diagrams
29 30
5
Example 10.3 Shear Force & Bending Example 10.3 Shear Force & Bending
Moment Diagrams Moment Diagrams
Strategy
Determine the shear force & bending moment
diagrams for the beam in Fig. 10.7. After determining the reactions at the supports, cut
the beam at an arbitrary position between A & B to
determine the internal forces & moment for 0 < x < 2
m. Then by cutting the beam an at arbitrary position
between B & C, we can determine the internal
forces & moment for 2 < x < 4 m.
Fig. 10.7
31 32
Solution Solution
Begin by drawing the free-body diagram of the From the equilibrium equations are:
entire beam & representing the distributed force
by an equivalent force:
we obtain the reactions:
33 34
Solution Solution
Cut the beam at an arbitrary position between A & From the equilibrium equations:
B & obtain the free-body diagram:
we obtain:
35 36
6
Solution Solution
Cut the beam at an From the equilibrium equations:
arbitrary position between
B & C & draw the free-
body diagram of the part
of the beam to the right of
the cutting plane: we obtain:
37 38
The shear force &  When you obtain equations for the shear force &
bending moment bending moment in a beam that apply to
different parts of the beam, as we did in this
diagrams are obtained
example, there are 2 conditions you can often
by plotting the use to check your results:
equations for V & M
 The shear force diagram of a beam is
for the 2 ranges of x: continuous except at points where the beam
is subjected to a point force
 The bending moment diagram of a beam is
continuous except at points where the beam
is subjected to a point couple
39 40
Example 10.3 Shear Force & Bending

Moment Diagrams
Critical Thinking
 In this example, the equations we obtained fir the
bending moment M for 0 < x < 2 m & for 2 < x < 4
m must agree at x =2 m
 Checking, we have:
100(2 m)  20(2 m)2 kNm = 60(4 m  2 m) kNm:
120 kNm = 120 kNm
and we confirm that they agree.
41
7
10.3 Relations Between Distributed Load, 10.3 Relations Between Distributed Load,
Shear Force & Bending Moment Shear Force & Bending Moment
 The shear force & bending  The terms ∆P, ∆V & ∆M are the changes in
moment in a beam subjected to the axial force, shear force & bending moment
a distributed load are governed respectively from x to x + ∆x
by simple differential equations  The sum of the forces in the x direction is:
 Suppose that a portion of a Σ Fx = P + ∆P  P = 0

beam is subjected to a  Dividing this equation by ∆x & taking the limit
distributed load w (Fig. a) as ∆x  0, we obtain:
 We obtain a free-body
diagram by cutting the beam
which simply states that the axial force does
at positions x & x + ∆x (Fig. b) not depend on x in a portion of a beam
subjected only to a lateral distributed load
1 2
 To sum the forces on the free-body diagram in  Toevaluate this integral, express as a
the y direction, we must determine the force Taylor series in terms of :
exerted by the distributed load
 In Fig. b, introduce a coordinate that (10.1)
measures distance from the left edge of the
 Substitutingthis equation into the integral
free-body diagram
expression for the downward force &
 In terms of this coordinate, the downward
force exerted on the free-body diagram by the integrating term by term, we obtain:
distributed load is:
where
3 4
 The sum of the forces on the free-body  InFig. b: the clockwise moment of Q due to
diagram in the y direction is therefore: the distributed load is:
 Dividing by ∆x & taking the limit as ∆x  0, we  SubstitutingEq. (10.1) & integrating term by
obtain: term, the clockwise moment about Q is:
(10.2)
where w = w(x)
5 6
1
 The sum of moments about Q is therefore:  In principle, we can use Eqs. (10.2) & (10.3) to
determine the shear force & bending moment
diagrams of a beam:
 Eq. (10.2) can be integrated to determine V
as a function of x
 Dividing by ∆x & taking the limit as ∆x  0  Then Eq. (10.3) can be integrated to
gives: determine M as a function of x
(10.3)  However, these equations are derived for a
segment of beam subjected only to a distributed
load
7 8
 To apply them for a more general loading, we  Equilibrium requires that:
must account for the effects of any point forces V+  V = F
& couples acting on the beam
 Suppose a beam is subjected to a M+  M = 0
point force F in the positive y  The shear force diagram
direction (Fig. a) undergoes a hump discontinuity
 By cutting the beam just to the of magnitude F but the bending
left & just to the right of the force, moment diagram is continuous:
we obtain the free-body diagram  The jump in the shear force is
in Fig. b, where the subscripts  positive if the force is in the
& + denote values to the left &
right of the force respectively positive y direction
9 10
 Suppose the beam is subjected  The shear force diagram is
to a counterclockwise couple C continuous but the bending
 Cutting the beam just to the left moment diagram undergoes
& just to the right of the couple, a discontinuity of magnitude
we determine that: C, where a beam is subjected
V+  V = 0 to a couple
 The jump in the bending
M+  M = C
moment is negative if the
couple is in the
counterclockwise direction
11 12
2
 Construction of the Shear Force Diagram:  Ifw is a constant throughout the segment,
 Ina segment of a beam that is only subjected the slope of the shear force is a constant,
to a distributed load, the shear force is related which means that the shear force diagram
to the distributed load: for the segment is a straight line
(10.4)  Integrating Eq. (10.4) with respect to x from a
position xA to a position xB, i.e.
 Thisequation states that the derivative or
slope of the shear force with respect to x is
equal to the negative of the distributed load: yields
 Notice that if there is no distributed load (w
= 0) throughout the segment, the slope is
zero & the shear force is constant
13 14
 The change in the shear force between the 2  E.g.to determine the shear force diagram for
positions: the beam:
 The beam is subjected to a downward force
F that results in upward reactions at A & C
(10.5)
 Notice that there is there is no distributed
load
15 16
 Our procedure is to begin  Fig. c: the value of V decrease at B due to
at the left end of the beam the downward force
& construct the diagram
 Fig d: the value of V remains constant
from left to right:
between B & C, which completes the shear
 Fig. a: increase in the
value of V due to the force diagram
upward reaction at A  Compare with the shear force diagram
 Fig. b: the value of V obtained by drawing free-body diagrams &

remains constant between applying the equilibrium equations in
A & B because there is no Section 10.2
distributed load
17 18
3
 Construction of the Bending Moment  Integrating Eq. (10.6) with respect to x from a
Diagram: position xA to a position xB yields:
 Ina segment of a beam subjected only to a
distributed load, the bending moment is
related to the shear force by:  Thechange in the bending moment between
(10.6) 2 positions is:
 This equation states that the slope of the
bending moment with respect to x is equal to
(10.7)
the shear force:
 If V is constant throughout the segment, the
bending moment diagram for the segment
is a straight line
19 20
 E.g.to determine the bending moment
diagram for the same beam:
 Begin with the shear force diagram we

have already determined & proceed to
construct the bending moment diagram
from left to right
21 22
 The beam is not subjected to a couple at A,  The slope of the bending moment diagram
so MA = 0 is also constant between B & C (dM/dx = V
= 2F/3), so the bending moment diagram
 Between A & B, the slope of the bending
between B & C is a straight line
moment is constant (dM/dx = V = F/3),
 The change in bending moment from B to C
which tells us that the bending moment is equal to the area defined by the shear
diagram between A & B is a straight line force from B to C:
 The change in bending moment from A to B
is equal to the area defined by the shear  Therefore, Mc = MB  2LF/9 = 0
force from A to B:  Noticethat we did not actually need this
calculation to conclude MC = 0 because the
 Therefore, MB = 2LF/9 beam is not subjected to a couple at C
23 24
4
10.3 Relations Between Distributed Load, Example 10.4 Shear Force & Bending
Shear Force & Bending Moment Moment Diagrams Using Eqs. (10.4)—(10.7)
 Compare this bending
moment diagram with Determine the shear force & bending moment
that obtained by diagrams for the beam in Fig. 10.17.
drawing free-body
diagrams & applying
the equilibrium
equations in Section
10.2
Fig. 10.17
Moment Diagrams Using Eqs. (10.4)—(10.7) Moment Diagrams Using Eqs. (10.4)—(10.7)
Strategy Solution
Begin with the free-body diagram of the beam & Shear Force Diagram:
use Eqs. (10.4) & (10.5) to construct the shear The 1st step is to draw the free-body diagram of the
force diagram. Then use the shear force diagram beam & determine the reactions at the built-in
& Eqs. (10.6) & (10.7) to construct the bending support A.
moment diagram. In determining both the shear
force & bending moment diagrams, we must
account for the effects of point forces & couples
acting on the beam.
Using the results of this step, we proceed to
construct the shear force diagram from left to right.
27 28
Solution Solution
There is an increase in the value of V due to the With this information, the shear force diagram can
upward reaction force at A. be sketched qualitatively:
Between A & B, the distributed load on the beam

increases linearly from 0 to 300 N/m. therefore, the We can also obtain an explicit equation for the
slope of the shear force decreases linearly from 0 shear force between A & B by integrating Eq.
to 300 N/m. At B, the shear force must be equal 0 (10.4). The distributed load as a function of x is w =
because no force acts there. (x/6)300 = 50x N/m
29 30
5
Solution Solution
We write Eq. (10.4) as: Bending Moment Diagram:
Construct the bending moment diagram from left to
and integrate to determine V at an arbitrary position x: right. There is an initial decrease in the value of M
due to the counterclockwise couple at A.
Due to the 900-N upward reaction at A, VA = 900 N,

so we obtain:
(1)
31 32
Solution Solution
Between A & B, the slope of the bending moment Using this information, the bending moment diagram
diagram is equal to the shear force V. From the can be sketched qualitatively:
shear force diagram, the slope of the bending
moment diagram has a positive value at A (900 N).
As A increases, the slope begins to decrease & its
rate of decreases grows until the value of the slope
reaches zero at B. At B, we know that the value of
the bending moment is zero because no couple Notice that its slope decreases from a positive value
acts on the beam at B. at A to zero at B & the rate at which it decrease
grows as x increases.
33 34
Solution Solution
We can obtain an equation for the bending moment As a result of the 3600 N-m counterclockwise couple
between A & B by integrating Eq. (10.6). The shear at A, MA = 3600 N-m, yielding the bending moment
force as a function of x is given by Eq. (1). We write distribution:
Eq. (10.6) as:
and integrate:
35 36
6
Critical Thinking Determine the shear force & bending moment
 As demonstrated in this example, Eqs. (10.4)— diagrams for the beam in Fig. 10.18.
(10.7) can be applied in 2 ways
 They provide a basis for rapidly obtaining
qualitative sketches of shear force & bending
moment diagrams Strategy Fig. 10.18
 In addition, explicit equations for the diagrams
Just as in Example 10.4, begin with the free-body
can be obtained by integrating Eqs. (10.4) &
diagram of the beam & use Eqs. (10.4) & (10.5) to
(10.6)
construct the shear force diagram, then use the
shear force diagram & Eqs. (10.6) & (10.7) to
37
construct the bending moment diagram. 38
Solution Solution
Shear Force Diagram: The shear force will be discontinuous at B due to
We determined the reactions at the supports of the the 80-kN reaction.
beam in Example 10.3. Let VB & VB+ denote the values of V to the left &
right of the 80-kN force respectively. From Eq.
Using the results, we proceed to construct the shear
(10.5), the change in V from A to B is:
force diagram from left to right. Due to the 100-kN
upward force at A, VA = 100 kN. Between A & B, the
distributed load on the beam is constant, which so VB = VA  80 = 20 kN.
means that the slope of the shear force diagram is
constant. Therefore, the shear force diagram
between A & B is a straight line.
39 40
Solution Solution
We can also determine the shear force between A & Notice that at x = 2m, this equation gives VB = 20
B by integrating Eq. (10.4). We write Eq. (10.4) as: kN.
The value of V to the right of the 80-kN force is:
and integrate:
Because there is no distributed load between B &

Due to the 100 kN upward reaction at A, VA = 100 kN, C, the value of V remains constant between B &
yielding the shear force distribution: C, completing the shear force diagram.
V = 100  40x kN
41 42
7
Solution
Bending Moment Diagram:
The beam is not subjected to a couple at A, so MA =
0. Between A & B, the slope of the bending moment
diagram equals the shear force. From the shear
force diagram, the slope is positive between A & B &
decreases linearly from A to B. The change in the
bending moment between A & B is equal to the area
defined by the shear force diagram between A & B,
namely,
so MB =
43 44
Solution Solution
With this information, the diagram between A & B Observe that the slope is positive but decreases
can be sketched qualitatively: from A to B.
We can obtain an equation for the bending moment
between A & B by integrating Eq. (10.6). The shear
force as a function of x is given by Eq. (1). We write
Eq. (10.6) as:
and integrate:
45 46
We know that MA = 0, so the bending moment  Compare this example with Example 10.3, in
distribution between A & B is: which we use free-body diagrams & the
M= equilibrium equations to determine the shear
Because no couple is applied to the beam at C, MC force & bending moment diagrams for this beam
= 0. the slope of the bending moment is constant & loading
between B & C (dM/dx = V = 60 kN), so the
bending moment between B & C is a straight line
47 48
8
10.5 Loads Distributed Uniformly Along 10.5 Loads Distributed Uniformly Along
Cables Cables
 A cable’s own weight subjects it to a load that is  The terms T0 & T are the tensions at the lowest
distributed uniformly along its length point & at s respectively
 If a cable is subjected to equal, parallel forces  The distributed load exerts a downward force ws
spaced uniformly along its length, the load on
the cable can often be modeled as a load  The origin of the coordinate system is located at
distributed uniformly along its length the lowest point of the cable
 Suppose that a cable is acted on by a distributed  Let the function y(x) be the
load that subjects each element ds of its length curve described by the cable
to a force w ds, where w is constant in the x-y plane
 The free-body diagram is obtained by cutting
the cable at its lowest point & at a point a
distance s along its length
1 2
Cables Cables
 Shape of the Cable:  The slope of the cable dy/dx = tan , so Eq.
 From the free-body diagram, we obtain the (10.15) can be written as:
equilibrium equations:
T sin  = ws (10.13)
T cos  = T0 (10.14)  The derivative of this equation with respect to
 Dividing the Eq. (10.13) by Eq. (10.14), we
x is:
obtain: (10.17)
(10.15)
where
(10.16)
3 4
Cables Cables
 By using the relation ds2 = dx2 + dy2, we can  Integrating this equation yields:
write the derivative of s with respect to x as:
(10.18) and we obtain the slope as a function of x:
(10.19)
where is the slope.
 Then integrating this equation with respect to
x yields the curve described by the cable,
 Now, with Eq. (10.18), we can write Eq.
which is called a catenary:
(10.17) as:
(10.20)
 The slope σ = 0 at x = 0
5 6
1
Cables Cables
 Tension of the Cable:  Length of the Cable:
 Using Eq. (10.14) & the relation dx = cos  ds,  From Eq. (10.15), the length s of the cable
we obtain: from the origin to the point at which the angle
between the cable & the x axis equals  is:
 Substituting Eq. (10.18) into this expression &

using Eq. (10.19) yields the tension in the  SubstitutingEq. (10.19) into this equation, we
cable as a function of x: obtain an expression for the length s of the
cable in the horizontal interval from its lowest
(10.21) point to x:
(10.22)
7 8
Example 10.8 Cable Loaded by its Own Example 10.8 Cable Loaded by its Own
Weight Weight
The mass per unit length of the cable in Fig. 10.26 Strategy
is 1 kg/m. The tension at its lowest point is 50 N. The cable is subjected to a load w = (9.81 m/s2)
Determine the distance h & the maximum tension (1 kg/m) = 9.81 N/m distributed uniformly along its
in the cable. length. Since we know w & T0, we can determine
a = w/T0. Then we can determine h from Eq.
(10.20). Because the maximum tension occurs at
the greatest distance from the lowest point of the
cable, we can determine it by letting x = 10 m in
Eq. (10.21).
Fig. 10.26
9 10
Weight Weight
Solution Solution
The parameter a is: From Eq. (10.20),
In terms of a coordinate system with its origin at the

lowest point of the cable, the coordinates of the
right attachment point are x = 10 m, y = h.
From Eq. (10.21), the maximum tension is:
11 12
2
Weight Weight
 In this example we specified the mass per unit  Substituting the coordinates of 1 of these
length of the cable & the tension T0 at the cable’s points into Eq. (10.20) yields an equation for
lowest point & used them to determine the the coefficient a = w/T0, from which T0 could be
distance h in Fig. 10.26
determined
 In a real application, you would be much more
likely to know the mass per unit length of the  However, notice that the transcendental Eq.
cable & the distance h & need to determine the (10.20) would have to be solved numerically
tension T0 for the value of a
 If h is given, the x & y coordinates of the
cable’s highest points relative to the lowest
point are known
13 14
10.6 Discrete Loads 10.6 Discrete Loads

 Consider the case of an arbitrary number N of  Determining the Configuration & Tensions:
objects suspended from a cable:  Suppose that the horizontal distances b1,
 Assume that the weight of the cable can be b2,…, bN+1 are known & that the vertical
neglected in comparison to the suspended distance hN+1 specifying the cable’s right
weights & that the cable is sufficiently flexible attachment point is known:
that we can approximate its shape by a series (1) Determine the configuration (shape) of the
of straight segments cable by solving for the vertical distances
h1, h2,…, hN specifying the positions of the
attachment points
(2) Determine the tensions in the segments 1,
2,…, N+1 of the cable
15 16

 Begin by drawing a free-  Summing moments about
body diagram, cutting the the attachment point A1, we
cable at its left attachment obtain the equation:
point & just to the right of Σ Mpoint A1 = h1Th  b1Tv = 0
the weight W1  The next step is to obtain a
 We resolve the tension in free-body diagram by cutting
the cable at the left the cable at its left
attachment point into its attachment point & just to the
horizontal & vertical right of the weight W2
components Th & Tv
17 18
3
 Summing moments about A2, we obtain:  Ifthe vertical position of just 1 attachment
Σ Mpoint A2 = h2Th  (b1 + b2)Tv + b2W1 = 0 point is also specified, we can solve the
 Proceeding in this way, cutting the cable just to system of equations for the vertical
the right of each N weights, we obtain N positions of the other attachment points,
equations determining the configuration of the cable
 We can also draw a free-body diagram by
 Once we know the configuration of the cable
cutting the cable at its left & right attachment
points & sum moments about the right & the force Th, we can determine the tension
attachment point in any segment by cutting the cable at the left
 In this way, we obtain N+1 equations in attachment point & within the segment &
terms of N+2 unknowns: the components of summing forces in the horizontal direction
the tension Th & Tv & the vertical positions of
the attachment points h1, h2,…, hN
19 20

 Comments on Continuous & Discrete  Compare the shape of the cable with the
Models: distributed load to that of a cable of
 Consider a cable subjected to a horizontally negligible weight subjected to 3 discrete
distributed load w: loads W = wL/3 with equal horizontal spacing
 The total force exerted on it is wL (we chose the dimensions of the cable with
 Since the cable passes discrete loads so that the heights of the2
through the point x = L/2, cables would be equal at their midpoints):
y = L/2, we find from Eq.
(10.10) that a = 4/L, so
the equation for the curve
described by the cable is y=
(2/L)x2
21 22

 Compare the shape of the cable with the  Compare the tension in the cable subjected
distributed load to that of a cable of negligible to the distributed load to those in the cable
weight subjected to 5 discrete loads W = wL/5 subjected to 3 & 5 discrete loads:
with equal horizontal spacing:
23 24
4
 The shape & the tension in the cable with a  This approach, approximating a continuous
distributed load are approximated by the distribution by a discrete model, is very
shapes & tensions in cables with discrete important in engineering:
loads  It is the starting point of the finite difference
 Although the approximation of the tension is & finite element methods
less impressive that the approximation of the  The opposite approach, modeling discrete
shape, it is clear that the former can be systems by continuous models, is also widely
improved by increasing the number of used:
discrete loads  E.g. when the forces exerted on a bridge by
traffic are modeled as a distributed load
25 26
Example 10.9 Cable Subjected to Example 10.9 Cable Subjected to

Discrete Loads Discrete Loads
2 masses m1 = 10 kg & m2 = 20 kg are suspended Strategy
from the cable in Fig. 10.30.
We will obtain 3 free-body diagrams by cutting the
(a) Determine the vertical distance h2 cable at the left attachment point & (1) just to the
(b) Determine the tension in cable segment 2 right of the mass m1; (2) just to the right of the
mass m2; & (3) at the right attachment point. By
writing a moment equation for each free-body
diagram, we will obtain 3 equations in terms of the
2 components of the tension at the left attachment
point & unknown vertical distance h2. once the
geometry of the cable is determined, we can use
Fig. 10.30
equilibrium to determine the tension in segment 2.
27 28

Solution Solution
(a) Begin by cutting the cable at the left attachment Summing moments about A1 yields:
point & just to the right of the mass m1 & resolve Σ Mpoint A1 = (1 m)Th  (1 m)Tv = 0
the tension at the left attachment point into
horizontal & vertical components: We then cut the cable just to the right of the mass
m2 & sum moments about A2:
Σ Mpoint A2 = h2Th  (2 m)Tv + (1 m) m1g = 0
29 30
5
Solution Solution
The last step is to cut the cable at the right (b) To determine the tension in segment 2, use the
attachment point & sum moments about A3: 1st free-body diagram. The angle between the
force T2 & the horizontal is:
Σ Mpoint A3 = (3 m)Tv + (2 m) m1g + (1 m) m2g = 0
arctan [(h2  1)/1] = 14.0°
We have 3 equations in terms of the unknowns Th,
Summing forces in the horizontal direction gives:
Tv & h2. Solving them yields Th = Tv = 131 N & h2 =
T2cos 14.0°  Th = 0
1.25 m.
Solving, we obtain:
31 32

 The systematic solution procedure we applied to  Instead of the height h2, some other parameter
this cable system with 3 segments resulted in 3 of the system could have been left unspecified,
equations such as 1 of the masses or the horizontal
 In addition to the 2 components of the tension at position of 1 of the masses
the left attachment point, we were able to  In a cable system with N segments, N2
determine the unknown vertical distance h2 parameters can be left unspecified
 There was 1 “excess” equation with which to
determine h2
33 34

As the 1st step in constructing a suspended Strategy
pedestrian bridge, a cable is suspended across Eq. (10.22) gives the length s of the cable as a
the span from attachment points of equal height function of the horizontal distance x from the
(Fig. 10.31). The cable weighs 50 N/m & is 42 m cable’s lowest point & parameter a = w/T0. The
long. Determine the maximum tension in the cable term w is the weight per unit length & T0 is the
& the vertical distance from the attachment points tension in the cable at its lowest point. We know
to the cable’s lowest point. that the half-span of the cable is 20 m, so we can
draw a graph of s as a function of a & estimate the
value of a for which s = 21 m. Then we can
determine the maximum tension from Eq. (10.21)
& the vertical distance to the cable’s lowest point
from Eq. (10.20).
Fig. 10.31
35 36
6
Solution Solution
Setting x = 20 m in Eq. (10.22), The length s = 20 m when the parameter a is
approximately 0.027 m1.
a (m1) s (m)
By examining the computed results 0.0269 20.9789
We compute s as a function of a: near a = 0.027 m1: 0.0270 20.9863
We see that s is approximately 21 0.0271 20.9937
m when a = 0.0272 m1. 0.0272 21.0012
0.0273 21.0086
0.0274 21.0162
0.0275 21.0237
37 38

Solution Solution
Therefore, the tension at the cable’s lowest point is: From Eq. (10.20), the vertical distance from the
cable’s lowest point to the attachment points is:
and the maximum tension is:
39 40
Computational Example 10.10 Chapter Summary

Critical Thinking  Beams:
 From this example you can see how  The internal forces & moment in abeam are
computational results can be used in the design expressed as the axial force P, shear force V
of a suspended cable system: & bending moment M
 By using a as a parameter, we could
 Their positive directions are defined as:
determine the maximum tension & the vertical
distance to the cable’s lowest point for cables
with a range of lengths
 By calculations of this kind, the design
engineer can choose the properties the cable
must have to satisfy the criteria of a particular
application
7
 By cutting a beam at an arbitrary position x,  The distributed load, shear force & bending
the axial force P, shear force V & bending moment in a portion of a beam subjected only
moment M can be determined as functions of to a distributed load satisfy the relations:
x
(10.4)
 Depending on the loading, it may be
necessary to draw several free-body (10.6)
diagrams to determine the distributions over
the entire beam
 For segments of a beam that are unloaded or
 The graphs of V & M as functions of x are the
subjected to a distributed load, these
shear force & bending moment diagrams
equations can be integrated to determine V &
M as functions of x
(C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 43 (C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 44

 To obtain the complete shear force & bending  Cables:
moment diagrams, forces & couples must  Loads Distributed Uniformly Along a
also be accounted for Straight Line:
 If a suspended cable is subjected to a
horizontally distributed load w, the curve is
described by the cable is the parabola:
(10.10)
where a = w/T0 & T0 is the tension in the
cable at x = 0

 The tension in the cable at a position x is:  Loads Distributed Uniformly Along a
(10.10) Straight Line:
and the length of the cable in the horizontal  If a suspended cable is subjected to a load
interval from 0 to x: w distributed along its length, the curve

described by the cable is the catenary:
(10.10)
(10.20)
where a = w/T0 & T0 is the tension in the
cable at x = 0
8
 The tension in the cable at a position x is:  Discrete Loads:
 If N known weights are suspended from a
(10.21)
cable & positions of the attachment points
and the length of the cable in the horizontal of the cable, the horizontal positions of the
interval from 0 to x is: attachment points of the weights & the
vertical position of the attachment point of 1
(10.22) of the weights are known, the configuration
of the cable & the tension in each of its
segments:

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CE 1601

Content of the course:

Where to find me Course content – Term 1

1. Introduction, basics of mechanics

 Knowledge of previous designs,

1.1 Engineering & Mechanics 1.1 Engineering & Mechanics

 Elementary Mechanics – the study of  Applications in many fields of engineering:

1.2 Learning Mechanics 1.2 Learning Mechanics

 Calculators & Computers:  Engineering Applications:

problem-solving software such as Mathcad or satisfy stated design criteria

1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.3 Fundamental Concepts

 7630, 000 = 7.630 x 106

1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.3 Fundamental Concepts

 Space & Time:  Space & Time:

 Position of a point in space relative to  Newton’s Laws of Motion

1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.3 Fundamental Concepts

 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion  Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

1.3 Fundamental Concepts 1.3 Fundamental Concepts

1.4 Units 1.4 Units

 International System of Units:  Prefixes:

 Time: second (s)

 E.g. Force is measured in newtons (N)  E.g. 1 kg = 1000 m, 1 Mg = 106 g = 1000 kg

1.4 Units 1.4 Units

 Angular Units:  Conversion of Units:

Suppose that in Einstein’s equation Solution

What are the SI units of E?

Example 1.2 Determining Units from an Equation 1.5 Newtonian Gravitation

Critical Thinking  Gravitational force between

1.5 Newtonian Gravitation 1.5 Newtonian Gravitation

where mE = mass of earth,

where RE = radius of the earth

1.5 Newtonian Gravitation 1.5 Newtonian Gravitation

1.5 Newtonian Gravitation Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight

 Weight of object at sea level (r = RE): When the Mars

(a) What was the Rover’s weight when it was at Strategy

Example 1.3 Determining an Object’s Weight

2.1 Scalars & Vectors 2.1 Scalars & Vectors

 Vector addition is commutative:  Product of a Scalar & a Vector:

Example 2.1 Adding Vectors Example 2.1 Adding Vectors

By measuring the figure, we estimate the

Example 2.1 Adding Vectors Example 2.1 Adding Vectors

Solution Critical Thinking

2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions 2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions

2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions 2.3 Components in 2 Dimensions

 Position Vectors in Terms of Components:  Position Vectors in Terms of Components:

Example 2.2 Adding Vectors in Terms of Example 2.3 Determining Components in

Example 2.3 Determining Components in Example 2.3 Determining Components in

Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

(C) 2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 35 36

Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

Since triangle OAB is similar

Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

Thus, we again obtain the result:

Example 2.4 Determining Components Example 2.4 Determining Components

Example 2.5 Determining an unknown Example 2.5 Determining an unknown

Set the component of the total force parallel to

Example 2.5 Determining an unknown

 Review of drawing objects in 3 dimensions:  Right-handed coordinate system:

2.4 Components in 3 Dimensions 2.4 Components in 3 Dimensions

2.4 Components in 3 Dimensions 2.4 Components in 3 Dimensions

 Magnitude of a Vector in Terms of  Magnitude of a Vector in Terms of