a

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS Percentage error 100%

amean
The SI system : It is the international system of units.
At present internationally accepted for measurement. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
In this system there are seven fundamental and two
supplementary quantities and their corresponding s1 + s2 + s3
units are: Average speed, Vav =
t1 + t 2 + t 3
Quantity Unit Symbol a t +a t
1. Length metre m Average acceleration, aav = 1 1 2 2
t1 + t 2
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s The area under the velocity-time curve is equal to the
4. Electric current ampere A displacement and slope gives acceleration.
5. Temperature kelvin K If a body falls freely, the distance covered by it in each
6. Luminous intensity candela cd subsequent second starting from first second will be in
7. Amount of substance mole mol the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 etc.
Supplementary If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity
1. Plane angle radian rad u, it takes u/g second to reach maximum height and
2. Solid angle steradian sr u/g second to return, if air resistance is negligible.
If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time
Dimensions : These are the powers to which the taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than
fundamental units are raised to get the unit of a
physical quantity. the time to fall back the same height.
For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t ,
Uses of dimensions
(i) To check the correctness of a physical relation. where 2 , then particle’s acceleration increases with
(ii) To derive relationship between different physical time.
quantities. For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t ,
(iii) To convert one system of unit into another.
n 1u 1 = n 2 u 2 where 0 , then particle’s acceleration decreases with
a b c
time.
n1[M1a Lb1T1c ] = n2 [M 2 L 2T2 ]
Kinematic equations :
Significant figures : In any measurement, the reliable v = u + at (t) ; v2 = u2 + 2at (s)
digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as
1 a
significant figures. S = ut + at (t)2; Sn u (2 n 1)
2 2
Error : It is the difference between the measured value
applicable only when | a t | a t is constant.
and true value of a physical quantity or the uncertainty
at = magnitude of tangential acceleration, S = distance
in the measurements.
If acceleration is variable use calculus approach.
Absolute error : The magnitude of the difference
between the true value and the measured value is Relative velocity : v BA vB vA
called absolute error.
a1 a a1 , a2 a a2 , an a an MOTION IN A PLANE
Mean absolute error
| a1 | | a2 | ..... | an | 1
n If T is the time of flight, h maximum height, R horizontal
a = | ai |
range of a projectile, its angle of projection, then the
n ni 1
relations among these quantities.
Relative error : It is the ratio of the mean absolute error
gT 2
a h ...... (1);
to its true value or relative error = 8
a
gT2 = 2R tan ....... (2);
Percentage error : It is the relative error in per cent. R tan = 4h ....... (3)
 2

2u sin u 2 sin 2 On a banked road, the maximum permissible speed

T ;h 1/2
g 2g æ u + tan q ö ÷
ççR s ÷
Vmax = çç g ÷
÷
u 2 sin 2 u2 è 1- u s tan qø
R ; Rmax when 45
g g
For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
range, there are two angles of projection and 90° – .
The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected Work done W = FS cos
horizontally from the top of a tower of height y, with a Relation between kinetic energy E and momentum,
velocity u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal P 2mE
distance covered by it from the foot of the tower.
K.E. = 1/2 mV2; P.E. = mgh
gx 2 If a body moves with constant power, its velocity (v) is
Equation of trajectory is y x tan , which related to distance travelled (x) by the formula v x3/2.
2u cos 2
2

is parabola. W
Power P = = F.V
Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms t
x Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact
of range (R) is y x tan 1 surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative
R displacement between contact surfaces.
Maximum height is equal to n times the range when WFK FK (Srel ) .
the projectile is launched at an angle = tan–1(4n).
W K, W total work due to all kinds of
In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration
are constants only in magnitude. Their directions forces, K total change in kinetic energy.
change. Wconservative U ; Wconservative Total work
In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the due to all kinds of conservative forces.
body is a constant. W = 0, a 0, P constant, L=constant SDu Þ Total change in all kinds of potential energy.
velocity of separation
2 v2 Coefficient of restitution e
Centripetal acceleration, a r r v (always velocity of approach
r
applicable) a r v The total momentum of a system of particles is a
constant in the absence of external forces.
LAWS OF MOTION
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES & ROTATIOAL
Newton’s first law of motion or law of inertia : It is MOTION
resistance to change.
The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as
Newton’s second law : F ma, F dp / dt
mi ri
2 the point whose position vector is R
Impulse : p F t, p2 p1 F dt M
The angular momentum of a system of n particles about
1
Newton’s third law : F12 F21 n
the origin is L ri p i ; L = mvr = I
Frictional force fs (fs ) max sR ; fk kR i 1
Circular motion with variable speed. For complete The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles
circles, the string must be taut in the highest position,
u 2 ³ 5ga . about the origin is ri Fi
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string i
becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is
which the string does go slack is 2ga u 5ga . defined by the formula I mi ri 2
Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a 1
The kinetic energy of rotation is K I 2
point of suspension from the centre of circular motion. 2
The acceleration of a lift
The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2
actual weight apparent weight
a= Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
mass For rolling motion without slipping vcm = R . The
If ‘a’ is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative
the lift is moving up. kinetic energy of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic
energies of translation and rotation :
 3
1 2 1 2 Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion.
K mvcm I
2 2 T12 a13
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if T2 a3 ;
T22 a 32
(a) It is translational equilibrium i.e., the total external
force on it is zero : Fi = 0.
(b) It is rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
torque on it is zero : i = ri × Fi = 0. OF SOLIDS
If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane,
Hooke’s law : stress strain
n
then for pure rolling r tan (Ic = nmr2) F
n 1 Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
n A
Rolling with sliding 0 s tan ; 1
n 1 Compressibility =
Bulk modulus
g sin
a g sin Y = 3k (1 – 2 )
n 1
Y = 2n (1 + )
GRAVITATION If S is the stress and Y is Young’s modulus, the energy
density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation If is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density
Gm1m2 of a stretched wire, Y Young’s modulus of wire, then E
Gravitational force F =
r2 is equal to Y
1 2

Nm 2 2
G = 6.67 × 10 –11 F
kg 2 Thermal stress = = Y Dq
A
The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
GM E 2h
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
g(h) g 1 for h << RE OF FLUIDS
(R E h)2 RE
Pascal’s law : A change in pressure applied to an
2h GM E
g(h) g(0) 1 where g(0) enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
RE R 2E point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is Pressure exerted by a liquid column P = hrg
GM E d d Bernoulli’s principle P + v2/2 + gh = constant
g(d) 1 g (0) 1 Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface
R E2 RE RE
energy per unit area) acting in the plane of interface.
(c) with latitude g1 = g – R 2 cos2
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a
GM sphere of radius a moving with velocity v through a
Gravitational potential Vg = –
r fluid of viscosity F = – 6 av.
GM 2 r 2 ( – )g
Intensity of gravitational field I = 2 Terminal velocity VT =
r 9
The gravitational potential energy The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point.
The surface tension is zero at critical temperature.
Gm1m 2
V constant If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical
r
drops, the work done in the process is 4 R2S(n1/3 – 1)
The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
3T 1 1
2GM E and fall in temperature Dq = -
ve 2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s–1. J r R
RE Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in
GM E
parallel. The rate of flow is Q. If they are replaced by
Orbital velocity, vorbi = gR E single capillary tube of radius R for the same rate of
RE flow, then R = 21/4 r.
A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) Ascent of a liquid column in a capillary tube
satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane 2s cos f
at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the h=
rr g
Earth’s centre.
 4

F Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state

Coefficient of viscosity, n = nR (T1 T2 )
dv from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W
A 1
dx
Velocity of efflux V T
2 gh The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by 1 2
T1
Second law of thermodynamics: No engine operating
THERMAL PROPERTIES between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than
OF MATTER that of the Carnot engine.
Q
Entropy or disorder S =
Relation between different temperature scales : T
C F - 32 K - 273
= =
100 100 100 KINETIC THEORY
The coefficient of linear expansion ( ), superficial ( ) and
volume expansion ( v) are defined by the relations : Ideal gas equation PV = nRT
A V 1
T ; T ; V T nmv 2 ,
Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P
A V 3
Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
v=3 ; 2
In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring interpretation of temperature.
parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any 1 3 3k BT
nmv 2 k B T , vrms (v 2 )1/2
TC TD 2 2 m
flow of matter. The rate of flow of heat H KA , The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy
L
for each degree of freedom in thermal equilibrium is 1/2 (kBT)
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.
Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to 3
unequal temperatures of its parts. The translational kinetic energy E k B NT . This leads
2
Radiation is the transmission of heat as electromagnetic
waves. 2
to a relation PV E.
Stefan’s law of radiation : E = T4, where the constant is 3
known as Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 wm–2 k–4. Degree of freedom : Number of directions in which it can
Wein’s displacement law : mT = constant, where constant move freely.
is known as Wein’s constant = 2.898 × 10 –3 mk. Root mean square (rms) velocity of the gas
dQ 3RT 3P
Newton’s law of cooling: k (T2 T1 ) ; where T1 is C=
dt M
the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the
temperature of the body. Most probable speed Vmp = 2RT 2KT
=
Heat required to change the temperature of the substance, M m
Q = mc KT
Mean free path =
c = specific heat of the substance 2 d2P
Heat absorbed or released during state change Q = mL
L = latent heat of the substance
Mayer’s formula cp – cv = R OSCILLATIONS
Displacement in SHM : Y = a sin wt or, y = a cos wt
THERMODYNAMICS The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as
First law of thermodynamics: Q = U + W, where Q is functions of time are given by, v (t) = – A sin ( + )
the heat supplied to the system, W is the work done by the (velocity), a (t) = – 2A cos ( t + ) = – 2x (t) (acceleration)
system and U is the change in internal energy of the system. Velocity amplitude vm = A and acceleration amplitude
In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 am = 2A.
to V2 at temperature T the heat absorbed (Q) equals the A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
work done (W) by the gas, each given by Hooke’s law restoring force given by F = – k x exhibits simple
V2 k
Q W nRT ln harmonic motion with (angular frequency),
V1 m
In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PV = TV –1
m
T 2 (period)
T Cp k
= constant, where . Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
P 1 Cv
 5

Electric field due to a point charge q has a magnitude

cos | q |/4 0r2
Time period for conical pendulum T 2 where
g Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane
angle between string & vertical. p 1 p
E , for r >> a
Energy of the particle E = k + u =
1
m 2
A2
4 0 (a 2 r 2 )3/2 4 0r3
2 Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:
WAVES E
2pr
2 2 2
2p
for r >> a
4 0 (r a ) 4 0r3
The displacement in a sinusoidal wave y (x, t) = a sin
(kx – t + ) where is the phase constant or phase angle. Dipole moment p q 2a
t x In a uniform electric field E , a dipole experiences a torque
Equation of plane progressive wave : a sin 2
T V given by p E but experiences no net force.
2 t 2 x The flux of electric field E through a small area element
Equation of stationary wave : Y = 2a sin cos
T
The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string S is given by E. S
v T/ . Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed
surface S is 1/ 0 times the total charge enclosed i.e., Q
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
travel through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound
wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density µ is density E nˆ
v B/ . 2 0r
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density
v Y/ E nˆ
2 0
For gases, since B = P, the speed of sound is v P/ Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed E rˆ (r R)
4 2 E 0 (r < R)
ends, standing wave y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos t 0r
The separation between two consecutive nodes or antinodes 1 Q
is /2. Electric Potential : V(r) .
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates 4 0 r
An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential
1 v has a constant value.
with frequencies f .
2 2L Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. 1 q1q 2
U , where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open 4 0 r12
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by Capacitance C = Q/V, where Q = charge and V = potential
1 v difference
f n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... The lowest frequency For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
2 2L
given by v/4L is the fundamental mode or the first harmonic. A
plates), C 0 .
V d
Open organ pipe n1 : n2 : n3 ....... 1, 2, 3......., n The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
2l
Beats arise when two waves having slightly different 1 1 1 Q2
frequencies, f1 and f2 and comparable amplitudes, are charge Q and voltage V is U QV CV 2
2 2 2 C
superposed. The beat frequency fbeat = f1 – f2 For capacitors in the series combination,
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of
a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative 1 1 1 1
.........
Ceq C1 C2 C3
v v0
to the medium. f f0 In the parallel combination, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
v vs where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

ELECTROSTATICS CURRENT ELECTRICITY

k (q1q 2 ) q
Coulomb’s Law : F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = 2
r̂21 Electric current, I
r21 t
1 Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
where k = 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2
4 0 second per unit area normal to the flow, J nqvd
 6

Vd I 0 I1I 2
Mobility, µ and Vd Force between two long parallel wires F Nm 1 .
E Ane 2 a
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
Resistance R = , = resistivity of the material
A For current carrying coil M NIA ; torque = M B
Equation E J another statement of Ohm’s law,,
Ig
= resistivity of the material. Conversion of (i) galvanometer into ammeter, S G
Ohm’s law I V or V = RI I Ig
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series V
R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn (ii) galvanometer into voltmeter, S G
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel Ig
1 1 1 1 B0
...... The magnetic intensity, H .
R R1 R 2 Rn . 0
Kirchhoff’s Rules – (a) Junction rule: At any junction of The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
must equal the sum of currents leaving it.
(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential B 0 (H M)
around any closed loop must be zero. For a linear material M H . So that B H and is
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1 , R2 , R3, R4 . The null-point condition is given by called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
R1 R 3 0 r ; r 1 .

R2 R4
The potentiometer is a device to compare potential ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
differences. The device can be used to measure potential
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf’s of The magnetic flux
B B.A BA cos , where is the angle between B & A .
1
two sources. Internal resistance r R 1
2
d B
Faraday’s laws of induction : N
RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 – e–t/RC) dt
Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
During discharging : q = q0e–t/RC
that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
According ‘to Joule’s Heating law, H = I2Rt in magnetic flux that produces it.
The induced emf (motional emf) across ends of a rod B v
MAGNETISM
dI
The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v i.e., The self-induced emf is given by, L
dt
Lorentz force. F q (v B E) . L is the self-inductance of the coil.
A straight conductor of length and carrying a steady current 2
0N A
L=
I experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic field
A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a
B , F I B , the direction of is given by the direction of nearby coil (coil 1).
the current.
dI
0 d r 1 M12 2 , M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil
Biot-Savart law dB I 3 . dt
4 r 2.
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of
NN A
radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the M= 0 1 2
2
0 IR Rt /L
centre is B . Growth of current in an inductor, i i 0 [1 e ]
2 (x 2 R 2 )3/2
For decay of current, i Rt /L
The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying i0e
0 NI
a current I is : B = µ0nI. For a toroid one obtains, B . ALTERNATING CURRENT
2 r
Ampere’s Circuital Law : , where I refers to the For an alternating current i = im sin t passing through a
B.d 0I resistor R, the average power loss P (averaged over a cycle)
C
due to joule heating is (1/2)i2mR.
current passing through S. E.m.f, E = E0 sin wt
 7

im For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1

Root mean square (rms) current I 0.707 i m . to 2 of refractive index n 1 and n2, respectively)
2 n 2 n1 n 2 - n1
- =
E0 v v R
Erms =
2 C
Refractive index of a medium m = (C = 3 × 108 m/s)
The average power loss over a complete cycle V
P= V I cos . The term cos is called the power factor. 1
r= (C = Critical angle)
An ac voltage v = vm sin t applied to a pure inductor L, sin C
drives a current in the inductor i = im sin ( t – /2), where Condition for TIR : 1. Ray of light must travel from denser to
im = vm/XL. XL = L is called inductive reactance. rarer medium 2. Angle of incidence in denser medium > critical
angle.
An ac voltage v = vm sin t applied to a capacitor drives a
current in the capacitor: i = im sin ( t + /2). Here, 1 1 1
Lens formula - =
v u f
vm 1
im , XC is called capacitive reactance. 1 (n 2 - n1 ) æ 1 1 ö
XC C Lens maker’s formula : f = -
n1 ç
è R1 R 2 ÷ ø
An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the
phenomenon of resonance. The circuit exhibits resonance, The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is
i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1.
If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact,
1
frequency, 0 (X L XC ) . 1 1 1 1
LC the effective focal f = f + f + f + .....
1 2 3
Impedance z = R 2 + (x L – x C ) 2 The total power of a combination of several lenses
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
NS ES IP Chromatic aberration if satisfying the equation
Transformation ratio, K = = =
N P E P IS w1 w2
+ = 0 or in terms of powers w P + w P = 0 .
f1 f 2 1 1 2 2
Step up transformer : NS > NP; ES > EP; IP > IS
Step down transformer NP > NS; EP > ES and IP < IS V0 æ D ö
For compound microscope M = 1+ ÷
u 0 çè fe ø
0L 1
The quality factor Q defined by Q is an when final image at D
R 0 CR
indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value V0 D
M= . when final image at infinity..
of Q indicating sharper peak in the current. u 0 fe

RAY OPTICS WAVE OPTICS

Reflection is governed by the equation i= r' and Wavefront : It is the locus of all the particles vibrating in the
refraction by the Snell’s law, sini/sinr = n, where the incident same phase.
ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same The resultant intensity of two waves of intensity I0/4 of
plane.
1 1 1 phase difference at any points I I0 cos 2 ,
Mirror equation: + = 2
v u f
where I0 is the maximum density.
Magnification M =
V I Intensity I µ (amplitude)2
u O
n 2 sin [(A + D m ) / 2)] Condition for dark band : (2n 1) , for bright band :
Prism Formula n 21 = = , where Dm is 2
n1 sin (A / 2) =m
the angle of minimum deviation. D
Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours. Fringe width
The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red. d
A thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ appears dark
1
Scattering µ by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
l4 2µt cos r = n (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
d v - dr A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
Dispersive power w = , where v, r are deviation of central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
d
violet and red and the deviation of mean ray (usually l 2l
± ,± , etc.
yellow). a a
 8

Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting

Amplitude of resultant wave R = a2 b2 2ab cos the ac voltage to one direction).
Intensity of wave I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse
bias, after a certain voltage, the current suddenly increases
Brewster law : µ = tan ip (breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
been used to obtain voltage regulation.
MODERN PHYSICS The important transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
Input resistance Output resistance
hc VBE VCE
Energy of a photon E = h = ri r0
IB VCE IC IB
h
Momentum of a photon P = IC IC
Current amplification factor, ;
IB IE
Einstein’s photoelectric equation VCE VCE

1 The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter

mv 2max = V0 e = hn - f 0 = h ( n - n 0 ) configuration is:
2
Mass defect, v0 RC
Av
M = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn) – M ; Eb = M c2. vi R B , where RC and RB are respectively the
1 amu = 931 MeV resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
Z 2 The important digital circuits performing special logic
En 13.6eV (For hydrogen like atom) operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
n2 NAND, and NOR gates. NAND gate is the combination of
According to Bohr’s atomic model, angular momentum for NOT and AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of NOT
the electron revolving in stationary orbit, mvr = nh/2p and OR gate.
n 2h2
Radius of the orbit of electron r =
4 2 mkze 2 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Bragg’s law : 2d sin = n .
Transmitter, transmission channel and receiver are three basic
Radius of the nucleus R = R o A1/3 units of a communication system.
Law of radioactive decay : N = N0e– t. Two important forms of communication system are: Analog
and Digital. The information to be transmitted is generally in
dN
Activity = N (unit is Becquerel) continuous waveform for the former while for the latter it has
N
only discrete or quantised levels.
0.693 Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Half life period, T1/2
Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
Characteristics X-rays : signal by a process known as modulation.
K L In the process of modulation, new frequencies called
Moseley law : = a (Z – b)2 sidebands are generated on either side.
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) number
hT, then the range dT 2Rh T R = radius of earth.
of electrons (n e ) is equal to the number of holes (n h).
The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ Effective range, d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors known as
extrinsic semiconductors (n-type and p-type). hT = height of transmitting antenna; h R = height of receiving
antenna
In n-type semiconductors, n e >> n h while in p-type
Critical frequency Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
semiconductors nh >> ne.
where Nmax = no. density of electrons/m3
n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type 2
Vmax
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom Skip distance, Dskip 2h 1
Vc
(acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of h = height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.
the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier 1
is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias. Power radiated by an antenna 2