Introduction to Sociology

INTRODUCTION
Sociology is the combination of two words “Socius” and “Logos” Socius is a Latin
word which means “Groups” Logos is a Greek word which means a “comprehensive study”
“So the sociology is the comprehensive study of groups of the people”
Sociology is a branch of the social sciences which uses systematic methods of
empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge about
human social structure and activity, sometimes with the goal of applying such knowledge to
the pursuit of social welfare.
Sociology is a broad discipline in terms of both methodology and subject matter. Its
traditional focuses have included social relations, social stratification, social interaction,
culture and deviance, and its approaches have included both qualitative and quantitative
research techniques. Sociology has gradually expanded its focus to such far-flung subjects as
the study of economic activity, health disparities, and even the role of social activity in the
creation of scientific knowledge.
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by different sociologists.
William Graham Sumner defined it as “Sociology is the science of society.”
Kovalevsky: “Sociology is the science of social organization and social change”
Simmel: “Sociology is the science of studying human relationship”
Max Weber: “Sociology is the study of social action.”
Franklin Henry Giddings: “Sociology is the science of social phenomena.”
Alx Inkles: “Sociology is the study of order and disorder behavior of human being.”
Park and Burges: “Sociology is the study of collective behavior of human being.”
Timashaff and Fasie: “Sociology is the science of men’s interdependence.”
Emile Durkheim: “Sociology is the study of social institutions.”
Talcott Parsons: -“Sociology is the scientific study of structure and functions of human
Groups.”
Definition of sociology in contemporary’s perspective
Ken Browne: “sociology is the systematic study of human group and social life in modern
Societies.”
William E Cole: “sociology is the study of social systems.”
John J. Maccionis: “sociology is the systematic study of human society.”
Ian Robertson:“Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behaviour.”

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Albion Small: “Sociology is the scientific study of social processes.”

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

The term sociology was recoined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in 1838. Comte
hoped to unify all the sciences under sociology; he believed sociology held the potential to
improve society and direct human activity, including the other science

There was no sociology as a distinct discipline before the advent of 19th century. As a
distinct discipline it emerged about the middle of the 19th century when European social
observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. It looks that three factors led to
the development of sociology.

The first was the Industrial revolution.

• By the mid 19th century Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production.
There was the emergence of new occupations as well as new avenues of employment away
from the land.

 Masses of people migrated to cities in search of jobs. Pull and push factors were
instrumental in such migrations. In the countryside, due to the nature of
agricultural society, there were no occupations that could be alternatives to
agriculture. Hence people got pushed to look for new places whereas the
urban/industrial places with new job opportunities provided a pull to the same
population.
 At the new places there was anonymity, crowding, filth, and poverty. Ties to the
land, to the generations that had lived there before them, and to the ways of their
life were abruptly broken. Eventually the urban life brought radical changes in the
lives of people.
 The city greeted them with horrible working conditions: low pay; long and
exhausting working hours; dangerous work; foul smoke; and much noise. To
survive the vagaries of life, families had to permit their children to work in these
uncongenial conditions.
 People in these industrial cities developed new ideas about democracy and
political rights. They did not want to remain tied to their rulers. Therefore the
ideas about individual liberty, individual rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of

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happiness emerged, which actually laid the foundation to future political

revolution.

The second factor that stimulated the development of sociology was imperialism.
Europeans successfully conquered many parts of the world. They were exposed to radically
different cultures. Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures
differed.

The third impetus for the development of sociology was the success of the natural
sciences. People moved to question fundamental aspects of their social world. They started
using the scientific method (systematic observation, objectivity) to the study of human
behaviour.

SOCIETY

Definition: Society refers to people who interact in a defined territory and

share a culture.
Society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid, many
groupings and division of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. This ever changing,
complex system we call society. It is the web of social relationship
Evolution of Societies
Sir Charles Darwin in his thesis ‘origin of species’ traced the biological evolution of
living organisms from simple unicellular amoeba to the most complex multi cellular
organism like human being. Some of the earliest and greatest sociologist like Gerhard Lenski,
Karl Marx, Max Webber, and Emile Durkhiem too viewed societies evolving from simple,
food gathering societies to the complex, modern societies. This social evolution they traced
through a set of stages and is called ‘uni linear evolution’.

Our social world consists of thousand of human societies. It is said that there has been a
general historical trend of socio-cultural evolution, a process which is more or less similar to
biological evolution. A society like an organism has to adapt to its environment in order to
exploit food resources. In this process of socio-cultural evolution some societies have
evolved further and faster than others; some have become “stuck” at a particular level. In
general, all have changed in ways that are unique to themselves. Thus, it is on the basis of the
level of technology or reliance on the basic type of subsistence strategy, societies can be
generally classified-

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1. Hunting and Food Gathering Societies

In the simplest of all societies, people live by hunting and gathering, making use of
simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food. From the time that our species
appeared 3 million years ago until about 12,000 years ago, all humans were hunters and
gatherers. Even in 1800, many hunting and gathering societies could be found around the
world. But today just a few remain, including the Aka and Pygmies of Central Africa, the
Bushmen of south western Africa, the Aborigines of Australia, the Kaska Indians of north
western Canada, the Batek and Semai of Malaysia, and isolated native people living in the
Amazon rain forest.

Hunting societies consist of very small, primary groups and their number not exceed
generally 40-50 members. They are nomadic in nature they have to leave one area as soon as
they have exhausted its food resources. Family and kinship are the only interconnected social
institutions which these societies have political institution are not found as all people are
considered to be equal as they virtually have no property. Division of labour is limited along
the lines of age and sex. Men and women, young and old perform different role, but there are
no specialised occupational roles. There is gender based division of labour, but there is no
gender inequality as such, production is communal and cooperative and the distribution
system is based on sharing. Religion is not developed among these people in to a complex
institution. They tend to see the world as populated by unseen spirits that must be taken into
account but not necessarily worshipped. The economy of hunting and food gathering
societies is subsistence based. They collect enough for the needs of their people and there is
hardly any surplus in such a economy.

2. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

Some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, as the timeline inside the back cover shows, a new
technology began to change the lives of human beings. People developed horticulture, the
use of hand tools to raise crops. Using a hoe to work the soil and a digging stick to punch
holes in the ground to plant seeds may not seem like something that would change the world,
but these inventions allowed people to give up gathering in favor of growing food for them.
The first humans to plant gardens lived in fertile regions of the Middle East. Cultural
diffusion spread this knowledge to America and Asia and eventually all over the world.
Not all societies were quick to give up hunting and gathering for horticulture. Hunters and
gatherers living where food was plentiful probably saw little reason to change their ways.
People living in dry regions (such as the deserts of Africa or the Middle East) or mountainous

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areas found little use for horticulture because they could not grow much anyway. Such people
were more likely to adopt pastoralism, the domestication of animals. Today, societies that
mix horticulture and pastoralism can be found throughout South America, Africa, and Asia.

3. Agricultural or Feudal Societies

Agricultural societies first arose in ancient Egypt and were based on the introduction of
the harnessing of animal power. The mode of production of the hunter gathering society
which produces none of its food, and the horticultural society which produces food in small
gardens rather than big fields. Invention of the plough had enabled people to make a great
leap forward in food production and has enabled a person to achieve great productivity. It
also made it possible to work on land which has been previously useless for food production.
Size of the agricultural societies is much greater than the horticultural of pastoral
communities. The full time specialists who engage themselves in non-agricultural activities
tend to concentrate in some compact places which lead to the birth of cities.

In course of time, agricultural societies led to the establishment of more elaborate

political institutions. Power was concentrated in the hand of a single individual and a
hereditary monarchy emerged who became powerful. Court system providing justice also
emerged and these developments made the state a separate powerful institution. For the first
time, two distinct social classes those who own the land and those who work on the land of
others made their appearance and this created major differences between the strata. Warfare
became a regular feature and for the first time, full time permanent armies made their
appearances. Proper roads, waterways were developed and such developments brought the
previously isolated communities into contact with one another. Since more food was
produced than is necessary for subsistence, agricultural societies were able to support people
whose sole purpose is to provide creative ideas to the culture. Hence poets, writers, artists,
scientists were encouraged and new cultural artifacts such as paintings, statues, building and
stadiums came into existence. Hence the agricultural societies had a more complex social
structure and culture compared to the earlier societies.

4. Industrial Societies
The industrial mode of production began in England about 250 years ago (From 1750 to
present). It became a very successful one and has since spread all over the world. Industrial
societies have existed only in the very modern era, dating from the industrialisation of Great
Britain in the late 18 century. The most advanced industrial societies today are found in North

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America, Europe and East Asia including Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea.
Countries such as India, Mexico, Brazil and some African countries have also become
industrialised to a great extent. Increase in Population, division of labour, modern political
system, and distinct religion and economies are the characteristics of the Industrial societies.

5. Post-industrial Societies
Many industrial societies, including the United States, have now entered a new phase of
technological development, and we can extend Lenski’s analysis to take account of recent
trends. A generation ago, the sociologist Daniel Bell (1973) coined the term post
industrialism to refer to the production of information using computer technology.
Production in industrial societies centers on factories and machinery generating material
goods; post-industrial production relies on computers and other electronic devices that create,
process, store, and apply information. Just as people in industrial societies learn mechanical
skills, people in post-industrial societies such as ours develop information-based skills and
carry out their work using computers and other forms of high-technology communication.

SOCIAL INTERACTION

Human beings need social interaction to maintain social life, due to which the
relationship of one person with another person is established. Man started his social life with
these relationships and social groups and social institutions also came into being due to this
interaction. This social interaction is the basis of society.
The sociologists have defined social interaction in their own ways:
According to Persal:-
“Social interaction refers to the ways people behaviour in relation to one another
using language, gestures and symbols”.
According to Ian Robertson:-
“Social interaction is the process by which people toward or responded to
other people.”
Merrill says:-
“Social interaction is the name of a continuous and a two-way process which exists
between two socialized or more than two persons.”
According to Pitrim Sorokin:-
“Social interaction refers to an event or action in which an individual affects the
activities and psychological condition of another person.”

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ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION:

Following are the major elements.
1. Two or more persons:- Professor Sorokin says that it is necessary the existence of two or
more than two persons for social interaction. Their interaction might be casual. For example,
passenger and conductor, doctor and patient etc.
2. Situation:- Sorokin further argues that there should be some event, topic, discussion or
conversation between them. This thing is the reflection or indication of social interaction. For
example, the listening of speeches during elections, taking part in debate, helping the people
during any disaster.
3. Effect:- The third main and important element of social interaction is that they should
affect both of them in the form of cooperation or conflict both physically as well as
psychologically. For example, teacher and students, if a student sets his teacher as an ideal for
him and follows his good habits and characteristics, in this way the mental and physical state
of the student continuously remains affected and this state or condition is called as social
interaction.
4. Mass media:- It is also an important element of social interaction e.g radio, television,
newspapers, journals etc.

FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION:-

There are four forms of social interaction which are given below:-
1. Individual to individual:- It is the basic form of social interaction, in which two
individuals interact with one another and each of them affects. For example, the interaction of
mother with her child, when she loves her children, the child is affected although he is
unconscious and as a result, he throws something or shows movement in response, due to
which mother is affected .
2. Individual to group:- it is also a common form of social interaction in the society.
For example, the lecture of a professor to his class, the speech of a political leader before a
large number of people, the speech of president or prime minister of Pakistan on radio.
3. Group to group:- In this form of interaction one group affects physically as well as
mentally to the other group due to which social interaction occurs. For example, a match
played between two teams, delegations between the representations of two countries.
4. Individuals to culture:- People get norms, values, customes, beliefs, fashion, way of
thinking. From their culture, and they are affected by it. Man remains in relation with creative
culture all through his life in some way or the other and he becomes a slave of it both

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physically as well spiritually and then the reflection of that culture seems on dressing, folk
and heritage and even religion.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION:-

Following are the types of social interaction.
Symbolic interaction:-
For the running of social system, the most effective approach which is used is called
as symbolic interaction. According to Robertson, The interaction between people that takes
place through symbols such as signs, gestures and language is called symbolic interaction.
The theorists of symbolic interaction stress that human relations do not need direct interaction
as they have set earlier and they understand each other and response instantly. For example,
the children express their desires and wishes to their parents when they are in pleasant and
happy mood. They do not express any demand or thing when they see their parents in an
angry condition. It shows that symbolic interaction is the combination of gestures, postures,
symbols and words which are used by the people to get attention of one another.

Physical interaction:-
In physical interaction, people affect each other by physical movements and gestures.
For example, the boxing in which the players affect one another physically, hand shaking
warmly etc. Herbert Blumer and his colleagues argue that symbolic interaction is a creative
process and man ignores the sentiments of each other in symbolic interaction but in physical
interaction, it is not possible because both the forms create social interaction.

PROCESSES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION: -

The process of social interaction refers to those methods and ways of social interaction which
are commonly found in our social life and these are repeated again and again, According to
Horton and Hunt. Following are the major elements of social process.

1. COOPERATION
It is the positive form of social interaction, due to which the hustle and bustle of social life is
existed. If there is no cooperation, social life becomes complicated.
According to Horton and Hunt:-
“Joint activities in pursuit of common goal or shared reward is called co-operation.”
Hornal Heart:- “Cooperation is a type of social interaction in which the individuals and
groups organize their forces in order to achieve a common goal.”

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According to persal:- Cooperation is a form of social interaction in which individuals make

efforts to get collective objectives.”
Maciever says:-“Cooperation is for common goals, durable and people take part in the life of
sorrows and happiness in cooperation.” So, cooperation creates brotherhood, solidarity and
harmony in the group life and it also creates a strong and deep relationship among its
members. Cooperation exists in our social life at every moment which is found in various
shapes.
Types of cooperation: - Following are the main types of cooperation:

1) Direct cooperation: - It is a type of cooperation in which the individuals completes a

work or task together bat it is not necessary that its merits, number and standards are equal
for everyone. For example, when the formers clean a canal or a sub-canal, they do not get
equal advantages, but they work together. Similarly, the labourers working in a factory and
their cooperation. This is direct cooperation.
2) Indirect cooperation:-It is that type of cooperation in which people cooperate with each
other but not face to face. For example, the members of a party if want to make a strike in the
country, all the members will cooperate with each other. For example, Punjab Professor
Association, Trader association, Doctor association.
3) Formal cooperation: - In this type of cooperation, individual cooperate with each other
according certain rules and regulations.
4) Informal cooperation: - It is a type of cooperation in which people cooperate with each
other for some needs but not according to rules and regulations. For example, help the people
during accident; help the older while crossing the road.
5) Antagonistic cooperation: - This is the negative form of cooperate with each other and
creates problem for the society. For examples, the smugglers, thieves, the owners of mills if
cooperate with each other and stop the supply of products, this thing creates problems for
society.
2. ACCOMMODATION:
According to Horton and Hunt, “Accommodation is the peaceful adjustment between hostile
and competing groups “or “antagonistic cooperation.” Accommodation does not solve
problems whether it is constant or temporary but it creates flexibility in the behaviours and
attitudes of the people of different societies, due to which the individuals try to solve the
problem through peace and calm. For example, the compromise between India and Pakistan
on Kashmir issue.

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Types of accommodation: - Following are its major types.

Displacement: - It is the type of accommodation in which one conflict can displace by
another. If any country suffers from internal problem, it threatens the other country for war to
overcome its internal problems. In such circumstances, the people from all sects gather at one
plate form in order to compete the enemy. In this way brotherhood and solidarity exists in the
country.
Super – ordination:-This is an act in which accommodation comes into existence by the
complete disaster or the defeat of an individual. For example the Second World War ended
with the destruction of Japan and Germany.
Compromise:- In compromise, the individuals make accommodation by giving something to
each other due to which their differences come to an end slowly and gradually. For example,
the people of West and East Germany demolished the Barlin Wall between them and became
united.
Arbitration: - The effort which the third person makes in order to finish the fight or hostility
between the two hostile groups is called as arbitration. For example, the role of America in
the war between Arabs and Israel is called is arbitration.
Toleration:- If one party or individual tyrannizes the other and the other party does not take
any action or remains silent in response, it is called as toleration. For example Pakistan has
always demonstrated toleration in the coercion of India over the Muslims living in India.
Pakistan has not shown any cruelty or coercion for the Hindus and Singhs who settled in
Pakistan in response to India
Truce:- When the both the parties or individuals do not agree with each other on an issue and
the conversation gets longer and longer, then the issue is abolished for undefined time or
period and the parties and individuals get accommodation. For example the accommodation
between India and Pakistan on Siachin Glacier.

3. COMPETITION:-
Competition is the symbol of advanced countries but it also exists in under – developed
countries.
According to Horton and Hunt:- “ Competition is the process of seeking to obtain a reward
by surpassing all rivals.” It is the characteristic of a competition that the individuals limit the
probability or possibility of success of each other. So, park and Burgees give great
importance to the elements of social interaction. All the creative has to make efforts for its
survival and that effort is called as competition.

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MacIever says:- “Competition is a direct conflict.” For example, the competition among
candidates in C.S.S examination.

Types of competition-
Cuber has described four types of competition.
1. Absolute Competition:- In this type of competition. All the individuals of society take
part but only one person can be selected. For example in the election of president’s hip, all
the eligible candidates can take part but any one is to be selected. In the competition of Mr.
Champion, all the individuals can take part but only one is to be made Mr. Champion.
2. Relative Competition:- It is a process in which people compete with each other for
wealth, reputation and honour. However, the participants consider themselves successful to
some extent. In simple words, it is a social process in which people compete with each other
in order to get respect, money and familiarity in the society but no one can get success
complete or absolutely, but get more success as compare to others. The best example of this
is Edhi Welfare Trust. Edhi is a rich man who got reputation by spending his wealth on
welfare tasks in Pakistan and he earned more reputation as compared to other welfare trusts
such as Ansar brni etc.
3. Personal Competition:- In personal competition, the people not only try to defeat his
hostile for personal interests but also work hard continuously in order to get their pursuits and
remain aware about the planning and techniques of their competitors. For example, during
election, the candidates do their best to get success. In annual sports in colleges etc.
4. Impersonal competition:- It is that type of competition in which people take part for
common or collective goals. For example, the participation of political parties in the election
of National and provincial assemblies of 2008 in Pakistan which every party comes forward
with its own framework. The public selects the pasty which is better to govern administration.
The athletes of cricket, hockey, football are the representations of the whole nation or
country.

4. CONFLICT:-
According to Horton and Hunt:- “ The effort to obtain rewards by eliminating or
weakening the competitors is called conflict.”
Fairchild:- “ Conflict is a process in which the competitors try to make each other’s
objectives failed, stop their interests and even they kill or injure each other in such tasks.”
Park and Burgees:- “ Conflict and competitions are both the forms of interaction.

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Competition is impersonal whereas conflict is personal”.

Conflict occurs in every society whether it is developed or underdeveloped, because it also
causes changes and development as well as destruction.
Gumplowiez says:- “ Conflict is a method which causes social evolution and progress.” For
example, Pakistan and India get great success and progress in this regard. It is continuous
process, for example, the fighting between Indian army and the Kashmiries. It is the
reflection of continuous conflict because it is an ideological war in which the countries or
nations are striving for their freedom. Conflict is always personal in which group, society or
individual has personal interests due to which they try to defeat enemy or hostile or
competitors.

Types of Conflict:-
According to George Simmel, the following are the four types.
1) War:- It is a social method in which the designs or goals of enemy are made failed. There
are many forces behind war e.g. economic achievement, ideology, supremacy.
2) Civil War:- In this type of conflict, one country create sectarianism or terrorism in the
other country which causes disruption in the country. For example, now-a-days, Pakistani
society is suffering from this situation etc.
3) Litigation:- it is a type of conflict through which people harm each other with the help of
law in order to protect their personal r economic rights. In rural areas, this type of conflict is
very common in which many people are getting punishment even they are not indulged in it.
4) Impersonal conflict:- In this conflict, one country creates prejudice among the
individuals of another country in order to preach its own ideas or ideology e.g. America made
Russia separated into various parts or Iran, Iraq War etc.

SOCIAL GROUP
Group is the basic concept of sociology which means the interaction of two and more
than persons. So, group is a basic social element due to which family, society and other social
institutions come into being.

Definitions of social group:

T. Schafer and P. Lame:- “Group is any number of people with similar norms and values
and expectations who regularly and consciously interact.”
According to F.E Meril:-

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“Group is collection of two or more individuals who are switch on for a long time on
the basis of common expectations and mutual relationship.”
Maciever says: “Group is a combination of human beings which is tied or interlinked in the
form of social relationship.”
So, in light of above – mentioned definitions, we can say that group is name of mutual
interaction between two or more than two persons and on the basis of this, relationship takes
place between them.
Elements of the group:- Following are the major elements of group.
(1) Two or more than two person (2) Mutual interaction
(3) Common goals.
Significance of group:-
The significance of group can be described under the following groups.
1) Collective objectives:- There are some kinds of needs of individual which cannot be
fulfilled by him alone but these can be achieved by collective efforts. The performance of
religious obligation such as prayer of Juma, build the mosque or Eid cater etc. Apart from
this, the ceremonies of happiness and sadness are also elaborated collectively and it needs
groups.
2) Individual force rise:- The best example of individual force rise is his physical force
which is lesser than the two. It does not mean that an individual gets force due to association
with a group, but due to this association he cannot lift heavy things but can do so with his
group.
3) Transmitting culture:- If there is no group life, there is no culture. So, a culture can
survive with a group and is nothing without any group.
4) Personality development: - To learn from each other is the natural instinct of
individuals. The human groups have managed some rules and methods in order to creat social
solidarity and harmony in the society. Man improves his personality by having relationship
with many social groups such as school mates, neighbours and relatives.
5) Social solidarity: - The people maintain their association with the group life. If they
do not do so, the discipline among them cannot be possible. So, the group life creates social
solidarity by controlling the habits and activities of the individuals which also comes
solidarity of the society. The best example of this is Pakistani Army.
6) Basic needs:- Individual can not alone fulfil his basic needs and necessities and he
feels jealousy by seeing another person who gets help from his relationship such as in the

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form of feelings of love, affection, sexual desires etc. although these needs have basic
importance in an individual’s life but, he cannot fulfil these desires alone. He fulfils these
desires with the help of group.

TYPES OF GROUPS: -
According to various sociologists, following are the main types of group:-
1. Primary group: -
The concept of primary group was presented by C. H. Cooley. He says that primary
group refers to the group in which the individuals interact face to face and the impacts of
social interaction are very close and durable, the members know each other very closely and
they have their own intimacy. Primary group is the product of informal social interaction
because those people who come close, mentally, psychologically or heartily, they also mold
in the same sketch by thinking. The deeper the social interaction, the more will be the
feelings of intimacy and closeness. Due to mutual and close relationship, an emotional
relation also occurs among every member of the group.

According to Charless Horton: When the members of a group often meet each other
constantly and cooperation and sincerity exist in their mutual relationship, that group is called
as primary group. For example, family, the people in a village and the students of primary
class who have friendship with each other.

2. Secondary Group
In his book, “Society” Maciever used the term secondary group. In secondary group,
the intimacy and intensity of relationship is lesser that of primary group. The relationships of
the members of secondary group are only formal and superficial. Personal interests are
preferred and there is lack of emotions and association in their relationships.
According to king slay Davies: Secondary group has following three characteristics.
1) The members do not live quite nearer.
2) The numbers of its members are larger.
3) The duration of interaction among members is quite lesser.
While, keeping in mind the above – mentioned definition, we can say that the
intensity of emotions among members is quite lesser because their relations are on the basis
of their intelligence. For example, members of political parties, teachers association, Doctor
and patient and bureaucracy etc. So, secondary group refers to a group in which social
relations consist on superficial and perusals interests.

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3. In and Out Group

The term of in and out group has been presented by W.G. Sumner.
In Group: According to Sumner, the group with which the individual indentifies oneself is
ones in – group. The group in which a person is directly had a membership is called in group.
The examples of in group are family, tribe, sex, college, occupation, or religion. It embodies,
“We” feelings, some element of sympathy and a sense of attachment to other members of the
group.
Out Group:- According to Sumner, the group with which the individual does not identify
himself is called as out group. In out group people did not have direct affiliation. For
example, your city, your college etc. It produces a sense of attachment to other members of in
– group, while a sense of difference to out – group. For example, we are democrats, they are
communists, we are Muslims and they are Hindus etc.

4. Formal and Informal group:

Formal group:-
It is a group which has formal organization, role and status, people have their
entrance according to certain rules and regulations and there is a written code of conduct for
the group. Members are given punishment for violating the rules and regulations of the norms
of the group. All the members have roles to play. For example Chenab club, professor
Association, trade Unions etc.
Informal group:-
It is that type of group which has no organization and no rules and regulations.
Members are scattered and become united when needed. For example, Gup Shup group, fast
friends etc.

CULTURE

Culture as defined by Edward Tylor: “is that complex whole which includes
knowledge belief, art, law, morals custom and other capabilities and habit acquired by man as
a member of society”.
Robert Simplified Tylor’s definition by stating “culture is the complex whole that
consists of all the ways we think and do and everything we have as member of society”.

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Aspects and Characteristics of culture:

 Universality: Culture is universal. There is no society without culture. As part of the
cultures there are many aspects that are found in almost all the societies. For example
the institutions like marriage and family, religion, education, polity, economy, and
sports are found all over the world. Societies have developed values, norms, beliefs,
and other patterns of behavior that govern the system of marriage and family. One
could find such a pattern all over the world, and the same is applicable to religion,
education, political behavior, economic behavior, and so on.
 Variability: There is variability in the universals of culture. By looking at the
institution of marriage and family one could see so much of variation in it within
Pakistan, notwithstanding the differences in other societies. The arranged marriages,
love marriages, exchange marriages, marriages by purchase, marriages within as well
as outside the kin network, are all variations that are found in Pakistan. Then one
could see the differences in wedding ceremonies all over the country. Joint families
and nuclear families, single earner families and dual earner families, patriarchal
families and egalitarian families, patrilocal families and matrilocal families are some
other aspects reflecting the variability of family in Pakistani society. Similarly one
comes across variations in religion all over the world. Kingship, dictatorship,
democracy, parliamentary form of democracy or presidential form, adult franchise or
selective voting rights, voter age are all variations in the political systems followed by
different nations. Economic systems also vary from the extremes of socialism and
capitalism to any variation on the scale.
 Learned: Culture is learned through the process of interaction with others. It is not
inherited through the biological process. We learn to talk, to walk, and to act as our
elders train us. Nature has given us the potential to talk but we speak variety of
languages, which are all created by human beings and there is so much of variation
within as well as outside Pakistan. Also human being has the capacity to learn a
variety of languages. Similarly other ways of life, which is culture, are learned.
 Shared: Culture is not the property of one individual or of a group. It is shared with
other members of society. You are sharing T V transmission with others, sharing a
classroom with others, sharing the road with others, and sharing the knowledge with
others. You are sharing culture with others because you are a social being.

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 Transmitted: Culture does not end with the death of a person or a group. During its
lifetime that individual or group tries to pass on its culture to the future generation.
This is how every new crop of babies does not start from a scratch rather they build
on what they have already received. That is how culture grows and that is how our
culture becomes richer and richer.
 Changing: Culture is continuously changing. The patterns of behavior transmitted by
one generation to another are continuously in the process of modification for catering
to the changing needs of time and demands of people. New technologies are
developed and are borrowed from other groups and societies. With the increase in the
contact between different societies the cultures are changing very fast and may be
moving toward some kind of global culture.

Material and Non Material Culture:

Material culture: Tangible parts of the culture are called material culture. The
material component of culture consisting of machines, tools, books clothing, and so on is
called the material culture.
Non-material culture: intangible parts of the culture are called non-material culture.
For example norms, values, religion, magic habits etc.

“Ideal” culture and “Real” Culture

Ideal culture: Social patterns that are mandated by cultural values and norms. The
ideal values and norms, which are prevalent in the society.
Real culture: Actual social patterns those only approximate cultural expectations. The
norms and value that people actually follow. It can also be how many people follow these
cultural patterns. Or how much a person observes a cultural pattern. Since this can be
explained in numbers therefore it may also be called a statistical norm.

Social Sanctions
Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning social norms.
According to Persal: The rewards or penalties which a society, group or an institution gives
the individuals for positive behaviour is called as sanctions.
Types of Sanctions:-
There are four main types of social sanctions.
1. Positive sanctions: - These are the sanctions which consist of reward, appreciation,

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medals, etc. in Islamic society, positive sanctions are Amr – Bil-Mahroof for example,
honesty, truth, justice, respect of parents, patriotism, respect of teacher etc.
2. Negative Sanctions: - Negative sanctions consist of threat, fear, beating, punishment,
penalty, joking, criticism, condemn, imprisonment, etc. In Islamic Society, negative
sanctions are Nahi-UN-Nilmunkar. For example, bribery, black marketing, pride,
deception terrorism etc.
3. Formal Sanctions: -These sanctions which are brought into light through formal
rules and regulations as well as formal channel whether they are positive or negative
are called as formal sanctions. For example, the give a medal to someone through
television, or to fine someone on media etc.
4. Informal sanctions: - Those sanctions which are not brought into light through
formal or proper means or channel are called as informal sanctions. For example, to
appreciate or admire someone in a party or function, to joke someone or laugh at
someone etc.
Counter-Culture
It is a subculture, which is in active opposition to the dominant culture. Cultural
patterns that strongly oppose widely accepted patterns within a society. Example could be of
hippies, and drug users.

Cultural change
Cultural change is the process of alteration of culture over time. Any difference in a
particular pattern between two points in time may be called cultural change. This may be a
change in the family pattern, which is changing from ‘joint family system’ to a ‘nuclear
family system’ in Pakistani society.

Cultural Lag
All parts (elements) of culture do not change at the same rate; some of them change
faster than the other. The different rate of change in the two integrated elements of culture
can result in one element lagging behind the other. William F. Ogburn called this gap
between the two parts of culture as ‘cultural lag’. Such a cultural lag usually disrupts the
system. For example material culture may change faster than the non-material culture. We
often see it is difficult to change the habits quickly.

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Ethnocentrism
The practice of judging other’s culture by the standards of one’s own culture. People
consider their own culture as superior to others and apply their standards for evaluating the
patterns of behaviour of others. The whole judgment is centered on one’s own culture.

Xeno-centrism
Considering other’s culture as superior to one’s own.

Cultural relativism
The practice of judging a culture by its own standards; a particular pattern of behavior
is right or wrong as it is declared by the people who follow it. Since those people are
following a particular practice, supposedly it might be serving some useful function in that
society. Nevertheless, the same practice may be useful for one group and may be harmful for
the other in the same society.

Sub cultures
When a group of people within a society have a style of living that includes features
of dominant culture but also certain cultural elements not found in other groups their group
culture is called sub culture. A sub culture may develop around occupations such as those in
the medical or military fields. Sub culture may reflect a social and ethnic difference, as the
sub culture of black Americans, different ethnic sub cultures in Pakistan.

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