RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SOURCE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: METHODS AND

TECHNIQUES BY C R KOTHARI

Steps in Research Process:

I. Formulating the research problem : Consists of two steps: viz.

understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. One should review
two types of literature- conceptual literature concerning concepts
and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to one proposed. This would tell us what
data and other materials are available for operational purposes which
will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a
meaningful context. After this the researcher puts the problem in as
specific terms as possible.
II. Extensive literature survey : The researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. Academic
journals , conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. Usually in
this one source will lead to another.
III. Development of working hypothesis : Working hypothesis is a
tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and list its logical or
IV. structure
empirical
peace
hypothesis
examination
studies
Preparing
the research
of
within
and
research
consequences.
arise
the
the
design
of
which
research
council
the
asinaavailable
is
research
hand
result
toofprovide
It
design
since
experts
should
ofdata
would
a-priori
: itResearch
for
has
and
bebe
the
very
to
material
thinking
interested
conducted.
collection
bedesign
specific
tested.
including
about
parties.
isWorking
The
of
and
the
the
relevant
function
conceptual
limited
subject,
relatedtoof
 evidence with minimal expenditure of effort , time and money.
The
preparation of research design , appropriate for a particular
research
problem, involves the following: a) the means of obtaining the
information b) availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff
c) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the
selection d) the time available for research e) the cost
factor
relating to research
V. Determining a sample design : The researcher must decide whether
to adopt a census enumeration or a sampling technique.
Samples caneither by adopting probability sampling or non-
be obtained
probability sampling. Under the former each element has a
known
probability of being included but the latter do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability. Probability sampling
techniques are simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster sampling. Whereas non-
probability
sampling are Judgement, convenience , quota sampling.
VI. Collecting the data : Data can be collected either by observation,
through personal interview by mailing questionnaires, through
schedules etc. One of the method is selected depending on the
objective of the survey, scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, timethe desired degree of accuracy.
available, and
VII. Execution of the project
: Setting up of office, selection, training and
supervision of investigators , control on the quality of field
work & tackling non-response etc.
field edit,
VIII. Analysis of data: The researcher should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories. The data should be
analysis
relationships
coded is done
or differences
by finding outsupporting
the various
or conflicting
percentages with
,
and edited before tabulating the information. After tabulation ,
etc., by
coefficients
original
new
determine
conclusion.
hypotheses
applying
or with what
should
statistical
validity
be subjected
formulae.
data cantoIn
betests
the
saidprocess
oftosignificance
indicate
of analysis,
anyto
 IX. Hypothesis testing : Usingtest
2 , F test, t test etc. researcher is in

a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated

earlier.
Using one of the above tests, one can conclude whether it will
result
in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
X. Generalisation and interpretation : If a hypothesis is tested and
upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive
at generalisation, i.e. to build a theory. If the researcher did not
have
any hypothesis to start with , he might seek to explain his
findings
the basis on
of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
XI. Preparation of the report or the thesis
: Preliminary pages: title, date
followed by acknowledgement and foreword. There should be a
table
of contents followed by list of tables and list of graphs and
charts.
The main text of the report should have the following parts: a)
Introduction: this should contain a clear statement of the
objective of
research, explanation of the methodology adopted. Scope of
the
study along with various limitations should be stated here
b)
summary of findings: c) Main report: Main body of the report
should
be presented in a logical sequence and broken down into
readily
identifiable sections d) Conclusion: Should again put the
results of clearly and precisely. At the end of the report,
his research
appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc.
consulted
should also, be given in the end.

Research Problem:

problem
A
the
solution
to
course
research
find
context
of
out
for
half
action
the
problem,
of
the
solved.
either
best
same.
thesolution
objective
arefers
This
theoretical
A research
statement
tofor
some
can
theor
problem
begiven
difficulty
practical
signifies
attained
problem,
is one
which
situation
the
optimally
need
which
i.e.,
a for
and
to
in the
find
researcher
wants
requires
out
context
given
Necessity
defining
byenvironment.
to
which
of
aaobtain
researcher
of
aresearch
experiences
defining
a the
in problem : We hear that a problem clearly stated is a
problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously
that will help to for
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant
ones. A proper
definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be
on the track
whereas an ill- defined problem may create hurdles. Thus,
defining a researchis a prerequisite for any study and is a step of
problem properly
the highest
importance.

Technique involved in defining a problem

: The research problem should be
defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all
relating
techniquepoints. The
for the purpose involves the undertaking of the
following stepsafter the other: a) Statement of the problem in a
generally one
general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem c) surveying the
available
literature d) developing the ideas through discussions e)
rephrasing the into a working proposition.
research problem

a) Statement of the problem in a general way: Keeping in view either

some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest,
problem the
should be stated in a broad general way. In case of
social
research, it is considered advisable to do a pilot survey. Then
the
researcher, with the help of the guide would be able to phrase
the
problem in operational terms.
b) Understanding the nature of the problem : For a better understanding
of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into
discussion with a good knowledge of the problem concerned
those who have
or similar
other problems.
c) Surveying the available literature
: All available literature concerning the
problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined
before a of the research problem is given. This means that the
definition
researcher
reports
sufficient
problems.
gaps
problem
findingin and
the
ofunder
time
This
the
must
theories,
records
different
in
study
would
bereviewing
well
asor
are
also
whether
studies
conversant
inconsistent
help
all
ofother
do
research
the
a not
researcher
existing
with
relevant
with
follow
already
relevant
each
theories
literature.
atopattern
other,
know
undertaken
theories
applicable
if
orHe
there
inmust
on
the
field,
devote
related
are
to
whether
consistent
thethe
certain
theoretical
thewithexpectations and so on.
 d) Developing the ideas through discussions
: A researcher must discuss his
problem with his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in or in working on similar problems. This is quite
the same area
often
known as an experience survey. People with their rich
experience
a position toare in
enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their suggestions are invaluable to the
e) researcher.
Rephrasing the research problem: Finally the researcher must sit to
rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.
Through
rephrasing , the researcher puts the research problem in as
specific
terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable
and
helpmay
in the development of working hypotheses.

Research Design

Research design is the conceptual structure within which

research is it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
conducted;
measurement andAs such the design includes an outline of what
analysis of data.
the
willresearcher
do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the
analysis of data. final
Here the decisions happen to be in respect of
what
studyisabout?
the Why is the study being made? Where will the
study be carried
out? What type of data is required? What will be the sample
design? What
techniques of data collection will be used? How will the data be
analysed?
We can state Etc.the important features of a research design are as
under?
a plan thati) It is
specifies the sources and type of information
relevant
research to the
problem. ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach
gathering
In
research
information
will be used for b)population
brief, research
problem
and c)
analysing
the
design
procedures
the
must,
data.
at
toand
least,
be
iii)studied
techniques
Itcontain
also includes
and–to
d)
a)be
amethods
clear
the
used
time
for
to
andused
since
statement
gathering
be
processing
cost
mostin
budgets
ofstudies
and
theanalysing
are done data.
under these constraints.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to
be adoptedthe
collecting forrelevant data and the techniques to be used in
their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability
and money. of staff, timeof the research design should be done
Preparation
with
as anygreat
errorcare
in it may upset the entire project.

Features of a good design :

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually
involves the consideration of the following factors: i) the
means of information ii) the availability and skills of the
obtaining
researcher andobjective
staff, iii) the his of the problem to be studied iv) the
nature
problem oftothebe studied v) the availability of time and money
for the research
work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a

formulative
wherein the one,
major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and
insights, the appropriate.
design most research must be flexible enough to permit the
consideration
of many different aspects of a phenomenon. But when the
purpose of description
is accurate a study of a situation or of an association
between
accuracy variables,
becomes a major consideration and a research design
which
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence
collected
consideredis a good design. Studies involving the testing of a
hypothesis of a
causal relationship between variables require a design which
will permitabout causality in addition to the minimisation of
inferences
bias and
maximisation of reliability.

Different research designs : Different research designs can be conveniently

described if we3 categorize them as : 1) Research design in
research
case ofoperational
research
main
precise
studies;
studies,
purpose
investigation
studies
exploratoryand
2)point
research
of
3)are
such
research
of also
view.
or
design
studies
oftermed
design
The
developing
in
ismajor
case
that
asinformulative
case
of
of
emphasis
the
formulating
descriptive
ofworking
hypothesis-
in
research
such
and
hypotheses
a problem
studies
studies.
diagnostic
testing
studies.
1. is
Research
The
for
from
research
onmore
the
an design in case of exploratory research studies : Exploratory
 discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design
appropriate
for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity
for
considering different aspects of a problem under study.
Generally, the methods in the context of research design for
following three
such
studies are talked about: a) the survey of concerning literature;
b) the
experience survey and c) the analysis of ‘insight – stimulating’
examples.
The survey of concerning literature happens to be most simple and
fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem
or
developing hypothesis. The researcher should review and build
upon
work the
already done by others. If the hypotheses are not
formulated, then go through the literature for deriving a
researcher should
relevant
hypothesis from it.
Experience surveymeans the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a
survey
is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and
new
ideas relating to the research problem. Researcher should
carefully
select his sample who can contribute new ideas. The interview
must
ensure flexibility such that the respondents should be allowed
to raiseand questions which the investigator has not previously
issues
considered.
nalysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is alsofruitful method for
suggesting hypothesis for research. This is suitable in areas
where
is littlethere
experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of
the
intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in
which one For
interested. is this purpose the existing records may be
examined,
unstructured interviewing may be conducted. Attitude of the
investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
to draw
the
Research
Descriptive
with
group,
main
describing
whereas
together
researcher features
design
research
diagnostic
the
diverse
which
incharacteristics
case
studies
make
information
ofresearch
descriptive
arethis
those
of
method
studies
into
astudies
particular
and
a an
determine
unified
diagnostic
sappropriate
which
individual,
the
are or
2. frequency
interpretation
procedure
evoking
research
concerned
of a insights.
studies
for are :
 with which something occurs or its association with something
else. The
studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies
concerned with specific prediction, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all
examples
of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research
comes under The design in such studies must be rigid and not
this category.
flexible
and must focus attention on the following : a) Formulating the
objective
of the study b) Designing the methods of data collection c)
Selecting
sample d)the
Collecting the data (where can the required data be
found and with what time period should the data be related?)
e)
Processing and analysing the data f) Report the findings
3. Research design in case of Hypothesis – testing research :
studies
Hypothesis testing research studies are those where the
researcher testsof causal relationships between variables. Such
the hypothesis
studies
require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability,
but will permit drawing inferences about causality.

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

Measurement scales: Scales of measurement can be considered

in terms
their of
mathematical properties. The most widely used
classification
measurement of scales are : a) Nominal scaleb) Ordinal scale c) Interval scale
d) ratio scale.

a) Nominal
of responses
no
ranking .scale
classification
“no”,
Male=
involved
come gender,
up0orand: into
relationships
with
ForThe anominal
ordering.
Female
of
vegetarian
aexample,
meaningful
responses
between
number
The (unordered)
= 1 (yes/no)
we
typical
etc.
the
by
of
value.
cannot
categories,
One
social
mutually scale
applications
and
cannot
Neither
usefully
class,
so allows
exclusive
implying
on.
do
“like”
can
much
average
Gender
ofone
the
or the categorisation
categories.
that
with
usefully
nominal
“dislike”,
could
the
there
thebeis
Thereisor
no
scale
“yes”
coded
numbers
number
compare are
asin
and
the
 numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to
another.
The counting of members in the group is the only possible
arithmetic
operation when a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we
are
restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency. There
is no
generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi
square test common test of statistical significance that can be
is the most
b) utilised.
Ordinal Scale:The ordinal (ordered) scale allows the respondents to
rank some alternatives by some common variable. Rank orders
represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research
relating to phenomena. An illustration of this would be the
qualitative
ranking of of pasteurised milk by a group of consumers on
three brands
the
the basis of quality. Here it is feasible for a user of the
perceived
product to rank
the brands from the best to the worst. However the amount of
difference between the ranks cannot be found out. It is only
possible
compute to
positional statistical measures like median and mode
for
data.such
A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring
dispersion.
Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.
Measures of
statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric
c) methods.
Interval Scale : The deficiencies of nominal and ordinal scale are taken
care of in the interval scale. The scale has an arbitrary zero
point withplaced at equally appearing intervals. A number of
numbers
statistical
operations can be done on intervally scaled data.
Interval scale provide more powerful measurement than ordinal
scales
for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of
interval
As such .more powerful statistical measures can be used with
interval
scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency ,
while
standard deviation is the most widely used measure of
strong generally
negative feelings
dispersion.used testsor for
it isstatistical
just possible
significance
that he may
are have
the ‘t’ test
Product moment correlation technique are appropriate and the
Sources
in
a.
very
measurement.
little
and
Respondent
of‘F’
Error
test.in: Measurement
At times the: respondent
The followingmayare
bepossible
reluctantsource
to express
of error
knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. Transient factors
like fatigue,
boredom, anxiety etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to
respond
accurately and fully.

b. Situation : situational factors may also come in the way of correct

measurement. Any condition which places a strain on interview
can haveeffects on the interviewer respondent rapport. Eg.
serious
Presence of another
person during the interview may influence your opinion, or if
the
feelsrespondent
that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to
express
feelings.certain

c. The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or

reordering
questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or
discourage
replies fromcertain
respondents. Errors may also creep in because of
incorrect coding, and /or statistical calculations, particularly in
faulty tabulation
the data analysis
stage.

d. Instrument:
Error may also because of defective measuring instrument.
The use of complex words, beyond, the comprehension of the
respondent,
ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response etc. are a few things that make the measuring
choice omissions,
instrument
defective and may result in measurement errors. Similarly, poor
sampling of will also result in errors.
the universe

Tests of Sound measurement : Sound measurement must meet the tests of

validity, reliability and practicality.

1. Test of validity : Validity indicates the degree to which an instrument

measures what it is supposed to measure. In other words,
validity
to which isdifferences
the extent found with a measuring instrument reflect
differences
viz:
Content
adequate
representative
determination
Content
validity
coverage
among
validity,
is
sample
primarily
is the
those
of Criterion
the
of
extent
being
the
topic
judgemental
universe,
tounder
tested.
related
whichstudy.
We
the
validity
aormeasuring
content
can
it Ifcan
consider
the
and
also
instrument
validity
Construct
instrument
bethree
is
true
types of
validity.
provides
contains
good.
determined
Itsvalidity
a by using a
panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring
instrument meets
the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.

Criterion related validity relates to our ability to predict some

outcome or existence of some current condition. The
estimate the
concerned criterion
must possess the following qualities: Relevance, freedom from
bias, reliability
and availability.

Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. If

measurements on our in a predicted way with these other
devised scale correlate
propositions
can conclude, that
we there is some construct validity.

2. Test of Reliability : A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides

consistent results. Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and
equivalence
deserve special mention. The stability aspect is concerned with
securing
consistent results with repeated measurements of the same
person and with We usually determine the degree of stability
same instrument.
by
thecomparing
results of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect
considers
much errorhowmay get introduced by different investigators or
different samples
of the items being studied. To test this, the two investigators
could compare of the same events.
their observations

3. Test of Practicality : The practicality characteristic of a measuring

instrument can be judged in terms of economy, convenience
and
interpretability. Economy considerations suggests that some
trade-off is
needed between the ideal research project and that which the
budget can
afford. Although more items give greater reliability as stated
earlier,
interest but in the the interview or observation time, we have
of limiting
to takefor
items only
ourfew
study purpose. Similarly, data collection methods
also
that
questionnaire,
complete
specially
interpret
must
to bethe
dependent
be measuring
supplemented
usedthe
important
than
areresults.
one
with
at times
which
instrument
clear
when
The
by
upon
measuring
instructions,
lacks
persons
detailed
economic
should
these
other
instructions
instrument,
features.
be
is than
factors.
certainly
easythe
to
Interpretability
for
in
Convenience
administer.
designers
more
order to of
be
For
test test
instance,
effective
consideration
the
interpretable,
administering
suggests
are
and
a to easier
is
the test,
to
scoring keys, evidence about the reliability and guides for using
the test and for
interpreting results.

Scaling:

Meaning of scaling
: scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to
various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This
can
two be
waysdone ini) making a judgement about some
viz.,
characteristics
individual and of anplacing him directly on a scale that has
then
been
termsdefined in
of characteristic and ii) constructing questionnaires in
such a way
the score ofthat
individual’s response assigns him a place on a
scale.
stated It may
here bea scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest
that
point
terms (in
of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness,
etc.)
lowestand the along with several intermediate points between
point
these
extremetwopoints. These scale point positions are so related to
each
whenother thatpoint happens to be the highest point, the second
the first
point
indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as
compared
third pointto thethe third point indicates a higher degree as
and
compared
fourth and to
sothe
on. Numbers for measuring the distinctions of
degree in opinions
attitudes/ the are, thus, assigned to individuals
corresponding
scale positions.toHence,
their the term ‘scaling’ is applied to the
procedures fordetermine quantitative measures of subjective
attempting to
abstract
concepts. Scaling has been defined as a ‘procedure for the
assignment
numbers to aofproperty of objects in order to impart some of the
characteristics
of numbers to the properties in question.’)

allowsummative
The
monotonically
item
obtains
statements
scores
anthe
expression
that
total
is related
related
imply
models
score
oflinearly
negative
by
to
the
assume
the
adding
intensity
underlying
toattitudes,
that
the
scores
of
attitude.
thefeeling.
on
individual
attributes
theindividual
scoring
InThese
a summative
and
items
isscales
items.
areversed.
in the
are
For
The scales
scale
summation
model,
the
The
also called
Likert
areone of
Scale
the
Likert scales. Here, instead of having just “agree” and
“disagree”
we can haveinintensities
the scale, varying from “strongly agree” to
“strongly disagree”.
The scale construction consists of the following steps:

1. Write a large number of statements that concern the

particular
attitudinal object being investigated. For instance one may be
looking at the agencies in providing health services in rural
role of voluntary
areas. Most of should either be moderately positive or
these statements
moderately
Neutral itemsnegative.
are generally avoided in these scales. The items
should
dividedbe evenly positive and negative statements.
between

2. Administer the pool of statements on a group of respondents

who areto the population on whom the scale will be used. For
similar
example, if wethe attitude of housewives the pool should be
want to study
administered on a with similar background to our final
group of housewives
population.
3. Assign values to the degrees of agreement or disagreement
with
item.each
The particular values may differ from one researcher to
another.
Sometimes one may adopt the values 1,2,3,4,5 and sometimes
+2,+1,0,-1,-2 .
For negative items the directions should be reversed. The
response
statementstoare
various
scored in such a way that a response indicative
of the mostattitude is given the highest score of 5 and that with
favourable
the most
unfavourable attitude is given the lowest score, say, of 1.

4. Calculate a total attitude score for each respondent using the

same
scaling procedure. The distribution of total scores is then used
to
of refine
items. the
Thislist
step is called item analysis.

5. Item analysis: Analyse the responses and select for the scale
which
can
categories.
and
statement
favourable
group.
equal
thosebe
the
or
most
done
If
low
equal,
itemsthe
isgroup
The
clearly
scorers
aby
mean
good
then
dividing
high
would
scores
differentiate
one,
can
that
scorers
be
the
be
statement
then
across
taken
greater
respondents
can
it isbetween
be
the
assafe
can
than
assumed
having
two
to
bethe
groups,
into
expect
the
dropped
the
mean
to
highest
the
least
be
that
for
high
score
with
from
favourable
an
the
and
and
item,
for
the
mean
lowest
the
the
scores.
low
favourable
attitudes.
score
unfavourable
are
scale.
found
scoring
for
One
This
the
Ifnearly
can
attitudes
the
take the high group as the top twenty five per cent of all total
scores and as
low group thethe lowest twenty five per cent. Alternatively we
can divide the
respondents into quartiles and compute the median score for
each item for
the highest twenty five per cent and the lowest twenty five per
cent of scale
scores.

6. The statements remaining in the pruned list are randomly

ordered
the scaleon
form. The positive and negative ones are mixed.

7. The scale is now administered on the respondents who are

asked to their degree of agreement with the items. respondent’s
indicate
total score as the sum of his scores on each statement.
is generated

Advantages: The Likert type scale has several advantages. A) Relatively

easy to construct. B) More reliable because under it
respondents answerin the instrument. C) Likert-type scale can
statement included
easily
used inberespondent centred and stimulus centred studies i.e.,
through
study howit we can
responses differ between people and how responses
differ between
stimuli. D) this scale takes much less time to construct, it is
frequently
used by the students of opinion research.

Limitations: a) In this scale, we can simply examine whether respondents

more or less are
favourable to a topic, but we cannot tell how much
more or less
they are. There is no basis for belief that the five positions
indicated on the spaced. The interval between “Strongly agree”
scale are equally
and
may“agree”
not be same as the interval between “agree” and
“undecided”.