Refractoriness

Mechanical strength

Mechanical strength (also called cold crushing strength) of kiln lining bricks must comp厅with the followinc recouirernents:

Refractory bricks with high A1203-content:

350一500 kg/cm2 cold crushing strength; dolomite and magnesite bricks 500一700 kg/cm2 cold crushing strength.

The cold crushing strength of refractory bricks can be easily tested; this strength is a critirion for the behav- ior of the brick at
the operational temperature in the rotary kiln. The high compressive stress of the refrac- tory brick exposed to the operational
temperature in the kiln, requires a high cold crushing strength.

In connection with this, reference is made to the sta- bility of the rotary kiln’s shell, and its deformation during kiln operation.
The largest deformation of the rotary kiln, i.e. the deviation from the circular shape of the shell occurs near the riding rings.
Continuous measurements during kiln operation with the shell- test apparatus showed that radial deformation or ovali诊，i. e.
the difference between the horizontal and the vertical diameter amounts to 0.3 0/0 during the revolution of the kiln older kilns
showed differences up to 0.6一0.7%.This cyclic pressure and unburden- ing, if it is not absorbed by the kiln’s lining, can lead to
its destruction [276, 277].

Resistance to temperature changes (thermal shock)

During one kiln revolution which normally takes less than one minute, the kiln lining is once exposed to the hot kiln gases, and
the other time it is covered by the kiln feed. The periodic temperature fluctuations of the lining’s surface can amount up to 400
degrees. The ability to resist these constant temperature changes is denoted as resistance to thermal shock.

Resistance to thermal shock is tested by heating the sample brick during 40 minutes up to 950 00, and sub- sequently cooling it
with cold water (3 minutes), up to a weight loss of 50 0/ (German Standard DIN 1068). High alumina bricks should resist 15一
25, magnesite bricks 5一15, and chrommagnesite bricks up to 20 test cycles. Generally, basic bricks are tested with corn-
pressed air.

The resistance to thermal shock is also a criterion for heating up the rotary kiln’s burning zone magnesite bricks. It is the
recommendation can magnesite manufacturers [278] that should be heated up to 1100″C within 4一5 hours at a uniform rate.
From that point on, raw mix should be fed into the kiln. After aimroximatelv two hours iaepenaing on tile length 01 tile lain), tile
raw mix will enter the burning zone, which in the meantime was heated up to the operational temperature; other man-
ufacturers recommend a heating time of 12一16 hours. Sudden heatings are not as detrimental to the magnesite and dolomite
lining as sudden coolings; this should be particularly taken into consideration during kiln operation.

In connection with this, special attention should be paid to the sensitivity of the magnesite bricks to the influence of water and
water vapor, especially in the temperature range between 60一295″ C. In this tern- perature range, the free magnesium oxide
of the mag- nesite bricks shows a special disposition to combine with water or water vapor, forming magnesium hydroxide. This
process is connected with an increase in volume, resulting in the breakdown of the magnesite brick’s structure. This
phenemenon can occur when the combustion water of the flame, espe– cially of a natural gas flame condenses on the cold
refractory lining. The tendency of the magnesium oxide to combine with water vapor decreases with increasing temperature
and discontinues at 295″ C. In practical operation when starting the rotary kiln, it is the intention, to pass the critical
temperature range of 60一295 O C as quickly as possible, to prevent hydration of the magnesium oxide.

Resistance to chemical attack

The chemical character of the kiln feed with a CaO- content of about 65 0/ is strong basic. In the high tem- perature of the
burning zone, the kiln feed develops a strong chemical attack against the lining of the burn- ing zone. Besides, the kiln feed
consists in the burn- ing zone by about 20一25 0/0 of liquid phase, which makes it even more apt to attack the refractory uin-
ing. Almost all refractory material in the burning zone is subject to chemical attack by the kiln feed, except magnesite and
dolomite; since these materials themselves have basic properties, they are immune to the clinker’s corrosive attack. This
applies especially to dolomite, because of its high CaO-content.
The aggressiveness of the clinker depends also upon the value of the silica- and alumina ratio; with an increasing value of these
ratios, also the aggressive- ness of the clinker increases. With the following val– ues of the mentioned ratios, the clinker shows
no aggressiveness:

When firing coal, relative珍fast melting ashes con- tact the kiln lining with which they enter into reac- tion. Also combustion
gases, especially carbon mon- oxide, can contribute to the destruction of the kiln lining.

thermal expansion or stability of volume

Despite the circumstance that the expansion coeffi- cient of the kiln shell is higher than that of the kiln lining, the linear thermal
expansion of the kiln shell is lower than that of the lining. The reason for this is the kiln’s shell temperature, which under
normal con- ditions does not exceed 280一365 00, whereas the mean temperature of the kiln lining, amounts to about 800一
900 00. In the burning zone, the inside surface of the kiln’s lining can reach temperatures of up to 1350一1400 00. This causes
high compressive stresses, especially on the free surface of the lining, which sometimes results in spalling of the brick’s upper
layer. In the United States, the resistance against spalling is tested according to ASTM-Stan– dard 0-122 (Spalling Resistance
Test).

Magnesite is characterized by the highest thermal expansion, which at 1400 00 is 2%.The linear ther- mal expansion of special
magnesite bricks is 1 / at 1000 00, and 1.5 0/ at 1400 00. Refractory bricks with 70 0/o Al203 content show a linear thermal
expansion of 1.0一1.2%.

On the example of a 3 m diameter rotary kiln with magnesite lining in the burning zone, it can be seen that the lining along the
circumference in relation to the kiln shell, will expand more by the following amount (assumed kiln shell temperature 365″ C,
ambient temperature 20″ C, expansion coefficient of steel 0.000012/degree C, linear expansion of magne- site brick 2%):

3 m 0 x 3.14 x [0.02一（345 x 0.0000 12)]~0.149 m or 149 mm. When lining the kiln, this length is compen- sated by expansion
joints, mostly by the use of asbes- tos lamellas or cardboard spacers.

The linear expansion of the burning zone lining (12 m long) will amount:

l2m x [0.02一（345 x 0.000012)]~0.190 m or 190 mm. This length also must be compensated by expansion joints.

In the United States, the thermal expansion of refrac- tory is tested according to ASTM-Standard C-l13 (Permanent linear
change in heating).

In connection with the above named spalling effect, it should be mentioned that in the last several years magnesite bricks were
supplied with sheet metal plates (socalled steelkiad plating). These plates manufactured from easily oxidizable steel, are
mechani-cally attached to the side wall of the magnesite brick. At temperatures above 1000″ C the plates oxidize and combine
with the bricks to a solid block, thus making the kiln lining resistant to spalling; besides, the provision increases the stability of
the lining in the rotary kiln. The oxidation of the steel plates and the process of reaction with the magnesite, cause the
formation of magnesioferrite, MgFe2O4, which corn- bines the magnesite bricks to a monolithic mass. As is well known,
magnesioferrite, also called magnoferrite [279], usually constitutes the brown coloring material in magnesite bricks [2801. Also
dolomite bricks are supplied with steel kiad plating.

As is known in practice, magnesite bricks are high- priced and represent twice the price of dolomite, and three times the price
of high alumina refractory. Therefore magnesite bricks are only economically applicable if their operational lifetime will be two
or three times longer than that of dolomite or high alu- mina brick respectively. In some countries however, the price of high
alumina bricks is the same as that of magnesite bricks. Therefore when saving on opera- tional costs, it is advisable to limit the
length of the magnesite lined burning zone to the necessary limits. When calculating the quantity of magnesite bricks for kiln
lining, one can ascertain an almost uniform determination of the burning zone length. In the European cement industry the
following rules pre- vail: the length of the burning zone 1n rc with up to 4 m diameter, equals four times ing zone diameter,
measured on the shell. kilns with diameters over 4 m, the length of the burn- g zone is determined as five times the kiln
diameter 81]. The cement industry of the Soviet Union deter- mined the length of the burning zone in all kilns equal to five
burning zone diameters, measured on bricks [283.

Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of refractory is denotedwith A. (thermal conductivity coefficient) and is expressed as kcal/m . h .
“C.The thermal conductivity of the kiln lining determines the heat losses through the kiln shell. With most refractory material
the thermal conductivity increases with increasing temperature; on the contrary, with magnesite and dolomite, this ratio is
reversed. The thermal conductivity coefficientfor high alumina refractory at 20°C, A. = 1.00kcal/m . h . “C,and at 1000″C.A. =
1.30.On the other hand, for magnesite material at 20° C, A. = 5.00and at 1000″C, A. = 3.00kcal/m . h . °C; this results in high heat
losses,which however, are widely
reduced by the coating covering the lining. To a large extent, the thermal conductivity depends on the porosity of the
refractory. An insulating firebrick with a bulk density of 0.8g/cm-, A. = 0.40kcal/m . h .

“C,which is very low.The thermal conductivity coefficient of the coating is A. = 1.5kcal/m . h . °C. The kiln shell’s steel has a
thermal conductivity coefficient of A. = 40. A high thermal conductivity of the kiln’s lining results in overheating of the kiln shell,
and thus in extreme heat losses. On the other hand, with a low thermal conductivity it is difficult to get a protective coating on
the refractory lining. The diagram in Fig. 23.1.showsheat loses by radiation in percent of the applied fuel. depending on the
mean temperature of the kiln shell in the area of the burning zone, whereby for calculation purposes the length of the burning
zone was assumedto be 12m[283].
In addition to the thermal conductivity, the thickness of the lining is also of importance. In the UnitedStates, 150mmthick refractory is used for
kiln diameters up to 3.65m. Rotary kilns with diameters above3.65m are lined with 230mm and 250mm thick refractory. In Germany the
following thickness of refractory is recommended[284]:

Here it should be mentioned that the refractory thickness does not always depend on the kiln’s dia- meter. With good coating conditions in the
burning zone, the refractory bricks are often selected one or even two grades thinner.

In cases where the rotary kilns are not located inside a building, the motion of the surrounding air influ- ences the heat losses of the kiln’s shell
by radiation. The following tabulations enumerate the losses at ambient still air, as well as with air which is in motion. At ambient still air
temperature of 21″ C, the heat losses by radiation per square meter of kiln shell and hour are [285]:
On the one hand a thicker kiln lining decreases theuseful kiln volume and thus the throughput of therotary kiln; on the other hand however, a
thicker kilnlining improves the heat economy of the kiln in reducing the kiln shell’s heat losses by radiation. In the United States, the thermal
conductivity is tested according to ASTM-Standard C-201 (Heat flow through refractory).

Resistance’to abrasion

The kiln feed which during the kiln’s revolution slides on the kiln lining, causes abrasion of the refrac– tory. The resistance to abrasion depends
on the mechanical strength of the refractory. The resistance to abrasion is measured in cm3 per cm2 of the exposed surface. Magnesite and
dolomite bricks as well as high alumina refractory (70一80 0/0 Al203), should have an abrasion loss of not more than 0.2 cm3/cm2. Refractory
with an abrasion loss of more than 0.25 cm3/cm2 should not be used in rotary kilns.

In the burning zone, the resistance to abrasion is mostly exploited only during kiln start-up operation. After formation of coating, the lining is
protected against abrasion. Despite high mechanical strength and resistance to abrasion, a magnesite lining would not withstand the stress in
the burning zone without protective coating.

On fireclay bricks coating is formed一if at all一by reciprocal action between the basic liquid phase of the clinker e mnd the acidic fireclay at
high tempera- tures. In the case of basic magnesite and dolomite bricks, which show neutral behavior against the basic liquid phase of the
clinker, the surface of the lining must first become soft by adequate heating; then the clinker’s liquid phase combines mechanically rela- tive珍
easily with the lining’s softened surface, thus creating coating.
The coating drops off periodically, followed by a new formation of coating. The coating’s drop off is thought to be a result of chemical reactions,
enumerated schematically as follows [2861:

The FeO acts as liquid phase, and the deposited hite causes expansion.

The expansion can also be explained as the resulf of formation of

cementite, Fe3C, which causes an increase in volume by 14.8 0/0.

Or, also the following reaction may be possible:

The coating’s drop off also causes occasional spalling of the upper
layer of the refractory lining, which may result in gradual destruction.

The abrasion results in the wear of the refractory material. The

following wear rates apply for rotary kiln lining:

For the total kiln arrangement, the following addi- tions apply: the hot
and cold kiln hood, preheater, and clinker cooler. For this equipment
20 O/ should be added to the above figures. Based on a 6-year sta-
tistic of kiln lining wear, the German Portland Cement Association
ascertained a wear rate for the rotary cylinder itself of 0.9 kg/ton of
clinker. The costs for material, installation and repair of the refractory
lining participate with 2 0/ in the cement’s manufacturing cost.

Porosity
The refractory’s porosity is distinguished between open pore space
(relative or open porosity and true porosity. The true porosity is the
total of both open and closed pores and is ordinarily expressed as the
percentage of the total volume of the refractory brick:

The increase in weight of a refractory brick in boiling water serves as

the basis to calculate the apparent (relative) porosity. Magnesite and
dolomite bricks show a relative porosity of about 15一21 0/o. relative
porosity of fireclay bricks is about 18一25 0/. In the United States, the
relative porosity is ascertained according to ASTM-Standard C-20.

In practical rotary kiln operation the closed pore vol– ume is less
important and is not determined. On the other hand a high volume of
open pores promotes the permeability to kiln gases as well as the
sediinenta- tion of condensed gas components in the pores; This may
result in the destruction of the refractory. This is true especially for
alkali laden kiln gases. In connec- tion with this it should be mentioned
that fireclay brick with 50 0/ alumina is less alkali-sensitive than high
alumina brick [287].

Installing refractory lining in rotary kilns

The installation of the kiln lining is basically per- formed in three ways:

1. Brick lining with mortar

2. Dry lining of bricks
3. The adhesive method; this method can be applied when dry lining as well as when
using mortar.
4. Installation of the kiln lining on the basis of mor tar, employing special mortars for
fireclay as well as for magnesite bricks, is mostly applied in Europe. After lining of
refractory bricks in the lower semi-cir cle of the rotary kiln, the freshly mortar bonded

bricks, lined up to the horizontal center line of the kiln are kept in
position by using screw jacks to press the bricks against the kiln shell.
Then the rotary kiln is turned twice, each time by about 90 0, to line
the other semi-circle,as it is shown in Fig.23.2.

When using mortar, the installation of the kiln lining is mostly made in
the way of longitudinal bonding (see Fig. 23.3.)

In the United States and Europe, the dry installa- tion method of the
rotary kiln is ordinari污in use; this method has the advantage that
during installa- tion of the lining, turning of the rotary kiln is not
necessary. With the dry installation method, the refractory bricks are
bonded in parallel rings along the kiln’s circumference, as it is shown
in Fig. 23.4.
For the dry installation procedure a steel jack screw assembly as
shown in Fig.23.5.is in use [288].

Dry lining of the refractory bricks in the rotary kiln is installed in

parallel rings. After installing the lower semicircle, the jack screw
assembly is positioned on these bricks, whereupon the lining of the
upper semi-circle is accomplished.The particular bricks in the upper
semicircle of the lining are held in place by screws until positioning of
the key brick.
c. The adhesive method – In large diameter rotary kilns, handling jack
screw assembly is difficult, also keeping the bricks in position by using
screw jacks is no longer operationally reliable. In addition, this
arrangement can result in deformation of the kiln
shell. Therefore a method has been worked out, to line large diameter
rotary kilns without the use of scaffolds. This is the so-called adhesive
method according to which refractory bricks adhere to the kiln shell
with the help of glue with high adhesive strength. The applied glue is a
modified synthetic resin (Epichlorhydrin and Diphenylpropane), whose
adhesiveness exceeds the refractory’s tensile strength. The bricks are
lined in longitudinal bonding. The lining is performed with stripes of
glued (epoxied) bricks, and with loose bricks laid in between and
held in place by epoxied bricks. Only about 25- 30 % of the bricks
along the kiln’s circumference are epoxied (see Fig.23.6.)
When heating the rotary kiln, the synthetic resin loses its adhesiveness
between 100 and 400°C; thusthe thermal expansion of the lining is not
impaired by the epoxied briks.

Examples for rotary kiln lining

In the United States, a 4.85 x 75 m preheater kiln is lined with
refractory as follows; it is measured from the kiln’s discharge end. The
lining is throughout 9″(230 mm)thick.
3 m- Fireclay, 70 % Al203 with high resistanceto abrasion
25 m- Magnesite brick, 80 % MgO,possiblychromemagnesite or also
dolomite
21 m- Fireclay, 70 % Al203
26m- Fireclay, 50 % Al203
75 m- Kiln length
The following shows the lining of a wet process rotary kiln, size 3.40 x
3.95 x 129 m. the 18 ill long chain section is lined at a length of 15 m
with 100 mm high castable refractory.

The ‘brick thickness is 150 mm.

The count starts from the discharge end of the kiln:

3 m- Fireclay, 70 % Al203 with high resistance to abrasion

18 m- Magnesite brick, 80 % MgO,possibly

chromemagnesite or also dolomite
15 m- Fireclay, 70 % Al203
35 m- Fireclay, 60 % Al203
35 m- Fireclay, 50 % Al203
15 m- Castable refractory
8m- Blank zone